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William Stallings Computer Organizationand Architecture
Chapter 9Instruction Sets:Characteristicsand Functions
What is an instruction set?
!The complete collection of instructions that are understood by a CPU
!Machine Code!Binary!Usually represented by assembly codes
Elements of an Instruction
!Operation code (Op code)"Do this
!Source Operand reference"To this
!Result Operand reference"Put the answer here
!Next Instruction Reference"When you have done that, do this...
Where have all the Operands gone?
!Long time passing….!(If you don’t understand, you’re too young!)!Main memory (or virtual memory or cache)!CPU register!I/O device
Instruction Representation
!In machine code each instruction has a unique bit pattern
!For human consumption (well, programmers anyway) a symbolic representation is used"e.g. ADD, SUB, LOAD
!Operands can also be represented in this way"ADD A,B
Instruction Types
!Data processing!Data storage (main memory)!Data movement (I/O)!Program flow control
Number of Addresses (a)
!3 addresses"Operand 1, Operand 2, Result"a = b + c;"May be a forth - next instruction (usually implicit)"Not common"Needs very long words to hold everything
Number of Addresses (b)
!2 addresses"One address doubles as operand and result"a = a + b"Reduces length of instruction"Requires some extra work
⌧Temporary storage to hold some results
Number of Addresses (c)
!1 address"Implicit second address"Usually a register (accumulator)"Common on early machines
Number of Addresses (d)
!0 (zero) addresses"All addresses implicit"Uses a stack"e.g. push a" push b" add" pop c
"c = a + b
How Many Addresses
!More addresses"More complex (powerful?) instructions"More registers
⌧Inter-register operations are quicker
"Fewer instructions per program
!Fewer addresses"Less complex (powerful?) instructions"More instructions per program"Faster fetch/execution of instructions
Design Decisions (1)
!Operation repertoire"How many ops?"What can they do?"How complex are they?
!Data types!Instruction formats
"Length of op code field"Number of addresses
Design Decisions (2)
!Registers"Number of CPU registers available"Which operations can be performed on which
registers?
!Addressing modes (later…)
!RISC v CISC
Types of Operand
!Addresses!Numbers
"Integer/floating point
!Characters"ASCII etc.
!Logical Data"Bits or flags
! (Aside: Is there any difference between numbers and characters?Ask a C programmer!)
Pentium Data Types
!8 bit Byte!16 bit word!32 bit double word!64 bit quad word!Addressing is by 8 bit unit!A 32 bit double word is read at addresses
divisible by 4
Specific Data Types
! General - arbitrary binary contents! Integer - single binary value! Ordinal - unsigned integer! Unpacked BCD - One digit per byte! Packed BCD - 2 BCD digits per byte! Near Pointer - 32 bit offset within segment! Bit field! Byte String! Floating Point
Types of Operation
!Data Transfer!Arithmetic!Logical!Conversion!I/O!System Control!Transfer of Control
Data Transfer
!Specify"Source"Destination"Amount of data
!May be different instructions for different movements"e.g. IBM 370
!Or one instruction and different addresses"e.g. VAX
Arithmetic
!Add, Subtract, Multiply, Divide!Signed Integer!Floating point ?!May include
"Increment (a++)"Decrement (a--)"Negate (-a)
Input/Output
!May be specific instructions!May be done using data movement instructions
(memory mapped)!May be done by a separate controller (DMA)
Systems Control
!Privileged instructions!CPU needs to be in specific state
"Ring 0 on 80386+"Kernel mode
!For operating systems use
Transfer of Control
!Branch"e.g. branch to x if result is zero
!Skip"e.g. increment and skip if zero"ISZ Register1"Branch xxxx"ADD A
!Subroutine call"c.f. interrupt call
Byte Order(A portion of chips?)
!What order do we read numbers that occupy more than one byte
!e.g. (numbers in hex to make it easy to read)!12345678 can be stored in 4x8bit locations as
follows!
Byte Order (example)
!Address Value (1) Value(2)!184 12 78!185 34 56!186 56 34!186 78 12
! i.e. read top down or bottom up?
Byte Order Names
!The problem is called Endian!The system on the left has the least significant
byte in the lowest address!This is called big-endian!The system on the right has the least
significant byte in the highest address!This is called little-endian