Will Barnes_Civil War and Revolution in America (1999).pdf

8/10/2019 Will Barnes_Civil War and Revolution in America (1999).pdf

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Civil War and Revolution

in AmericaWill Barnes

Institute

for the Critical Study of Societies ofCapital


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Civil War and Revolution in AmericaW. Barnes

ICSSC Publication1999

Revision, 5/2006

Autor!s "ote an# A$olo%& to te Rea#er'Researc (or tis )or* )as carrie# out (ro+ a& 199- trou% ebruar& 1999.

Actual co+$osition )as un#erta*en (ro+ ctober to ece+ber 1999.Revision inclu#es inclusion o( +a$s an# te ne) eses on Racial A$artei#,3 a re)rite o(

te #iscussion entitle# 4enin in A+erica3 as )ell as atte+$ts to eli+inate %ra++atical,s&ntactical an# s$ellin% errors.is +uc sai#, te lar%est $arts o( tis )or* )ere co+$ose# )ile sittin% at a co+$uter, an#

t&$o%ra$ical errors an# +iss$ellin%s +a& be nu+erous.

e autor )elco+es a lar%e $ublic rea#ersi$' is )or* is $rivatel& $ublise#, is to be (reelistribute# an# is not subect to sale.


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Contents

List of Maps

Pre(acee Creation o( te Blac* an# Wite Races' e Preistor& o( Slaver& in n%lis "ortA+erica

Introduction.$enin% Re+ar*s' 7Irre$ressible7 Con(lict8 Slaver&, te Con(lict o( Contra#ictor&Societies

Antebellum Origins. A Preli+inar& "ote on Political Parties1. e Re$ublican Part&s Preistor&. e :ac*sonian e+ocrac&2. ree Soil an# Slaver&' e Re$ublican Part& at its ri%ins, 1;5uestion o( Slaver&, 1;61=1;6>9:=>> ?Ca+bri#%e, n%., 19;6@.

Crosb& $a&s li$ service to 7+altreat+ent,3 7col#,3 7un%er7 an# 7over)or*,3 but is eF$lanation belies it ?199=200,

2;5@. or o+a%e, "bid,-0=-0;.67War# Curcill, !"its a*e 4ice!' e Fter+ination o( "ort A+erican In#ians, 160=19963 in isA /ittle )atter of

+enocide0 (olocaust and its 2enial in the Americas :D=% to the Present ?San rancisco, 199@' 1


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al( o( a $o$ulation %rou$ in a sin%le outbrea* o( s+all $oF, native ban#s, $eo$les an# nationso( te A+ericas as $o$ulation %rou$s, on te oter an#, coul# over te course o( (i(t& &earsbe #estro&e#.1

(owever, the very diseases that destroyed the demographic integrity of native populations

were not immutable biological facts$oth the diseases and physiological immunities of settlercolonists to common diseases suc as s+all $oF in $articular but also to +easles, #&senter&,+u+$s, )o$$in% cou%, cic*en $oF, etc., were the product of millennia of the enforcedimpoverishment of European rural masses$ ose i++unities )ere constitute# overtousan#s o( &ears as $easants live# in close#, close an# sare# Luarters )it teir livestoc*,$ri+aril& cattle, $i%s, see$, %oats an# cic*en. I( co)s or la+bs $rovi#e# )ar+t as$easants sle$t a+on% or on te+, or u+an +oters )et nurse# in(ant +oterless ani+als, it

)as because o( sava%e ineLualities tat $ro#uce# a situation in )ic one (a+il& a# a co)an# so+e cic*ens, )ile anoter a# er#s o( cattle or see$, (or eFa+$le, tat nu+bere# inte tens or un#re#s o( tousan#s. Rooted in millennia of class division, disease groundeddevastation was a culturally formed phenomenon, when not thrust on indigenous peoples inmanifestly genocidal practices then always cynically a free gift of European societies toundivided native societies$ "t was the immunologically congealed e.pression of the internalbarbarity and criminality of European societies themselves$


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Ber*ele& an# is lo&alist su$$orters )ere outla)s an# co++an#e# te+ to surren#er. n 1Au%ust, e sent Diles Blan# an# Ca$t. Willia+ Carver )it tree un#re# +en to ta*e si$s inte :a+es River, an# (ro+ tere to a$$reen# Ber*ele&. Wit te situation no) see+in%l& inan#, Bacon un#ertoo* to consoli#ate is su$$ort so tat e coul# return to te $roect

#earest to is eart, na+el&, 7eFtir$ation7 o( In#ians.-

Bacons (irst act )as to soli#i(& is su$$ort. Ge calle# a 7con(erence7 at i##le Plantation?Willia+sbur%@, treatenin% $lanters )it estate con(iscation soul# te& (ail to atten#. an&atten#e#. e& )ere #ul& s)ore to an oat as Bacon su$$orters. B& - Au%ust, Bacon a##ra)n u$ a #eclaration announcin% tat Ber*ele& )as creatin% a civil )ar trou% iso$$osition to te rebels In#ian )ar. "o) Bacon sou%t, )erever is su$$orters )ent, toave ever& $ro$ertie# (ar+er an# ever& (ree+en s)orn to te sa+e oat. Wit te )or* o(consoli#ation bein# i+, in +i#=Au%ust e turne# to $ursuit o( te SusLueanna, (oun# tistoo #i((icult, an# instea# sou%t easier $re&, te Pa+un*e&. ese )ere 7#ocile7 In#ians, viE.,te& a# a lea#er, a 7>ueen,3 )o it a$$ears a# (ull& a#a$te# ersel( to te accu+ulativeabits an# te #e+an#s (or serviles so caracteristic o( te n%lis colonists. Bacons (orces(oun# te Pa+un*e& enca+$+ent. e >ueen (le# leavin% er a+asse# %oo#s. Bacons +enassaulte# a ban# )ic #i# not resist, *illin% so+e, ta*in% oters $risoners an#, o( course,revelin% in te acLuire# $lun#er.ualitativel& lo)er slave $o$ulations, an#%eo%ra$ical $roFi+it& to te "ort entailin% a $artial orientation to)ar# nortern +ar*ets,con#itione# attitu#es to)ar# slaver&. ese attitu#es inclu#e# a stron% re%ional nationalis+ inte )estern $$er Sout states ?conti%uous, not ust %eo%ra$icall& but attitu#inall&, )it tenort)estern states o( io, In#iana an# Illinois@ = a+on% )ic Genr& Cla& o( Qentuc*& an#is 7A+erican S&ste+7 )ere ver& $o$ular, an# an acce$tance o( a $olic& o( %ra#uale+anci$ation o( slaves base# on teir re+oval to locations outsi#e te nite# States.200

e 4o)er Sout a# te eaviest concentration o( slaves. Wile rice ?in te coastal lo)lan#so( Sout Carolina an# Deor%ia@ an# su%ar ?in sout +ost central 4ouisiana@ )ere i+$ortantsta$les, te #ensest slave $o$ulations lar%el& coinci#e# )it tose areas o( eaviest cotton$ro#uction, tat is, te 7blac* belts7 o( Deor%ia, central Sout Carolina, eastern 4ouisiana,ississi$$i an# Alaba+a. e 1;20s colla$se o( cotton $rices a# $ro#uce# violent o$$ositionto Con%ressionall& le%islate# tari((s #esi%ne# to $rotect (le#%in% nortern +anu(acturers. Inte ol#est re%ion o( te 4o)er Sout ?te Sout Carolina lo) countr& an# eastern Deor%ia@,tese lo) $rices, it )as ar%ue#, treatene# te (oun#ations o( a settle# sei%niorial, rural li(ebase# on slaver&' 4o) cotton ?an# rice@ $rices )ere bla+e# on tari((s. ari((s an# $articularl&?(e#eral ai# to@ 7internal i+$rove+ents7 )ere not +eanin%less because irrelevant to a ruralsei%niorial societ& )it an 7aristocratic7 etosN rater, te&, $lanters screa+e#, )ere ini+ical'ari((s an# (e#erall&=#irecte# internal i+$rove+ents #iverte# slaver&=%enerate# resources

nort)ar# (or #evelo$+ent o( +anu(acturersN te& su$$resse# uro$ean tra#e b& $reventin%$rice co+$etition )it te "ortN te& raise# te $rice o( te (e) +anu(acture# %oo#ssoutern $lanters reLuire#N an#, )e su%%est, (e#erall& ai#e# an# controlle# internali+$rove+ents treatene# #evelo$+ent o( a class o( entre$reneurs in te interior o( tesestates )o coul# $oliticall& (unction as an alternative to te %reat $lanters. An active,entre$reneurial class as suc coul# un#er+ine $lanter control over le%islatures an# +ini+aliststate a$$aratuses ?)ile (e#eral control o( suc eF$en#itures )oul# eF$an# a national $o)ertat, i( ostile to, coul# li+it te s$rea# o(, or, +ore ra#icall&, le%islativel& abolis slaver&@. B&te 1;-0s, :on Caloun a# beco+e te lea#in% s$o*es+an o( tis re%ion o( te l# Souto$$osin% tese #evelo$+ents. Gere o$$osition to :ac*son an# is e%alitarian retoric an#

su$$ort (or ne)l& (or+in% state ri%ts $arties )ere stron%. Issues o( rule centere# as +uc on+aintenance o( class ierarc& as on race subor#ination, )ile te latter entaile# a7$er$etualist7 $olitics, tat is, a co++it+ent to slaver& as te unalterable (oun#ations o(societ&, culture an# civiliEation.201

n te sout)estern (rontier ?Alaba+a, ississi$$i an# te territories o( Ar*ansas an#souteastern eFas@ $ri+itive con#itions o( 7uninabite#7 li(e %enerate# even a+on% $lantersa 7)ites onl&7 e%alitarianis+, )ile te $resence o( vast 7uninabite#,3 (ertile tracts o(

200In te t)enties an# tirties, Cla&, .S. re$resentative (ro+ Qentuc*& ?1;11=1;1uinc& A#a+s ?1;25=1;29@, an#

.S. Senator (ro+ 1;-1=1;


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$lantation cro$ $ro#ucin% lan# allo)e# $lanters to +a*e u$ (or lo)er $rices b& increasin%$ro#uction. Attention ere )as, tereb&, #e(lecte# (ro+ tari((s an# oriente# to)ar# In#ians,

)ose lan# occu$anc& an# ste)ar#si$ create# restraints on slaver& eF$ansion. Wites onl&e%alitarianis+, #e(ense o( slaver& an# In#ian re+oval all le# te $lanters o( tis re%ion to

i#enti(& )it :ac*son.

Class CoalitionJe class coalition tat brou%t :ac*son to national $ro+inence in 1;2< consiste#, ten, inless $ros$erous nortern (ar+ers an# bi% cit& artisans, te soutern &eo+anr& an# a $ri+aril&sout)estern, $lanter stratu+. At te ei%t o( :ac*sons $o)er ?i.e., #urin% is Presi#enc&@,tis coalition )as, +oreover, #o+inate#, b& still anoter +ore a+or$ous social class stratu+,entre$reneurs, )o at tis ti+e a# beco+e #i((icult to #istin%uis +ass $art& $oliticians. isentre$reneurial stratu+, to te eFtent is )as +a#e o( 7+en on te +a*e7 )ose activit& in$ro#uction centere# on 7business7 %enerall& an# ban*in% s$eci(icall&, )as #i((erentiate# out o(te ne) la&ers o( a +ercant class tat #evelo$e# on te basis o( +aor eastern cities tra#e

)it te West an# te Sout. e $ossibilit& (or coalescin% suc a #is$arate, internall&anta%onistic bloc in $art reste# on i#eolo%ical a+bi%uit&.n te one si#e, (or $oor (ar+ers, &eo+an an# artisans, :ac*son s&+boliEe# te revolta%ainst ca$italist +ar*et $enetration b& +en co++itte# b& teir $ractice to an use=valueetos. is s&+bolic $roection )as not (ortuitous, since :ac*sons $o$ulist orator& vali#ate#teir una+bitious, #e+ocratic strivin%s (or eLualit&. n te oter si#e, +en on te +a*e,entre$reneurs an# te ne) bree# o( $oliticians, trive# un#er +ar*et $ressure' e& )ereoriente# to)ar# $ullin% te+selves u$ b& teir o)n bootstra$s. Lualit&, in oter )or#s, (or

te+ +eant uninibite#, unre%ulate# entre$reneurial o$$ortunit&.202

o %ras$ o) tese ele+ents o( tis class bloc ca+e to%eter, i.e., te +anner in )ic:ac*son 1;2< national $ro+inence )as translate# into $o)er ?)ic is )at occurre# in tePresi#ential election o( 1;2;@, an# to un#erstan# o) e+ocrac&=e+bo#ie# :ac*sonianis+outlive# te Gero, it is necessar& to un#erstan# te (ollo)in%' ?i@ e re%ionall& inte%ratin%eF$ansion o( $ro#uctive activit& tat $ro#uce# +ercant #i((erentiation an# out o( it a la&er o(entre$reneursN an#, ?ii@ )itin te conteFt o( te role o( $olitics in A+erican %overnance, o)intert)ine# strata o( entre$reneurs an# $ro(essional $oliticians, te latter re$resentatives o(risin% or alrea#& #o+inant social %rou$s )itin te A+erican rulin% class, ca+e to su$$ort:ac*son. o acieve tis un#erstan#in% reLuires a rater lon% #etour alon% te lines o( an

eF$lication o( te relation o( cotton $ro#uction to its +ar*et eFcan%e. bliLuel&, tis anal&sis)ill #e+onstrate bot ?so+e o(@ te tensions bet)een "ort an# Sout tat obectivel&co+$elle# te con(rontation consu++ate# in te li(e an# #eat stru%%le o( te 1;60s, andtee+er%in% +ercant=(inancier base# ele+ents )it te nortern urban e+ocrac&. Wit tiseF$lication bein# us, )e sall be able to eFibit te +anner in )ic te i#eationall&constitute# +o+ents o( :ac*sonian beca+e i#eolo%ical, i.e., (unctione# to +as* te later,$ost=1;


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Part IIICotton E5cange and te #ise of )e6 7or2

4ackson1s Political Ascendancy 7""8$ !he Political Economy of Class AlliancesRole o( Cotton Pro#uction in te arl& Antebellu+ cono+&J

Co++ercial cotton $ro#uction in te nite# States be%an in 1;6. In 19-, te &ear liWitne& invente# te cotton %in, cotton eF$orts totale#


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to te $lanters, tese +ercants an# teir ouses a# te ca$acit& to eFten# $lanters cre#it(ro+ one &ear!s cro$ to te neFt.205

Cre#it allo)e# eastern, in $articular "e) Kor*, +ercants, be%innin% )it te (actors ?seebelo)@, to co+e to #o+inate te +ove+ent o( cotton. ro+ te ver& late ei%teent centur&

outset o( cotton eFcan%e, eastern +ercants )ere involve# in creatin% a 7trian%ular tra#e.3ollo)in% $ro#uction, cotton eFcan%e +ove# (ro+ te cotton $orts o( te Sout, Carleston,Savanna, obile an#, above all, "e) rleans, to te %reat ast coast $orts, Balti+ore,Pila#el$ia, Boston an#, above all, "e) Kor*. ro+ te ast it )as si$$e# in transAtlanticcarriers to 4iver$ool, n%lan# an# Gavre, rance (or teFtile +anu(acturer. As te volu+e o(cotton si$$e# eF$lo#e# a(ter te en# o( te )ar )it Britain ?1;15@, return si$+ents sout(ro+ tese eastern $orts )ere s&ste+atiEe# an# re%ulariEe#. r%aniEe# b& +ercants,$articularl& tose o( "e) Kor* Cit&, activel& involve# in te tra#e ?trou% si$ o)nersi$ an#o$eration@, a %rou$ o( si$s tat +a#e routine, out%oin% or return tri$s, in tis case bearin%+anu(acture# %oo#s, )ere *no)n as 7$ac*et lines.3 Protecte# in te lan# o( (ree tra#e b&+ercantile la), onl& A+erican botto+s coul# bear A+erican ?coastal@ tra#e. Carr&in% %oo#sor#ere# b& (actors, +ercants o$eratin% coastal $ac*ets tereb& avoi#e# te t)o=si#e#$roble+ o(, (irst, $a&in% (or te $urcases o( cotton ?an#, to a Lualitativel& lesser eFtent, s*insan# (urs@ on inco+in% tri$s (ro+ soutern $orts an#, secon#, o( 7#ea#ea#e#7 car%o ?i.e., anon$ro#uctive return vo&a%e )it no car%o@ tat )as econo+icall& #isastrous ?since te ti+eat sea create# )ear an# tear on si$s, )ile te si$s! cre) a# to be $ai# )a%es re%ar#lesso( )eter si$s carrie# car%[email protected]*et lines )ere establise# (irst in Carleston in 1;21, ten in Savanna in 1;2


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re(ine# in 4ouisiana, an# lar%e a+ounts o( %ol# (ro+ ne)l& o$ene# +ines in eFico )ere allbac*aule# to "e) Kor*.@20

Pro(itabilit& still accrue# to eastern, an# in $articular "e) Kor*, +ercants' ven )itout te$ro(its #erivin% (ro+ to)in% an# $ilota%e to an# (ro te $ort, )ar(a%e an# )areousin% once

in te $ort o( "e) Kor*, tese $ro(its accu+ulate# (ro+ transit car%es ?(or cotton carrie#lar%el& in "e) n%lan# botto+s on )ic "e) Kor* +ercants receive# a co++ission@,(rei%t insurance car%es, interest on a#vances, an# co++issions ta*en at eac $oint in

)ic a bill o( eFcan%e )as create#.20;

Class i((erentiation in Fcan%eJra#itionall&, te +ercant a# been a %eneralist' Ge o$erate# a (a+il& run business. ra)in%on is o)n i+$orts, oter $ro#ucers or oter +ercants, e su$$lie# te t&$ical t)o to tree+an, artisan o)ne# an# o$erate# so$ )it ra) +aterials, tools an# )atever (urnisin%s tat

)ere reLuire#. Ge $urcase# an# ten resol#, tereb& #istributin% te $ro#ucts o( tese s+allso$s locall&, re%ionall& or abroa# at eiter )olesale or retail levels. us, e, resi#in% in tecoastal to)ns an# cities, i+$orte#, eF$orte# an# sol# bot )olesale an# retail.209

e %ro)in% #e+an# (or cotton, o)ever, can%e# all tis' e sa+e +ove+ent o( cottoneFcan%e )ic trans(or+e# "e) Kor* Cit& into te %reatest entre$]t in te A+ericas le#,(irst, to a centraliEation o( +ercant activit& in "e) Kor*, Pila#el$ia, Boston an# Balti+ore,an# secon#, to s$ecialiEation in te strata en%a%e# in te cotton eFcan%e. It also inau%urate#a rene)e#, Lualitativel& %reater inte%ration o( te Atlantic econo+& )it its $oles situate# inte (inancial co++unities o( te A+erican norteast, te cotton Sout, an# te n%lisin#ustrial eartlan#. Cotton )as at te core o( tis inte%ration, an# te $lanters $ractico=

econo+ic #is$ositions an# abits )ere crucial. is entire +ove+ent be%an )it a (actor.e cotton (actor, sellin% te $lanters cro$s, $urcasin% is su$$lies an# securin% i+ cre#it,)as te $lanters i++e#iate re$resentative, so to s$ea*, on te %roun#. Ge live# in te Sout,o(ten in inlan# lar%er to)ns %eo%ra$icall& conti%uous )it te cotton=%ro)in% interlan# ?e.%.,Au%usta an# te Sout Carolina an# Deor%ia u$countr&, "asville an# +i##le ennessee@. Ge

)as li*el& a Kan*ee "e) n%lan#er )it alrea#& establise# close connections to te "e)Kor* Cit& +ercant co++unit&. e$en#in% u$on te siEe o( te cro$ ?or cro$s@ involve#, tuson te siEe o( te $lantation $ro#ucin% te cotton, te (actor si$$e# te cro$ on consi%n+entto a +i##le+an in a soutern inlan# river to)n or coastal $ort, or to one o( te %reat eastern$orts, or ?rarel&@ sol# it #irectl& to a +anu(acturers a%ent. is +i##le+an in turn si$$e# te

consi%n+ent to anoter +ercant ?)o sol# it to a +anu(acturers a%ent@ or sol# it to a+anu(acturers a%ent. or eac consi%n+ent a bill o( eFcan%e, an a#vance a%ainst actualsale, )as #ra)n u$. e bill o( eFcan%e constitute# a $ro+ise o( $a&+ent )itin so +an&?e.%., 60, 90@ #a&s at a s$eci(ie# rate o( interest ?e.%., U, ;U@ (or te $erio#. It coul# be207"bid,9;=99, 116 ?bills o( la#in%@, 11=11;. In 1;22, (or eFa+$le, te $ort o( "e) rleans eF$orte# 156,000 bales o(

cotton. A+on%st te +aor #estinations, 2;,000 )ent to "e) Kor*, 10,000 to Pila#el$ia an# ,000 to Boston, )ile6


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#iscounte# ?i( $a&+ent )as +a#e )itin an allo)e# $erio#@, an# it coul# be ta*en to a ban*)illin% to $urcase it (or cas ?an# re#ee+ te bill (ro+ te +ercant )o issue# it@. e bill o(eFcan%e, tus, allo)e# te (actor to cover trans$ort costs, insurance, stora%e costs, etc.,and+a*e an a#vance to te $lanter on is costs o( $ro#uction an# is return on is

invest+ent ?less, o( course, (actor!s ([email protected]

e latter, an a#vance to te $lanter, )as te crucial ele+ent )ic allo)e#, in te $erson o(te (actor, te "e) Kor* +ercant co++unit& to lar%el& control te trans$ort an# sale o(soutern %ro)n cotton. It soul# be recalle# tat te role o( "e) Kor* Cit&, its +ercants an#its $ort, in cotton eFcan%e )as not in an& sense %iven' "e) Kor* )as an a##itional t)oun#re# +iles nort o( te transAtlantic si$$in% lanes, an# several +ore #a&s travel ti+e,(ro+ te cotton $orts to Britain ?4iver$ool@ or rance ?Garve@. In a )orl# o( $ro#uction in )icca$ital outla&s )ere necessar& (ar in a#vance o( invest+ent returns ?(ro+ returns on teactual sale o( cotton@, te $lanter )as invariabl& sort o( cas. ourgeoisin is +a# #esire toaccu+ulate ?lan# an# slaves@ in or#er to $ursue a li(e o( lavis, ostentatious #is$la&, toseigniorially eFibit is +asterl& )ort, te $lanter )as cronicall& #ebt=ri##en. Denerall&s$ea*in%, $lanters #i# not ave te (inancial turn o( +in# to re%ularl&, constantl& an#+onotonousl& en%a%e in an# an#le te necessar& transactions involve# in cotton eFcan%e.nter te "e) Kor* Cit& +ercant co++unit&' In te $erson o( te (actor on te %roun#, it )aste onl& source (ro+ )ic te (un#s necessar& to (inanciall& carr& $lanters as a class coul#be %enerate#. An# te (actor too )as (inanciall& subor#inate to te co++issione# +ercant

)it )o+ e re%ularl& #ealt' In is se+i=annual su++er tre* to "e) Kor* Cit& to bu&$rovisions, cru#e i+$le+ents an# %oo#s (or luFur& consu+$tion ?(or is $lanter clientele@, ei+sel( )as a#vance# bot tose su$$lies an# te cre#it to $urcase te+ b& 7is7 +ercant

or obbers.211

As te seer volu+e o( cotton eFcan%e increase# %eo+etricall&, a #ivision o( labor )itin te+ercant co++unit& #evelo$e#. is volu+e o( transactions create# te +o#ern +ar*et in itsi+$ersonal (or+ as te (a+il& businesses lar%el& #isa$$eare# an# te tra#itional +ercantbeca+e obsolete. Instea#, (ir+s o( +ercants be%an to #eal eFclusivel& in cotton, an# strictl&as co++issione# a%ents. In tis +anner te& avoi#e# te ris*s involve# in te $rice(luctuations in te transAtlantic cotton +ar*et. Bills o( eFcan%e an# te a#vance o( cre#itre+aine#, o( course, $er+anent (eatures o( te cotton tra#e an#, because o( te +a%nitu#e o(tese transactions ?as )ell as te (act tat eFcan%e re%ularl& involve# currenc& can%es(ro+ #ollars to $oun# sterlin% an# vice versa@, a stratu+ o( (inancial s$ecialists also

#evelo$e#. inall&, in te areas o( te %reatest concentration o( cotton eFcan%es ?4on#on,"e) Kor*@, a stratu+ consistin% o( bro*ers an# bro*era%e ouses, en%a%e# strictl& in $uttin%bu&ers an# sellers into contact )it one anoter, evolve#.212

Wit te #evelo$+ent o( a )estern +ar*et ?#iscusse# belo)@, a s$ecialiEation in te #o+aino( i+$ort #u$licate# te eF$ort s$ecialiEation tat a# co+e to caracteriEe te cotton tra#e.

210"bid,20=21, an# Albion, "bid,100, 112.211Albion,"bid$

( course, tere )ere $lanters tat re%ularl& *ee$ +ore or less res$ectivel& bour%eois ournals o( teir transactions.At a certain level o( volu+e, recor#=*ee$in% is an essential, tou% secondary, o$eration. ?It is not al)a&s necessar&,

i.e., belo) tat level o( volu+e +ercants ave o(ten been *no)n to *ee$ a strictl& i#eal or 7+ental7 recor# o( teiractivities@. e $oint is, o)ever, tat $lanters #i# not en%a%e in te primary, time and life consuming activit& o(actuall& $re$arin% an# an#lin% te reLuisite transactions tat +a#e u$ cotton eFcan%e.e (actors activit&, li*e te $lanters, (ollo)e# te c&cle o( cotton $ro#uction. Plante# in te s$rin% ?arc=A$ril@,arveste# in te autu+n=)inter ?ctober=:anuar&@, te ot, #ull su++er )as a $erio# o( 7#o)n ti+e.3 e )ell=to=#o$lanters also conver%e# on "e) Kor* or in nearb& resorts, to avoi# te #ebilitatin% eat an# u+i#it& o( te souternriver botto+s, to s$en# ?o( course, on cre#it@, an# to eno& te cultural li(e te Cit& o((ere#. "bid, 11-, 11;.212"bid$


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Si+ultaneousl& +ercants be%an not onl& to restrict te+selves eFclusivel& to eF$ortin%, or toi+$ortin% as te case +a& ave been, but i+$orters be%an to li+it teir i+$orts to a sin%let&$e o( ra) +aterial ?or (inise# %oo#@, e.%., iron or co$$er use# in te $ro#uction o(i+$le+ents or %rates, stoves, etc.21- A entire series o( +ercants, %enerall& s$ea*in% te

(urter into te interior te s+aller, s$run% u$ to an#le tis tra#e. "e) strata )ere born, sucas te obber, a +ercant )o $urcase# on is o)n account various t&$es o( %oo#s in lar%eLuantities at #iscounte# $rices, )areouse# te+, bro*e te+ #o)n an# sol# te+in#ivi#uall& or in s+aller Luantities to retail +ercants.21uebec to te nort,Pila#el$ia an# Balti+ore to te sout)est, an# Boston u$ te coast.21

213"bid,22.214Robert Albion, "bid,A$$en#ices HHH an# HHHI,


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"e) Kor* +ercants %aine# access to te interior ust )est o( te A$$alacians, as Bu((alo,connecte# to rie b& la*e, )as connecte# to Pittsbur% b& canals on bot te Alle%en& an#io Rivers. Be(ore co+$letion o( te Canal, te (ar+ers o( te trans=A$$alacian West )oa# eF$ectations be&on# sel(=su((icienc&, in $articular tose o( )estern u$state "e) Kor*, te

io alle& sout to Pittsbur%, te tin stri$ o( nortern io alon% te la*e, an# souteastici%an, )ere lar%el& (rustrate#. But to satis(& tese eF$ectations once te Canal )aso$ene#, teir $ro#uction a#, o( course, not onl& to transcen# sel(=su((icienc& but also%enerate a cas cro$. But in tis earl& $erio#, eFcan%es bet)een te )estern +ercants an#trans=A$$alacian (ar+ers )ere con#ucte# strictl& )itout a +onetar& +e#iu+. eseeFcan%es )ere not, o)ever, barter. Gere te +ercant $la&e# a sin%ularl& i+$ortant role.In te (all o( te &ear cre#it, $era$s in te (or+ o( ban*notes, )as eFten#e# b& "e) Kor* Cit&+ercants to teir s+aller, countr& counter$arts in te West. Cre#it allo)e# te rural +ercantto $lace or#ers (or s$rin% si$+ent (or (inise# %oo#s ?until 1;50 $ro#uct lar%el& o( Britain@ (or(ar+ers. At te sa+e ti+e, cre#it )as eFten#e# b& te %reat +ercants o( te Cit& to te+illers an# $rocesses in )estern to)ns. is allo)e# tese $ro#ucers to $a& (ar+ers (or teautu+n arvests an# $rocee# )it te +anu(acturer o( ra) +aterial, es$eciall& (lour, lon%be(ore si$+ent. us, eFten#e# cre#it a%ainst s$rin% returns, (ar+ers coul# $lace teiror#ers )it +ercants in te (all, an# teir $ro#uce )oul# be si$$e# east b& $rocessors

)en te ice bro*e in te s$rin%. "e) Kor* Cit& +ercants carrie# tis tra#e an# $ro(ite# not+erel& (ro+ te saleo( brea#stu((s an# salte# +eat = nort to "e) n%lan# an# Britis "ortA+erican ?Cana#a@, sout to te Caribbean ?Cuba@ an# across te Atlantic to Britain, an#Portu%al an# S$ain also = but on te carr&in% car%es, tat is, te interestaccruin% on tea#vances +a#e in te (all.21;

e #evelo$+ent o( eFcan%es bet)een "e) Kor* Cit& an# te trans=A$$alacian West#estro&e# te tra#e, $articularl& in te $ro#uction o( )eat ?an# )eat $rocesse# as (lour@, inte no) no lon%er co+$etitive oa)* alle&, istorical center o( brea#stu(( $rior to tecreation an# co+$letion o( te rie Canal. In A+erican istor&, tis is +erel& an earl& instanceo( te $ro#uction o( un#er#evelo$+ent trou% econo+ic, $roto=ca$italist ?+ercant ca$italist@#evelo$+ent.219

B& 1;


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construction too* $lace, te econo+& o( trans$ortation %eo%ra$& )as +a#e all over a%ain.Retracin% ol# overlan# ?an# ones tat $arallele# )ater)a&@ routes, an# creatin% ne) ones intote West an# Sout, tis ne) #ense net)or* o( rails $ro#uce# a Lualitativel& +oreecono+icall& inte%ratin% (or+ o( +ove+ent.221 In $articular, startin% a%ain in u$state "e)

Kor*, an# in central an# )estern Penns&lvania, an# in te 1;50s, coverin% te entiret& o( teol# West an# (ar be&on#, rail trun* lines lin*e# te +ost rural corn an# )eat $ro#ucin% Eones(irst to te )estern +etro$olises ?il)au*ee, Cica%o, In#iana$olis, Clevelan#, etc.@, an# teneast to "e) n%lan# an# "e) Kor* Cit&. a*en to%eter )it te +ilitaristic conLuest (ro+eFico o( te $resent=#a& Sout)est an# soutern al( o( Cali(ornia, tis ne) trans$ortnet)or* eral#e# te $enetration o( te )ole o( te continent.e Cit& )as te (inancial, i( not te %eo%ra$ical, center o( tese #evelo$+ent. or no)ereelse )as tere te +one& resources to un#er)rite te enor+ous ca$ital outla&s involve# inrail construction. n Wall Street, (inancin% te railroa#s trou% te sale o( railroa# securitiesraise# te +one& to (un# rail #evelo$+ent. ese (inancial activities create# te "e) Kor*+one& +ar*et in te +i#=1;50s.222

e a#vent o( rails rein(orce# an# ti%tene# te ol# o( te i%l& #i((erentiate# an# strati(ie#+ercant=(inancial co++unit& o( te ast on te econo+& o( te West. Go)ever, as lon% asnu+erous strata in te societ& o( te West bene(ite# (ro+ econo+ic eF$ansion, tis ol#

)oul# not be (elt b& te econo+icall& +ost active social %rou$s in te West. nl& in te#o)nturn (ollo)in% te Civil War ?1;6@, an# ten in te Dreat e$ression be%innin% in 1;-,

)oul# )estern (ar+ers, (or eFa+$le, in#ict eastern rail o)ners, +ercants, an# ban*ers (or+ono$olistic control o( trans$ort an# (inance.At te sa+e ti+e te a$$earance o( te railroa#s see+e# to eral#, but onl& out)ar#l&, te

en# o( te "e) Kor* Cit& stran%leol# on soutern ori%inatin% cotton eFcan%e. Wile, as )enote# above, "e) Kor*s sare in cotton ?re@eF$ort +ar*e#l& taile# o(( b& 1;50 ?i.e., at tesa+e ti+e tat rail construction too* o((@, te Cit&s +ercants never lost teir stran%leol# oncotton eFcan%e. rans$ort insurance, co++issions on bot transactions an# (rei%t, an#interest car%es all %uarantee# a lar%e return on cotton eFcan%e )oul# (lo) bac* to teCit&!s +ercants an# (inanciers. B& 1;-, souterners a# beco+e conscious o( tis (act'e& clai+e#, )it onl& so+e eFa%%eration, tat te Cit&s +ercants receive# (ort& cents (orever& #ollar realiEe# in te sale o( soutern cotton.22- ven tou% i+$orts )ere (ar +orei+$ortant in absolute #ollar ter+s to "e) Kor* an#, in $articular, to te nation ?since t)o=tir#so( all nite# states i+$orts ca+e trou% te $ort o( "e) Kor*@, an# tou% te bene(its o( te

rie Canal )ere i%l& $ubliciEe#, in (act te role o( $rocee#s (ro+ cotton eFcan%e (aroversa#o)e# te role o( i+$orts eiter in te .S. econo+& or in "e) Kor* Cit&s$eci(icall&.22


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enormous0 'or the 5nited &tates, cotton was by far the largest single commodity e.ported ore.changed in trade from the beginning of the century until well after the Civil War$ !hrough therevenues derived from its e.port, especially prior to the development of new forms oftransportation 7the Erie Canal, railroads8, eastern merchants in *ew Hork, oston,

Philadelphia and altimore financed construction of the docks, wharves and warehouses thathad made American trade possible.225e i+$orts tat $asse# trou% tese $orts $rovi#e#te national %overn+ent )it te )ere)ital ?custo+s (ees@ to +a*e te li+ite# in(rastructure?internal i+$rove+ents suc as roa#s an# turn$i*es@ it un#ertoo* to (un#. ese i+$orts )ere(inance# lar%el& trou% cotton eF$orts. !he wealth and fortunes of the *ew Hork merchantand financial community which funded first, canals 7including Erie,8 and later funded in part7through bond sales8 rail construction, were constituted on the basis of the e.traction of amerchant surplus from cotton e.change.226

In oter )or#s, the infrastructural foundations of industrial capitalist development in the 5nited&tates, constructed in the process of and with a view to developing cotton e.change, wereimmediately and mediately dependent upon that e.change. Si+ilarl&, tat #evelo$+ent itsel('Witout te i+$ortation o( te ra) +aterials an# (inise# $ro#ucts necessar& to launc it,in#ustrialiEation )oul# ave been i+$ossible.22

Political Economy of Class 2ifferentiation and /eading 4acksonianse enor+ous #evelo$+ent o( cotton $ro#uction a(ter 1;15, as )ell as te ra$i# eF$ansion o(

)estern a%riculture an# its eFcan%es )it te ast, a# its necessar& counter$art in teeFcan%e #e$en#ent #evelo$+ent o( "e) Kor* Cit& ?an# oter +etro$olises@ an# teo$$ortunities it o$ene# u$ )itin a %ro)in% +ercant co++unit&, an# its auFiliar& occu$ations

?ban*ers, la)&ers, etc.@. or te $ett& bour%eoisie o( "e) Kor* Cit&!s vast interlan#, te Cit&itsel( (or+e# a %i%antic +a%netic attractin% a+bitious, %ree#& s+all to)n an# villa%e

an# H,


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+ercants )it a vie) to +a*in% real (ortunes. us, a(ter 1;15 te +ass o( +en (or+in% a+ercant=(inancial co++unit& un#er%oin% #i((erentiation #i# not ail (ro+ te %reat (a+ilies to

)ic te bi%%est o( te tra#itional "e) Kor* +ercants belon%e# an# starte# out (ro+.Rater, te& ca+e to "e) Kor* ?Pila#el$ia or Boston@ (ro+ te s+all to)ns o( te rural

areas o( Penns&lvania, "e) Kor* state an# "e) n%lan#.Because te earl& e+ocrac& itsel( )as i#eolo%icall& nationalistic, s$eci(icall& oriente# to)ar#territorial eF$ansion o( te nation, an# o$$ose# to +ono$ol& in all its (or+s, in "e) Kor*,tese +en beca+e Luite co+(ortable )it te e+er%in% (or+ o( +ass $olitics an# +ass$olitical $arties, beco+in% te ca$tains an# lieutenants tat $rovi#e# te internal lea#ersi$ o(te e+ocrac& )itin te Cit&. e lar%est nu+ber o( te+, es$eciall& tose a+on% tis %rou$

)o )oul# co+e to be a#visors closest to An#re) :ac*son as Presi#ent, )ere ban*ers,la)&ers, $oliticians, e#itors an# business+en %enerall&. e& +ature#, as it )ere, in environs

)ere te i#eas te& el# as stoc* an# tra#e )ere te co++on currenc& o( +en en%a%e# in$ractices o( a cotton eFcan%e=base# eF$an#in% +ercant co++unit&. e& )ere as a %rou$oriente# on te basis o( teir in#ivi#ual $ractices to)ar# (ree tra#e )itout state intervention,teir )ealt avin% been create#, to use a conte+$orar& eF$ression, un#er otousecon#itions o( econo+ic %ro)t. In oter )or#s, stan#in% close to te ori%ins o( a lon%A+erican tra#ition, in ter+s o( teir o)n ori%ins te& can best be caracteriEe# asentrepreneurs$%%I

As entre$reneurs in te tirties, tis social %rou$ )ill ave traverse# a lon% roa# b& +o+ent o(civil )ar. At te en# o( te #eca#e o( te (i(ties, te concentration o( te $reviousl& #iscusse#(inancial activities in "e) Kor* Cit& +a#e it te center o( )ealt in te A+ericas, an# +an&+en o( tis %rou$, an# teir (ir+s, )ere to be (oun# at tat center.

At te su++it o( tis entire #evelo$+ent stoo# tose (inancial (ir+s tat +ost concentrate#tis )ealt, te %reat ban*s o( Wall Street. e %reat (inanciers, +ostl& #irectors o( te boar#so( tese ban*s, a# b& tis ti+e ?te (i(ties@ a+asse# vast $ersonal )ealt. Diven te natureo( teir activit& ori%inatin% in +ercant $ractices tat stoo# outsi#e $ro#uction an# #erive#

)ealt (ro+ e.changes)it rural (ar+in% lan#s o( te West an# te slave $lantations o( teSout, tis )ealt, an# te $o)er an# stan#in% in te societ& $rovi#e# b& tis )ealt,(urnise# te %reat (inanciers )it bot te +otive an# leisure to elaborate a reactionar& visiono( A+erican (uture tat, $era$s +ore tan an&tin% else, tie# te+ to te e+ocrac&.229

228Ga++on#, anks and Politics in America,-2=-2;, -


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Part I0Te American Polit"

Politicians in the American 'orm of +overnanceIn te "ort, te ori%ins an# status o( $oliticians is (airl& clear. e& o)e# teir eFistence to

te caucus s&ste+ in an# trou% )ic $art& electors an# can#i#ates )ere selecte#. "o)te caucus s&ste+ ori%inate# a%ainst te bac*%roun# o( ra$i# $o$ulation rise, econo+ic%ro)t an# %eo%ra$ical eF$ansion, a socio=econo+ic conteFt )ic +a#e $ossible teen#e+ic stru%%les in te (irst tirt&=(ive &ears ?an# +ore@ o( te nineteent centur& b& rural$o$ulations an# urban artisans to secure en(rancise+ent. e caucus )as te $re(erre#+eto# o( co++ercial elites in te "ort an# $lanters o( te eastern $$er Sout to +iti%ate$otential losses o( $o)er an# control over state $olitical s&ste+s. e re%ional rulin% classes#e(lecte# te nascent 7+obocrac&7 b& creatin% te caucus to substitute a %eneral electoraltic*et (or te $revious arran%e+ent )ereb& electors )ere cose b& #istrict. e caucus +a#elocal initiatives 7i+$ossible an# un#esirable.3 n te basis o( te a(ore+entione# (un#a+entalsocio=econo+ic trans(or+ations, +ass $olitics, a +ass +e#iu+ o( co++unication ?nationalne)s$a$ers@ an# +ass $olitical $arties arose. e Buc*tails o( "e) Kor* )ere te (irst +ass$art& in nite# States istor&, )ile te :ac*sonian e+ocrac& )as te (irst suc national$art&. At te center o( tese $arties )as te caucus )ic in $art +a#e $ossible teir7+acine7 caracter.2-0

In te "ort, ten, $oliticians )ere o( t)o stri$s. irst, tere )ere tose ?)eter )ealt& orno@ ailin% (ro+ res$ecte# ol# (a+ilies. e A#a+s co+e +ost i++e#iatel& to +in#. Secon#,tere )ere tose, an# b& 1;-0 te& )ere te $re#o+inant t&$e, )o )ere professional$oliticians )ose $ersonal $o)er reste# on lea#ersi$ o( a $art& +acine. artin an Buren

)as at once $rotot&$e an# eFe+$lar& instance. ese $oliticians, tou% o(ten +en o( te+i##le strata suc as la)&ers, +en (ro+ (a+ilies o( +i##lin% +ercants an# ?later@+anu(acturers, )ere co++itte# to rulin% class social %rou$s bot out o( conviction tat onl&tese %rou$s ?)it te $oliticians able assistance@ coul# or%aniEe societ& an# out o( (ear o(te 7+ob7 belo).In te Sout, electe# le%islatures )ere #o+inate# b& te )ealt&, sociall& $ro+inent an#e#ucate# $lanter. ese le%islatures secure# a +ini+alist %overn+ental a$$aratus' Positions

)itin te soutern state %overn+ents o((ere# little re+uneration because te& )ere #esi%ne#to *ee$ non=$lanter )ites out o( $olitics. Gere, ten, te +acine $eno+enon #i# not#evelo$' e )ite (ar+in% +asses )ere e((ectivel& #isen(rancise#. A +acine=li*e res$onse

)as never reLuire# because e((ective $olitical +obiliEation o( te )ite +asses neveroccurre#. It )as unnecessar& an# un)ante#' In te Sout te ol# (a+il& $olitician as a t&$eel# its o)n even a%ainst all :ac*sonian=ins$ire# +ass u$sur%es since te latter neveracieve# an& institutionaliEation."o livelioo# coul# ever be (ortco+in% (ro+ $olitical $ositions in soutern states. e&re+aine# #o+inate# al+ost eFclusivel& b& te (a+ilies o( $lanters. e %reat soutern$oliticians nearl& )itout (ail aile# (ro+ te (a+ilies o( te lar%e $lanters. I+$ortantl&, lea#in%soutern $oliticians )ere nearl& al)a&s in close touc )it an# a# an unerrin% sense o($lanter concerns, nee#s an# as$irations = a +uc +ore a#eLuate sense tan nortern,$ro(essional $oliticians )ose +acine alle%iances +e#iate# teir un#erstan#in%s o( re%ional

rulin% class $ers$ectives. us, in s$ea*in% o( te %reat soutern $oliticians )e are nots$ea*in% o( a stratu+ se$arate an# #istinct (ro+ $lanters.

230or ir%inia )ere te caucus a$$eare# in te 1;00 Presi#ential election a+on% e+ocratic=Re$ublicans, Garr&

A++on, 7e Ric+on# :unto,3 -96 ?)ere te citation also a$$ears@.


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Politicians in the 4acksonian 2emocracy%K:

e $oliticians involve# in te :ac*sonian coalition be%an )it te "asville coterie tator%aniEe# is ca+$ai%ns in 1;2< an#, es$eciall&, in 1;2;. A+on% tese )ere bot teo$$ortunists, tose )o sa) te +a*in% o( a istoricall& novel $olitical re=ali%n+ent in

A+erican $olitics an# )atever te #irection it )as +ovin% inten#e# to be ato$ o( it, an# tosetat su$$orte# :ac*son bot out o( conviction an# sare# $olitical te+$era+ent.is insi#er %rou$ as )ell te earliest su$$orters o( :ac*son )oul# (or te +ost $art besu$erce#e# once te Gero a# assu+e# te Presi#enc& ?b& te $reviousl& +entione#entre$reneurall& oriente# %rou$ o( a#[email protected]#e tis insi#er %rou$, te (irst $oliticiansto attac te+selves to te :ac*sonian +ove+ent )ere te (ollo)ers o( :on Caloun = )o

)as, no less, .S. ice=Presi#ent in te (e#eralist ?:on >uinc&@ A#a+s A#+inistrationo$$ose# b& te Gero. Caloun a# i+sel( been un#er%oin% a rater unnotice# $olitical+eta+or$osis, a conversion o( sorts (ro+ nationalist, an# a su$$orter o( bot tari((s an#activist State involve+ent in internal i+$rove+ent to a state ri%ts a#vocate o$$ose# to tari((san# (e#erall&=%ui#e# internal i+$rove+ents at national eF$ense. Gis can%e re(lecte#, in te(irst $lace, a (ear o( loss o( is Sout Carolina constituenc& )ic )as ra$i#l& beco+in% +orevocall& o$$ose# to tari((s ?an# to a stron% national State as %uarantor o( $rotectionist+easures i+$ose# at A+erican $orts o( entr&@, an# a reco%nition tat te revenue=%eneratin%tari((s e su$$orte# ?)ile a +e+ber o( te onroe Cabinet@ to (inance naval (orti(ications,$ri+aril& a%ainst te Britis, a# serve# teir $ur$ose an# )ere no lon%er necessar&. Calouna# never su$$orte# tari((s out o( $rotectionist senti+ent' Su$$ort o( (le#%lin% +anu(acturers

)as a s$eci(icall& Kan*ee $eno+enon.Wit Caloun ca+e an Buren )o in 1;26 co++itte# is $olitical +aciner&, inclu#in% te

+assive "e) Kor* electoral #ele%ation, to :ac*son. In teir o)n )a&, an Buren an# teRe%enc& )ere state ri%ters also' Wit te (ailure o( te national %overn+ent to (inanciall&su$$ort construction o( te rie Canal, "e) Kor*s e+ocratic $oliticians a# (oun# te

)ere)ital to #o it te+selves. erea(ter, te& a# o$$ose# all national (un#in% (or in=statei+$rove+ent $roects. an Buren, in $articular, o$$ose# an# )as crucial as ice=Presi#ent toun#er+inin% te Ban* o( te nite# States. Ge sou%t to ?re@ca$ture national $o)er (or "e)Kor* ?an# i+sel(@ b& ?re@establisin% te ol# "e) Kor*=ir%inia aFis. Ge s$urre# o+asRictie, a lea#in% (i%ure o( te 7Ric+on# :unto7 = te in(or+al center o( $lanter $o)er insi#eir%inias Re$ublican $art&, on to consi#er reconstructin% te ol# alliance trou% 1;2;su$$ort o( :ac*son, a reconstruction tat )oul# also serve as a +eans to $reventin% te

(or+ation o( an anti=slaver& $art& in te "ort.In 1;26 an# a%ain in 1;2, an Buren toure# te Sout, es$eciall& "ort Carolina an#Deor%ia, in or#er to convince ol# Re$ublican $lanters to su$$ort :ac*son on tese ter+s. Wit+e+ories o( te #ivisive issouri Controvers& ?1;19=1;20@ still (res in te +in#s o( +an&$lanter=$oliticians, on tour an Buren )as able to success(ull& reconstitute, no) in a ne) an#broa#er (or+, te ol# "e) Kor*=ir%inia aFis. Gistoricall& tat success +eant state ri%ts#octrine )oul# beco+e intert)ine# )it $ro=slaver& $olitics, tat e+ocrats )oul# beco++itte# to su$$ression o( national #ebate on te slaver& issue, an# tat bot )oul# becentral (eatures o( te :ac*sonian e+ocrac&. Anti=nationalis+ in #e(ense o( rural libert&, nolon%er istoricall& relevant, a# travele# a lon% roa#, (or erea(ter it )oul# beco+e state ri%ts

in #e(ense o( slaver&.2--

231ur account closel& (ollo)s icael Golt, 7 e e+ocratic Part&, 1;2;=1;60,3 501=502.232Seen Political cono+& o( Class i((erentiation an# 4ea#in% :ac*sonians,3 an# n. 52, above.233e line o( tou%t in tis last sentence is #evelo$e# ?+inus te re+ar* about istorical relevanc&@ b& Carles

Sellers. e (or+ulation ere, $ara$rase#, can be (oun# in is !he )arket Revolution,120. "ote also our re+ar*s,$enne# a #eca#e a%o in te anal&sis o( +ilitant n%lis, +ilitar& re$ublicanis+ tat )as elaborate# in a critical


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Part 0Planter Ascendanc" and 1ac2sonianism

Planter Ascendancy in the 2emocracyan Burens success(ul e((orts to $ersua#e $lanter=$oliticians in 4o)er Sout to su$$ort

:ac*son in 1;2; a# te e((ect o( broa#enin% te $lanter base )itin te ne)l& (or+in%e+ocrac&. Ket t)o $lanter %rou$s continue# to re+ain anti=:ac*sonian. e (irst consiste# intose nationalist, later 7Wi%7 ele+ents )o = centere# aroun# Genr& Cla& = )ere$re#o+inate in te $$er Sout. e secon# )as +a#e u$ o( eFtre+e state ri%ts ele+ents

)o )ere concentrate# in Sout Carolina ?an#, tou% e )as later to beco+e teirs$o*es+an, )ere (urter to te 7ri%t7 tan :on Caloun@."ationalists )ere (oun# a+on% te $oliticall& )ei%tless, ine((ectual an# tin& +i##le strata o(+ercants, la)&ers an# ne)s$a$er e#itors in s+all soutern 7to)ns7' Politicall&, tere )as no+i##le %roun# bet)een nortern nationalists sus$icious o( soutern sectional co++it+ent toslaver& an# state ri%ters ostilit& to)ar# national $o)er, because an antebellum souternWi% a(ter 1;20 )as a $ractical absur#it&, te notion o( one sel(=contra#ictor&. e7acci#ental7 Presi#enc& o( :on &ler )as at once case in $oint an# $roo( o( te #ile++a. Ga#Genr& Cla& live# lon%er, e too )oul# ave con(ronte# te Luan#ar& o( all souternnationalists tie# to te $lanter class' ased upon slavery, the tendential direction of southerndevelopment entailed a ?ualitatively different and antagonistic tra@ectory relative to northerncapitalism. In te "ort, on te oter an#, te $resence o( +en li*e Ste$en ou%las )as noano+al&' ou%las e+ocrats in te 1;60 election )ere over)el+in%l& soutern, (oun#es$eciall& in bor#er states as s+all subsistence (ar+ers but nota+on% $lanters.2-ua*er %uns7 an# te #e(eat occurre# a%ainst tebac*%roun# o( te overarcin% (ailure o( te cClellan le#, 110,000 +an stron% Ar+& o( tePoto+ac to +ove a%ainst a +uc s+aller rebel (orce +asse# in nortern ir%inia. otivatin%,or so it see+e#, Deor%e B. cClellan!s re(usal to a#vance )as +isin(or+ation concernin% tealle%e#l& +assive Con(e#erate (orces o$$osite i+. As +e+bers o( Con%ress $on#ere# teseevents, teir van%uar# be%an to #i+l& $erceive a $attern te contours o( )ic )oul# beco+e

un+ista*able in te neFt ei%teen +onts. n te one an#, te "orts lea#in% +ilitar& +eneiter en%a%e# in ill=a#vise#, #an%erous actions or )ere too cautious, esitant an# un)illin% toen%a%e te ene+& at all. n te oter an#, a lar%e $ortion o( te nion ar+ies )ereco++an#e# b& +en )o, i( not outri%t inco+$etents, a# sus$ect lo&alties or, at best,$ursue# a +ilitar& strate%& tat (ell (ar sort o( even te restricte# )ar ai+s tat Con%ress a#a$$rove# te $revious su++er.

409or te Con%ressional #ebate an# citations, BelE, "bid, 19=2


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e +isin(or+ation $rovi#e# to cClellan ?bot at tis ti+e an# later@, not onl& istoricall&si%ni(icant because so +an& o( tis co++an#ers %rave strate%ic errors reste# on it, le# to tecore o( te $roble+' Diven tat e )as b& (or+ation cautious, an# tat, +oreover, cClellan,4incoln!s %eneral=in=cie(,7 utterl& lac*e# )at )e +i%t to#a& call intuitive 7sociolo%ical7

insi%t, so+etin% oter an# +ore a# to brou%t to bear on te anal&sis o( nortern%eneralsi$.


188/611

o( te Sea Islan#s o(( coast Sout Carolina ?an# Deor%ia@ = %eo%ra$icall& $eri$eral areas o(te Con(e#erac&, $ose# as a $roble+ ?one tat in te (irst al( o( te neFt &ear )oul# beco+e$ressin%@ te %overnance o( Con(e#erate territor& tat a# (allen to nion +ilitar& (orces.4incoln ?in is +essa%e to te o$enin% o( te -t Con%ress@ a# su%%este# tat, conoine# to

te (or+ation o( a lo&alist %overn+ent in ir%inia out o( a ru+$ convention o( te )estern,lo&alist an# anti=$lanter section o( te state, te seatin% o( a re$resentative o( ir%inia coul#$rovi#e a +o#el (or #ealin% )it tis $roble+ in oters #istricts as te& ca+e un#er nioncontrol. In elections el# to select a re$resentative in "ort Carolina an# a##itionalre$resentatives in ir%inia, te an#(ul o( votes (or a nionist can#i#ate )as tin&, virtuall& non=eFistent. Witout a nu+ericall& a#eLuate basis o( re$resentation as s$eci(ie# in la) an#lac*in% a #e(ine# Con%ressional #istrict, te Co++ittee on lections in te Gouse re(use# toseat tese nionists. e %reat (ear )as tat )itout +aorities, or at least si%ni(icant+inorities, re$ublican institutions )oul# beco+e a trans$arent (aca#e, states )oul# beco+e+eta$&sical abstractions, ba# because obvious (ictions, create# as a result o( an overall )ar$olic& #esi%ne# to $an#er to slaveol#ers in te $$er Sout.


189/611

Con(e#erac&. Durle&s bill calle# (or +ilitar& occu$ation an# rule trou% +artial la) o(reca$ture# areas, an# $rovi#e# (or re$resentation to Con%ress an# (or (or+ation o( state%overn+ents ?i.e., $rovi#e (or rea#+ission to te nion@ on con#itions o( ?nu+erical@su((icienc& o( lo&al citiEenr& an# abolition o( slaver&. e oter (our bills sare#, si%ni(icantl&, a

%rant o( autoriEation to te Presi#ent to institute te+$orar& civil %overn+ents avin% (ullle%islative $o)er over sece#e# states. 7ull le%islative $o)er7 entaile# te )ere)ital toabolis slaver& an# to +o#i(& or revo*e an& oter eFistin% local la)s. ou% )i#el& #i((erentin #etail, tese (our bills )ere all +o#ele# on te $attern o( territorial %overn+ent tat a##evelo$e# u$ to 1;60. Ra#ical content )as visible in, (irst, te re#uction o( (or+er states toterritoriesN secon#, in te #e+an# (or or le%islative e+$o)er+ent to abolis slaver&N an# tir#,in +easures ?)it te eFce$tion o( Garris, an easterner@ (or con(iscation o( rebel lan#s.Durle&s bill eFibite# ele+ents o( te ol#er conservative Wi%=:ac*sonian ree Soil attitu#eto)ar# slaver& in callin% (or 7coloniEation7 ?viE., se%re%ate# resettle+ent o( blac*s aboar#@. Inte last res$ect, Asle&s bill )as te +ost ra#ical. ollo)in% con(iscation, it calle# (or leasin%not +ore tan 160 acres 7to actual occu$ants, )o are lo&al,7 i.e., blac*s, $rescri$tion o(co++on scools (or eF=slaves, an# re%ulation o( te nu+ber o( ours in a #a&s )or* (or rural

)a%e=earners. ear(ul o( te conseLuences o( not #istin%uisin% te $roecte# territorial$o$ulace accor#in% to lo&alt&, all bills #e$arte# (ro+ territorial +o#el in tat none $rovi#e# (or$o$ular election o( $rovisional le%islatures. In tis re%ar# Asle&s )as a%ain +ost ra#icalsince it #isen(rancise# certain %rou$s ?$ri+aril& (or+er nion o((icials an# +ilitar& o((icers

)o su$$orte# te Con(e#erac&@.


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(or+ )oul# be realiEe#. Wit a nion ar+& see+in%l& on te +ove, te a$$oint+ent )as ane((ort to co=o$t te e+er%in% ra#ical $lan (or territorialiEin% reca$ture# #istricts.


191/611

tat treason 7o$erate#J as an absolute (or(eiture o( all their $o)er an# ri%ts as States7 ?:onBin%a+@. e& $ointe# out tat since civil +a%istrates a# been #iscar%e# or a# resi%ne#in te sece#e# states, no Constitutionall& acce$table autorities eFiste#, an# tat, accor#in%l&,relations to te nion a# been (orsa*en. e rebel states a# aban#one# 7teir (or+er

$olitical con#ition7 an# )it it te& lost teir ri%ts, 7teir $olitical con#ition as a State a#J ...been eFtin%uise#7 ?ernan#o Bea+an@.


192/611

#i((erent #irection. But because it )as teir intention to (all bac* to te $ractical i+$lications o(teir initial $osition ?no +atter )at teoretical inconsistenc&, violation o( constitutional nor+s,etc. )oul# be incurre# in te interi+@, a teoretical re(or+ulation o( te relations bet)een tenion an# te states, te +eanin% o( secession (or te Constitution, etc., )as a tas* te&

)oul# never un#erta*e.or ra#icals to ave ta*en a )ell )or*e#=out, $rinci$le# stan# a%ainst te in(or+al $art& o($ro$ert& )oul# ave reLuire# a brea* )it te assu+$tions (irst articulate# b& 4incoln. Wor*sli*e Willia+ Witin%s War Powers of the President an# Su+ners 12 a& 1;62 Senate s$eec?7Ri%ts o( Soverei%nt&, Ri%ts o( War7@ (ull& establise# te le%alit& o( con(iscations u$ to an#inclu#in% te abolition o( slaver&. As lon%, o)ever, as ra#icals sou%t onl& to abolis slaver&

)itout securin% te +aterial $re+ises o( te (ree#o+ o( slaves=beco+e=(ree, te& )ere in no$osition to callen%e 4incoln )o, because o( te (un#a+ental caracter o( is $osition on terelations o( secession to te nion, )as able to lin* is )ar ai+s ineFtricabl& to ra$i#restoration o( sece#e# states. Wat ra#icals lac*e# )as a teoretical state+ent on terelations o( secession to te nion an# Constitution tat )oul# %roun#, not +erel&, teabolition o( slaver& trou%out te eFtent o( te nite# States, but )oul# usti(& re#ucin%secessionist states to territories in or#er tat teir re=a#+ission to te nion coul# be on ter+stat )oul# #estro& te social (oun#ations o( secession, te %reat $lanter estates an# )itte+ te class $o)er o( $lanters. or suc a $ers$ective, te nion )as not 7$er$etual,7 i( inte stron% sense tis +eant 7continuous )itout interru$tion,7 since secession )as on te(ace o( it an interru$tion o( +assive $ro$ortions. Rea#in% a%ain an# a%ain lo&al +ensassertions o( te nions $er$etuit&, te over)el+in% sense is tat )at )as bein%

proclaimed was their determination not to allow the &outh to destroy the 5nion by

permanently dismembering it. at sense is )at ra#icals nee#e# to incor$orate into a re=teoriEation o( te relations o( secession to te nion an# Constitution. In tis conteFt,(oun#ations ?usti(&in% a )ar ai+e# at re#ucin% te co+$onents o( te Con(e#erac& to a $re=state territorial status@ coul# ave been sou%t in cate%ories accessible to Civil War eraA+ericans.


193/611

We +i%t eF$ect suc a ra#ical ar%u+ent to loo* so+etin% li*e tis' Pre#atin% teConstitutional %enesis o( te nion, an# $re#atin% te si%ni(icant istorical +o+ents o( itson%oin% (or+ation = but lar%el& (or+e# in loc*ste$ )it its #evelo$+ent an# onl& raise# to (ullconsciousness b& tat #evelo$+ent, in a#vance o( eF$an#in% boun#aries, a $eo$le as been

(or+e# an# as $oliticall& constitute# itsel( as a nation. e %enius or #istinctiveness o( tis$eo$le is visible in teir rational an# universalist, $ractical co++it+ent to sel(=rule an# to teinstitutions e+bo#&in% tat sel(=rule. Slaver& is an acci#entall& (or+e# cancer tat as %ro)nu$ in te bo#& o( tis nation, one tat as %iven rise to a $erverse $aro#& o( te nation an# itsinstitutions. Its #o+ination o( te national $olitical s&ste+, its eFtension into ne) territories an#its ver& eFistence in several states as interru$te# te course o( te (ree #evelo$+ent o( tenion an# treatens to once an# (or all obliterate tis acieve+ent. Since tis acieve+ent o((ree institutions as been %reatl& retar#e# b& slaver&, &et reco%niEabl& e+bo#ies te concrete$ro%ress o( u+anit&, #estruction o( slaver&, te lar%e lan#e# estates tat secure# slaver&ssocio=$olitical ascen#anc&, an# te e+er%in% national=State erecte# to #e(en# it, are (ull&

usti(ie#.Suc a teoretical state+ent )oul# ave ac*no)le#%e# tat te nion, i.e., tis nation,a#eF$erience# oter interru$tions, suc as tat o( 1;, )ic le# to $ositive ne) #evelo$+entNtat, +oreover, te #e(eat o( te secessionist +i%t itsel( be te %roun#s (or a ne) start, onetat )oul# #estro& te (oun#ations o( slaver& ?b& con(iscation, re#istribution an# istoricall&len%t&, territoriall&=base# re=(or+ation o( an enli%tene#, su((ra%e=broa#ene# citiEenr&@, onetat )oul#, accor#in%l&, o$erate )itin an# $reserve te best $olitical tra#itions o( te nation,an# one tat )oul# be consciousl& incor$orate# into te nations (un#a+ental la). Suc a$ers$ective )as not in $rinci$le inaccessible to ra#icals, an# its earl& (or+ulation +i%t ave

consi#erabl& tinne# teir ran*s. or it to be acieve#, it )oul# ave (irst been necessaril& tosee be&on# abolition to tose social con#itions tat )oul# +ateriall& ancor te slave=once=(ree# in er (ree#o+. Weter suc insi%t +i%t be acieve# #e$en#e# u$on, a+on% otertin%s, )eter te $ressure o( +ilitar& events in te co+in% +onts )oul# continue to )or*a%ainst te ra#icals, or +i%t be eF$ecte# to co+$el 4incoln to e+brace te+. Ket, li*e oterA+ericans o( teir an# (ollo)in% %enerations, tat is, as caracteristicall& 7$ractical7 +en, +enal)a&s on te +a*e, )eter +ilitar& events )or*e# (or or a%ainst te+ te acieve+ent o( a#evelo$e# teor& )oul# be #i((icult.

!he Pressure of Congressionally )ediated, )ilitary 2evelopments on /incoln and his

Responses through EmancipationIn te West, Drants ar+& )as severel& +aule# on 6 A$ril near Silo on te ennessee Rivernort)est o( lorence, Alaba+a. 4ac*in% an& $re$arations ?$oste# loo*outs, scouts, etc.@ an#

)it te lea#in% %eneral re(usin% to entrenc, te nion (orces )ere ta*en b& sur$rise an#ba#l& battere# b& Con(e#erate (orces un#er :ose$ :onston. Rein(orce# tat ni%t b& 25,000

o( ar+e# violence ?te ar+&@ at te $olls to secure election outco+es, o(ten trou% (orce or inti+i#ation, in ela)are)ere $olls )ere 7su$ervise#7 in "ove+ber 1;62, in ennessee in )ic Re$ublican electoral s)ee$s )ere secure#)it troo$s at $ollin% $laces in "ove+ber 1;62 ?an# b& allo)in% troo$s in te (iel#, Drants ar+ies, to vote in all1;6-@, trou% te arrest o( #e+ocratic $oliticians an# #eclarations o( +artial la) in Qentuc*& )ere troo$s secure#elections in Au%ust 1;6


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+en un#er on Carlos Buell, nion sol#iers beat bac* an# set to (li%t te Con(e#erate ar+&te neFt #a& a+i# eav& casualties on bot si#es.In te ast, (ro+ late )inter on cClellan a# co+e un#er eav& $ressure (ro+ anincreasin%l& i+$atient 4incoln ?)o i+sel( )as un#er $ressure (ro+ te )ei%t o( ra#ical

o$inion not ust con(ine# to Con%ress@ to o$en an 7o((ensive7 on Ric+on#. Be%innin% on 5A$ril, a+on% te tree )ee* lon% s$ectacle o( lan#in% 121,500 +en, 1


195/611

#o)n version o( Garris territorialiEation bill in :ul&@, 4incoln )as (acin% +ountin% $ressure(ro+ is o)n $art& to lin* a li+ite# version o( e+anci$ation #irectl& to +ilitar& $olic&.


196/611

riven to a $olic& a%ainst is o)n inclinations, 4incoln bac*trac*e# until te ver& last +o+ent?viE., its e((ective #ate@ usin% te Con%ressional recess (irst to circu+vent an# ten to #iluteis o)n $rocla+ation. As late as 1 ece+ber, in is Annual essa%e to te Con%ress e$ro$ose# no less tan a Constitutional a+en#+ent ensrinin% %ra#ual, co+$ensate#

e+anci$ation an# allo)in% slaver& until te &ear 1900. ?It )as a $ro$osal tat )as i%nore#.@ro+ late Se$te+ber until te en# o( te &ear, e $ro##e# is +ilitar& %overnors #)ar#Stanle& an# An#re) :onson to ol# elections in te #istricts o( te states o( "ort Carolinaan# ennessee un#er teir control on te o$e tat a lar%e enou% $ro=nion turnout +i%t

)in Con%ressional a$$roval (or re$resentation $rior to te (irst o( te ne) &ear an# tereb&eFe+$t te+ (ro+ is #ecree. Ge si+ilarl& $resse# +ilitar& co++an#ers in reca$ture##istricts o( Ar*ansas, 4ouisiana an# ir%inia. A(ter elections )ere el#, e, )itoutCon%ressional a$$roval an# a%ainst te s$eci(ic ter+s o( te #ecree, eFe+$te# all o(ennessee, "e) rleans an# its surroun#in% $arises, "or(ol*, +eanin% a lar%e coastal areao( souteastern ir%inia, an# te entiret& o( )at )oul# sortl& beco+e West ir%inia eventou% tere no elections a# even been el#.


197/611

un#erta*en in ti+e o( )ar, )oul# not ave te (orce o( la) once nor+alit& ?$eace@ )asrestore#. is obviousl& %ave ra#icals so+etin% to $on#er, since one o( teir o)n, SolicitorWitin%, te War e$art+ents le%al a#visor, also too* te sa+e vie).


198/611

+anci$ation #ecree. Wit volunteerin% an# re=enlist+ents (la%%in%, 4incoln a# inau%urate#a #ra(t in te s$rin% o( te &ear. e+ocratic ne)s$a$ers o$enl& calle# (or resistance.Reactionar& %rou$s a+on% te $o$ular classes, )it na+es li*e te Qni%ts o( te Dol#enCircle an# Sons o( 4ibert&, )ere e+er%in%, +eetin% secretl& an# #iscussin% teir

un)illin%ness to (i%t (or 7ni%%er (ree#o+,7 teir #esire to $ut an i++e#iate en# to te )ar, u$to an# inclu#in% (reein% rebel )ar $risoners an# or%aniEin% +ilitar& #etac+ents to oin u$ an#(i%t )it Con(e#erate (orces. ir+s )ere set u$ si+$l& to establis $&sical or e+otional#isabilit& (or $otential #ra(tees = co+$lete )it *no)le#%eable la)&ers an# #octors reLuire# to$rovi#e te reLuire# a((i#avit testi(&in% to te #ra(tees $reten#e# con#ition. e+ocratic statean# count& u#%es, $resu$$osin% state rights constitutionalit&, rule# te Conscri$tion Act o(1;6- unla)(ul. In a $olitical cli+ate in )ic Co$$erea# vie)s )ere o$enl& es$ouse# an#acce$te#, (e#erall&=en(orce# ter+s o( conscri$tion )ere sure to +eet )it enor+ous $o$ular,es$eciall& urban, o$$osition. ere )as o$en, +asse# o$$osition to te #ra(t in In#iana, ioan# Wisconsin. In te antracite coal(iel#s o( eastern Penns&lvania, +iners establise# a #ual$o)er, en(orcin% o$$osition to te #ra(t in teir to)ns an# co++unities b& co+$ellin% allclasses in te co++unities to abi#e b& tis o$$osition at te treat o( #eat ?in cases actuall&carrie# out@. "ot even troo$s #is$atce# (ro+ te ar+& coul# i+$ose te ter+s o( te #ra(t. In+i#=:ul&, "e) Kor* Cit& eF$lo#e# in a )ee* lon% %eneral stri*e an# race riot, in )ic tecit&s )or*in% classes, $articularl& #oc* laborers, o$$ose# Re$ublican $art& )ar $olic&centere# as it )as, (or te+, on conscri$tion. e #ra(t riots e+bo#ie# te sin%le, #e(initestate+ent o( te $osition o( te )or*in% classes on te )ar = na+el&, resoun#in%, violentl&anti=blac* base# o$$osition. As a %eneral stri*e = $robabl& te lar%est in nineteent centur&A+erican istor&, tis action acieve# an albeit li+ite# unit& a+on% te #i((erent classes o(

labor = bet)een an in#ustrial3 $roletariat in s+all artisan +anu(acturin% so$s an# teover)el+in%l& Iris #oc* laborers. As a riot, te action entaile# te +ur#er, +utilation an#beatin% to #eat or l&ncin% o( over one un#re# blac* )or*in% +en an# )o+en.


199/611

&umner1s !heori-ationWitin%, in te above cite# $a+$let $ublise# in late 1;62 an# in a )i#el& circulate# 1;6-letter to te nion 4ea%ue o( Pila#el$ia, a# ar%ue# tat te nion coul# treat rebels as

belli%erents subect to te la) o( nations. e Constitution enable# te Presi#ent to 7eFercisete (ull an# untra++ele# $o)ers o( )ar a%ainst7 rebels as belli%erents un#er international la).Witin% )as anFious to insure te Presi#ent, an# is su$$orters in te countr& at lar%e,un#erstoo# tat le%all& tere )ere no li+itations to te +ilitar& $o)er e coul# eFercisea%ainst insurrectionar& rebels. But Witin% bro*e no ne) %roun# )it a vie) to teConstitution, te nion an# secession.


200/611

#istricts reca$ture# (ro+ rebel (orces. Citin% :e((erson, e a((ir+e# 7te su$re+ac& o( te civilover te +ilitar& autorit&7 as an 7essential $rinci$le7 o( A+erican %overnance. issu$re+ac& is e+bo#ie# in te Constitution, itsel( $ara+ount, on )ic Su+ner too* is stan#.e $resence o( a +ilitar& %overn+ent in reca$ture# #istricts $atentl& $resu$$ose# te

#isa$$earance, 7eFtinction7 is Su+ners ter+, o( te ol# state %overn+ents. us, i( tese%overn+ents cease# to eFist, ne) %overn+ents soul# be 7establise# b& la)s rater tanaccor#in% to te +ere )ill o( an& (unctionar&, to te en# tat our +a& be a %overn+ent o(la)s, an# not o( +en.7 Pointin% out tat tese )ere eFtraor#inar& ti+es an# circu+stances,Su+ner note# te a#vanta%es o( Con%ressionall&=s$onsore# over +ilitar& %overn+ents' irst,te (or+er $rocee#e# (ro+ civil rater tan +ilitar& $o)er an#, secon#, suc %overn+ent )aslegallycreate#.


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a$$roac, e ar%ue#, is caracteristicall& A+erican, a $rinci$le #atin% (ro+ te ti+e o( teContinental Con%ress. Ge +aintaine# tat 7all +ust be #one accor#in% to rules o( constitutionan# la) $reviousl& or#aine#7 so tat 7notin% can be le(t to ille%al or in(or+al action.7 Citin%aniel Webster, in is s$eec a%ainst te orr Constitution in Ro#e Islan#, Su+ner

eF$licate#' 7We are not to ta*e te )ill o( te $eo$le (ro+ $ublic +eetin%s, nor (ro+tu+ultuous asse+blies, b& )ic te ti+i# are terri(ie#, te $ru#ent are alar+e#, an# b& )icsociet& is #isturbe#. ese are not A+erican +o#es o( si%ni(&in% te )ill o( te $eo$le, an#te& never )ere.7 In co++it+ent to (un#a+entall& re$ublican $rinci$les, Webster insiste# te7)ill o( te $eo$le +ust $revail,7 &et 7tere +ust be some legal and authentic mode ofascertaining that will,7 an# tat )ill soul# be establise# b& 7so+e re%ular rule o($rocee#in%, prescribed by previous law.7 e $o)er o( Con%ress as $riorit& over tePresi#ent in reor%aniEin% state %overn+ents since civil %overn+ent is +ore in accor# )itA+erican institutions ?an#, +oreover, reLuire# )enever $ossible@ an# since te Constitution$rovi#es (or #erivation o( tis $o)er. e$rive# o( all Constitutionall& vali# local %overn+ent,te rebellious re%ion (alls un#er te uris#iction o( Con%ressprecisely as any other 7pre9state8territory would.In conclu#in%, Su+ner note# tat slaver& $rovi#e# te 7+otive7 (or rebellion. ?urconte+$oraries +a& ar%ue tis is #ebatable, but (or us an# Su+ners conte+$oraries, "ortan# Sout, it )as indisputable.@ Ket te Constitution itsel( +a*es no re(erence to it.Accor#in%l&, it is, e stresse#, strictl& a local custo+, a $ro#uct o( $ositive la). us, interritories un#er te uris#iction o( Con%ress, subect solel& to (un#a+ental la), slaver& as no$lace.Su+ners #e(ense o( te $riorit& o( Con%ressional reconstruction over Presi#ential restoration,

later to ani+ate Con%ressional le%islation, )as to be sortl& tru+$e# b& 4incoln. n ;ece+ber 1;6-, te Presi#ent #elivere# is annual +essa%e to te o$enin% session o( te-;t Con%ress an#, acco+$an&in% it, e issue# is Procla+ation o( A+nest& an#Reconstruction. o%eter te& constitute# apracticalreoin#er to Su+ner.

/incoln1s RiposteDett&sbur% a# #e+onstrate# tat even eastern nion ar+ies coul# best Con(e#erate troo$sin a +aor battle. e surren#er o( ic*sbur% to Drants ar+& cut te Sout in al( e((ectivel&sto$$in% te (lo) o( +en, +atriel an# (oo# stu((s (ro+ te West to rebel (orces in te astan# %ave nion (orces co+$lete control over te ississi$$i River. e ca$ture o(

Cattanoo%a $ut te "ort in co++an# o( all o( ennessee (ro+ )ere $enetration o( telo)er Sout, $articularl& an assault on Atlanta, coul# be un#erta*en. ese +ilitar& events o(te latter al( o( 1;6- $er+itte# 4incoln (or te (irst ti+e to (or+ulate $olic& tat )as not+erel& #riven b& events. Wit tis breatin% s$ace, e )as (reer to +aneuver bet)een(actions, an# to allo) is o)n Presi#ential a+bitions to enter into an# sa$e is $olitical $lans.Still, as e )oul# #iscover, un#er tese +ore o$ti+al con#itions is restoration $olic& )as stilllar%el& sa$e# b& te te+$o o( local $olitics )erever restoration )as concretel& un#erta*en.In (all 1;6-, 4incoln atte+$te# to reor%aniEe 4ouisiana alon% lines tat re)rote te states(un#a+ental la)s in or#er to incor$orate so+e (or+ o( e+anci$ation. Success(ull&reor%aniEe#, 4ouisiana, 4incolns $rotot&$ical +ilitaril& %overne# eF=rebel state, coul# ave

serve# as a +o#el (or Ar*ansas, ennessee an# later ississi$$i. e Presi#ent encoura%e#te ree State $art& in 4ouisiana, a $art& tat ouse# bot ra#ical an# +o#erate ele+ents, tocall elections (or #ele%ates to a convention tat )oul# #ra(t a ne) constitution. e ree State$art& )as o$$ose# b& an or%aniEation o( $ro=slaver& $lanters=turne#=conservative=nionists

)o )ere )illin% to #eclare secession ille%al an# voi# te 4ouisianas or#inance o( secession,but )o #esire# state reor%aniEation on te uncan%e# basis o( te status ?uo antebellum.


202/611

A(ter initial e((orts at re%isterin% voters, ree State $art& o((icials reco%niEe# te& #i# not avete su$$ort to call an election (or #ele%ates, an# $ost$one# te action )ile continuin% toatte+$t to re%ister voters. e $ro=slaver& ele+ents in 4ouisiana )ere evi#entl& a %oo# #ealstron%er an# +ore $o$ular tan te $olitical ten#enc& su$$orte# b& 4incoln. B& te en# o( te

&ear +ove+ent (or)ar# on re)ritin% te states constitution )as at a stan#still. Slo)+ove+ent on te sa+e obective, (or #i((erent reasons, but )it si+ilar outco+es in Ar*ansasan# ennessee, (orce# 4incoln to reconsi#er is a$$roac to restoration. ?In ennessee,Drants successes cul+inatin% in te late "ove+ber ca$ture o( Cattanoo%a a# o$ene# u$$ossibilities tat +ilitar& %overnor An#re) :onson )as reluctant to e+brace = even un#er$ro##in% (ro+ 4incoln = as testi(ie# to b& is corres$on#ence )it ont%o+er& Blair.@


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(ine soun#in% la)s an# %et te Kan*s o(( our bac*s, but *ee$ te 7ni%%er7 in is $lace. Buto+e rule on te basis o( e+anci$ation )as ust te be%innin%.


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ri%orousl& eFclu#in% rebels (ro+ en(rancise+ent. nce, o)ever, te #e$t o( souternresistance to e+anci$ation beca+e clearer, te lo%ical #irection o( 4incolns $lan ?entailin%eav& reliance on Presi#entiall& #irecte# +ilitar& autorities@ )oul# be beco+e +ore visible.Ra#icals, in #e(ense o( a +ore torou%%oin% $olic& tat )oul# secure te (oun#ations o(

e+anci$ation, )oul# be co+$elle# to assert te autorit& o( Con%ress in o$$osition to tePresi#enc&.


205/611

Con%ressional criticis+s ecoe# tose o( ree State $art& ra#icals an# b& late ebruar& testa%e )as set (or a con(rontation bet)een te Presi#ent an# Con%ressional ra#icals.


206/611

Con%ress in recess until ece+ber, te bill )as #ea#. Gavin% %aine# an u$$er an# a%ainstte ra#icals, 4incoln )oul# be a%ain )ea*ene# b& te turn o( +ilitar& events.


207/611

"o) )it a sie%e, tat is, )it no clear=cut nion a#vanta%e conseLuent u$on tese terriblelosses, te #ela& )or*e# a%ainst 4incoln, a$$earin% to a#versel& e((ect is reelectioncances.e situation on te (iel#s o( battle %ot )orse. Bet)een 6 a& an# +i#=:une, Ser+ans

(orces a#vance# to)ar# Atlanta. B& e+$lo&in% (lan*in% tactics, Ser+ans ar+&, nu+ericall&$re$on#erate in relation to Con(e#erate (orces un#er :ose$ :onston, )as able to %ain%roun# in te #irection o( Atlanta ?tou% not to brin% on a #ecisive battle in )ic te rebelar+& coul# be cri$$le#@. But on 2 :une )it :onstons (orces #u% in at Qennesa) ountain,Ser+an can%e# tactics an# or#ere# at strai%t=u$, stan#=u$ attac* a%ainst entrence#(orces in an atte+$t to )in tat #ecisive battle. e 1-,000 +an nion assault )as beatenbac* )it te ease o( sootin% #uc*s $a##lin% on a $on#. n -0 :ul&, in an inci#ent #ubbe#b& te nortern $ress 7te Crater,7 a lar%e, nion=en%ineere# eF$losion un#er Con(e#eratelines aroun# Petersbur% )as (ollo)e# b& an ill=conceive# an# $oorl& eFecute# a#vance into a%a$ in Con(e#erate lines. e nu+ber o( ca$ture# an# *ille# nion sol#iers, es$eciall& blac*s,

)as lar%e relative to te siEe o( te o$eration. ean)ile, Si%els (orces a# been route# inte Senan#oa alle&, Butlers )ere stale+ate# as Drants ri%t )in% nort o( te :a+es,an# Drant )as ust 7sittin%7 = la&in% sie%e to Petersbur%. A(ter 7te Crater7 inci#ent, norternne)s$a$er a%ain re(erre# to Drant as a 7butcer.7


208/611

%ui#e# econo+ic #evelo$+ent, inclu#in% reconstitution o( a central ban*, i++e#iatel& u$onte cession o( ostilities@. e autors o( te Wa#e=avis +ani(esto a# in $ro#ucin% teir#ocu+ent co+e into con(lict )it te i+$eratives o( te +en )o #o+inate# te Re$ublican$art&, not te least o( )ic )as te Presi#ent. Bot autors )ere +otivate# b& #ee$

#issatis(action )it te Presi#ent. Genr& Winter avis )as anta%onistic to 4incoln not onl&because te Presi#ent a# not su$$orte# is bill but because e re(use# to su$$ort i+ in is(ortco+in% electoral stru%%le )it te Blairs in ar&lan#. Ben Wa#e #i((erences )ere %reatl&+a%ni(ie# b& te (rustration accu+ulate# over tree lon% &ears o( stru%%les a%ainst 4incoln.eir +ani(esto )as, in (act, a call to tose ra#icals to aban#on 4incoln (or a tir# $art& base#on one o( teir o)n ?ru+ore# to be Ben Butler@. Publise# ust $rior to te national e+ocraticconvention, it )as an atte+$t to %et te eFtre+e )ar e+ocrats ?$resu+abl& +en o( tecaracter o( #)in Stanton, 4incolns War Secretar&@ to oin te+ in (or+in% a true nion$art& in o$$osition to tat ea#e# b& 4incoln an#, o( course, tat o( te $eace e+ocrats.e ra#ical res$onse, )ile $rivatel& lar%el& in a%ree+ent )it te +ani(esto, )as $ublicl&lu*e)ar+ at best. e Re$ublican center, te $art& ri%t)in% an#, o( course, te ouseor%ans o( te in(or+al $art& o( $ro$ert&, es$eciall& te "e) Kor* !imes, #e(lecte# tele%iti+ate an# accurate criticis+s o( 4incoln b& Luestionin% te lo&alt& o( avis an# Wa#e.ean)ile, te nortern e+ocrac&, es$eciall& te $art&s $eace )in%, $ursue# its o)ncourse. "o+inatin% te nion ar+&s (or+er de facto4ieutenant Deneral, Deor%e cClellan =b& no) a so(t )ar e+ocrat, $eace e+ocrats ran a Co$$erea# ca+$ai%n, callin% (or anen# to te #ra(t, an ar+istice an# te restoration o( slaver&, on te %roun# )ile si#etrac*in%criticis+s o( treacerous beavior )it te $resence an# s$eeces o( a ver& una$$&cClellan.


209/611

!he )ilitary End of the Confederacy #astly &trengthens /incolnn 16 "ove+ber, avin% burnt ever&tin% o( +ilitar& value in Atlanta, )itout co++unicationsan# resu$$l&, inten# on livin% o(( te lan# an# la&in% )aste to all soutern cro$ an# cro$ (iel#sin teir $at, Ser+ans (orces, 60,000 +en, be%in a +arc to Savanna. Con(e#erate

co++an#er :on Bell Goo# +ean)ile +ove# nort to oin Be#(or# orrest in or#er to inva#eennessee in o$e o( #ivertin% Ser+an. n -0 "ove+ber an# 5 ece+ber, Con(e#erate(orces su((ere# #e(eats at ran*lin an# ten "asville, ennessee. In te battles a(ter+at?)ic inclu#e# (urter, less )ell=*no)n con(rontations suc as ast Point, :onesboro, BearCree*, etc.@, Goo#s ar+& be%an to #isinte%rate un#er a++er blo)s (ro+ nion (orces. B&Crist+as ve, 1;6


210/611

eF$an# te su$$ort (or is bill b& intro#ucin% #i((erent a+en#+ents tat ran%e# bac* an# (ort(ro+ restrictions on (ree+en en(rancise+ent ?suc as its li+itation to nion sol#iers onl&@ toreco%nition o( te state %overn+ents o( 4ouisiana an# Ar*ansas )it severe strictures ?sucas te #isen(rancise+ent o( Con(e#erate o((iceol#ers, Constitutional $roibition o( slaver&

an# an eLual ri%ts %uarantee (or blac*s, an# re$u#iation o( te Con(e#erate #ebt@. Denerall&s$ea*in% ra#icals o$$ose# te restrictions on blac* su((ra%e )ile te in(or+al $art& o($ro$ert& as a bloc obecte# to strictures on reco%nition o( 4incolns %overn+ents. Becausesu$$ort (or 4incoln )as in $ractice su$$ort (or Presi#ential restoration, te conservative blocconstitute# a +assive (i(t colu+n insi#e te Con%ress. Ket te li+itations o( ra#icalis+ alon%te lines a#vocate# b& Genr& Winter avis, tat is, slaver& o$$osition an# blac* su((ra%esu$$ort base# in a nionis+ reco%niEin% sece#e# states as states in te nion ?tereb&sarin% assu+$tions )it 4incoln@, also beca+e clear' In te eFtre+e, a tra#e=o(( reco%niEin%4incolns ten $ercent %overn+ents co+$ro+ise# te $osition o( lo&al +en, soutern nionists,b& allo)in% Con(e#erates s&+$atiEers, su$$orters an# active +ilitar& o((icers an#o((iceol#ers to assu+e $ositions in an# eventuall& to #o+inate te %overn+ent. In (act, tiseFtre+e )as $recisel& te #irection to)ar# )ic 4incolns $olic& )oul# evolve in te earl&s$rin%. At an& rate, te bill )as #oo+e# to (ailure in te Gouse as $eace e+ocrats an# teRe$ublican re$resentation as a )ole to te ri%t o( te ra#icals, a trul& revealin% i( te+$orar&alliance, vote# as a bloc to *ill it.


211/611

!wo *oteson Positions with Respect to Reconstruction in the "mmediate Aftermath of 2efeat

Pro$ert& an# ReconstructionJIn tat a(ter+at, souterners also o((ere# a res$onse to te Luestion o( relations o( te

secession to te nion. e soutern teor& el# tat te atte+$t to establis 7statesoverei%nt&7 a# in (act been (rustrate# b& te outco+e o( te )ar, tereb& $rovin% teinviolabilit& o( te (e#eral nion, +a*in% it i+$erative (or souterners to sub+it toconstitutional autorit& alon% te lines o( te status ?uo antein or#er to restore te states inas Luic* a (asion as $ossible.


212/611

:onsons usa%e o( vitalistic metaphors = suc as 7re+ainin% aslee$ but not (ull& #ea#,7avin% 7teir te statesJ li(e=breat ... onl& ... sus$en#e#,7 7(ull& a)a*in% in all senses7 =su%%ests te ulti+ate incoherency o( is $osition an# all tose tat atte+$te# to lo%icall&si#este$ te historically constituted $roble+ o( secession in relation to te Constitution' e

crucial $roble+atic, te istorical facttat te states a# actually le(t te nion, coul# not be+astere# b& conservative teor&. Wile 4incoln +erel& lo%icall& contravene# (act, a+on%bor#er state nionists, te $roble+ )as breace# +eta$oricall& an# coul# not be con(ronte#ea#=on, since to #o )oul# ave reLuire# o$enl& an# $ublicl& a#+ittin% tat all e((orts to $lacee+anci$ation on te (ir+ %roun# o( socio=econo+ic reconstruction a# be aban#one# (or te#e(ense o( $ro$ert&. Bot te soutern an# :onsons 7Constitutionalist7 $ers$ectives, ten,never touce# u$on, rater in teir urr& to acieve ra$i#, $ainless nion reinte%ration teenie#, te central, istoricall& (actual $roble+atic create# b& secession an# )ar.Weter conservative, soutern or 7strict Constitutionalist,7 a $oliticall& counterrevolutionar&a$$roac to restoration neatl& #ovetaile# ?a(ter all, it )as (asione#@ )it te intent to restorete soutern status Luo ante un#er te %uise o( 7state ri%ts,7 )ic, as )e note# earlier, a#lon% be(ore un#er%one a +eta+or$osis (ro+ te #e(ense o( rural libert& to an i#eolo%icalrationaliEation (or slaver&' e autono+& o( te rural (reeol#er a# been un#er+ine# b& teeF$ansion o( ca$italist $ro#uction an# +ar*et eFcan%es, an# te conce$tuall& unassi+ilate#status o( tis lon% istorical $rocess in )ic te (reeol#er a# beco+e #e$en#ent )as$recisel& )at ren#ere# te conce$t o( 7state ri%ts7 i#eolo%ical. eoreticall&, 7state ri%ts7reste# on an a$$ro$riation (ro+ te ancients Dree*s +e#iate# b& Italian civic u+anists an#n%lis re$ublicans, na+el&, te istoricall& transcen#e# $re=1;t centur& conce$tion in )icsocial li(e )as #eter+ine#, because subsu+e#, b& te or%aniEation an# structure o( te

$olitical co++unit& ?State@. is )as a teor&, tat o( te 7oun#ers,7 )ose relevanc& a#been su$erce#e# b& te #estruction o( a social or#er +ateriall& base# u$on oikos?ouseol#@econo+ies, b& te ?ori%inall&@ eFcan%e=base# inte%ration o( 7civil societ&7 an#, b& +i#=19tcentur&, te $ro#uction=base# (or+ation an# inte%ration o( a nascent in#ustrial ca$italistsociet&.ere is an aura o( unrealit& about all te Constitutionall& (ait(ul teories o( reconstruction'$on eFa+inin% te+ = es$eciall& tose bal#l& assertin% tat te states a# never been out o(te nion in te (irst $lace, suc is te si+$le, over)el+in% i+$ression. o lo%icall& atte+$tto u+$ over istor& or as it )ere, (l& in its (ace = i%norin% de facto secession, establis+ent o(a se$arate, #istinct an# )ell=(unctionin% Con(e#erac& an#, ten, te )a%in% o( (our &ears o(

bloo#& )ar a%ainst te (e#eral nion = is to, in teoretical ter+s, %enerate an ideologicalconstruct. Because tat construct )as so oblivious to real istorical +ove+ent, asserte# teabsolute $ri+ac& o( an abstract, li(eless, an# invisible an# irrelevant $iece o( $a$er tat a#been contravene#, contra#icte# an# ren#ere# +eanin%less b& (act, all anti=re#uctionistconcern (or te inte%rit& o( te i#eas o( te $arties o( $ro$ert& )as ?an# re+ains@senti+entalit& bor#erin% on a$olo%&.At an& rate, all te #iscussion o( )eter te states )ere 7in7 or 7out7 lar%el& +isse# te$oint' e Luestion )as a $ractical one an# coul# not be Constitutionall& #eci#e#N an#, it a#been $racticall& #eci#e#. At te en# o( te )ar, a 7state of nature7 in te lan%ua%e o( earl&bour%eois teorists, rei%ne# in te Sout. evastate#, be)il#ere# an# in #isarra& at )ars

en#, te $eo$les o( te Sout )ere not onl& )itout %overn+ents but #i# not eFist as $oliticalco++unities or even as civil societies (or several )ee* an#, in so+e cases, +onts. In oter

)or#s, $rior to bein% eiter 7in7 or 7out,7 in te i++e#iate a(ter+at o( te )ar, te states #i#not even eFist. e Luestion concernin% te states! status coul# onl& ans)ere# in teconservative (asion because te nion ar+ies a# )on tis $ractical stru%%le. Counter=istoricall& te Luestion, li*e te Constitution itsel(, )oul# ave #e+onstrate# its real


213/611

uneLuivocal +eanin%lessness to all $arties involve# in te counter(actual event o( a souternvictor&.


214/611

Stevens $rocee#e# b& un#ercuttin% )at in te )ar!s i++e#iate a(ter+at a# beco+e tecore o( te in(or+al $art& o( $ro$ert&, inclu#in% te Presi#ent!s, $osition, na+el&, te assertionin one (or+ or anoter tat te eF=Con(e#erate states a# never been 7outsi#e7 te nion inte (irst $lace. is, o( course, )as %enerall& a counter=istorical, counter=(actual assertion, a

Constitutional le%alis+ since te latter (orba#e secession.


215/611

eFe+$lar& $unis+ent.


216/611

A can%e in te basis o( re$resentation +ore or less insure# Re$ublican ascen#anc& in tenational State. ?I( te Sout #isen(rancise# blac*s +ales it )oul# not, even )it norternCo$$erea# allies, be able to control te Con%ress. I( it en(rancise# te+, blac*s )oul# as abloc vote (or te $art& o( e+anci$ation securin% Re$ublican control in te State.@ In tis

conteFt, it )as necessar& to $rovi#e ever& Constitutional re+e#& to secure te viabilit& an#ealt o( tat State. Fcessive (inancial liabilities coul# stra$ its #evelo$+ent an# tat o( tenation. us, secon#, an a+en#+ent to $revent assu+$tion o( te Con(e#erate #ebt )as alsoo((ere#.


217/611

e core o( tis $ro$osal )as te State=s$onsore# establis+ent o( s+all (ar+s (or blac*(ree+en. It )as $recisel& tis ele+ent in Stevens! $ro$osal tat, as a nationalist, reconnecte#is re$ublicanis+ to te classical, A+erican :e((ersonian an# :ac*sonian tra#itions' A lar%e,#i((use# +i##lin% &eo+anr& base# on s+all $ro$ert& )as te onl& %uarantor a%ainst te

(or+ation o( an lan#e# aristocrac& )ose )ealt an# $o)er inevitabl& ren#ere# #e+ocraticinstitutions non=(unctional, irrelevant, an# 7corru$t.7 Were lan#e# $ro$ert& is +ono$oliEe#,$olitical institutions beco+e $la&tin%s o( aristocrats, $lots an# intri%ues beco+e te teFt o($olitical li(e, an# #es$otis+ is al)a&s te outco+e.


218/611


219/611

0!Pro$lems of Army 6eadership 7I8- *emocratic 7Pro1Slavery8 6eadership in and the

,ailure of the9nion Armies in the East& '.2'1'.24

I+ tire#, Colonel. Kou *no) )at I +ean8 I+ tire#. Ive a# all o( tis ar+& an# all o( teseo((icers, tis #a+ne# Goo*er an# tis %o##a+ne# i#iot ea#e, all o( te+, te )olebloo#& lous& rotten +ess o( sic*=braine# $ot=bellie# scabea#s tat aint (it to lea# a onnetail, aint (it to $our $ee outen a boot )it instructions on te eel. I+ tire#. We are %oo#+en an# )e a# our o)n %oo# (la% an# tese %o##a+ne# i#iots use us li*e )e )as co)sor #o%s or even )orse. We aint %onna )in tis )ar. We cant )in no o) because o( tesela+e=braine# bastar#s (ro+ West Point, tese %o##a+ne# %entle+en, tese officers$D

Part I;nion Armies and Command Problems

*ature of Command Problems and their &ourcesIn te ast, tere )ere tree +aor nion ar+ies (ro+ te irst Bull Run, te (irst +aorca+$ai%n in te Civil War, until te #esultor& (i%tin% in te a(ter+at o( te Dett&sbur%Ca+$ai%n. e (irst t)o )ere sort=live#, na+el&, te Ar+& o( "orteastern ir%inia an# teAr+& o( ir%inia )ic, un#er te res$ective co++an#s o( Irvin co)ell an# :on Po$e,(ou%t te ca+$ai%ns an# battles o( te t)o Bull Runs. e tir# )as te Ar+& o( tePoto+ac, )ic, in te $erio# un#er #iscussion, a# (our #i((erent co++an#in% %enerals?cClellan, Burnsi#e, Goo*er an# ea#e@. Deor%e ea#e too* co++an# in late :une 1;6-,an# re+aine# (or+all& in co++an# o( tis ar+& (or te balance o( te )arN o)ever, a(ternion Ar+& o( te Poto+ac e+er%e# (ro+ its 1;6-=1;6< )inter Luarters ?be%innin% in earl&

arc 1;6


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$resence in co++an# $ositions o( +en ?$oliticall& e+ocrats@ )o el#, an# )ere $re$are#to act u$on, %ran# strate%ic i#eas about te national obectives o( )ar #i((erin% (ro+ tose4incoln an# is A#+inistration, an# te conco+itant $roble+ o( )eter to con#uct a 7so(t7 or7ar#7 )ar $articularl& in relation to rebel $ro$ert& ?as )ell as in relation to te torou%l&

$roble+atic +eto# o( raisin% troo$s@, a# to be )or*e# out $oliticall&, an# ina#eLuatel& )ea##, b& te Presi#ent.e arra& o( $roble+s, co++an# an# oter)ise, tat con(ronte# te nion ar+ies in te ast

)ere (or te +ost $art onl& analytically se$arate. In $ractice, tese $roble+s tou% notsea+less )ere ti%tl& *notte# to%eter. At te ris* o( #econteFtualiEation an# abstraction, )esall #evote te (ollo)in% #iscussion to an eFa+ination o( te )at, in our vie), can bei#enti(ie# as te central #i((iculties obectivel& con(rontin% te nion ar+ies in te ast?$articularl& te Ar+& o( te Poto+ac@' e #i((iculties )ere t)o(ol#, na+el&, te $resence inco++an# $ositions o( soutern=s&+$atiEin% %entle+an=o((icers )it e+ocratic $art&$olitical convictions an#, ineFtricabl& boun# u$ )it tis $resence, te lac* o( sare# +ilitaroctrine a+on% tese o((icers.

/eadership Caution in attleD


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care(ull& (ollo)e# at te )ars outset, state %overnors raise# volunteer re%i+ents (ollo)in% aPresi#ential reLuest. e reLuest inclu#e# assi%n+ent o( $o$ulation=base# Luotas to eacstate. Dovernors raise# re%i+ental o((icer sta((s as )ell as troo$s, an# traine# an# initiall&eLui$$e# te re%i+ents. nl& a(ter tis or%aniEation )as co+$lete# in te states )ere tese

+ilitar& (or+ations s)ore into (e#eral service an# turne# over to te re%ular ar+&. In actual$ractice an# in ti+e o( ?te Civil@ )ar, bot (or+er +ilitar& o((icers an# $ro+inent citiEens,+ost o(ten $oliticians ?but also la)&ers, +ercants an# +anu(acturers@, )oul#, )it%ubernatorial consent, raise an# 7train7 te re%i+ent. In te $revailin% at+os$ere, a sortan# #ecisivel& Luic* )ar )as antici$ate#, bot %overnors = )o sou%t to re)ar# (rien#s, $a&o(( ol# #ebts or enance teir $resti%e an# eF$an# te circle o( teir #e$en#ents trou%$atrona%e, i.e., %rantin% +ilitar& co++issions ?ca$taincies, colonelcies an# bri%a#iers@ = an#lea#in% +en = )o sou%t to buil# teir social an# $olitical re$utations an# i+$rove teir

)ealt a%%ran#iEin% $ros$ects = )ere ea%er to recruit +en to service, $ri+aril& (ar+in% an#)or*in% class &out )o, in turn, )ere +otivate# b& te o$$ortunit& to leave te lan# or a)a%e# ob, %et out int

Documents

Will Barnes_Civil War and Revolution in America (1999).pdf