Women’s Adventures in Science NATIONAL ACADEMY OF …infocusmagazine.org/portable/6.2.pdf · 2006-08-18 · national academy of sciences national academy of engineering institute

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Summer 2006vol. 6 number 2

infocusmagazine.org

INFOCUS

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Reconstructing Past Surface Temperatures

Science & Technology at USAID

Alternatives to Indian Point Energy

Hispanics in the United States

This exciting new biography series for young readersfocuses on 10 women who have made groundbreak-ing discoveries in various areas of science. Eachbook focuses on the life and work of a womanactive in her field today, providing readers withinsights into the personal and professional paths thatled to their careers in science. A companion Website — <www.iwaswondering.org> — offers anotherway to “meet” these inspiring women scientists. Thefun, interactive site builds on the content of thebooks and includes games, comic strips, videos,activities, and a timeline of women in science.

What would it be like to build the first

robot that could interact with people?

Or to study human remains in a search

for criminal evidence?

In Women’s Adventures in Science,

readers will find out about the

trailblazing women who do such work.

Women’s Adventures in ScienceWomen’s Adventures in Science

Published in partnership with Scholastic Books

is available from the National Academies Press at <www.nap.edu/catalog/was>

The nation turns to the National Academy ofSciences, National Academy of Engineering, Instituteof Medicine, and National Research Council forindependent, objective advice on issues that affectpeople’s lives worldwide. Additional informationabout the National Academies and their work canbe found online at <national-academies.org>.

The National Academies In Focus features broadcoverage of the National Academies’ activities. Wewelcome your comments on the magazine; e-mailus at <[email protected]>.

In Focus (ISSN 1534-8334) is published three timesa year by the National Academies, 500 Fifth St.,N.W., Washington, DC 20001. Subscription (threeissues): $10; Canada and foreign, $12 (U.S. curren-cy only). Subscription address: In Focus, P.O. Box665, Holmes, PA 19043. Bulk-rate U.S. postage ispaid at Washington, D.C. Back issues and backvolumes can be ordered in microform fromNational Archive Publishing Company, 300 NorthZeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48103.

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Credits:Cover: (clockwise from upper left) Alaska icebergs and

glaciers, ©Bruce Molnia, Terra Photographics, image courtesy Earth Science World Image Bank; child receiving vitamin A at nursery school in Guinea, photo by L. Lartigue, image courtesy U.S. Agency for International Development; Manhattan skyline, ©Michel Setboun/Corbis; ©Marc Romanelli/ Workbook Stock

Page 1: (col. 1) ©Royalty-Free/Corbis; (col. 2) ice core drilling beneath Siple Dome of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, photo by Alexander Colhoun, National Science Foundation, image courtesy U.S. Antarctic Program

Page 2: Speakers at April 2006 event on “Women’s Adventures in Science,” photo by William Geiger

Page 3: Photo by Bachrach Page 4: ©Timothy John/Images.comPage 5: ©Envision/CorbisPage 6: Passengers wearing protective facemasks on flight to

Singapore during 2003 SARS outbreak, ©Reuters/ Corbis

Page 7: ©Trinette Reed/CorbisPage 8: ©Medio ImagesPage 9: Nigerian children receive rations from a USAID-

funded nutrition program, photo by C. Hahn/World Vision, image courtesy U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment

Page 10: Glacier Bay in Alaska, photo by John Bortniak, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; (inset) ice core drilling in McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, to study regional climate during the past 2,000 years, photo by Emily Stone, National ScienceFoundation, image courtesy U.S. Antarctic Program

Page 12: ©Frank Maresca/Images.comPage 13: Brooklyn Bridge in New York City, ©Alan Schein

Photography/CorbisPage 14 Midtown Manhattan, ©Owaki - Kulla/CorbisPage 15: ©PhotodiscPages 18&19: Participants and speakers at an April 2006 National

Academies event to encourage girls to pursue careersin science and technology and launch a new paperback book series, “Women’s Adventures in Science,”photos by William Geiger

Page 20: Launch of new Iraqi Virtual Science Library at a ceremony held May 3, 2006, at the National Academies, photo by Vanee Vines

Page 21: Photo courtesy University of California, Berkeley

Proceedings from the Workshop onBiomedical Materials at the Edge:Challenges in the Convergence ofTechnologiesRoundtable on BiomedicalEngineering Materials andApplications, National MaterialsAdvisory Board, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences(2006, 52 pp.; ISBN 0-309-66087-4;available from NAP).

Progress in Preventing ChildhoodObesity: Focus on Industry — BriefSummary, Institute of MedicineRegional Symposium, December 1,2005, Irvine, Calif.Food and Nutrition Board, Instituteof Medicine (2006, 43 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10190-5; available from NAP).

Rebuilding the Unity of Health andthe Environment in Rural America —Workshop SummaryRoundtable on Environmental HealthSciences, Research, and Medicine,Board on Population Health andPublic Health Practice, Institute ofMedicine (2006, 116 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10047-X; available from NAP).

Revealing the Hidden Nature ofSpace and Time: Charting the Coursefor Elementary Particle PhysicsBoard on Physics and Astronomy,Division on Engineering and PhysicalSciences (2006, approx. 176 pp.; ISBN0-309-10194-8; available from NAP).

Review of the Department of Energy’sGenomics: GTL Program Board on Life Sciences, Division onEarth and Life Studies (2006, 102pp.; ISBN 0-309-10133-6; availablefrom NAP).

Review of the Draft Research andRestoration Plan for Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim (Western Alaska) SalmonBoard on Environmental Studies andToxicology and Polar ResearchBoard, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2006, 70 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10107-7; available from NAP).

Sleep Disorders and Sleep Deprivation:An Unmet Public Health ProblemBoard on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine (2006, approx.488 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10111-5; available from NAP).

A Study of Interactions: EmergingIssues in the Science of Adolescence— Workshop SummaryBoard on Children, Youth, andFamilies, National Research Counciland Institute of Medicine (2006, 66pp.; ISBN 0-309-10165-4; availablefrom NAP).

Tank Waste Retrieval, Processing, andOn-Site Disposal at Three Departmentof Energy Sites — Final ReportNuclear and Radiation Studies Board,Division on Earth and Life Studies(2006, approx. 300 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10170-0; available from NAP).

Terrorism and the ChemicalInfrastructure: Protecting People andReducing VulnerabilitiesBoard on Chemical Sciences andTechnology, Division on Earth andLife Studies; and TransportationResearch Board (2006, 152 pp.; ISBN0-309-09721-5; available from NAP).

To Recruit and Advance: WomenStudents and Faculty in U.S. Scienceand EngineeringCommittee on Women in Science andEngineering, Division on Policy andGlobal Affairs (2006, 145 pp.; ISBN0-309-09521-2; available from NAP).

Toward a New Advanced HydrologicPrediction Service (AHPS)Water Science and Technology Board,Division on Earth and Life Studies(2006, 84 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10144-1;available from NAP).

Toward an Integrated ArcticObserving NetworkPolar Research Board, Division onEarth and Life Studies (2006, 128pp.; ISBN 0-309-10052-6; availablefrom NAP).

Trends in Oil Supply and Demand,The Potential for Peaking ofConventional Oil Production, andPossible Mitigation Options — ASummary Report of the WorkshopBoard on Energy and EnvironmentalSystems, Division on Engineering andPhysical Sciences (2006, 61 pp.; ISBN0-309-10143-3; available from NAP).

Visualizing Chemistry: The Progressand Promise of Advanced ChemicalImagingBoard on Chemical Sciences andTechnology, Division on Earth andLife Studies (2006, approx. 246 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09722-3; available from NAP).

Workshop on Disability in America:A New Look — Summary andBackground PapersBoard on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine (2006, 292 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10090-9; available from NAP).

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3213), or visit TRB’s bookstore on the Internet a <national-academies.org/trb/bookstore>.

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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIESVolume 6 Number 2

INFOCUSinfocusmagazine.org

F E A T U R E S

HEALTH & SAFETY

4 The Gift of LifeMotivating moreAmericans tobecome organdonors

6 Facing the Next Flu PandemicReport examines reusability of facemasks

BEHAVIORAL & SOCIAL ISSUES

7 Hispanics in AmericaPopulation gains bring opportunities andchallenges

9 Moving Science and TechnologyForward at USAIDThe fundamental role of S&T in international development

ENVIRONMENT & RESOURCES

10 Temperatures by ProxyHow confidently can we reconstruct thepast 2,000 years?

12 Too Much of a Good ThingNaturally occurring fluoride in drinkingwater

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

13 Shedding Light on the MatterAlternatives to Indian Point NuclearPlant

15 Win at the Pump With the Right TiresOne way consumers can increase fuel-efficiency

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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS2

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

National Academy of SciencesRalph J. Cicerone, PresidentBarbara A. Schaal,Vice PresidentE.William Colglazier, Executive OfficerKenneth R. Fulton, Executive Director

National Academy of EngineeringCraig R. Barrett, ChairWm.A.Wulf, PresidentMaxine L. Savits,Vice PresidentLance Davis, Executive Officer

Institute of MedicineHarvey V. Fineberg, PresidentSusanne Stoiber, Executive Officer

National Research CouncilRalph J. Cicerone, ChairWm.A.Wulf,Vice ChairE.William Colglazier, Executive Officer

16 20/20‘Gathering Storm’ GainsMomentumA look at the continuing impact of landmark report

18 MeetingsYou Go, Girl!Project encourages girls to chase S&Tcareers

20 Brief Takes• New Digital Library Aids Iraqi

Scholars

• In Memoriam: Nicholas R. Cozzarelli

22 New Projects & Publications

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In Focus is prepared by the Office of Newsand Public Information.

Executive Director:William Skane

In Focus Editor:Valerie Chase

Assistant Editor: Sara Frueh

Staff Writers: Bill Kearney, Patrice Pages,Christine Stencel,Vanee Vines

Original Design: Francesca Moghari

18

Getting the Right Answers to the Right Audiences

Every facet of our lives today — where and how we live, our dailywork and entertainment, how we move from one place to another,our health and well-being — is bound to science and technology. Itis no wonder that the nation turns so frequently to the NationalAcademies for scientific, evidence-based advice. This issue of InFocus features a typically varied sampling of topics from ourrecent reports, ranging from organ donation to energy production.

Our job is to advise — to inform public debate and responsibledecision makers. Occasionally, this means providing perspective onbroad social transitions, as in the report on Hispanics in America. Other reports makethe case for the role of science and technology in particular policy domains, such as inter-national development. More broadly, the recent report Rising Above the GatheringStorm, which garnered such wide attention, emphasized the vital role of science and tech-nology in society as a whole and recommended investments in education and researchthat will promote jobs, progress, and a scientifically literate populace.

Many reports tackle policy questions and must assess a technical standard or reviewscientific evidence that bears on the question, as our reports on the safety of naturallyoccurring fluoride in drinking water, the reconstruction of historic surface temperatures,and the reusability of facemasks to reduce the spread of flu do. These focused studiesmay carry major policy implications in such critical areas as setting environmental andhealth standards, apprehending and dealing with climate change, and preparing for possi-ble pandemics.

Fulfilling our mission as adviser to the nation requires two things: developing theadvice and communicating the results. To communicate successfully, we must be attunedto the needs and interests of our audiences. This is no small requirement because the rele-vant audiences for different reports range widely across elected officials, agency directors,civic and business leaders, academic researchers, professionals and professional organiza-tions, institutional leaders, parents and families, and the public at large. The reports onorgan donation and on vehicle tires and fuel economy illustrate that a spectrum of lay,professional, business, and government actors may be relevant recipients of our advice.Over time, the National Academies will have its greatest impact if we can both get theright answers in the right way and reach the right audiences in the most effective way.

HARVEY V. FINEBERGPresident, Institute of Medicine

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Every year, thousands of terminally ill

patients are given a new lease on life

thanks to donated organs. Yet, the need

for these vital organs far exceeds the

current pace of donation. Just over

28,000 organs were donated in the

United States last year; more than

90,000 people started 2006

waiting for a transplant.

T he expanding gap between supply and demand has generated severalproposals for increasing the number

of organ donations. Some suggest that hos-pitals presume everyone is a willing donorunless they explicitly opt out or their nextof kin do so on their behalf. Others saythat the situation warrants experimentingwith financial incentives, such as cash pay-ments to donors or contributions to thecharity of the donor’s or family’s choice.Or, people who carry donor cards could bemoved to the top of waiting lists for organsif they ever need a transplant.

THE GIFT OF LIFEMotivating

More Americans

to Become

Organ Donors

SUMMER 2006 5

The best ways to boost organ donationin America are to strengthen efforts to edu-cate the public about the benefits of dona-tion, expand opportunities for people torecord their decisions to become donors,and continue to enhance donation systems,said a committee convened by the Instituteof Medicine to evaluate the various pro-posals. The committee alsosupported initiatives toincrease donations from peo-ple whose deaths are theresult of irreversible loss ofheart function, adding to thepool of potential donorswhose deaths are determinedby permanent loss of essen-tial brain functions.

However, given the amountof apathy, reluctance, andeven apprehension aboutorgan donation among a sig-nificant proportion of the American public,the United States is not yet ready to enactpolicies that presume consent to donate ormandate that people record a choice, thecommittee determined. Nor should financialincentives be used, even on a trial basis.

“Evidence shows that raising awarenessabout the benefits of donation and improv-ing the way health care providers andadministrators interact with potentialdonors and their families can increase will-ingness to donate,” said James F. Childress,chair of the committee. Without greaterawareness and acceptance of organ dona-tion among Americans, more radicalreforms “could backfire,” he noted.

Individuals who have declared their will-ingness to be organ donors should not begiven preferential status as recipients, the

report adds. Inequities in access to healthcare, information about organ donation,and opportunities to sign up as donors ledthe committee to conclude that thisapproach should not be adopted. Moreover,everyone has an equal stake: The fact thatwe are all potential organ recipients as wellas potential donors can be a powerful moti-

vator to donate, Childressadded.

The report also addresseddonation by living individu-als, which reduces recipients’waiting times and, in somecases, improves the chancesfor a successful transplantoutcome. However, theseoperations place otherwisehealthy people at risk, andgovernment oversight of theliving donation process is lim-ited. To ensure that every-

one’s decision to donate is fully informedand voluntary, hospitals should provide anindependent advocacy team to each personwho volunteers to be a living donor, thereport says. The committee recommendedfurther scrutiny of the process and addi-tional assessments of living donors’ risks.— Christine Stencel

-Organ Donation: Opportunities for Action.Committee on Increasing Rates of Organ Donation,Board on Health Sciences Policy, Institute of Medicine(2006, approx. 390 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10114-X; availablefrom the National Academies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242;$55.00 plus $4.50 shipping for single copies; also on theInternet at <www.nap.edu/catalog/11643.html>).

The committee was chaired by James F. Childress,professor of ethics and medical education, and director,Institute for Practical Ethics and Public Life, University ofVirginia, Charlottesville.The study was funded by the U.S.Department of Health and Human Services and theGreenwall Foundation.


W hether looking at photos takenduring the influenza pandemic of1918 or watching news footage

about the 2003 SARS outbreak, one com-mon feature stands out in all the images:medical masks. Wearing some kind of facecovering seems to be a given during the out-break of a respiratory disease.

Now that the specter of a new flu pandem-ic has nations across the globe scrambling todevelop response plans, government agencies,corporations, and individuals are stockpilingbasic, disposable medical masks and respira-tors. Concerned that supplies would bedepleted if a pandemic does strike in the nearfuture, the U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services asked the Institute ofMedicine to convene a panel of experts todetermine if there is a way facemasksdesigned for one-time use could be reused.

The answer in the case of medical masksis no. And in the case of government-certi-fied N95 respirators, it is a qualified yes. Aperson could extend the use of an N95 res-pirator by wearing it covered with a medicalmask or a face shield to protect againstexternal surface contamination and by han-dling and storing it very carefully. There areno data on how long these measures wouldbe effective.

But whether disposable facemasks can bereused raises the question of whether thesedevices protect against flu viruses in the firstplace. The committee noted that scientists

have not definitively pinpointed to whatextent the flu is transmitted through contactwith contaminated surfaces, by inhaling thedroplets expelled when infected people coughor sneeze, or via inhalation of viruses float-ing in the air. Fluid-resistant, loose-fittingmedical masks could potentially protectagainst droplet-borne viruses, while snug-fitting N95 respirators may protect betteragainst aerosolized viruses. No form of facecovering has been tested specifically againstflu viruses, the committee stressed.

Health care providers in other countriesoften use washable, woven cotton medicalmasks as a cost-saving measure. The com-mittee neither recommended nor discour-aged the use of these masks or of face cover-ings improvised from towels, sheets, or othercloth. However, the effectiveness of wovenmasks and improvised coverings against fluis not known.

The bottom line, committee co-chair JohnC. Bailar said, is that “the use of face cover-ings is only one of many strategies that willbe needed to slow or halt a pandemic, andpeople should not engage in activities thatwould increase their risk of exposure to flujust because they have a mask or respirator.”— Christine Stencel

-Reusability of Facemasks During an InfluenzaPandemic: Facing the Flu. Committee on theDevelopment of Reusable Facemasks for Use During anInfluenza Pandemic, Board on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine (2006, approx. 112 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10182-4; available from the National Academies Press,tel. 1-800-624-6242; $26.50 plus $4.50 shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at <www.nap.edu/catalog/11637.html>).

The committee was co-chaired by John C. Bailar III,professor emeritus, University of Chicago, Chicago, andDonald S. Burke, professor of international health andepidemiology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, JohnsHopkins University, Baltimore.The study was funded bythe U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Facing the Next FLU PANDEMIC

Hispanics are the nation’s largest ethnic

group — and its fastest-growing.

They represent 14 percent of the U.S.

population, and if current trends continue,

that number will grow to nearly

25 percent within two decades. This

rapid increase, anticipated across many

parts of the United States, will be

one of the most important demographic

stories of the early 21st century.

How that story will play out is uncertain.

A s a group, Hispanics are far frommonolithic. They vary in nationalorigin, immigrant and legal status,

skin color, social and economic background,language use, and political views. Hispanicsface the many challenges often confrontedby immigrants in a new homeland. But theyalso face some conditions that other wavesof immigrants did not, such as a globalmarketplace that increasingly relies on well-educated employees. Additionally, U.S.Hispanics as a group are young. In 2000their median age was 27, compared with 39for non-Hispanic whites. By 2030, the chil-dren of today’s Spanish-speaking immi-grants will number about 26 million — andmost will be part of the U.S. work force.

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HISPANICS IN AMERICAPopulation Gains Bring Opportunities and Challenges

Education andtraining are the linch-pins that will give thenation’s Hispanicworkers and theirchildren importanttools to contribute toand share in U.S.prosperity, says a recent National ResearchCouncil report that examines the Hispanicexperience in the United States. Targetedinvestments in these areas would benefit notonly Hispanics, but also the country as awhole by enhancing U.S. productivity asbaby boomers shift into retirement.

Many Hispanics are now on the bottomrungs of the U.S. economic ladder in low-paying service jobs. This is especially truefor recent immigrants, most of whom arrivewith little formal education. InadequateEnglish language skills and schooling fre-quently limit their access to better jobs andimpede the upward mobility of their chil-dren. English proficiency is key for successin the job market, higher learning, andeveryday activities such as navigating healthcare systems and participating in civic life,the report says.

Failure to complete high school remains amajor problem for many Hispanics, leavingthem ill-equipped to compete for high-pay-ing jobs in an economy driven by technolo-gy and information, says the report, whichcovers economic, health, education, andother aspects of Hispanics’ lives. Althoughmany immigrant students are academicallybehind when they arrive in this country,both foreign-born Hispanics and Hispanicsborn in the United States are less likely to behigh school graduates than non-Hispanics.Improving the educational attainment of

Hispanics would raisetheir standard of living.And from a purely eco-nomic standpoint, unlesstomorrow’s Hispanicworkers have job skillsequivalent to those ofretirees, their earnings

will not be enough to replenish dwindlingSocial Security coffers.

“Although their experiences in some waysmirror those of previous immigrant groups,the size of the Hispanic population, its var-ied immigration experiences, the globaleconomy, and an aging majority populationhave created unique challenges and opportu-nities for the nation,” said Marta Tienda,chair of the panel that wrote the report anda professor of demographic studies, sociolo-gy, and public affairs at Princeton Universityin Princeton, N.J.

Much is known about these issues. Whatis needed, the report says, is the will to usethis knowledge, integrating research find-ings into public policy. — Vanee Vines

-Multiple Origins, Uncertain Destinies: Hispanics andthe American Future. Panel on Hispanics in the UnitedStates, Committee on Population, Division of Behavioraland Social Sciences and Education (2006, 176 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09667-7, available from the National Academies Press,tel. 1-800-624-6242; $34.95 plus $4.50 shipping for singlecopies; also on the Internet at <www.nap.edu/catalog/11314.html>).

The panel was chaired by Marta Tienda, Maurice P.During Professor in Demographic Studies and professorof sociology and public affairs, Princeton University,Princeton, N.J.The study was sponsored by the NationalInstitute of Child Health and Human Development,National Cancer Institute, Office of Behavioral and SocialSciences Research, National Institute of Mental Health,and National Institute on Aging at the National Institutesof Health; the National Institute for Occupational Safetyand Health; National Center for Health Statistics; U.S.Census Bureau;Andrew W. Mellon Foundation; RobertWood Johnson Foundation; California HealthCareFoundation; and the California Endowment.


T he last four decades have seen a 50percent decrease in child mortalityworldwide — a drop that can be cred-

ited in part to the efforts of the United StatesAgency for International Development(USAID). Research funded by the agency, forexample, determined that 2 cents worth ofvitamin A given to a child every six monthscould reduce the severity of diarrhea andmalaria and ultimately cut child mortality by34 percent. USAID also helped translatethose findings into practice, working withmore than 50 countries to promote the useof vitamin A supplementation and fortifiedfoods.

The agency’s success with vitamin A illus-trates how scientific research can be har-nessed to solve problems in developingnations, and how the United States can con-tribute to that effort. But such contributionsto child survival and other issues may beharder to come by in the future if trends inscience and technology at USAID continue.The agency’s capabilities and reputation inthese areas have declined in recent years,observes a new report from the NationalResearch Council. The report looks at howUSAID can put science and technology tobetter use in its programs, which range frombolstering health care to aiding economicgrowth to responding to natural disasters.

The biggest factor in the agency’s scienceand technology downturn has been a loss ofstaff with technical expertise, the reportsays. To reverse this development, USAIDneeds to hire more technically trained per-sonnel and give knowledgeable staffersincentives to stay. The agency should also

appoint a full-time science and technologyadviser who can alert the administrator to new opportunities to use S&T in its programs. The goal is to create a culture ofscience and technology at the agency, inte-grating these fields deeply into its myriaddevelopment efforts.

Building strong scientific institutionsabroad should be high on the agency’s prior-ity list, the report says. Developing thiscapacity will enable nations to both createtheir own new technologies and use existingknowledge more effectively. Currently, forinstance, many Central American nationslack the ability to take advantage of satellitedata that can predict the paths of hurricanes.

To build this expertise, USAID shouldsponsor more graduate-level training in vari-ous disciplines for students in developingcountries. Supporting the founding ofschools of public health should also be a pri-ority, the report says, as should helping insti-tutions acquire broadband Internet andother technologies that can help them obtainand use information. — Sara Frueh

-The Fundamental Role of Science and Technology inInternational Development:An Imperative for the U.S.Agency for International Development. Committee onScience and Technology in Foreign Assistance; Development,Security, and Cooperation; Division on Policy and GlobalAffairs (2006, 162 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10145-X; available fromthe National Academies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $45.00plus $4.50 shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at<www.nap.edu/catalog/11583.html>).

The committee was co-chaired by Thomas R.Pickering, senior vice president for international relations,Boeing Co.,Arlington,Va.; and Kenneth Shine, executivevice chancellor for health affairs, University of Texas System,Austin.The study was funded by the U.S.Agency forInternational Development, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation,Sloan Foundation, and the National Research Council.

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Moving SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Forward at USAID

A verage global sur-face temperaturesrose by about

1 degree Fahrenheit (0.6degrees Celsius) over thelast century, according todata from thermometersstationed around the world.How does this increase,especially the rapid warming in recentdecades, compare with temperature swingsover the last one or two thousand years?

It’s relatively easy to make such compar-isons as far back as the middle of the 19thcentury when meteorologists first startedusing instruments to collect geographicallywidespread temperature data. But what

climate scientists reallywant to know is howmodern temperature fluc-tuations compare withnatural variations thattook place before theIndustrial Revolution,when levels of heat-trap-ping greenhouse gases in

the atmosphere were much lower. Withlimited or no instrumental temperaturerecords, researchers rely on proxy evidencesuch as tree rings, boreholes, ice cores,corals, and ocean and lake sediments toreconstruct past temperatures. Even thelength of glaciers documented in historicpaintings is telling.


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TEMPERATURES BY PROXY

How Confidently Can We Reconstruct the Past 2,000 Years?

SUMMER 2006 11

Like a lot of climate change research,however, using proxy evidence to recon-struct historical temperatures has not beenwithout public controversy, much of it cen-tered on climatologist Michael Mann. Heand his colleagues published a thousand-year reconstruction in 1999 that concludedthe Northern Hemisphere warming of thelate 20th century was unprecedented andthat the 1990s was the warmest decade,and 1998 the warmest year. When debatearose in Congress last year over Mann’sresearch, it turned to the National ResearchCouncil to weigh in on the matter, and acommittee was convened to assess the abili-ty of scientists to reconstruct surface tem-peratures for the past 2,000 years.

In its report, the committee’s first obser-vation was that the warming recorded byinstruments in the last century is also reflect-ed in temperature reconstructions derivedfrom borehole measurements, retreating gla-ciers, and other proxies. The report addsthat there are sufficient proxy data fromenough places to say with high confidencethat the mean surface temperature globallywas higher in the last few decades of the20th century than during any other compa-rable period in the past 400 years.

The evidence is shakier for the periodbetween A.D. 900 and 1600, however, atime frame for which there is less proxydata and the uncertainties associated withthem are larger. Uncertainties are greatersurrounding decades and single years espe-cially, because not all proxies record temper-atures for such short timescales. So whilethe committee found Mann’s conclusionthat the warming during the final decades ofthe 20th century is unprecedented in thepast thousand years to be plausible, it

placed much less confidence in his claimsabout the 1990s and 1998 in particular.

For periods before 1600, there are fewerproxies in fewer locations to provide tem-peratures. Nevertheless, the committeenoted that proxy data does indicate thatmany locations were warmer in the last 25 years than during any 25-year periodsince 900.

In addition, the report finds that surfacetemperature reconstructions for the lastmillennium are generally consistent. Theyshow relatively warm conditions aroundA.D. 1000 and a “Little Ice Age” fromroughly 1500 to 1850. The exact timing ofthe medieval warming is unclear and itmay have varied from region to region.None of the reconstructions indicates high-er temperatures during the Middle Agesthan during the most recent decades, thereport notes.

Very little confidence can be put in state-ments about average global surface tempera-tures earlier than A.D. 900, the committeeadded. Proxy evidence that is scarce prior to 1600 — especially in the SouthernHemisphere — gets even scarcer before 900.— Bill Kearney

-Surface Temperature Reconstructions for the Last2,000 Years. Committee on Surface TemperatureReconstructions, Board on Atmospheric Sciences andClimate, Division on Earth and Life Studies (2006, approx.196 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10225-1; available from the NationalAcademies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $40.00 plus $4.50shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at<www.nap.edu/catalog/11676.html>).

The committee was chaired by Gerald R. North,distinguished professor of meteorology and oceanographyand Harold J. Haynes Endowed Chair in Geosciences,Texas A&M University, College Station.The study wasfunded by the National Academies.


A National Research Council commit-tee recently considered the issue offluoride in drinking water. Not

whether fluoride should be added to waterfor the dental health benefits it provides —an issue that has caused much controversyin many communities. Rather, the committeelooked at what happens when there is toomuch naturally occurring fluoride in drink-ing water.

The committee concluded in a new reportthat children who are exposed to drinkingwater containing 4 milligrams of fluorideper liter of water — the maximum allowedby the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency — risk developing severe toothenamel fluorosis, a condition characterizedby ugly discoloration, enamel loss, and pit-ting of the teeth. In the past, this conditionwas considered aesthetically displeasing, butnot an adverse health effect. But becauseenamel protects teeth and underlying tissuefrom decay and infection, a majority of thecommittee said that the damage caused bysevere enamel fluorosis should be deemed atoxic effect. Although two of the 12 commit-tee members maintained that the conditionshould still be considered a cosmetic prob-lem, the entire committee agreed that EPAshould lower its “maximum contaminantlevel goal” for fluoride in order to prevent it.

About 10 percent of children in communi-ties with water fluoride concentrations at ornear 4 mg/L develop severe enamel fluorosis.In areas with 2 mg/L, up to 15 percent ofchildren have moderate enamel fluorosis,which causes discoloration but no enamelloss or pitting. The committee said that discoloration by itself does not constitute an

adverse health effect. Moderate enamel fluo-rosis is rare in populations exposed to watercontaining less than 2 mg/L of fluoride.

Children are not the only ones at risk ofadverse health effects. Most of the commit-tee concluded that a population with lifetimeexposure to water with 4 mg/L or higher offluoride is at increased risk for bone frac-tures. Three committee members said thatmore evidence was needed before drawingsuch a conclusion. The data on fluoride’spotential to cause bone cancer is tentativeand mixed, and more research is needed, thecommittee added.

The good news is that not many peoplehave public drinking water supplies or wellswith high levels of naturally occurring fluo-ride. About 200,000 Americans have watersources containing fluoride at 4 mg/L orhigher, while another 1.4 million have waterwith 2 mg/L of fluoride. Artificially fluori-dated water contains between 0.7 and 1.2mg/L of total fluoride. — Bill Kearney

-Fluoride in Drinking Water:A Scientific Review ofEPA’s Standards. Committee on Fluoride in DrinkingWater, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology,Division on Earth and Life Studies (2006, approx. 576 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10128-X; available from the NationalAcademies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $56.00 plus $4.50shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at<www.nap.edu/catalog/11571.html>).

The committee was chaired by John Doull, professoremeritus of pharmacology and toxicology, University ofKansas Medical Center, Kansas City.The study was fundedby the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

TOO MUCH OFA GOOD THING

After the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks,

many New York state residents became

concerned that the Indian Point nuclear

power plant, located 40 miles north of

New York City, might be vulnerable to

attack as well, with some calling for the

plant to be shut down. This, in turn,

prompted Congress to ask the National

Research Council if it would be possible

to replace the energy lost by closing

Indian Point — which provides one-

quarter of the electricity in New York City

and the lower Hudson Valley.

A n expert committee concluded thatIndian Point’s energy supplies couldbe replaced with non-nuclear power

plants, additional transmission lines, andnew efforts by consumers to save energy,but the state would need to overcome manypolitical, regulatory, and financial hurdles.

“There are no insurmountable technicalbarriers to replacing the energy lost byshutting down Indian Point, but we are lessconfident that government and financialmechanisms are in place to facilitate imple-mentation of alternatives,” said LawrenceT. Papay, a consultant in electric power andenergy and member of the NationalAcademy of Engineering who chaired thecommittee that wrote the report.

The operating licenses of the two nuclearreactors at Indian Point expire in 2013 and2015. Closure would remove 2,000megawatts from the region, which alreadyis growing increasingly short of electric

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Alternatives to Indian Point Nuclear Plant

SHEDDING LIGHT ON THE MATTER


capacity. Even if IndianPoint remains in opera-tion, the region willneed an additional3,000 megawatts by2015 to meet increasesin demand and replacescheduled retirements ofother power plants. Inaddition, congestion onthe transmission linesprevents additional power from beingimported during periods of peak demand.

Not all of Indian Point’s 2,000 megawattswould need to be replaced, though, if con-sumers use electricity more efficiently, thereport notes. The committee estimated thiscould be reduced by at least 850 megawattsif more consumers switch to energy-efficientappliances and shift some of their energyusage to off-peak hours, especially duringhot summer days.

The most readily available way to replacethe rest of the energy is plants fueled by natural gas — the current fuel of choice forfuture electric power plants in New Yorkstate. But the committee is concerned overpossible shortages and high gas prices. Newsupply sources would have to be found,which will probably include imported natu-ral gas.

Building a new coal plant along with anew transmission line would be the cheapestalternative to Indian Point, the report says,but this option is unlikely to be ready by2015 unless planning starts very soon. Also,burning more coal would complicate thestate’s efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emis-sions. Coal plants release about twice asmuch carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour asnatural gas plants, and nuclear plants release

none. Renewable sourcesof energy — from wind,the sun, or biomass — alsolook promising to thecommittee, but they couldbe deployed only on asmall scale by 2015.

A complex web of envi-ronmental regulationsmust be considered withany alternative to Indian

Point, the report says. In particular, the expi-ration in 2003 of New York’s siting law —which provided an efficient process forreviewing environmental permits — willdelay permit reviews in the future.

Indian Point is a relatively low-cost powergenerator, so any new energy source is likelyto raise electricity costs, the committeepointed out. Also, security measures wouldbe needed to protect radioactive spent fuel— whether the plant shuts down or not —requiring expenses for an unknown periodof time.

The committee did not discuss whetherIndian Point is vulnerable to a terroristattack or if it should be closed, althoughhigh oil and natural gas prices and concernsabout global warming have renewed interestin nuclear power. — Patrice Pages

-Alternatives to the Indian Point Energy Center forMeeting New York Electric Power Needs. Committee onAlternatives to Indian Point for Meeting Energy Needs,Board on Energy and Environmental Systems, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences (2006, approx. 376 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10172-7; available from the NationalAcademies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $71.50 plus $4.50shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at<www.nap.edu/catalog/11666.html>).

Lawrence T. Papay, consultant, La Jolla, Calif., chairedthe committee.The study was funded by the U.S.Department of Energy.

SUMMER 2006 15

A growing number of Americans arebuying fuel-efficient cars such ashybrids to cope with skyrocketing

gas prices. Another way to save money atthe pump — even if you own a gas-guzzler— is a different set of tires. According to anew report from the National ResearchCouncil, greater use of fuel-efficient tirescould save U.S. car drivers 1 billion to 2 bil-lion gallons of gas per year.

Unfortunately, information on a tire’sfuel-efficiency is not readily available to theconsumer. During the past 10 years, theNational Highway Traffic SafetyAdministration proposed the creation of afuel economy rating for tires and similarproposals have been put forward inCongress without success.

“Consumers should be able to chooseamong tires not only for their price and per-formance but also for their fuel-efficiency,”said Dale F. Stein, chair of the committeethat wrote the report and retired presidentof Michigan Technological University.“Fuel-efficient tires are sold by tire dealers,but people can’t identify them.”

To make information on tire fuel-efficien-cy more widely available and understand-able, NHTSA and tire manufacturers shouldwork together in developing an informationprogram for tire buyers and sellers, thereport says.

A tire’s fuel-efficiency can be improved byreducing its “rolling resistance,” which isthe force required to keep a tire moving for-ward on the highway. As a tire deforms dueto reduced air pressure or increased load,the force needed to keep the tire moving

forward increases,thus requiringmore fuel. Toreduce tire deforma-tion — and decreaserolling resistance — man-ufacturers can change thetire’s shape, size, and constructionmaterials, and the driver can keep the tiresproperly inflated.

Reducing the rolling resistance of tiressold to consumers by an average of 10 per-cent could decrease U.S. fuel consumptionby 1 percent to 2 percent. The fuel savingswould be equivalent to taking 2 million to 4million vehicles off the road, and consumerscould save 6 to 12 gallons per year.

However, motorists should not be lulledinto thinking that simply buying tires withlower rolling resistance will improve fueleconomy. Keeping tires properly inflated isessential to reducing rolling resistance.They’ll also last longer, providing fuel savings over a longer time and decreasingthe number of scrap tires generated. — Patrice Pages

-Tires and Passenger Vehicle Fuel Economy:Informing Consumers, Improving Performance —Special Report 286. Committee for the National TireEfficiency Study;Transportation Research Board, andBoard on Energy and Environmental Systems, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences (2006, approx. 134 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09421-6; available from the NationalAcademies Press, tel. 1-800-624-6242; $28.00 plus 4.50shipping for single copies; also on the Internet at<www.nap.edu/catalog/11620.html>).

Dale F. Stein, retired president of MichiganTechnological University, Houghton, chaired the commit-tee.The study was funded by the National Highway TrafficSafety Administration.

WIN AT THE PUMP WITH THE RIGHT TIRES

T oday the United States leads the world in science and technology development andenjoys a robust economy derived in large part from scientific and technologicalinnovation. However, there are danger signs that the nation’s historical dominance

in these areas is being threatened. U.S. students score below the international average inmath and science. The United States now imports more high-technology products than it exports. For the cost of hiringone young professional engineer in the U.S., a company canhire eight engineers in India. In 2005, only four Americancompanies ranked among the top 10 corporate recipients ofpatents granted by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.These and other factors indicate that America’s advantageshave begun to erode.

This was the conclusion of a landmark report from theNational Academies, Rising Above the Gathering Storm:Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter EconomicFuture. Chaired by Norman Augustine, retired CEO andchair of Lockheed Martin and recent recipient of theNational Academy of Sciences’ prestigious Public Welfare Medal, the distinguished com-mittee that wrote the report included Nobel laureates and prominent business, govern-ment, and academic leaders. The report sounded a strong warning that the U.S. is losingits global competitive edge in research and technology. Without taking concrete stepsnow, U.S. prosperity will decline.

These concerns are not new. Similar warnings have been issued in the past, includingThomas Friedman’s best-selling book The World is Flat, the Council on Competitivenessreport Innovate America, and a number of reports from the President’s Council ofAdvisors on Science and Technology. Concerns were also voiced by Sens. LamarAlexander and Jeff Bingaman, who requested the National Academies’ report. “We’renow playing in a tougher league,” Alexander said. “China and India are competing forour jobs. The best way to keep those jobs in America is to maintain our brainpower edgein science and technology.”


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‘Gathering Storm’ Gains Momentum

The report sounded astrong warning thatthe U.S. is losing itsglobal competitiveedge in research andtechnology. Withouttaking concrete stepsnow, U.S. prosperitywill decline.

Rising Above the Gathering Storm stressed twomajor challenges that are tightly coupled with U.S.pre-eminence in science and engineering: creatinghigh-quality jobs for Americans and responding tothe nation’s need for clean, affordable, and reliableenergy. The report makes four recommendationsand identifies 20 actions to implement those recom-mendations, including providing federal incentivesfor promising students to pursue careers in scienceand math or to teach these subjects in the K-12 sys-tem; funding professional development for today’smath and science teachers; and increasing federalfunding of basic science research by 10 percenteach year for the next seven years. In addition, the

report recommends establishing an organization within the U.S. Department of Energy tosponsor innovative research to meet the nation’s long-term energy challenges.

To the excitement of many who have called for government action in the past, theAcademies report propelled both the executive and congressional branches into making sci-ence and math education and basic science research top priorities. “Sometimes these thingssit for years,” said Alexander, “and then suddenly they come together in a big way.”

In his 2006 State of the Union address, President Bush announced the AmericanCompetitiveness Initiative, which incorporates several of the report’s recommendations.This presidential initiative further encouraged a flurry of legislative activity. In both theSenate and the House, committees outlined legislation based on the report. One bipartisanpackage of bills, Protecting America’s Competitive Edge Act, introduced by Alexander andBingaman as well as Sens. Pete Domenici and Barbara Mikulski, implements all 20 of thereport’s action items. A number of other bills have been introduced that focus on thereport’s recommendations about teaching and research.

The report’s rippling effects continue. Rep. Frank Wolf, chair of the House AppropriationsSubcommittee for Science, the Departments of State, Justice, and Commerce, and RelatedAgencies, strongly supports the increases in basic science research proposed in the report andthe presidential initiative. “I don’t plan to spend a year talking about it, like we had to dolast year,” Wolf adds. “We’re going to get it done.” — Kristin Bullok

SUMMER 2006 17

Kristin Bullok, a science writer based in St. Louis, holds a doctoral degree in chemical biology. She is a former Christine

Mirzayan Science and Technology Policy Fellow at the National Academies.

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T hey took different paths to careers in science and technology, but thewomen who discussed their experi-

ences at a National Academies event thisspring shared two key traits: a thirst forknowledge and a belief that hard work and determination can overcome barriers.Sometimes the barriers even take the formof teachers or college professors who dis-courage unconventional dreams — like thehigh school chemistry instructor who told a teenage Rita Colwell that she would nevermake it in that class because women couldn’tdo such work; or colleagues who assumethat women scientists can’t successfully jug-gle a family and the demands of the tenuretrack.

The women emphasized that supportivementors, parents, and friends can make allthe difference.

It can be tough for a girl who may enjoyplaying with a homemade chemistry setmore than Barbie dolls, said participantDiane France, recalling her childhood expe-riences. France is now a world-renownedforensic anthropologist and director of theHuman Identification Laboratory atColorado State University in Fort Collins.

The discussion was part of an April eventat which the National Academies Presslaunched a new paperback series for youngstudents called “Women’s Adventures inScience,” about some of today’s outstandingwomen scientists. The event was designed toencourage middle school girls to pursueS&T careers, and it included hands-on sci-ence demonstrations led by France and twoother scientists from the series — robotdesigner Cynthia Breazeal, who directs theRobotic Life Group at the Massachusetts

Project Encourages Girls to Chase S&T CareersYOU GO, GIRL!

SUMMER 2006 19

Institute of Technology; and AdrianaOcampo, a planetary geologist for NASA.About 60 girls took part.

The goal of the series is to raise aware-ness about the contributions of contempo-rary women scientists and to help increasethe flow of talented students, especiallygirls, into scientific and technical fields.Researchers and many policymakers saythere is a clear need for greater diversity inthe ranks. U.S. women with bachelor’sdegrees, for example, are much less likelythan their male peers to have majored incomputer science, engineering, and physicalsciences.

Colwell, the first woman to head theNational Science Foundation, told theaudience at the panel discussion thatpreparing more girls and young women forS&T careers would expand their joboptions and ultimately increase the nation’seconomic competitiveness.

And science should not be viewed as theexclusive domain of so-called brainiacs orgeeks, said panel member Heidi Hammel, aplanetary astronomer who is featured inthe book series. “We don’t all have to beEinsteins,” she quipped. “…We’re regularpeople who just work hard.”

The book series and an accompanyingWeb site — <www.iwaswondering.org> —are underwritten by the National Academyof Sciences, with significant financial sup-port from philanthropist Sara Lee Schupfand her family. Schupf, a member of theNew York Academy of Sciences, attendedthe launch. “If we have visible role modelsand mentors, then statistics show that youwill have more girls and women interestedin science,” she said in an interview, also

emphasizing the need for parents toencourage girls in these areas.

In one of the interactive sessions for stu-dents, two pizza-shaped heaps of whiteflour were covered with a layer of red sea-soned salt to resemble the surface of Mars.Using rubber bands, several girls participat-ing in Adriana Ocampo’s demonstrationabout impact craters gleefully flung sugarcubes onto the surface. The resulting holesfrom these makeshift asteroids and comets,Ocampo explained, were akin to craters,which scientists study to learn about a hostof geological issues.

Zana Holden-Gatlin, a sixth-grader atHardy Middle School in Washington, D.C.,described the session as “interesting”because she previously knew little aboutcraters. And the event itself was worth-while, said the future autism therapist. “I think it’s a really great thing that they’redoing, especially for young girls today.”— Vanee Vines


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New Digital Library AidsIraqi Scholars

This spring U.S. government officials andrepresentatives from the scientific communi-ty launched the Iraqi Virtual ScienceLibrary, providing Iraqi scholars with accessto cutting-edge scientific information to fos-ter improvements in the nation’s higher edu-cation system and research enterprise.

Iraq’s ambassador to the United Statespraised the project at a ceremony at theNational Academies. “This provides animportant step toward rebuilding our scien-tific community,” said Samir ShakirMahmud Al-Sumaydi.

A network of Iraqi universities and anIraqi research institution will eventuallymake the Internet-based library available tonearly 80 percent of Iraq’s scientists, engi-neers, and university students, organizerssaid. The project started as a partnershipamong the U.S. departments of Defense andState and the fellowships program of theAmerican Association for the Advancementof Science.

The two departments asked the NationalAcademies to negotiate with publishers ofhigh-quality scientific and technical litera-ture for reduced-price access to their mate-rials. With a grant of about $170,000, theAcademies assembled a library collectionthat now has the complete text of morethan 17,400 scientific journal titles. Accessto major research databases has also beenarranged. Sun Microsystems Inc. will provide computer servers, informationtechnology training for Iraqi partners, anda special software package that will make it possible to eventually transfer the digitallibrary from its U.S. government host server to one in Iraq. The U.S. CivilianResearch & Development Foundation willhelp maintain the project, transferring itentirely to Iraqi ownership after the firsttwo years of operation.

The Academies acquired one-year licensesfor most of the titles in the library, whichalone are valued at more than $11 millionon the open market; publishers have agreedto maintain the partnership thereafter ifadditional funds are available. Details about the Iraqi Virtual Science Library areavailable online at <https://ivsl.org>. — Vanee Vines

SUMMER 2006 21

In Memoriam: Nicholas R. Cozzarelli(1938-2006)

When Nicholas R. Cozzarelli became edi-tor in chief of the Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America (PNAS) in 1995,he inherited a journal that in many wayshad remained unchanged since its inceptionin 1914. Yet in just over a decade, he had— through a combination of visionaryleadership and sheer force of will — trans-formed PNAS and raised it to a higherlevel. That transformation can be seenthroughout the journal, from cover to lastpage. Since 1995, PNAS has experienced amarked rise in the number of submissionsand published papers, an improvement inthe quality and variety of published materi-al, and the introduction of an innovativehybrid open access model. And through itall, Cozzarelli orchestrated these changesby simply being himself. “In his role of edi-tor in chief of PNAS, Nick exhibited thesame boundless energy, enthusiasm, dedica-tion, and uncompromising standards thatcharacterized his own science,” said JackHalpern, associate editor of PNAS andProfessor Emeritus of Chemistry at theUniversity of Chicago.

Cozzarelli dedicated his career to thepassionate pursuit of excellence, whether inresearch, teaching, or service to the scien-tific community. He spent 24 years as aprofessor at the University of California,Berkeley, where he contributed immensely tothe understanding of how proteins alter thetopology of DNA. He served as chairman of

the molecular biology department from1986 until 1989, director of the VirusLaboratory from 1986 to 1990, and directorof the mathematics and molecular biologyprogram from 1988 to 1996. Cozzarelli was elected to the National Academy ofSciences in 1989, received the CIBA-Geigy/Drew Award in Biomedical Researchin 1990, became a fellow of AAAS in 1999,and became a member of the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences in 2000.

Cozzarelli’s career was cut short whenhe died on March 19, 2006, at the age of67, from complications related to treat-ment for Burkitt’s lymphoma. His death isa loss for both the research and publishingcommunities, but he has left a legacy ofuncompromising scientific achievement,advancement toward interdisciplinary andmultidisciplinary work, and a revitalizedjournal positioned to meet the challengesof the 21st century. — Regina Nuzzo &Nick Zagorski

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ProjectsThe following projects have beenrecently undertaken by units of theNational Academies. The latestinformation about all current com-mittee activities — including projectdescriptions, committee rosters, andmeeting information — is availablein “Current Projects” on theNational Academies’ Web site.

An Assessment of Research-Doctorate Programs. Board on Higher Education andWorkforce, Division on Policy andGlobal Affairs. Project director:Charlotte Kuh. Chair: Jeremiah P.Ostriker, Charles Young Professor ofAstronomy and provost emeritus,Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.Sponsors: Andrew W. MellonFoundation, Alfred P. SloanFoundation, National Institutes ofHealth, and National ScienceFoundation.

Incentives and Test-BasedAccountability in Public Education. Board on Testing and Assessment,Division of Behavioral and SocialSciences and Education. Project direc-tor: Stuart Elliott. Chair: To be select-ed. Sponsors: Carnegie Corporationof New York and William and FloraHewlett Foundation.

International Capacity Building forthe Protection and Sustainable Use ofOceans and Coasts. Ocean Studies Board, Division onEarth and Life Studies. Project direc-tor: Frank Hall. Co-chairs: Mary H.Feeley, geophysics resource manager,technical department, ExxonMobilExploration Co., Houston; and SilvioPantoja, associate professor ofoceanography, University ofConcepción, Concepción, Chile.Sponsors: Gordon and Betty MooreFoundation, National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration, Davidand Lucile Packard Foundation, andNational Science Foundation.

Role of Public Transportation inEmergency Evacuation. Studies and Special Programs,Transportation Research Board.Project director: Nan Humphrey.Chair: To be selected. Sponsors:Federal Transit Administration andTransit Cooperative ResearchProgram.

The Scientific Context for theExploration of the Moon. Space Studies Board, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences.Project directors: David H. Smithand Robert L. Riemer. Chair: GeorgeA. Paulikas, executive vice president,Aerospace Corp. (retired), ElSegundo, Calif. Sponsor: NASA.

Technology for a Quieter America. National Academy of Engineering.Project director: Richard Taber.Chair: George C. Maling Jr., formermanaging director, Institute of NoiseControl Engineering of the USA Inc.(retired), Harpswell, Maine. Sponsor:National Academy of Engineering.

Training Physicians for Public HealthCareers. Board on Population Health andPublic Health Practice, Institute ofMedicine. Project director: LylaHernandez. Chair: Richard B.Johnston Jr., associate dean forresearch development and professor,department of pediatrics, Universityof Colorado School of Medicine; andexecutive vice president for academicaffairs, National Jewish Medical andResearch Center, Denver. Sponsors:Health Resources and ServicesAdministration and Association ofAmerican Medical Colleges.

PublicationsFor documents shown as availablefrom the National Academies Press(NAP), write to 500 Fifth St., N.W.,Lockbox 285, Washington, D.C.20055; tel. 202-334-3313 or 1-800-624-6242; or order on the Internetat <www.nap.edu>. Documents froma specific unit of the NationalAcademies are available from thesource as noted.

Aeronautics Innovation: NASA’sChallenges and OpportunitiesBoard on Science, Technology, andEconomic Policy, Division on Policyand Global Affairs (2006, 112 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10188-3; available from NAP).

Asbestos: Selected CancersBoard on Population Health andPublic Health Practice, Institute ofMedicine (2006, approx. 394 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10169-7; available from NAP).

An Assessment of Balance in NASA’sScience ProgramsSpace Studies Board, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences(2006, 58 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10221-9;available from NAP or from theboard, tel. 202-334-3477 or e-mail<[email protected]>).

Beyond Mapping: Meeting NationalNeeds Through EnhancedGeographic Information ScienceMapping Science Committee, Boardon Earth Sciences and Resources,Division on Earth and Life Studies(2006, 116 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10226-X;available from NAP).

C4ISR for Future Naval StrikeGroupsNaval Studies Board, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences(2006, 300 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09600-6; available from NAP).

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS22 THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES INFOCUS

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Completing the Forecast:Characterizing and CommunicatingUncertainty for Better DecisionsUsing Weather and Climate ForecastsBoard on Atmospheric Sciences andClimate, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2006, approx. 140 pp.; ISBN0-309-10255-3; available from NAP).

Controlling the Quantum WorldBoard on Physics and Astronomy,Division on Engineering and PhysicalSciences (2006, approx. 224 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10270-7; available from NAP).

Critical Technology AccessibilityDivision on Engineering and PhysicalSciences (2006, 72 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10146-8; available from NAP).

Decadal Survey of Civil Aeronautics:Foundation for the FutureAeronautics and Space EngineeringBoard, Division on Engineering andPhysical Sciences (2006, approx. 224pp.; ISBN 0-309-10158-1; availablefrom NAP).

Developing a National Registry ofPharmacologic and Biologic ClinicalTrials — Workshop ReportBoard on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine (2006, 124 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10078-X; available from NAP).

Dynamic Changes in MarineEcosystems: Fishing, Food Webs, and Future OptionsOcean Studies Board, Division onEarth and Life Studies (2006, 168pp.; ISBN 0-309-10050-X; availablefrom NAP).

Emergency Care for Children:Growing PainsBoard on Health Care Services,Institute of Medicine (2006, approx.360 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10171-9; available from NAP).

Emergency Medical Services: At theCrossroadsBoard on Health Care Services,Institute of Medicine (2006, approx.304 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10174-3; available from NAP).

Engineering Studies at Tribal Collegesand UniversitiesNational Academy of Engineering(2006, 71 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10127-1;available from NAP).

Enhancing Philanthropy’s Support ofBiomedical Scientists: Proceedings ofa Workshop on EvaluationBoard on Higher Education andWorkforce, Division on Policy andGlobal Affairs (2006, 146 pp.; ISBN0-309-10097-6; available from NAP).

Ensuring an Infectious DiseaseWorkforce: Education and TrainingNeeds for the 21st Century —Workshop SummaryForum on Microbial Threats, Boardon Global Health, Institute ofMedicine (2006, 238 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10010-0; available from NAP).

Ethical Considerations for ResearchInvolving PrisonersBoard on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine (2006, approx.316 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10119-0; available from NAP).

Evaluating the HRSA [HealthResources and ServicesAdministration] Traumatic BrainInjury ProgramBoard on Health Care Services,Institute of Medicine (2006, 350 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10113-1; available from NAP).

Examining the Health DisparitiesResearch Plan of the NationalInstitutes of Health: UnfinishedBusinessBoard on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine (2006, 320 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10121-2; available from NAP).

Exploring the Role of Antiviral Drugsin the Eradication of Polio —Workshop ReportBoard on Life Sciences, Division onEarth and Life Studies (2006, 82 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10161-1; available from NAP).

Food Chemicals Codex: FirstSupplement to the Fifth EditionFood and Nutrition Board, Instituteof Medicine (2006, 78 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10073-9; available from NAP).

Food Insecurity and Hunger in theUnited States: An Assessment of theMeasureCommittee on National Statistics,Division of Behavioral and SocialSciences and Education (2006, 156pp.; ISBN 0-309-10132-8; availablefrom NAP).

Frontiers of Engineering: Reports onLeading-Edge Engineering From the2005 SymposiumNational Academy of Engineering(2006, 202 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10102-6;available from NAP).

Globalization, Biosecurity, and theFuture of the Life SciencesDevelopment, Security, andCooperation, Division on Policy andGlobal Affairs; and Board on GlobalHealth, Institute of Medicine (2006,318 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10032-1; available from NAP).

Going the Distance? The SafeTransport of Spent Nuclear Fuel andHigh-Level Radioactive Waste in theUnited StatesNuclear and Radiation Studies Board,Division on Earth and Life Studies;and Transportation Research Board(2006, 354 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10004-6;available from NAP).

Guidelines for the HumaneTransportation of Research Animals Institute for Laboratory AnimalResearch, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2006, 154 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10110-7; available from NAP).

Health Risks From Dioxin andRelated Compounds: Evaluation ofthe EPA ReassessmentBoard on Environmental Studies andToxicology, Division on Earth andLife Studies (2006, approx. 240 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10258-8; available from NAP).

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Hispanics and the Future of AmericaCommittee on Population, Divisionof Behavioral and Social Sciences andEducation (2006, 502 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10051-8; available from NAP).

Hospital Based Emergency Care: Atthe Breaking PointBoard on Health Care Services,Institute of Medicine (2006, approx.420 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10173-5; available from NAP).

Human Biomonitoring forEnvironmental ChemicalsBoard on Environmental Studies andToxicology, Division on Earth andLife Studies (2006, approx. 276 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10272-3; available from NAP).

Identification of Promising NavalAviation Science and TechnologyOpportunitiesNaval Studies Board, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences(2006, 112 pp.; ISBN 0-309-09729-0;available from NAP).

The Impact of Globalization onInfectious Disease Emergence andControl: Exploring the Consequencesand Opportunities — WorkshopSummaryForum on Microbial Threats, Boardon Global Health, Institute ofMedicine (2006, 246 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10098-4; available from NAP).

Improving the Regulation andManagement of Low-ActivityRadioactive WastesNuclear and Radiation Studies Board,Division on Earth and Life Studies(2006, approx. 224 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10142-5; available from NAP).

Instrumentation for a BetterTomorrow: Proceedings of aSymposium in Honor of ArnoldBeckman Board on Physics and Astronomy,Division on Engineering and PhysicalSciences (2006, 76 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10116-6; available from NAP).

Issues Affecting the Future of the U.S.Space Science and EngineeringWorkforce — Interim ReportSpace Studies Board and Aeronauticsand Space Engineering Board,Division on Engineering and PhysicalSciences (2006, 60 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10217-0; available from NAP).

Is That Real? Identification andAssessment of the CounterfeitingThreat for U.S. BanknotesBoard on Manufacturing andEngineering Design, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences(2006, 74 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10124-7;available from NAP).

Linking Knowledge With Action forSustainable Development: The Roleof Program Management —Summary of a WorkshopRoundtable on Science andTechnology for Sustainability,Division on Policy and Global Affairs(2006, 134 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10185-9;available from NAP).

Managing Coal Combustion Residuesin MinesCommittee on Earth Resources,Board on Earth Sciences andResources, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2006, 272 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10049-6; available from NAP).

Measuring and Sustaining the NewEconomy: Software, Growth, and theFuture of the U.S. Economy —Report of a SymposiumBoard on Science, Technology, andEconomic Policy, Division on Policyand Global Affairs (2006, 226 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09950-1; available from NAP).

Medicare’s Quality ImprovementOrganization Program: MaximizingPotentialBoard on Health Care Services,Institute of Medicine (2006, approx.500 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10108-5; avail-able from NAP).

Mineral Requirements for MilitaryPersonnel: Levels Needed forCognitive and Physical PerformanceDuring Garrison TrainingCommittee on Military NutritionResearch, Food and Nutrition Board,Institute of Medicine (2006, 512 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10126-3; available from NAP).

New Source Review for StationarySources of Air PollutionBoard on Environmental Studies andToxicology, Division on Earth andLife Studies (2006, approx. 300 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10277-4; available from NAP).

Overcoming Challenges to DevelopCountermeasures Against AerosolizedBioterrorism Agents: Appropriate Useof Animal Models Board on Life Sciences and Institutefor Laboratory Animal Research,Division on Earth and Life Studies(2006, approx. 90 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10211-1; available from NAP).

Preliminary Principles and Guidelinesfor Archiving Environmental andGeospatial Data at NOAA [NationalOceanic and AtmosphericAdministration] — Interim ReportBoard on Atmospheric Sciences andClimate, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2006, 37 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10227-8; available from NAP).

Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences,and PreventionBoard on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine (2006, approx.570 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10159-X; available from NAP).

Preventing Medication ErrorsBoard on Health Care Services,Institute of Medicine (2006, approx.544 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10147-6; available from NAP).

The nation turns to the National Academy ofSciences, National Academy of Engineering, Instituteof Medicine, and National Research Council forindependent, objective advice on issues that affectpeople’s lives worldwide. Additional informationabout the National Academies and their work canbe found online at <national-academies.org>.

The National Academies In Focus features broadcoverage of the National Academies’ activities. Wewelcome your comments on the magazine; e-mailus at <[email protected]>.

In Focus (ISSN 1534-8334) is published three timesa year by the National Academies, 500 Fifth St.,N.W., Washington, DC 20001. Subscription (threeissues): $10; Canada and foreign, $12 (U.S. curren-cy only). Subscription address: In Focus, P.O. Box665, Holmes, PA 19043. Bulk-rate U.S. postage ispaid at Washington, D.C. Back issues and backvolumes can be ordered in microform fromNational Archive Publishing Company, 300 NorthZeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48103.

Postmaster: Send address changes to In Focus, P.O.Box 665, Holmes, PA 19043.

Credits:Cover: (clockwise from upper left) Alaska icebergs and

glaciers, ©Bruce Molnia, Terra Photographics, image courtesy Earth Science World Image Bank; child receiving vitamin A at nursery school in Guinea, photo by L. Lartigue, image courtesy U.S. Agency for International Development; Manhattan skyline, ©Michel Setboun/Corbis; ©Marc Romanelli/ Workbook Stock

Page 1: (col. 1) ©Royalty-Free/Corbis; (col. 2) ice core drilling beneath Siple Dome of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, photo by Alexander Colhoun, National Science Foundation, image courtesy U.S. Antarctic Program

Page 2: Speakers at April 2006 event on “Women’s Adventures in Science,” photo by William Geiger

Page 3: Photo by Bachrach Page 4: ©Timothy John/Images.comPage 5: ©Envision/CorbisPage 6: Passengers wearing protective facemasks on flight to

Singapore during 2003 SARS outbreak, ©Reuters/ Corbis

Page 7: ©Trinette Reed/CorbisPage 8: ©Medio ImagesPage 9: Nigerian children receive rations from a USAID-

funded nutrition program, photo by C. Hahn/World Vision, image courtesy U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment

Page 10: Glacier Bay in Alaska, photo by John Bortniak, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; (inset) ice core drilling in McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, to study regional climate during the past 2,000 years, photo by Emily Stone, National ScienceFoundation, image courtesy U.S. Antarctic Program

Page 12: ©Frank Maresca/Images.comPage 13: Brooklyn Bridge in New York City, ©Alan Schein

Photography/CorbisPage 14 Midtown Manhattan, ©Owaki - Kulla/CorbisPage 15: ©PhotodiscPages 18&19: Participants and speakers at an April 2006 National

Academies event to encourage girls to pursue careersin science and technology and launch a new paperback book series, “Women’s Adventures in Science,”photos by William Geiger

Page 20: Launch of new Iraqi Virtual Science Library at a ceremony held May 3, 2006, at the National Academies, photo by Vanee Vines

Page 21: Photo courtesy University of California, Berkeley

Proceedings from the Workshop onBiomedical Materials at the Edge:Challenges in the Convergence ofTechnologiesRoundtable on BiomedicalEngineering Materials andApplications, National MaterialsAdvisory Board, Division onEngineering and Physical Sciences(2006, 52 pp.; ISBN 0-309-66087-4;available from NAP).

Progress in Preventing ChildhoodObesity: Focus on Industry — BriefSummary, Institute of MedicineRegional Symposium, December 1,2005, Irvine, Calif.Food and Nutrition Board, Instituteof Medicine (2006, 43 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10190-5; available from NAP).

Rebuilding the Unity of Health andthe Environment in Rural America —Workshop SummaryRoundtable on Environmental HealthSciences, Research, and Medicine,Board on Population Health andPublic Health Practice, Institute ofMedicine (2006, 116 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10047-X; available from NAP).

Revealing the Hidden Nature ofSpace and Time: Charting the Coursefor Elementary Particle PhysicsBoard on Physics and Astronomy,Division on Engineering and PhysicalSciences (2006, approx. 176 pp.; ISBN0-309-10194-8; available from NAP).

Review of the Department of Energy’sGenomics: GTL Program Board on Life Sciences, Division onEarth and Life Studies (2006, 102pp.; ISBN 0-309-10133-6; availablefrom NAP).

Review of the Draft Research andRestoration Plan for Arctic-Yukon-Kuskokwim (Western Alaska) SalmonBoard on Environmental Studies andToxicology and Polar ResearchBoard, Division on Earth and LifeStudies (2006, 70 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10107-7; available from NAP).

Sleep Disorders and Sleep Deprivation:An Unmet Public Health ProblemBoard on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine (2006, approx.488 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10111-5; available from NAP).

A Study of Interactions: EmergingIssues in the Science of Adolescence— Workshop SummaryBoard on Children, Youth, andFamilies, National Research Counciland Institute of Medicine (2006, 66pp.; ISBN 0-309-10165-4; availablefrom NAP).

Tank Waste Retrieval, Processing, andOn-Site Disposal at Three Departmentof Energy Sites — Final ReportNuclear and Radiation Studies Board,Division on Earth and Life Studies(2006, approx. 300 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10170-0; available from NAP).

Terrorism and the ChemicalInfrastructure: Protecting People andReducing VulnerabilitiesBoard on Chemical Sciences andTechnology, Division on Earth andLife Studies; and TransportationResearch Board (2006, 152 pp.; ISBN0-309-09721-5; available from NAP).

To Recruit and Advance: WomenStudents and Faculty in U.S. Scienceand EngineeringCommittee on Women in Science andEngineering, Division on Policy andGlobal Affairs (2006, 145 pp.; ISBN0-309-09521-2; available from NAP).

Toward a New Advanced HydrologicPrediction Service (AHPS)Water Science and Technology Board,Division on Earth and Life Studies(2006, 84 pp.; ISBN 0-309-10144-1;available from NAP).

Toward an Integrated ArcticObserving NetworkPolar Research Board, Division onEarth and Life Studies (2006, 128pp.; ISBN 0-309-10052-6; availablefrom NAP).

Trends in Oil Supply and Demand,The Potential for Peaking ofConventional Oil Production, andPossible Mitigation Options — ASummary Report of the WorkshopBoard on Energy and EnvironmentalSystems, Division on Engineering andPhysical Sciences (2006, 61 pp.; ISBN0-309-10143-3; available from NAP).

Visualizing Chemistry: The Progressand Promise of Advanced ChemicalImagingBoard on Chemical Sciences andTechnology, Division on Earth andLife Studies (2006, approx. 246 pp.;ISBN 0-309-09722-3; available from NAP).

Workshop on Disability in America:A New Look — Summary andBackground PapersBoard on Health Sciences Policy,Institute of Medicine (2006, 292 pp.;ISBN 0-309-10090-9; available from NAP).

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD (TRB) REPORTS — Approximately 150 titles issued annually. Freecatalog available on request from TRB, 500 Fifth St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20001 (tel. 202-334-

3213), or visit TRB’s bookstore on the Internet a <national-academies.org/trb/bookstore>.

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Summer 2006vol. 6 number 2

infocusmagazine.org

INFOCUS

INFOCUSP.O. Box 665Holmes, PA 19043

PRE-SORT STANDARDU.S. POSTAGE PAID

PERMIT NO. 6426WASHINGTON, DC

Reconstructing Past Surface Temperatures

Science & Technology at USAID

Alternatives to Indian Point Energy

Hispanics in the United States

This exciting new biography series for young readersfocuses on 10 women who have made groundbreak-ing discoveries in various areas of science. Eachbook focuses on the life and work of a womanactive in her field today, providing readers withinsights into the personal and professional paths thatled to their careers in science. A companion Website — <www.iwaswondering.org> — offers anotherway to “meet” these inspiring women scientists. Thefun, interactive site builds on the content of thebooks and includes games, comic strips, videos,activities, and a timeline of women in science.

What would it be like to build the first

robot that could interact with people?

Or to study human remains in a search

for criminal evidence?

In Women’s Adventures in Science,

readers will find out about the

trailblazing women who do such work.

Women’s Adventures in ScienceWomen’s Adventures in Science

Published in partnership with Scholastic Books

is available from the National Academies Press at <www.nap.edu/catalog/was>