Wikis: A fast track to effective internal communication? · WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION? Is contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in

WIKIS: A FAST TRACK TO EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?

Is contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age?

Thesis

by

David Gerrits [408489] 4ICM-B

Graduation coach: Jaap Jansen

May 22nd, 2008

INHOLLAND University – Rotterdam


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Table of Contents

Preface ........................................................................................................................................................... 4

Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 5

Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 9

1.1 Choosing a graduation subject ............................................................................................................. 9

1.2 Formulating the assignment ..............................................................................................................10

1.3.1 Theoretical research ........................................................................................................................11

1.3.2 Scope and limitations ......................................................................................................................11

1.3.3 Main and sub questions ..................................................................................................................11

1.3.4 Purpose and motivation ..................................................................................................................12

Chapter 2: Setting the Scene ........................................................................................................................13

2.1 Thoughts on sources ..........................................................................................................................13

2.2.1 Contemporary internal communication models .............................................................................13

2.2.2 SMMR model ...................................................................................................................................14

2.2.3 The communication junction ..........................................................................................................15

2.2.4 Creating communication policy ......................................................................................................18

2.2.5 Looping-model ................................................................................................................................18

2.2.6 Two-way symmetrical: public affairs-model ...................................................................................20

2.3 The importance of Internal Communication ......................................................................................20

2.4 Communication structures .................................................................................................................22

2.5 Reflection ...........................................................................................................................................23

Chapter 3: Changes and Trends ...................................................................................................................24

3.1.1 Social and economical change ........................................................................................................24

3.1.2 Individualisation ..............................................................................................................................24

3.2 Digital technology...............................................................................................................................25

3.3. Knowing how to participate ..............................................................................................................26

3.4 Implications for Internal Communication ..........................................................................................27

3.5 Reflection ...........................................................................................................................................28

Chapter 4: Digital Natives .............................................................................................................................30

4.1 Digital natives, digital IC .....................................................................................................................30


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4.2 Connectivism ......................................................................................................................................32

4.3.1 What we like best ............................................................................................................................33

4.3.2 Popular social software ...................................................................................................................34

4.3.3 What do managers think? ...............................................................................................................35

4.4 Reflection ...........................................................................................................................................37

Chapter 5: What Are Wikis? .........................................................................................................................40

5.1 WikiWiki .............................................................................................................................................40

5.2.1 Let’s meet up! .................................................................................................................................42

5.2.2 Practical reasons .............................................................................................................................43

5.2.3 Processes of change ........................................................................................................................43

5.2.4 Motivation .......................................................................................................................................43

5.3 Reflection ...........................................................................................................................................44

Chapter 6: Reflections ..................................................................................................................................46

6.1 Conclusions.........................................................................................................................................46

6.2 Does the theory need to change? ......................................................................................................49

6.3 Recommendations .............................................................................................................................51

Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................54

Appendix A: The Hierarchy of Web 2.0 Applications ...................................................................................58

Appendix B: Research Plan ...........................................................................................................................59


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Preface

The thesis in front of you is one of two components of my graduation project. In this thesis I investigate

the aptitude of contemporary theory for internal communication in the digital age. The second part is a

comparative case study, developed under commission of the INHOLLAND lectureship eLearning and

entitled: Wikis: a fast track to effective internal communication? - How can wikis be implemented in

communication, knowledge and information processes within professional environments?

The thesis and case study report (delivered as separate documents) should be considered as a whole and

read together.

In spirit of the research topic I have created an online wiki of the graduation project as well. You can find

the wiki at the following address: www.research-wiki.nl. I leave it up to you, the reader, to decide if you

prefer to read the physical document or the digital edition.

I am satisfied with the results of this project and consider the research a fitting conclusion of four years

of study. I would like to thank my coaches Jaap Jansen, and Pieter Swager (Centre for eLearning), for

their cooperative, enthusiastic involvement with supportive and valuable advice, in developing and

completing my graduation project.

David Gerrits

Rotterdam, May 2008.

http://www.research-wiki.nl/


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Summary

Many technological and sociological developments have impact on the way in which organisations

operate. This research looks into the use of wikis for internal communications by asking two questions:

“Is contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age?” and “How can wikis be

implemented in communication, knowledge and information processes within professional

environments?” The first question is answered in this thesis, the second in a comparative case study

(separate report).

Contemporary theory. An overview is made of available theory and models such as the communication

junction model of Van Ruler where in the ‘multidirectional vision’; communication is seen as an

interactive process where information is being exchanged, or as a means to negotiate between various

parties. Most of the models and theory promote sharing, dialoguing and collaboration within

organisations. We looked at the various functions of communication: the support of the primary process,

the promotion of involvement and supporting processes of change. The organisational dimensions

(structure, culture and leadership style, communicative skills, information systems and strategy) are

inextricably connected to internal communication.

Changes and Trends. Social and economical developments are central driving factors in the changing

reality of IC. The process of globalisation and the shift towards service-oriented businesses results in an

increasing need for communication. The process of individualisation has implications for the manner in

which people operate and what their expectations are. The rapid, ongoing developments and trends in

technology come together in a concept called the ‘participative web’ (or ‘web 2.0’). These web 2.0 tools

can be used individually, but also by organisations for both internal and external communication

activities.

Digital Natives. People of the digital age are found to operate differently with regard to how they

process information and communicate. Marc Prensky’s learning theory (Prensky, Digital Natives, Digital

Immigrants, 2001) gives insight in what these changes exactly are. The digital natives have developed

various skills that enable them to multi-task, find and produce information and work at ‘twitch speed’.

The parallel from education to the professional world is easily drawn as the students from today are

tomorrow’s professionals. Organisations need acknowledge and understand these skills, and be creative

in order to engage these people and maximise their potential. Social software offers two important


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functionalities to an organisation: the practical functionality (e.g. knowledge management and

communication), and the functionality as a facilitator of engagement (e.g. encouraging collaboration

among employees).

In George Siemens connectivism view (Siemens, Digital natives and immigrants: A concept beyond its

best before date, 2007) it is not so much about age but about a mindset, concerning the increasing

complexity of society and globalisation. Learning is a process of connecting specialised nodes or

information sources, Siemens argues. Educators and communication policy makers in organisations need

to acknowledge the importance of nurturing these connections.

It is important to address the question how to harness the enthusiasm and dedication that young people

show in collaborating and connecting privately (MSN, YouTube etc.), and find out what elements of

social software can be taken to the professional field.

What Are Wikis? The wiki is a very powerful knowledge and information medium. It is an ideal tool to

collaborate, co-create and acknowledges the needs of employees in the digital age. A major benefit of

the wiki is that it brings together a wide variety of functions that previously needed separate applications

(with obvious incompatibility issues).There are many practical advantages of using wikis such as: reduced

e-mail traffic, integration of functions, user collaboration, increase in productivity and so on.

Professionals view the wiki as a potential means to fulfil communication objectives such as the

dissemination of competencies, core values, ambition, and facilitation of empowerment and employee

satisfaction. From a theoretical standpoint there is potential in (and no real objection against) using a

wiki for processes of change (in the form of engagement and inclusion). Yet, there are other factors to

consider here, such as the organisational structure and culture.

Conclusions and recommendations. Reflecting the theory it was found that wikis can fulfil certain tasks

and objectives of internal communication and are appropriate for an IC policy with a multidirectional

view (Van Ruler). They acknowledge the importance of feedback loops and direct communication

between all layers of the organisation. When the wiki is used in its true sense, the co-worker becomes

the expert. This process ties in with the connectivism concept.

Social software requires and thrives on user participation, and thus motivation. In contemporary models

this participation is represented in the form of assumed motivation. Two-way communication streams

appear great but are without obligations. When using social software as a serious tool for


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communication and knowledge policy, employee participation cannot be without engagement. It is in my

view that active involvement, and participation should be mandatory for a communication policy to

function properly in this context.

Another issue that needs addressing is the nature of digital communication. This way of communicating

is highly flexible, and the individual’s attitude towards it is different with respect to traditional media.

Maybe we can adapt the models and theory to better deal with (and make use of) this notion?

With social software there is a paradigm shift where content is owned by the collective, not the

individual. Management is primarily taking on the role as a facilitator and aim the organisation. Is there a

way in which theoretical models for IC can incorporate this relatively new concept of redefining power?

The idea of using social software as a means for IC is too fundamental to assess only on the

characteristics of that software. Using a wiki requires a specific kind of organisational culture and

structure: open, non-hierarchical organisations that encourage bottom-up processes, innovation and

development. It would be too simplistic to just change IC models to acknowledge social software without

thinking about the organisational culture and structure.

Perhaps when experts start addressing the characteristics and implications of social software and digital

natives, in addition to already explored fields such as organisational structure, culture and network

communication (connectivism), new theory for IC can eventually arise.

Almost all wikis start as a bottom-up initiative, they do not involve a management decision. Only when

the wiki has grown to substantial proportions (and success) is some form of formalisation and facilitation

of the management necessary.

As with all innovations there are rules. The innovation needs to solve a specific problem, hide

complexity, and do something new (Reep, 2006). Without these prerequisites the innovation will fail. It is

therefore important that organisations understand better why, and not just how, they should start using

wikis. Hopefully research such as this thesis can help here.

Enterprises invest more and more in social software, yet, do they truly understand the implications of

web 2.0 technologies for their organisation, or are they just following buzz? This question too requires

perhaps further research.


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“By all means let's be open-minded, but not so open-minded that our brains drop out.”

(Richard Dawkins, in "Science, Delusion and the Appetite for Wonder," BBC1, November 1996)


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Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Choosing a graduation subject

Finding a graduation assignment and selecting an appropriate topic to do your research on is by far not

the easiest task in the career of a student International Communication Management (ICM). During the

second part of year three, and the thirst terms of year four of my studies, I evaluated on the various

subjects I was taught over the years, and realised I had a firm interest in the field of Internal

Communication (IC), business processes and information management. The fourth year minor Visual

Communication and Knowledge Building (VCKB) introduced me to various trends in society including the

impact of the digital age on the way in which we learn, live and work. It became apparent to me that the

rapid developments in ICT, and the change in attitude and behaviour of people, create exciting

opportunities and chances for the way in which communication processes, and information can be

managed and experienced. There is an enormous level of enthusiasm for all these trends such as the use

of social software and web 2.0, and I believe we should indeed be as open-minded as Richard Dawkins

says, but let us also take a look at the adoption of such concepts on a professional level. Once you start

some desktop research on these topics and trends, pretty soon you will be overwhelmed by a seemingly

endless stream of articles, blogs, reports and visions of experts, researchers and people in the

professional field. Indeed, web 2.0 and social software (subjects that I will discuss further on) is

considered to have great potential for a variety of communication, marketing and management

problems in professional organisations. See for example the publications of Harvard Business School

Associate Professor Andrew McAfee (McAfee, 2008). However, all potential left aside, what does reality

look like? Do companies and organisations adopt social software and are they successful in doing so? In

an attempt to shed some light on these questions I decided to undertake research on one specific tool

available to organisations: the wiki. Because of my interest in internal communication and information

management, I focussed on the use of wikis in relation to these internal processes. What is a wiki? Ward

Cunningham, developer of the first wiki software formulated it plainly: "a wiki is the simplest online

database that could possibly work” (Cunningham, 1995). More precisely, a wiki is a software program

that brings users together and enables them to create and edit pages within the wiki database freely. It is

designed to capture and retain knowledge, and to encourage co-creation and collaboration.


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1.2 Formulating the assignment

The idea of undertaking research on the use of wikis for internal communication in professional

organisations was further developed in cooperation with Pieter Swager of the Centre for eLearning

(INHOLLAND lectureship eLearning: www.inholland.nl/elearning); hence the Centre for eLearning became

the client of my graduation assignment.

Within the comparative case study, I will look at the possibilities and implications of working with wikis in

professional environments. Central here is the main research question which I formulated as follows:

"How can wikis be implemented in communication, knowledge and information processes within

professional environments?”

In order to answer this question I defined the following sub-questions:

Which communication functions can wikis potentially fulfil?

How are wikis currently used within organisations?

What implications of the usage of wikis are conceivable in communication, knowledge and

information processes?

What do managers and professionals think of:

The competencies and skills of young workers/digital natives (Prensky, Digital Natives,

Digital Immigrants, 2001)) in relation to ‘web 2.0’;

The feasibility and usefulness of implementation of wikis in communication processes.

The nature of these questions and the aspired results of the research (I want to gain insight and

understanding of real life experiences with wikis), require a focused and specific research method. I

decided the ideal approach to this would be to conduct a comparative case study based on interviews

and desktop research. The practical assignment is tightly interwoven with my theoretical research

(thesis) which forms the body of this report. I worked independently on the case study which ultimately

resulted in a report as a final product for my client. By the means of interviews I analysed cases of

professional organisations where wikis are being used now, such as the largest internet

developer/consultancy in the Netherlands: Lost Boys, and the TU Delft. The complete case study report is

delivered as a separate report and entitled: Wikis: a fast track to effective internal communication? -

How can wikis be implemented in communication, knowledge and information processes within


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professional environments? The report is furthermore used as a source of reference in related topics

within this thesis.

1.3.1 Theoretical research My theoretical research revolves around the question:

“Is contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age?”

My intention is to create a strong synergy between the theoretical and practical research that I will

undertake. The thesis will give a theoretical point of view on IC processes, and the case study an insight

in the reality within organisations. With this research I want to reflect on the theory and current

understanding of:

Contemporary IC-management;

The impact and implications of the digital age on our life;

The use of social software as an IC tool (specifically the wiki).

My primary sources for this analysis will consist of communication theory books and publications,

practical guides, articles, previous studies on digital trends and publications around the theme social

software (web 2.0) and wikis.

1.3.2 Scope and limitations The main research question explicitly mentions ‘the digital age’. In order to be able to deal with this topic

in a realistic manner (considering available time and capacity), and to create a strong connection with my

practical assignment, I choose to use the term wiki as a representative for ‘the digital age’. For me the

philosophy of wikis is one of the best symbols for the developments as a result of our digital society,

where sharing and collaboration seems to be of high importance. In theory it is an ideal example of how

collaboration, involvement, access to information and the move to a paperless desktop come together.

The research will be limited to the IC processes as they are found within professional organisations (e.g.

commercial, non-commercial, education and governmental).

1.3.3 Main and sub questions As mentioned previously the main question in this theoretical research is the following: “Is

contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age?” In order to answer this

question I formulate the following sub-questions:


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Which theory for (digital) internal communication processes is currently dominant? (Chapter 2).

What developments can be seen in relation to internal communication processes with the coming

of the digital age? (Chapter 3).

What are the characteristics, skills and habits, emphasising on work-approach, information and

media usage, of the next generation of communication experts (digital natives)?

Based on which existing research, which applications are favoured and established for use by

forthcoming communication professionals? (Chapter 4).

What are wikis?

Can wikis be of use in internal communication, knowledge and information processes? (Chapter

5).

Where do theory and wikis meet?

Is there a need for change in internal communication theory, and if so, how should this change

look like? (Chapter 6).

1.3.4 Purpose and motivation The goal of this research is to address the relation between IC and wikis by answering the research

questions, and to deepen my insight and understanding of IC, as it is one of my favourite fields of

communication. Secondly it gives me the opportunity to explore the developments and trends in ICT and

the connection with the communication and information arena. Another important motivation factor is

that even though people are often very enthusiastic on new ICT trends (and the possibilities are

perceived to be almost endless), we do not always see this enthusiasm translated into real life practice. I

hope that this research, together with the case study I am undertaking, will shed some light on this.

So what is the expected outcome of this thesis? I want to deliver a condensed summary of popular

theory and reflect that theory on the digital trends. This will cumulate in an overview where I point out

what the most effective communication theories are for digital IC. I will further assess whether there are

changes needed in the theory or not, and deliver recommendations.


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Chapter 2: Setting the Scene

2.1 Thoughts on sources

The available sources and theory for IC are respectably numerous and found as much as in print as in

digital form. I have selected books based on what is now commonly available in libraries and stores, and

used in the curriculum of ICM (2004-2008) at INHOLLAND University. Furthermore I followed up on

personal advice of experts and cited sources in articles and publications. I have not been extremely

conservative with regard to the use of information available online. It is inherent to the topics of my

research, that I incorporate online sources to analyse the aptitude of contemporary IC theory in the

digital age. Especially with regard to the subject of wikis as there is yet hardly any printed literature

available.

In line with the development in this field, discussions and publications on communication theory are

more and more held and shared online. As information ‘from the internet’ is sometimes (and I believe

rightfully) distrusted, I made certain that I was very rigorous in which sources to use, and which not to

use. The selected online sources (often retrieved through databases such as EBSCO’s Business Source

Premier) are articles of frequently referred to experts and opinion formers in the field of communication

and web 2.0.

2.2.1 Contemporary internal communication models So, is contemporary theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age? In this chapter I will

answer the following question: “Which communication theory for (digital) internal communication

processes is currently dominant?”

What is the definition of IC? “By internal communication, we mean: communication aimed at the groups

of the public in the internal environment of the organisation” (Vos & Schoemaker, 2005). A more

detailed way of describing it is possible by looking at the role of IC. Effective internal communications is

all about enabling us to do our jobs to the best of our ability and ensuring that all of us are working

together towards the same organisational goals (Hayward, 2005). A series of communication channels

and tools are used by the organisation to keep the employees informed and give them the chance to


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share their opinions with each other and the management. In a time of outsourcing and telecommuting

it is often difficult to distinguish between internal and external publics. When an organisation thinks

about which communication tools to apply it is important to acknowledge both audiences. You need to

think about how you can effective supply the necessary information to (and facilitate exchange for)

these audiences, in order for them to operate properly.

There are many models and frameworks available that deal with (or are related to) IC. Some are

designed to analyse the organisation’s performance (SWOT analysis, Humprey, A., 1960’s), or show the

forces that have impact on the organisation (stakeholder analysis); or the position of communication

within the marketing mix (5 P’s), and the Ansoff matrix (Ansoff, I., 1957). Even Maslow's

hierarchy of needs (Maslow, A., 1943) relates in some way to the

characteristics and purpose of communication within groups of

people: the need for acknowledgement, respect and self-

development. In this research I will primarily look at the most

referred to models in popular literature and articles that clearly deal

with design of and policy for IC.

It is often said that models are limited and slightly dangerous. The reality of management is more

obstinate and unpredictable than a model could possibly do justice too, and requires a good amount

creative problem solving and intuition. “A model can constrict one’s vision, as if watching a wide-screen

television through a straw” (Berenschot Communicatie, 2003). These arguments are tackled when

models are no longer viewed as a goal but as a means. The means to help you structure your thoughts

and encourage your creativity (Venetië, E., 2003).

2.2.2 SMMR model An overview of the theory on IC would not be complete without the ‘mother of all communication

models’, the Sender-Message-Medium-Receiver-Model (SMMR-model). This very basic communication

model was introduced in 1923 and almost all following communication models are based on it (Fiske,

1990).

Figure 2 - Basic SMMR Model

Sender Medium

Message

Medium

Receiver

Figure 1 - Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs


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Within this model the sender intents to achieve understanding on the receivers end by communication.

It is with this purpose that he encodes the information. That is, he translates his thoughts into words.

The receiver decodes these words and interprets them. The communication is successful when the ideas

of the sender match with the interpretation of the receiver. By adjusting the message to the frame of

reference of the receiver as much as possible, the likelihood of understanding is increased.

Naturally this is also the first communication model that I was taught during my studies. It is a simple, yet

elegant model that clearly demonstrates how the medium and the message should be tailored correctly

in order to successfully reach the receiver. It does not however, deal with the complexity of the

relationship between the receiver and the sender. Other well-known points of criticism are that the

model does not really acknowledge the subjectivity of the process of encoding and decoding the

message, and the influence of noise (or distortion) is not being dealt with. Future models would tackle

these issues by adding so-called feedback loops.

2.2.3 The communication junction The Dutch professor of Communication Sciences at the University of Amsterdam A.A. van Ruler

developed a widely accepted model on four basic communication strategies (Ruler, Strategisch

management van communicatie. Introductie van het Communicatiekruispunt, 1998).

Figure 3 - The Communication Junction (Ruler, van, 1998)

Ann

The model can be applied to both external and internal communication processes. The communication

junction defines four possible intentions or basic strategies of communication: informing, persuasion,

dialoguing and formation. These four intentions are based on two dilemmas: one-way traffic versus two-

way traffic and announcement versus influence. Van Ruler (1998) argues that in communication, contact

plays the central role. The purpose of this contact can be either to announce or to influence.

Announcement Influence

Controlled one-way

traffic

Two-way traffic

Informing Persuasion

Dialoguing Formation


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Furthermore is there the division in nature of that contact: controlled one-way traffic or (uncontrolled)

two-way traffic.

In order to better understand the communication junction model, Van Ruler (1998) distinguishes three

visions on communication:

1. Communication as a unilateral process. When information is just announced there is no proper

selection of a receiver. The sole purpose of this vision is to express information. The receiving

end is not taken into consideration. When the purpose of communication is to influence, a

receiving party is selected, though not very specifically. The communication worker that is

functioning within this vision is often working in a low position within the organisation. This

results in the following communication problems:

Without insight on the strategic and organisational level of the organisation, the

communication expert is forced to develop tools and means without a proper

understanding of their purpose.

The communication expert is only included in the execution phase, when policies are

already established.

2. The instrumental view. In this vision communication is seen as controlled, one-way traffic.

Communication is a means to manipulate situations. Target groups are selected in advance and

the sender wants to check whether the communication was successful or not. This verification is

established by adding a feed-back/forward loop. Now the sender has more control on what

happens to the message. The goal of this type of communication could be for example to share

knowledge or to influence the attitude and behaviour of the target group. For the

communication expert this view on communication is more ‘sales’ oriented. His role is different

from the worker in the unilateral vision; communication targets are defined and need to be

attained. Secondly, the communication expert is much closer to the management which enables

him to translate organisational policy into communication policy. A problem that arises using this

vision on communication is that the organisation divides its environment in groups of people to

manipulate. However, not all target groups are necessarily open to communication

(manipulation) from the organisation.


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3. The multidirectional vision on communication. In this vision communication is seen as an

interactive process where information is being exchanged, or as a means to negotiate between

various parties. All parties are now participating actively by sending and receiving. This vision

deals with the problem from the instrumental view, namely the willingness of groups to receive

communication. It is about achieving exchange and fine-tuning between participants. The

communication expert assumes the position as an intermediary that facilitates contact. Doing so,

he is able to serve the needs and interests of the organisation and all of its stakeholders. For the

communication expert it requires a balanced view and insightful understanding of the

environment, as he meanders between organisational and stakeholders’ interests.

Let us take a closer look at the four strategies of the junction model:

Informing: the strategy of the sender to influence knowledge, in order to urge someone

to think and formulate an opinion and decision on a specific subject.

Persuasion: the strategy to persuade someone of your rightfulness.

Dialoguing: to work together with stakeholders to develop policy.

Formation: to influence the target groups using communication in a two-way traffic

sense. (E.g. lobbying and the formation of coalitions). The dialogue will eventually lead

to decision making, this process is called formation (Berenschot Communicatie, 2003).

So the choice for one of these strategies is depending on the organisational vision on communication

and/or communication issue. In order to fully apply the communication junction model, a policy where

communication is positioned as an intermediary has to be assumed. Now the expert’s task is two-fold: to

guide, steer and build-up communication from the organisation to the stakeholders and environment,

but also the other way around, from stakeholders to the management, and from the environment to the

management (Ruler, van, 1998).

Only the expert with a multidirectional vision on communication is able to deploy all

four strategies. Van Ruler (1998) views her model as a toolkit for

communication management. Depending on the nature of the

communication problem one or more strategies can be used. The expert with a

unilateral or instrumental vision will therefore not be able to solve all issues, as not all

strategies are available to him.


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2.2.4 Creating communication policy This model (Berenschot Communicatie, 2003) is designed to show us the process of developing a new

work approach, new policies or rules. This is useful in an environment with many players that all want to

be included in the coming-about of policy. The ‘old’ situation described here is nowadays not found

anymore; it does however show us how communication plays a role from the start in internal processes.

Figure 4 - Creating communication policy (Berenschot Communicatie, 2003)

Before

Communication

Process

Content

Time

Now

Communication

Process

Content

Time

Traditionally the policymaking process was sequential, first content, then process, then communication.

As the number of players and turbulence in the policy arena increases, we need to reflect this in our

communication policy. In this era of openness it is essential to incorporate all stakeholders throughout

the decision making process. The goal of communication is to strongly connect all the stakeholders in a

relation network, committed to the success of the process, an optimal result and afterwards a good

implementation and the right amount of publicity (Berenschot Communicatie, 2003). This model ties in

with Van Ruler’s (chapter 2.2.2) multidirectional vision, where all players actively participate and the

communication expert acts as a facilitator.

2.2.5 Looping-model The looping-model (Delden, 1999) connects all the layers in the organisation. Management is able to

provide insight on strategic decisions to all levels of the organisation. Employees are given means to

deliver ideas and criticism to the top of the organisation. Within the looping-model IC is practiced

through dialogue: listening, explaining and feedback. Well structured consultation on all management


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levels and personal attention from managers to their employees is essential to make this work. This

model makes certain that information streams float freely through the whole organisation: top-down

and bottom-up. The manager that uses this model consequently understands that ‘his people are his

company’ (Delden, 1999). However, in times of distress, the different sections of the organisation tend

to withdraw to their ‘layer’.

Not like this: But like this:

Figure 5 - Looping Model (Delden, van, 1999)

This system is indeed very appealing considering the need for a multidirectional communication flow;

nonetheless there are two major factors (Hattersley & McJannet, 1997) to be taken into consideration

that disturb both downward and upward feedback in many business communication situations:

First, nobody really likes bad news. Everyone loves praise but might respond (somewhat)

negatively to criticism. These (perhaps nonverbal) responses might eventually lead to a situation

where colleagues become reluctant to say anything at all.


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Secondly, hierarchical organisations have a tendency to become less and less receptive to both

downward and upward feedback. There are several factors that cause this:

human being prefer to command rather than confer;

Managers like to stash information because it gives them a sense of power;

Everyone is inclined to tell the boss what she wants to hear. (Listing takes time!)

2.2.6 Two-way symmetrical: public affairs-model A final model that I view of importance in relation to IC is Grunig’s two-way symmetrical: public affairs-

model (Grunig, 1992). Within this model communication is used to manage conflict situations and to

improve the mutual understanding of groups within the organisation, and the organisation and her

strategic target groups. Equality and mutual respect are of utmost importance here. The model itself and

its ongoing critique are very detailed and cover much more than what is relevant within the scope of this

research (IC and wikis). The reason why I mention it is that it is a popular management model which

illustrates a strong and very visible trend to promote sharing, dialoguing and collaboration in

organisations.

2.3 The importance of Internal Communication

The professional organisation’s operational success is highly depending on the efficiency and excellence

of its IC. Organisations are built around the ability of all segments within those organisations to

collaborate and exchange information. In the process of motivating employees communication plays an

important role, and in processes of change well-thought out communication is vital.

In the book Integrated Communication (Vos & Schoemaker, 2005) the following tasks for communication

(as an illustration of the importance of IC) are defined:

a. Employees have to be better aware of activities of the organisation.

In our society the importance of services continues to increase. Service is an added value by

means of which organisations can distinguish themselves from the competition. Many

employees have contacts with customers and they should propagate the company philosophy in


21

these contacts. Secondly, when employees are better aware of activities outside of their section

they will be able to work more efficiently and flexible.

b. Employees should be more attentive to changing needs and circumstances.

Organisations should anticipate the wishes of the customers with flexibility. Technological

developments and shorter product life cycles also demand a capability to adjust. Employees

should pick up signals from the outside world and pass them on to the management, which the

latter then incorporates in its policy and in communication with employees.

c. Employees have a higher information need.

The increased involvement of the staff results in a need to be heard. Furthermore, changes in

the organisation cause uncertainty and thus a demand for information. In order to achieve

organisational targets, simple one-way traffic cannot be relied on. We need to facilitate dialogue

(the communication junction model) and implement looping-model based policies.

It is important to understand that problems in IC cannot be seen separately from the internal

organisation itself. The quality of IC is related to the various dimensions of organisations (Jurgens, 1988):

Organisational structure;

Organisational culture and leadership style;

Communicative skills;

Information systems;

Organisation strategy.

In most books IC is considered to have several functions. The most significant functions are (Vos &

Schoemaker, 2005):

The support of the primary process. In order for the organisation to operate properly the

exchange of information is needed.

The promotion of involvement. Knowledge about the organisation as a whole may increase the

involvement of employees, and their motivation to work.


22

Supporting processes of change. In times of change it is vital to communicate properly as

changes can lead to insecurity and resistance. It has to be clear why changes are necessary and

what will be required of those involved.

Other important functions are: the optimal use of knowledge, to motivate and connect employees and

to direct the organisation (Koeleman, De rol van communicatie bij verandering, 2002).

2.4 Communication structures

Depending on the type of organisation different communication structures (figure 5) can be used. In a

time where the importance of exchange and sharing throughout the whole organisation is essential,

‘open circle’ structures are probably the most appropriate. This also applies when you look specifically at

digital communication means. These means have powerful qualities such as the ability to instantly share

information with all layers of the organisation and the facilitation of collaboration and exchange. These

means can

understandably

play a key-role in

the quest for

employee

involvement and

awareness.

IC is of such vital importance for an organisation to function, that ideally IC management should be

under the responsibility of the complete management team (Rooij & Grefte, 2000). Whether it is a line,

staff or a project manager, all are responsible and need to make sure that all people within the

organisation (or section) work well together and communicate. Each manager is therefore also a

communication manager. The top level management defines the direction and framework within which

communication in the lower levels should be managed (think for example of the importance of

leadership style as discussed previously in section 2.3).

Figure 6 - Communication Structures (Keuning, 1993)


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2.5 Reflection

In this chapter I looked at prominent theory for (digital) internal communication processes. It was argued

that the role of IC is to enable people to do their job to the best of their abilities, and to ensure everyone

is working together towards the same organisational goal. IC is vital in order to create awareness of the

organisation’s activities, attention for changing needs and circumstances, and to meet the growing

information need of employees. Models help to structure our thoughts on policy. From an introduction

to the most basic communication model (SMMR) which proved to be a bit too simplistic, I moved on to

the ‘communication junction’ model of Van Ruler. I learned that in the ‘multidirectional vision’,

communication is seen as an interactive process where information is being exchanged, or as a means to

negotiate between various parties. Within this vision, two-way, open communication is ensured and all

players are participating actively by sending and receiving. The multidirectional view enables people to

deploy all four communication strategies: informing, persuasion, dialoguing and formation. In this view

we need to be carefully thinking about how to tailor messages (positive versus negative), and consider

the less receptive attitude towards communication between layers in hierarchical organisations. The

importance of feedback/forward loops was discussed. Most of the selected models and theory promote

sharing, dialoguing and collaboration within organisations. Then I looked at the various functions of

communication: the support of the primary process, the promotion of involvement and supporting

processes of change. In line with the changing realities of our society it is important to understand that

communication is becoming a responsibility of the complete management team, not just the

communication manager. The organisational dimensions (structure, culture and leadership style,

communicative skills, information systems and strategy) are inextricably connected to IC.

Now we have a basic comprehension of contemporary theory for IC, we should also have some

understanding of how managers deal with IC and digital media. The next piece of the puzzle lays in the

changes and trends that affect people and organisations in the digital age.


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Chapter 3: Changes and Trends

3.1.1 Social and economical change

“What developments can be seen in relation to internal communication processes with the coming of the

digital age?”

The implications of the ‘digital age’ (or ‘information age’ if you like) are profound and complex and form

enough fuel for much research on its own. Allow me to focus on some essential developments and

emerging technologies.

A central driving factor in the changing reality of (internal) communication is the impact of social and

economical developments. During the last centuries there have been strong waves of change in our

western society. The central and dominant role of agriculture has been systematically replaced by

succeeding industries. This was the result of quickly growing markets and even faster developing

technologies (Hetebrij, 2000), a process that is still ongoing today. Our society is more and more service

oriented which increases the dependency on good communication.

The trend of globalisation strongly affects how professional organisations (need to) operate. A society

with no economic borders, global competition, plenty of opportunities and potential, forces

organisations to deal with communication efficiently and innovatively. In addition many business

processes are outsourced to countries with cheap labour or specific expertise. There is a high

information need within organisations, and sections have to communicate and co-operate more and

more in order to maximise the organisation’s potential (Castells M. , 1996).

3.1.2 Individualisation Not only organisations and society as a whole have been

affected by these processes of change. The psychological

functioning of the individual has changed a well. It is not

that long ago that people could easily judge someone’s

thoughts and ideas on a variety of subjects, based on his

background and appearance. A lot of answers were

Figure 7 - Individualisation


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predefined and self-evident (Hetebrij, 2000). A society, such as found here in the Netherlands, is now

becoming a melting pot of all kinds of ideas, lifestyles, believes and convictions. Individuals are more and

more encouraged to decide for themselves what kind of person they want to be, which lifestyle to have,

which profession to choose and so on. With this notion in the back of our minds it becomes apparent

that the access to information and the ability to communicate and exchange in order to develop your

own principals and ideas is essential in our contemporary society. This process is not limited to the

individual’s private life, but needs acknowledgement in work environments as well.

3.2 Digital technology

The implications of the information age are also seen in practical context; technological advancements of

the last decennia have influenced and forever changed the way in which both individuals and

organisations operate. Think of the impact of telephony, the facsimile machine, computers, the internet,

e-mail, social software and so on. In addition to this is it an interesting discussion to see whether

technology drives the society, or society the technology. “Values and structures of different societies

often define what is technologically desirable and sometimes even what is

technologically permissible, witness the current debate on

genetic engineering” (Papp & Alberts, 1997).

All these technological developments in the end deal to

some extent with information storage and transmission. The

tools and means that are a result of this, changed the way in

which organisations function in relation to their business

processes and the dynamics of their internal environment.

In a report for the UNDP on the information age, the following characteristics of digital technology are

defined (Lallana, 2003):

Integrity: digital data does not suffer deterioration with reproduction;

Media integration: one of the major limitations of many conventional technologies is their

inability to combine media types. With digital data it is easy to combine media such as phones

with video or interactive sound with pictures (multimedia);

Figure 8 - Digital Technology


26

Flexible interaction: the digital domain supports a great variety of interactions, including one-on-

one conferences, one-to-many broadcasts, and everything in between. In addition, these

interactions can be synchronous and in real time;

Transactions: the ability to combine the transactional capability of computers and computer

networks with digital media is another interactive advantage of the digital domain. Placing an

order and finalising a transaction becomes as easy as filling out an electronic form and clicking a

button;

Tailoring: software developed for digital communications and interaction is designed so that

users may tailor their use of the tool and the media;

Editing: the conventional alternatives for manipulating text, sound, images, and video are almost

always more cumbersome or limited than the new digital tools. We can now film and edit our

own movies and put them online in a blink of an eye.

3.3. Knowing how to participate

Next to capital, labour and raw materials; communication is often viewed as the fourth production factor

(Ruler & Lange, Het profiel van de IC-manager, 2002). This makes it all the more important to know how

communication works. Communication can be seen as a moment in a basically continuous, complex and

interactive process, within which involved individuals can - sometimes passive, and sometimes active -

each play a part (Ruler & Lange, Het profiel van de IC-manager, 2002). In view of this notion (where

communication is regarded a production factor) it becomes all the more apparent that organisations

need to invest and innovate in their communication strategy. Social and economical change, the process

of individualisation, and development of digital means all manifest (and quite logically so) in a concept

called the ‘participative web’ or ‘web 2.0’.

“The concept of the participative web is based on an internet increasingly influenced by intelligent web

services that empower users to contribute to developing, rating, collaborating and distributing internet

content and customising internet applications. As the internet is more embedded in people’s lives users

draw on new internet applications to express themselves through user-created content” (Vickery &

Wunsch-Vincent, 2007).


27

The concept of the participative web is coined ‘web 2.0’, and the term is often accredited to Tim O'Reilly,

internet guru and supporter of free software and open source. It basically means using traditional -one-

way traffic- internet applications (web 1.0) in an interactive sense. Even though there is no official

definition of ‘web 2.0’, there is a hierarchical overview of currently popular tools and their level of ‘web

2.0-ness’ which clarifies the meaning effectively. This hierarchy is attached as Appendix A of this thesis

and includes examples of web 1.0 versus web

2.0 applications. While the discussions on the

meaning, functionality and applications of web

2.0 are far from over, internet gurus are

already debating on the future: web 3.0 (also

known as the semantic web). In this future

perspective, artificial intelligence and the

combination of diverse web 2.0 programs are

at the centre. “Web 3.0 will be about mining

‘meaning’, rather than just data, from the

web” (Carr, 2006).

3.4 Implications for Internal Communication

Let us not stray too far away from the scope of this research. What does all this imply for IC?

We have looked at the transitions in society, individuals and technology and seen major shifts from

traditional habits, values, attitudes and behaviour. By now it becomes clear that these shifts change the

way in which individuals (and organisations, which are no more than groups of individuals working

together on a common goal) communicate fundamentally. When an organisation wants to retain,

motivate and include its employees, it cannot ignore the realities and expectations of these people. The

participative web has many applications that can be run and used by an organisation internally: blogs,

wikis, RSS (Really Simple Syndication) and IRC (chat) are just a few examples. Some of these applications

can be used for internal processes, some external and others both ways around. I will focus on internal

usage only.

Figure 9 - What is Web 2.0?


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Implementing systems that encourage and require user-created content (UCC), can have many beneficial

results within an organisation: the empowerment of employees, the decentralisation of decision-making

and the freedom of knowledge to evolve, improve and be shared. It can result in higher involvement and

feeling of acknowledgement of employees, as the (perceived) ‘power’ of information and collaboration is

no longer a process solely coordinated top-down.

The ability to produce UCC and to be able to improve and influence information and policy on, for

example organisational processes, gives the member of the organisation a higher degree of involvement

and perhaps a stronger feeling of satisfaction (the feeling of being valued). This contributes to a policy

that acknowledges a society where individualisation (chapter 3.1.2) is a dominant development.

3.5 Reflection

The second question I looked at was what developments can be seen in relation to internal

communication processes with the coming of the digital age. Strong social and economical developments

transformed the landscape for organisations and their communication forever. These developments are

central driving factors in the changing reality of IC. The process of globalisation and the shift towards

service-oriented businesses results in an increasing need for communication. The process of

individualisation has implications for the manner in which people operate and what their expectations

are (self development and awareness). This process is not limited to the individual’s private life, but

needs acknowledgement in work environments as well. The third factor I considered were the rapid,

ongoing developments and trends in technology; and how all these changes and trends come together in

a concept called the ‘participative web’ (or ‘web 2.0’), where users contribute to developing, rating,

collaborating and distributing content and customising internet applications. These web 2.0 tools can be

used individually, but also by organisations for both internal and external communication activities.

Logically, these digital developments strongly change the way in which individuals and organisations

function. I learned that communication can be seen as a moment in a basically continuous, complex and

interactive process, within which involved individuals can - sometimes passive, and sometimes active -

each play a part. In light of all these changes organisations need to invest and innovate in their

communication strategy.


29

When an organisation wants to retain, motivate and include its employees, it cannot ignore the realities

and expectations of these people, I found that the use of social software and the ability to produce UCC

helps to engage and motivate employees. This contributes to a policy that acknowledges a society where

individualisation (chapter 3.1.2) is a dominant development.

Now that we understand what changes and trends have impact on the functioning of organisations, it is

important to refine the implications of these developments on individuals. Organisations are groups of

people that work together, so what are the skills and characteristics of people in the digital age?

Answering this question will further help in understanding how theory relates to reality (and how to

adapt to this as an organisation).


30

Chapter 4: Digital Natives

4.1 Digital natives, digital IC

In chapter 3 we looked at changes and trends in society and technology, and what these changes mend

for individuals and organisations. People are indeed evolving. In order to better understand the way in

which people of this age operate and perceive the world, and thus how to tailor your organisations’ IC

strategy most effectively, it is important to take a look at what it specifically means to be a member of

the digital age. What are the characteristics, skills and habits, emphasising on work-approach,

information and media usage, of the next generation of communication experts (digital natives)?

One of the leaders in this debate is Marc Prensky. Prensky argues for reformation of educational systems

in order to better deal with what he calls ‘digital natives’. The digital natives are those who are growing

up in the age of readily available digital technology. They think and process information differently in

comparison to ‘digital immigrants’ (those who did not grow up in a digital world and at some point had

to adapt to new technologies). Prensky’s main goal is to reform the way in which we educate our

children. So, considering that the digital natives operate much differently than the immigrants, the

parallel from education to professional life is

easily drawn. I will look at some ideas of

Prensky and relate them to

organisational/communication policy.

“Engagement comes before content”

(Prensky, 'Engage Me or Enrage Me':

Educating Today's 'Digital Native' Learners,

2005). Young people are accustomed to

being connected, to interact, and to work at

‘twitch speed’.

The overview in figure 6 gives us a brief

insight into the significant differences

between digital immigrants and natives. “Our Figure 10 - Digital Immigrants vs. Digital Natives (Prensky, 2001)


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students have changed radically. Today’s students are no longer the people our educational system was

designed to teach.” (Prensky, Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, 2001). In order to keep the natives’

attention and facilitate for them to learn and work professionally, we need to understand and take

advantage of these differences.

Prensky (2005) explains that digital natives have a need to continuously learn, but lack motivation

(within the traditional systems); we need to enable ourselves to grab their attention.

When students finish their schools and universities they arrive at the working place. Just as the

educational systems needs to, perhaps the organisations need to rethink themselves as well. Digital

natives need to be challenged. Understanding how to do this and adjusting policy accordingly will

ultimately lead to better performance for both the organisation and the individual. It becomes essential

to acknowledge and utilise the specific skill sets, habits, demands and abilities of the digital native.

The natives are accustomed to do many things at the same time (parallel processing), they operate as

individuals but are constantly connected (phone, internet, chat etc.) They are visually oriented and very

skilled in finding information, and know that this information is at their fingertips (the internet).

Information needs to be presented, quickly and in compact chunks. They collaborate, co-create, share

and look for information and content online, and all the time.

“Digital natives are looking for 21 century skills: programming, knowledge filtering, using their

connectivity and maximising their hardware. They want it powerful, customisable and they want it to be

their own” (Prensky, 'Engage Me or Enrage Me': Educating Today's 'Digital Native' Learners, 2005). If this

is true, it is important to consider how to meet these needs in order to engage this generation.

In his keynote speech at the Scottish learning Festival (SETT) 2005, Prensky promotes the use of complex

game design for education. The following arguments are in my opinion as valid for communication policy

as they are for education:

Complex game design as a guide for IC:

Focus on user engagement;

Involves frequent, important decisions;

Encourage and teaches self assessment;

Quick feedback;

Achievements;


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Allows engaging themselves.

When an organisation implements means that encourage and facilitate (some of) these elements, it can

start to fully use the potential of the digital natives. These means are found in collaborative software.

Tools such as blogs, RSS, chat, podcasts and wikis (which I will elaborate on in chapter 5), can be used by

organisations to challenge and engage employees, but has many other functions too (e.g. information

management).

4.2 Connectivism

The digital natives/digital immigrants concept of Marc Prensky harvests a lot of attention and is often

referred to in articles and publications on the issue of the ‘digital age’. However there are also critics

such as George Siemens who offer alternatives. Siemens developed a learning theory for today’s learner:

connectivism.

Connectivism is the idea that "the connections that enable

us to learn are more important than our current state of

knowing" (Siemens, Connectivism: A Learning Theory for

the Digital Age, 2004). Connectivism deals with the

question how new media has affected our way of

processing information and how people use such systems

in knowledge creation.

Siemens (2004) explains that: “connectivism is driven by

the understanding that decisions are based on rapidly

altering foundations. New information is continually being

acquired. The ability to draw distinctions between important and unimportant information is vital”.

Some important principles of connectivism are:

Learning is a process of connecting specialised nodes or information sources;

Learning may reside in non-human appliances;

Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning;

Figure 11 - Connectivism (Siemens, 2004)


33

Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill;

Decision-making in itself is a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning of

incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right

answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information climate

affecting the decision.

Siemens (Siemens, Digital natives and immigrants: A concept beyond its best before date, 2007) argues

that educational institutes indeed need to change but not because of the digital natives/immigrants

argument but because of the increasing complexity of society and globalisation. It is not a matter of age

says Siemens (2007): “It is a function of attitude... a mindset of experimentation... experience with

technology. Secondly, education plays a role in society that goes beyond reacting to emerging trends”.

The differences in Siemens’ ideas with regard to Prensky’s vision are compelling. During the case studies

I found out that the distinction between digital natives and immigrants from Prensky’s perspective is

indeed somewhat simplistic. The experiences with digital technology are, considered by the experts I

have interviewed, of far greater importance than age. Siemens and Prensky do both acknowledge and

focus on the importance and power of connectivity. Young people are almost constantly connected and

seek to use their network (and networking skills) to educate themselves, process information and

communicate. They are looking for collaboration, instant access to information, active involvement and

pay-off. They combine all sorts of media imaginable to find (and produce!) information. These

competencies and characteristics have strong potential and implications for internal management of

organisations. Especially now that education is being reconsidered and customised to this reality,

organisations can not fall behind. In the next section I will look at some specific examples of applications

that young people prefer and use frequently.

4.3.1 What we like best Based on which existing research, which applications are favoured and established for use by forthcoming

communication professionals?

As we will find out in this chapter much research has, and is being done to find out what (internet)

applications young people use and prefer. As soon as we understand what these programs are, we can

further study what characterises them. We can ask ourselves the question if these characteristics are

useable in a professional context. Perhaps some applications can be implemented within an organisation


34

and be of added value. Or maybe, we can use these characteristics and technology to improve, or

change, our existing systems for communication and knowledge processes.

4.3.2 Popular social software A research project undertaken in 2007 among 300 Dutch students at University INHOLLAND Rotterdam

(Leander & Rahiminejad, 2007) provided some interesting results:

About 60 percent of all students are online for 1-3 hours a day; of all the sites they visit around 50-70

percent of the students use websites with an educational, administrative (e.g. online banking), news or

entertainment nature. A remarkable 96 percent of the students visits interactive and/or profile sites.

Once presented a list, they had to choose which of the

internet programs they use frequently. The highest

rated programs were: MSN Messenger (94,3%),

Hyves/eBuddies (Dutch networking sites, 68,7%),

YouTube (59,3%) and Wikipedia (59,7%). Furthermore

they are all highly accustomed to the use of e-mail,

blackboard and digital information sources. Research

among Dutch children (age group 9-15) provided

similar results (Wijngaards, Fransen, & Swager, 2006);

they are online for many hours a week and use that

time primarily to connect to others (e.g. MSN and

profile sites).

In the United States researchers found that: “internet users (age 12 to 28 years old) have embraced the

online applications that enable communicative, creative, and social uses. Teens and Generation Y (age

18-28) are significantly more likely than older users to send and receive instant messages, play online

games, create blogs, download music, and search for school information”. A relatively large percentage

(about 20%) of the people creates and actively uses blogs (Fox & Madden, 2005).

Related research found that a staggering 57 percent (approximately 12 million youth) of US teens create

content for the internet. The researchers summarise that the most popular content creating activities

are sharing self-authored content and working on websites for others (Lenhart & Madden, 2005).

It is crystal clear students (and thus the future professionals), want to connect, collaborate and create

content in their private life. And they want to actively share their knowledge and ideas. Competencies

Figure 12 - Highest rated programs (Leander & Rahiminejad)


35

and skills to do this are being learned and developed, and this trend only seems to increase when we

look at the younger generation (teenagers). Perhaps it is possible to harness these skills also in a

professional context?

4.3.3 What do managers think? As we will find out in this section, research is being done about the adoption of social software and

communication means within professional organisations. A problem with the use of these

communication means is that they are often viewed as just another way to spread information. It is

therefore that many organisations do not see the promised advantages of new network technologies

delivered in real life (Slevin, 2000).

However things are looking up. The McKinsey Quarterly conducted a survey on how businesses are using

web 2.0 in January 2007 and received responses from 2,847 executives worldwide. One of their findings

was that more than three-fourths of executives who responded say they plan to maintain or increase

their investments in technology trends that encourage user collaboration, such as peer-to-peer

networking, social networks, and web services (Bughin & Manyika, 2007). Let us take a closer look at the

results:

Figure 13 - Investments in web 2.0 (McKinsey, 2007)


36

Figure 14 - Using web 2.0 (McKinsey, 2007)

Figure 15 - Satisfaction in web 2.0 investments (McKinsey, 2007)


37

These results show us that the adoption process of web 2.0 (in this research not only limited to IC) is

indeed speeding up. Managers seem increasingly aware of the potential and advantages of using these

tools for their organisation. Yet, do they truly understand the implications of web 2.0 technologies for

their organisation, or are they just following buzz? This question requires perhaps further research.

ChangeWave, a USA based research group for business experts, published results in January 2008 of a

survey under 2081 members of its network on corporate usage of web 2.0. About 39 percent of the

respondents (who are business people with a variety of positions in companies) said that their

organisation is willing to use social software; and 24 percent said their company already uses Web 2.0.

Another 8 percent said they will begin using it in the next 12 months. The researchers found that wikis

(20%), blogs (18%) and social networking (15%) are attracting the most attention (Levine, 2008). Besides

external factors, one of the top reasons to invest in web 2.0 found was the ability to improve internal

employee collaboration. Furthermore, of the companies currently using web 2.0 the most used

applications are: wikis (26%), blogs (15%) and social networks (13%).

In the Netherlands the specialist magazine iC (Interne Communicatie) recently published the results of a

survey among 370 internal communicators from the Dutch business world (Mooij & Lammers, 2008). 45

percent of the respondents claimed to use modern media professionally, of which: blogs (27%), MSN

(15%), podcast (5%), social networks (21%), wikis (15%) and 24 percent also uses other applications.

Some of the trends found were that 23 percent felt that IC is playing an increasingly important role in

policy, and even 40 percent said that the use of new media is very important. It was not all good news:

one out of three respondents rates their organisation’s policy on IC as insufficient.

The results of all these surveys show us that social software is indeed taken seriously and is being

implemented increasingly (or at least thought about). Perhaps when even more organisations realise

that social software is so much more than just another means to spread information, web 2.0 will really

take-off in the enterprise world.

4.4 Reflection

In this chapter I looked at the characteristics, skills and habits, emphasising on work-approach,

information and media usage, of the next generation of communication experts (digital natives). People


38

of the digital age are found to operate differently with regard to how they process information and

communicate. Prensky’s learning theory gives insight in what these changes exactly are. The digital

natives have developed various skills that enable them to multi-task, find and produce information and

work at ‘twitch speed’. The parallel from education to the professional world is easily drawn as the

students from today are tomorrow’s professionals. Organisations need acknowledge and understand

these skills, and be creative in order to engage these people and maximise their potential (engagement

comes before content, says Prensky). Additionally I came to the understanding that digital natives have a

powerful need to connect (connectivism), and use their connections to learn. They want to participate,

collaborate and need to be challenged and engaged; the natives expect direct access to information.

What comes to them naturally can be benefited of by professional organisations in means of, for

example, social software and the appropriate IC policy. Just as the educational systems needs to, I

argued that organisations need to rethink themselves as well. Prensky suggests the use of complex game

design for education; some of his points are applicable to professional work as well. Applications

designed in this way to facilitate engagement, decision-making, quick feedback and achievements can

lead to engagement of the native.

Social software offers two important functionalities to an organisation: the practical functionality (e.g.

knowledge management and communication), and functionality as a facilitator of engagement (e.g.

encouraging collaboration among employees).

Siemens’ connectivism approaches the topic of how new media affects our way of processing

information differently. In his view it is not about age but about a mindset, about the increasing




I also looked at which applications are favoured among the younger generation and found that they

spend more and more time on connecting with others, sharing information and creating UCC. Also

organisations are increasingly investing in social software for their communication and information

processes, and knowledge management. The trend clearly shows that there is an increased

understanding of the advantages of web 2.0 in a professional context. Research (ChangeWave) showed

that one of the top reasons to invest in web 2.0 is to improve internal employee collaboration. On the

other hand there is still a lot to learn as not all transition processes are that smooth and successful, it


39

requires more insight into the underlying principles of social software and the digital age. Social software

is not just another means to spread information.

Organisations need to address the question how to harness the enthusiasm and dedication that young

people show in collaborating and connecting privately (MSN, YouTube etc.), and find out what elements

of social software can be taken to the professional field.

There are many web 2.0 tools that show promising characteristics for professional use. In the next

chapter I will focus on a very powerful web 2.0 application in relation to IC: the wiki. What can it

specifically do for the organisation and what are the major advantages?


40

Chapter 5: What Are Wikis?

5.1 WikiWiki

What are wikis? A general answer to this question was already given in the introduction of this report (‘a

wiki is a software program that brings users together and enables them to create and edit pages within

the wiki database freely. It is designed to capture and retain knowledge and to encourage co-creation

and collaboration’). The term wiki is used to refer to both wiki sites and the software used to maintain

them. “Wikis are collections of interlinked documents and files accessible and editable, by web browser”

(Klobas, 2006).

The name wiki is derived from Hawaiian, where wikiwiki means fast. ‘Fast’ is quite symbolic for the core

principles of a wiki. Most wikis are fairly plain and presented with no-nonsense. Information is primarily

delivered and retrieved through text and also quickly edited if necessary. When you change information

on a lemma in a wiki, these changes are shown in real-time. If there is no article on the topic you seek,

you can start building it by one click of the mouse button.

Of all the wikis in the world Wikipedia is clearly the most well-known. In fact, a lot of people do know

Wikipedia but have no idea what a wiki really is! The basic operation and functionality of all wikis is more

or less the same. The software package you choose will determine how your wiki will look like and

Figure 16 - Example of a wiki page (taken from the digital edition of this thesis: www.research-wiki.nl)


41

function, and what its level of customisation is. Most popular wiki packages are open-source which

means they are being developed for (and by) the community, and are free to use and alter. Some

popular wikis are: WikiMedia (which is used for Wikipedia), PBWiki and Twiki. These and many others

can be found at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_wiki_software. In my case study you can

read about some examples of which wikis organisations use.

Wikis could be used for a variety of purposes: online or offline, individually and collectively, through

public or restricted access. You can use it to create a database about camping in France, or to build a

repository for all the knowledge in the world in the form of an online encyclopaedia.

Some of the more popular wikis are highly customisable (especially the open-source variety) by the

means of lay-out, functionality, plug-ins or extensions, security and the integration of other tools.

In her book on wikis Jane Klobas defines some common features of wikis (Klobas, 2006):

Wikis consist of pages accessible from a web browser;

Pages can be edited with ease;

Links can be added with ease;

Pages can be updated in real time;

Wikis are collectively edited;

Wikis keep a history of changes;

Recent changes can be viewed;

Users can be alerted to change (RSS feeds and email);

Search and navigation;

Simple permissions structure (who can do what).

Wikis can be used for may-to-many communication and focus on content. For each topic a specific page

can be created and all information will be put there. There are however no pre-defined rules on how a

wiki should be structured, this is ultimately decided by the community. Some wiki developers started to

address this issue by offering an alternative: the structured wiki. “A structured wiki combines the

benefits of - as it seems like - contradicting worlds of wikis and databases. When you do that you get

something very powerful: A collaborative database environment where knowledge can be shared freely,

and where structure can be added as needed” (Thoeny, 2006). The structured wiki can be helpful for

enterprise users. I will take a closer look at these professional users in the next section.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_wiki_software


42

5.2.1 Let’s meet up! Can wikis be of use in internal communication, knowledge and information processes?

There are a number of arguments why wikis could be used for IC, knowledge and information processes.

Its direct opponent, the corporate intranet offers a lot of functionality but is static; wikis are dynamic and

centre on employee participation. As I also found in the cases certain tasks of internal communication

are deemed suitable for the wiki, however not as a prime and formal means from management or

communication departments. The successful use of the wiki is strongly connected with the corporate

culture. In section 4.3 of the case study report I formulated the following about possible uses of wikis:

“The nature of the wiki is aimed at user participation and collaboration and can be used in this way to

share certain pieces of information but in a bottom-up style. The feasibility and usefulness of

implementation of wikis in communication processes is

therefore not very strong from a management point of view.

Only under limited conditions, and when it matches the

corporate structure and culture can the wiki be used as one of

the means to communicate internally. The interviewees

mentioned a variety of internal communication objectives that a

wiki could play a part in such as competencies, core values,

ambition, empowerment and satisfaction. Yet it is important to

realise that in the true wiki form there can be no continuous

control over top-down communication, and the medium should therefore preferably be viewed as a

reference point and a facilitator of debate. As Martens (Sonologic) argues, technical solutions cannot

resolve social problems.

The wiki invites users to collaborate, share and grow awareness of each other’s activities, but this is not

always necessarily the result. All these activities require time and motivation and will not start by

themselves. The interviewees agree that some formalisation in policy could be beneficial to the success

of the wiki” (Gerrits, 2008).

Communication can be used to increase the involvement and understanding within, and between

segments of the organisation. It can play a role in the re-humanisation of organisational divisions and

functions (Reesink, 2000). Wikis are a possible means for this task. The importance of IC for organisations

and multinationals will only increase in the future. Where business environments are becoming more

Figure 17 - Collaboration


43

dynamic and competitive, the ability to think global and local at the same time becomes crucial. To

facilitate this, a rapid spread of knowledge and information is necessary (Reesink, 2000).

5.2.2 Practical reasons The (structured) wiki could be an effective means to run projects and operational processes. All relevant

information (e.g. reports, best-practice features, work documents, work processes, contact details and

history, planning, project information etc.) can be collectively stored, and easily retrieved or edited

through tagging, search systems, and hyper-linking.

The wiki’s collaborative nature allows users to develop consensus interactively on any given topic. Many

advantages can be seen in the use of wikis for information and communication processes: the freedom

to create and edit, the integration of knowledge from different sources and angles, flexible hyper-linking,

the use of plug-ins, time/space independency, history, RSS, tagging, statistics and personalisation.

5.2.3 Processes of change There is another process where wikis might play a role within organisations, the process of change.

Communication is vital here in order to create support and understanding among the employees.

Perhaps staff can even be included in the decision making process, after all, they will be the ones who

will have to materialise the plans. In processes of change there are various phases (Koeleman, Een

veranderaanpak in zes fasen, 2002):

To notice a problem or opportunity;

Diagnose;

Strategy of change;

Intervention plan;

Interventions;

Evaluation.

By using a wiki in the strategy for change, interventions and evaluation, the employee can be engaged

(Prensky), and the multidirectional view on communication of Van Ruler (Chapter 2.2.3) is realised.

5.2.4 Motivation An additional purpose of communication is often mentioned in articles: the ability to increase motivation

and involvement of staff. Traditional motivation campaigns often lead to bad experiences. This is caused

in the first place by a wrong point of departure. These types of campaigns are insufficiently based on the


44

real motivation and de-motivation factors; they are mostly characterised by conditioning and

stimulation, of which the effect will disappear over time (Vollenhoven & Jaspers, 2000). Wikis can be

viewed as a management tool for motivation as a permanent process, not just as a campaign.

A clear, consistent and recognisable identity is of major importance for an organisation and its

communication. Wikis can be used to communicate (and saturate) this identity throughout the

organisation. Employees can be included, and together think about what the organisation stands for,

wants to achieve, and what they want to achieve individually. The rewarding and interactive nature of

the wiki can potentially lead to more engaged and motivated employees.

5.3 Reflection

We know understand what wikis exactly are and how they can be used in internal communication,

knowledge and information processes. Wikis are designed to capture and retain knowledge, and to

encourage co-creation and collaboration. I found that wikis are highly customisable, and that the

structured wiki can be especially helpful for enterprise users. The wiki is a very powerful knowledge and

information medium. It is an ideal tool to collaborate, co-create and acknowledges the needs of

employees in the digital age. A major benefit of the wiki is that it brings together a wide variety of

functions that previously needed separate applications (with obvious incompatibility issues).

Some argue that there are many risks of using a wiki as a database and knowledge system within an

organisation. Yet, their arguments are primarily built on experiences with Wikipedia, they do not really

apply to a corporate wiki. A wiki can be administrated with restricted access, user registrations (and thus

the rights to create, edit and customise) can be controlled and limited. Each change to the wiki is

recorded in the history of the database and can be traced back (and reversed) to the individual user. One

or more administrator can be placed to supervise all activity on the wiki. There is therefore hardly any

risk (no more than in other systems) for abuse or misinformation. When the system is fully adopted and

actively used, the internal community will improve any incorrect information that may still appear.

I further elaborated on the many practical advantages of using wikis (reduced e-mail traffic, integration

of functions, user collaboration and so on). The German weblog Seibert Media defined a compelling top

ten list of (potential) reasons why each intranet should integrate a wiki (Rauer, 2007):


45

1. Slow down e-mail flood.

2. Topicality, up to date.

3. Open structure.

4. Powerful tools.

5. Flexibility.

6. Operability.

7. Transparency.

8. Certainty.

9. Preservation of resources.

10. Cost-saving.

I would add two more reason to this list: a decrease in document production and an increase in

productivity.

From my case studies I learned that professionals view the wiki as a potential means to fulfil

communication objectives such as the dissemination of competencies, core values, ambition, and

facilitation of empowerment and employee satisfaction. In non-hierarchical, open organisations with a

bottom-up structure, wikis can be seen as a potential fast track to effective internal communication, and

all research (chapter 4.3.3) shows there is an undeniable trend to implement these systems in the

professional field. There is much attention for web 2.0 also in Europe. For example the 2008 Web 2.0

Expo that is being organised in Berlin (Germany) is a major event with big sponsors (e.g. Nokia, Sun and

Adobe). Not only large enterprises such as Google, Intel, Motorola, Yahoo, IBM, Microsoft, Disney, BT,

ING and ABN-AMRO already integrated the use of wiki in their business processes, small and medium

sized companies are doing the same.

I furthermore discussed the use of wikis in processes of change. From a theoretical standpoint there is

potential (engagement and inclusion) in, and no real objection against using a wiki for processes of

change. Yet, as you will find out when reading the case study report, there are other factors to consider

here, such as the organisational structure and culture.

Wikis can be viewed as a management tool for increasing employee motivation as a permanent process,

not just as a campaign.


46

Chapter 6: Reflections

6.1 Conclusions

Let me first recapitulate the conclusions of each chapter.

Which theory for (digital) internal communication processes is currently dominant?

In chapter 2 – Setting the Scene I looked at prominent theory for (digital) internal communication

processes. It was argued that the role of IC is to enable people to do their job to the best of their

abilities, and to ensure everyone is working together towards the same organisational goal. IC is vital in

order to create awareness of the organisation’s activities, attention for changing needs and

circumstances, and to meet the growing information need of employees. From an introduction to the

most basic communication model (SMMR) which proved to be a bit too simplistic, I moved on to the

‘communication junction’ model of Van Ruler. I learned that in the ‘multidirectional vision’,

communication is seen as an interactive process where information is being exchanged, or as a means to

negotiate between various parties. The multidirectional view enables people to deploy all four

communication strategies: informing, persuasion, dialoguing and formation. In this view we need to be

carefully thinking about how to tailor messages (positive versus negative), and consider the less

receptive attitude towards communication between layers in hierarchical organisations. The importance

of feedback/forward loops was discussed. Most of the selected models and theory promote sharing,

dialoguing and collaboration within organisations. In line with the changing realities of our society it is

important to understand that communication is becoming a responsibility of the complete management

team, not just the communication manager. The organisational dimensions (structure, culture and

leadership style, communicative skills, information systems and strategy) are inextricably connected to

IC.

What developments can be seen in relation to internal communication processes with the

coming of the digital age?

In chapter 3 – Changes and Trends I looked at was what developments can be seen in relation to internal

communication processes with the coming of the digital age. Social and economical developments are

central driving factors in the changing reality of IC. The process of globalisation and the shift towards


47

service-oriented businesses results in an increasing need for communication. The process of

individualisation has implications for the manner in which people operate and what their expectations

are (self development and awareness). This process is not limited to the individual’s private life, but

needs acknowledgement in work environments as well. The third factor I considered were the rapid,

ongoing developments and trends in technology; and how all these changes and trends come together in

a concept called the ‘participative web’ (or ‘web 2.0’), where users contribute to developing, rating,

collaborating and distributing content and customising internet applications. These web 2.0 tools can be

used individually, but also by organisations for both internal and external communication activities.

Logically, these digital developments strongly change the way in which individuals and organisations

function. In light of all these changes organisations need to invest and innovate in their communication

strategy.

When an organisation wants to retain, motivate and include its employees, it cannot ignore the realities

and expectations of these people, I found that the use of social software and the ability to produce UCC

helps to engage and motivate employees. This contributes to a policy that acknowledges a society where

individualisation (chapter 3.1.2) is a dominant development.

What are the characteristics, skills and habits, emphasising on work-approach, information

and media usage, of the next generation of communication experts (digital natives)?

Based on which existing research, which applications are favoured and established for use by

forthcoming communication professionals?

In chapter 4 – Digital Natives I looked at the characteristics, skills and habits, emphasising on work-

approach, information and media usage, of the next generation of communication experts (digital

natives). People of the digital age are found to operate differently with regard to how they process

information and communicate. Prensky’s learning theory gives insight in what these changes exactly are.

The digital natives have developed various skills that enable them to multi-task, find and produce

information and work at ‘twitch speed’. The parallel from education to the professional world is easily

drawn as the students from today are tomorrow’s professionals. Organisations need acknowledge and

understand these skills, and be creative in order to engage these people and maximise their potential

(engagement comes before content, says Prensky). Additionally I came to the understanding that digital

natives have a powerful need to connect (connectivism), and use their connections to learn. They want

to participate, collaborate and need to be challenged and engaged; the natives expect direct access to


48

information. What comes to them naturally can be benefited of by professional organisations in means

of, for example, social software and the appropriate IC policy. Just as the educational systems needs to, I

argued that organisations need to rethink themselves as well. Prensky suggests the use of complex game

design for education; some of his points are applicable to professional work as well. Applications

designed in this way to facilitate engagement, decision-making, quick feedback and achievements can

lead to engagement of the native.

Siemens’ connectivism approaches the topic of how new media affects our way of processing

information differently. In his view it is not about age but about a mindset, about the increasing




I also looked at which applications are favoured among the younger generation and found that they

spend more and more time on connecting with others, sharing information and creating UCC. Also

organisations are increasingly investing in social software for their communication and information

processes, and knowledge management. Research (ChangeWave) showed that one of the top reasons to

invest in web 2.0 is to improve internal employee collaboration. On the other hand there is still a lot to

learn as not all transition processes are that smooth and successful, it requires more insight into the

underlying principles of social software and the digital age. Social software is not just another means to

spread information.

Organisations need to address the question how to harness the enthusiasm and dedication that young

people show in collaborating and connecting privately (MSN, YouTube etc.), and find out what elements

of social software can be taken to the professional field.

What are wikis?

Can wikis be of use in internal communication, knowledge and information processes?

Chapter 5 – What Are Wikis? We know understand what wikis exactly are and how they can be used in

internal communication, knowledge and information processes. Wikis are designed to capture and retain

knowledge, and to encourage co-creation and collaboration. I found that wikis are highly customisable,

and that the structured wiki can be especially helpful for enterprise users. The wiki is a very powerful

knowledge and information medium. It is an ideal tool to collaborate, co-create and acknowledges the


49

needs of employees in the digital age. A major benefit of the wiki is that it brings together a wide variety

of functions that previously needed separate applications (with obvious incompatibility issues).

Some argue that there are many risks of using a wiki as a database and knowledge system within an

organisation. Yet, their arguments are primarily built on experiences with Wikipedia, they do not really

apply to a corporate wiki.

I further elaborated on the many practical advantages of using wikis (reduced e-mail traffic, integration

of functions, user collaboration and so on).

From my case studies I learned that professionals view the wiki as a potential means to fulfil

communication objectives such as the dissemination of competencies, core values, ambition, and

facilitation of empowerment and employee satisfaction. In non-hierarchical, open organisations with a

bottom-up structure, wikis can be seen as a potential fast track to effective internal communication, and

all research (chapter 4.3.3) shows there is an undeniable trend to implement these systems in the

professional field. I furthermore discussed the use of wikis in processes of change. From a theoretical

standpoint there is potential (engagement and inclusion) in, and no real objection against using a wiki for

processes of change. Yet, as you will find out when reading the case study report, there are other factors

to consider here, such as the organisational structure and culture.

Wikis can be viewed as a management tool for increasing employee motivation as a permanent process,

not just as a campaign.

6.2 Does the theory need to change?

In this section I will formulate an answer to the main research question of this thesis: Is contemporary

theory for internal communication still apt in the digital age? I will do so by looking at the connections

between theory and wiki and assessing whether change in IC theory is needed.

Where do theory and wikis meet? Wikis can be used to increase the involvement and understanding

within, and between segments of the organisation. An intranet offers a lot of functionality but is static;

wikis are dynamic and centre on employee participation. When the wiki is used in its true sense, the co-

worker becomes the expert. This process ties in with the connectivism concept of George Siemens


50

(Chapter 4.2). The wiki is a bottom-up knowledge creation tool where everyone can contribute to. In

addition it acknowledges and anticipates the needs, expectations, habits and skills of the ‘digital native’.

There is even a way in which the wiki system can challenge the users in the sense of pay-off. There could

be for example statistical reports of who the most active contributors/users of the wiki are. Also the

process of adding something valuable to the organisation in itself is very rewarding. To empower

employees in this way should ultimately lead to maximised performance of the organisation itself.

So, in theory wikis can fulfil certain tasks and objectives of internal communication and are appropriate

for an IC policy with a multidirectional view (Van Ruler). They acknowledge the importance of feedback

loops and direct communication between all layers of the organisation (though the case studies will

show that the wiki is not suitable for all types of organisations).

There is one more question left to answer: is there a need for change in internal communication theory,

and if so, how should this change look like? During the writing process of this thesis I found much theory

and models on IC policy. At first sight a dominant model such as the ‘communication junction’ seems to

fit with the use of social software and wikis. There are however, a view issues that are perhaps not

considered enough in such models.

Social software requires and thrives on user participation, and thus motivation. In contemporary models

this participation is represented in the form of assumed motivation. Two-way communication streams

appear great but are without obligations. When using social software as a serious tool for

communication and knowledge policy, employee participation cannot be without engagement. It is in my

view that active involvement, and participation should be mandatory for a communication policy to

function properly in this context. In order for wikis (and other social software) to work, we cannot

assume that people will ‘just like it’; a clear ambition and goal should be well defined and incorporated in

the communication model of the organisation. This formalisation concept of the wiki is furthermore

found in the case studies I undertook.

Another issue that needs addressing is the nature of digital communication. This kind of communication

has unique qualities in comparison with other media. Digital connections are not depending on time,

place and manner. This way of communicating is highly flexible, and the individual’s attitude towards it is

different with respect to traditional media. Maybe we can adapt the models and theory to better deal

with (and make use of) this notion?


51

There is a final core principle of social software that is not considered enough in communication theory.

In this software there is a paradigm shift where content is owned by the collective, not the individual.

The power is distributed differently, and applied bottom-up (somewhat democratically). This does not

mean there are no rules in communication policy, but these rules will for a large part depend on the

organisational culture, and what the users decide over time. Management is primarily taking on the role

as a facilitator and aim the organisation. Is there a way in which theoretical models for IC can

incorporate this relatively new concept of redefining power?

These questions are not that easy to answer, the idea of using social software as a means for IC is too

fundamental to assess only on the characteristics of that software. I believe that my research clearly

shows what potential functions the wiki could fulfil and what the missing elements are in existing

models, however... As the case studies also revealed, using a wiki requires a specific kind of

organisational culture and structure: open, non-hierarchical organisations that encourage bottom-up

processes, innovation and development. It would be too simplistic to just change IC models to

acknowledge social software without thinking about the organisational culture and structure.

And indeed, there are leading experts and scientist such as Manuel Castells (professor of

communication, technology and society at the University of Southern California) that are developing

theory that assume network communication and horizontal distribution of power (Castells M. , 2007).

Perhaps when experts start addressing the characteristics and implications of social software and digital

natives, in addition to already explored fields such as organisational structure, culture and network

communication (connectivism), new theory for IC can eventually arise.

6.3 Recommendations

Wikis are not just for ICT related organisations, they are for everyone. “It would be wrong, says Philippe

Borremans media lead in Europe for IBM Communications, to assume that this is simply a by-product of

IBM being a leading-edge technology company. ‘It helps, of course, but that is not what it is about,’ he

insists. It reflects the very way IBM does business, rather than the type of business it does” (Melcrum,

2007).


52

One of the most important lessons of the case studies was that almost all wikis start as a bottom-up

initiative, they do not involve a management decision. Only when the wiki has grown to substantial

proportions (and success) is some form of formalisation and facilitation of the management necessary.

When thinking about the implementation of social software, remember that the characteristics of a

medium play an important role in the choice for that medium. User friendliness, and the understanding

of a medium, increases the chance that a system will be accepted (and thus used), and with that the

chance for change in the organisation.

In general, comparative international data on digital content products (wikis) and industries is not

available (Vickery & Wunsch-Vincent, 2007). The nature of these products makes it difficult to quantify

and measure economical and social results. Yet, organisations should not feel deterred because of this as

wiki initiatives are usually bottom-up initiatives that will proof their own success (or failure) in the

organisation.

In order to better match theory (and organisational policies) with social software and the digital age we

need to ask ourselves how theory should be improved (chapter 6.2). This will likely be a gradual process

as social and technological developments in society are very dynamic and will continue to influence

organisations.

Continue to have an open mind for new developments. Wikis are not perfect, nor the final stage of

development. The advantage of web 2.0 for knowledge management is not limited to wikis.

Remember that in order to make a wiki successful, it cannot just be a playground; you have to work to

take away ‘cold feet’ and make active participation mandatory throughout the organisation. A so called

‘wiki champion’ can be of great help to pave the road.

Additionally I collected a few insightful recommendations that anyone starting a wiki should follow:

Do not try to make your contributions near "perfect", it is more effective to post content early

and let the team provide feedback and revise it iteratively;

The right culture for wikis is the talking, negotiating kind;

Think of some practical, compelling reasons to collaborate and share, to encourage others;

Wikis can be intimidating; the wiki pages appear "official" and corporate. Overcome your

own internal resistance to edit existing content;

Offer training and promotion for wiki in your organisation;


53

Switch on RSS to encourage users.

Enterprises invest more and more in social software, yet, do they truly understand the

implications of web 2.0 technologies for their organisation, or are they just following

buzz? This question too requires perhaps further research.

As with all innovations there are rules. The innovation needs to solve a specific problem, hide

complexity, and do something new (Reep, 2006). Without these prerequisites the innovation will fail. It is

therefore important that organisations understand better why, and not just how, they should start using

wikis. Hopefully reports such as this thesis can help here.


54

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Appendix A: The Hierarchy of Web 2.0 Applications

The hierarchy of web 2.0 applications consists of four levels (O'Reilly T. , 2006):

Level 3: The application could ONLY exist on the net, and draws its essential power from the network and

the connections it makes possible between people or applications. These are applications that harness

network effects to get better the more people use them. eBay, craigslist, Wikipedia, del.icio.us, Skype,

(and yes, Dodgeball) meet this test. They are fundamentally driven by shared online activity.

Level 2: The application could exist offline, but it is uniquely advantaged by being online. Flickr is a great

example. You can have a local photo management application (like iPhoto) but the application gains

remarkable power by leveraging an online community. In fact, the shared photo database, the online

community, and the artefacts it creates (like the tag database) is central to what distinguishes Flickr from

its offline counterparts.

Level 1: The application can and does exist successfully offline, but it gains additional features by being

online. Writely is a great example. If you want to do collaborative editing, its online component is terrific,

but if you want to write alone, as Fallows did, it gives you little benefit.

Level 0: The application has primarily taken hold online, but it would work just as well offline if you had

all the data in a local cache. MapQuest, Yahoo! Local, and Google Maps are all in this category. To the

extent that online mapping applications harness user contributions, they jump to Level 2.

O’Reilly further illustrates the concept of web 2.0 by giving examples of web 1.0 versus 2.0 (O'Reilly T. ,

2005):

Web 1.0 Web 2.0

DoubleClick --> Google AdSense Ofoto --> Flickr Akamai --> BitTorrent mp3.com --> Napster Britannica Online --> Wikipedia personal websites --> blogging domain name speculation --> search engine optimisation page views --> cost per click screen scraping --> web services publishing --> participation content management systems --> wikis directories (taxonomy) --> tagging ("folksonomy") stickiness --> syndication.


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Appendix B: Research Plan

In order to be able to answer the thesis questions I need to undertake the following activities:

Qualitative literature research (books, articles and research reports);

Analyse communication models and trends;

Analyse wikis;

Undertake research among experts with regard to their view on ‘web 2.0’ implementations;

Reflect on outcomes of this research and formulate conclusions, recommendations and ideas for

future research/training.

In order to be able to answer the practical research questions I need to undertake the following

activities:

Qualitative literature research (books, articles and research reports);

Document and summarise current state of affairs in the working field;

Formulating framework based on qualitative research;

Undertake qualitative research based on acquired knowledge of previous actions among

communication professionals;

Reflect on outcomes of this research and formulate conclusions, recommendations and ideas for

future research/training.

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