15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 1 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

Obesity

Silhouettes and waist circumferences representing normal, overweight, andobese

Classification and external resources

ICD-10 E66(http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2015/en#/E66)

ICD-9 278 (http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=278)

OMIM 601665 (http://omim.org/entry/601665)

DiseasesDB 9099 (http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb9099.htm)

MedlinePlus 007297(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/007297.htm)

eMedicine med/1653 (http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic1653.htm)

MeSH C23.888.144.699.500(https://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2015/MB_cgi?mode=&term=Obesity&field=entry#TreeC23.888.144.699.500)

ObesityFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Obesity is a medical condition inwhich excess body fat has accumulatedto the extent that it may have anegative effect on health, leading toreduced life expectancy and/orincreased health problems.[1][2] InWestern countries, people areconsidered obese when their bodymass index (BMI),[3] a measurementobtained by dividing a person's weightby the square of the person's height,exceeds 30 kg/m2, with the range25-30 kg/m2 defined as overweight.Some East Asian countries use strictercriteria.

Obesity increases the likelihood ofvarious diseases, particularly heartdisease, type 2 diabetes, obstructivesleep apnea, certain types of cancer,and osteoarthritis.[2] Obesity is mostcommonly caused by a combination ofexcessive food energy intake, lack ofphysical activity, and geneticsusceptibility, although a few cases arecaused primarily by genes, endocrinedisorders, medications, or psychiatricillness. Evidence to support the viewthat some obese people eat little yetgain weight due to a slow metabolismis limited. On average, obese people have a greater energy expenditure than their thin counterparts due to theenergy required to maintain an increased body mass.[4][5]

Dieting and exercising are the main treatments for obesity. Diet quality can be improved by reducing theconsumption of energy-dense foods, such as those high in fat and sugars, and by increasing the intake of dietaryfiber. With a suitable diet, anti-obesity drugs may be taken to reduce appetite or decrease fat absorption. If diet,exercise, and medication are not effective, a gastric balloon may assist with weight loss, or surgery may beperformed to reduce stomach volume and/or bowel length, leading to feeling full earlier and a reduced ability toabsorb nutrients from food.[6][7]

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 2 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

Obesity is a leading preventable cause of death worldwide, with increasing rates in adults and children.Authorities view it as one of the most serious public health problems of the 21st century.[8] Obesity isstigmatized in much of the modern world (particularly in the Western world), though it was widely seen as asymbol of wealth and fertility at other times in history and still is in some parts of the world.[2][9] In 2013, theAmerican Medical Association classified obesity as a disease.[10][11]

Contents1 Classification2 Effects on health

2.1 Mortality2.2 Morbidity2.3 Survival paradox

3 Causes3.1 Diet3.2 Sedentary lifestyle3.3 Genetics3.4 Other illnesses3.5 Social determinants3.6 Infectious agents

4 Pathophysiology5 Public health6 Management7 Epidemiology8 History

8.1 Etymology8.2 Historical attitudes8.3 The arts

9 Society and culture9.1 Economic impact9.2 Size acceptance

10 Childhood obesity11 Other animals12 Notes13 Further reading

ClassificationObesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have anadverse effect on health.[1] It is defined by body mass index (BMI) and further evaluated in terms of fatdistribution via the waist–hip ratio and total cardiovascular risk factors.[12][13] BMI is closely related to bothpercentage body fat and total body fat.[14]

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 3 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

A "super obese" male with a BMI of47 kg/m2: weight 146 kg (322 lb),height 177 cm (5 ft 10 in)

BMI (kg/m2) Classification[17]

from up to18.5 underweight

18.5 25.0 normal weight25.0 30.0 overweight30.0 35.0 class I obesity35.0 40.0 class II obesity40.0 class III obesity

In children, a healthy weight varies with age and sex. Obesity in children and adolescents is defined not as anabsolute number but in relation to a historical normal group, such that obesity is a BMI greater than the95th percentile.[15] The reference data on which these percentiles were based date from 1963 to 1994, and thushave not been affected by the recent increases in weight.[16]

BMI is defined as the subject'sweight divided by the square oftheir height and is calculated asfollows.

,

where m and h are thesubject's weight and heightrespectively.

BMI is usually expressed inkilograms per square metre,resulting when weight is measured in kilograms and height in metres. To convert from pounds per square inchmultiply by 703 (kg/m2)/(lb/sq in).[18]

The most commonly used definitions, established by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1997 andpublished in 2000, provide the values listed in the table at right.[3]

Some modifications to the WHO definitions have been made by particular bodies. The surgical literature breaksdown "class III" obesity into further categories whose exact values are still disputed.[19]

Any BMI ≥ 35 or 40 kg/m2 is severe obesity.A BMI of ≥ 35 kg/m2 and experiencing obesity-related health conditions or ≥40–44.9 kg/m2 is morbidobesity.A BMI of ≥ 45 or 50 kg/m2 is super obesity.

As Asian populations develop negative health consequences at a lower BMI than Caucasians, some nationshave redefined obesity; the Japanese have defined obesity as any BMI greater than 25 kg/m2[20] while Chinauses a BMI of greater than 28 kg/m2.[21]

Effects on healthExcessive body weight is associated with various diseases, particularly cardiovascular diseases, diabetesmellitus type 2, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, osteoarthritis[2] and asthma.[2][22] As a result,obesity has been found to reduce life expectancy.[2]

Mortality

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 4 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

Relative risk of death over 10 years for white men (left) and women(right) who have never smoked in the United States by BMI.[23]

Obesity is one of the leading preventablecauses of death worldwide.[8][24][25] Large-scale American and European studies havefound that mortality risk is lowest at a BMIof 20–25 kg/m2[23][26] in non-smokers andat 24–27 kg/m2 in current smokers, withrisk increasing along with changes in eitherdirection.[27][28] In Asians risk begins toincrease between 22–25 kg/m2.[29] A BMIabove 32 kg/m2 has been associated with adoubled mortality rate among women overa 16-year period.[30] In the United States obesity is estimated to cause 111,909 to 365,000 deaths per year,[2][25]

while 1 million (7.7%) of deaths in Europe are attributed to excess weight.[31][32] On average, obesity reduceslife expectancy by six to seven years,[2][33] a BMI of 30–35 kg/m2 reduces life expectancy by two tofour years,[26] while severe obesity (BMI > 40 kg/m2) reduces life expectancy by ten years.[26]

Morbidity

Obesity increases the risk of many physical and mental conditions. These comorbidities are most commonlyshown in metabolic syndrome,[2] a combination of medical disorders which includes: diabetes mellitus type 2,high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and high triglyceride levels.[34]

Complications are either directly caused by obesity or indirectly related through mechanisms sharing a commoncause such as a poor diet or a sedentary lifestyle. The strength of the link between obesity and specificconditions varies. One of the strongest is the link with type 2 diabetes. Excess body fat underlies 64% of casesof diabetes in men and 77% of cases in women.[35]

Health consequences fall into two broad categories: those attributable to the effects of increased fat mass (suchas osteoarthritis, obstructive sleep apnea, social stigmatization) and those due to the increased number of fatcells (diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease).[2][36] Increases in body fatalter the body's response to insulin, potentially leading to insulin resistance. Increased fat also creates aproinflammatory state,[37][38] and a prothrombotic state.[36][39]

Medical field Condition Medical field Condition

Cardiology

ischemic heart disease:[40] anginaand myocardial infarctioncongestive heart failure[2]

high blood pressure[2]

abnormal cholesterol levels[2]

deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary

Dermatology

stretch marks[42]

acanthosis nigricans[42]

lymphedema[42]

cellulitis[42]

hirsutism[42]

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 5 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

embolism[41] intertrigo[43]

EndocrinologyandReproductivemedicine

diabetes mellitus[2]

polycystic ovarian syndrome[2]

menstrual disorders[2]

infertility[2][44]

complications duringpregnancy[2][44]

birth defects[2]

intrauterine fetal death[44]

Gastrointestinal

gastroesophageal refluxdisease[2][45]

fatty liver disease[2]

cholelithiasis(gallstones)[2]

Neurology

stroke[2]

meralgia paresthetica[46]

migraines[47]

carpal tunnel syndrome[48]

dementia[49]

idiopathic intracranialhypertension[50]

multiple sclerosis[51]

Oncology[52]

esophagealcolorectalpancreaticgallbladder,endometrialkidneyLeukemiamalignant melanoma

Psychiatry depression in women[2]

social stigmatization[2] Respirology

obstructive sleepapnea[2][22]

obesity hypoventilationsyndrome[2][22]

asthma[2][22]

increased complicationsduring generalanaesthesia[2][5]

RheumatologyandOrthopedics

gout[53]

poor mobility[54]

osteoarthritis[2]

low back pain[55]

Urology andNephrology

erectile dysfunction[56]

urinary incontinence[57]

chronic renal failure[58]

hypogonadism[59]

buried penis[60]

Survival paradox

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 6 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

Although the negative health consequences of obesity in the general population are well supported by theavailable evidence, health outcomes in certain subgroups seem to be improved at an increased BMI, aphenomenon known as the obesity survival paradox.[61] The paradox was first described in 1999 in overweightand obese people undergoing hemodialysis,[61] and has subsequently been found in those with heart failure andperipheral artery disease (PAD).[62]

In people with heart failure, those with a BMI between 30.0 and 34.9 had lower mortality than those with anormal weight. This has been attributed to the fact that people often lose weight as they become progressivelymore ill.[63] Similar findings have been made in other types of heart disease. People with class I obesity andheart disease do not have greater rates of further heart problems than people of normal weight who also haveheart disease. In people with greater degrees of obesity, however, the risk of further cardiovascular events isincreased.[64][65] Even after cardiac bypass surgery, no increase in mortality is seen in the overweight andobese.[66] One study found that the improved survival could be explained by the more aggressive treatmentobese people receive after a cardiac event.[67] Another found that if one takes into account chronic obstructivepulmonary disease (COPD) in those with PAD, the benefit of obesity no longer exists.[62]

CausesAt an individual level, a combination of excessive food energy intake and a lack of physical activity is thoughtto explain most cases of obesity.[68] A limited number of cases are due primarily to genetics, medical reasons, orpsychiatric illness.[69] In contrast, increasing rates of obesity at a societal level are felt to be due to an easilyaccessible and palatable diet,[70] increased reliance on cars, and mechanized manufacturing.[71][72]

A 2006 review identified ten other possible contributors to the recent increase of obesity: (1) insufficient sleep,(2) endocrine disruptors (environmental pollutants that interfere with lipid metabolism), (3) decreasedvariability in ambient temperature, (4) decreased rates of smoking, because smoking suppresses appetite, (5)increased use of medications that can cause weight gain (e.g., atypical antipsychotics), (6) proportionalincreases in ethnic and age groups that tend to be heavier, (7) pregnancy at a later age (which may causesusceptibility to obesity in children), (8) epigenetic risk factors passed on generationally, (9) natural selectionfor higher BMI, and (10) assortative mating leading to increased concentration of obesity risk factors (thiswould increase the number of obese people by increasing population variance in weight).[73] While there issubstantial evidence supporting the influence of these mechanisms on the increased prevalence of obesity, theevidence is still inconclusive, and the authors state that these are probably less influential than the onesdiscussed in the previous paragraph.

Diet

Dietary energy supply per capita varies markedly between different regions and countries. It has also changedsignificantly over time.[74] From the early 1970s to the late 1990s the average food energy available per personper day (the amount of food bought) increased in all parts of the world except Eastern Europe. The UnitedStates had the highest availability with 3,654 calories (15,290 kJ) per person in 1996.[74] This increased further

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 7 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

1961 2001–03

Map of dietary energy availability per person per day in 1961 (left) and2001–2003 (right)[74] Calories per person per day (kilojoules perperson per day)

no data

<1,600 (<6,700)

1,600–1,800 (6,700–7,500)

1,800–2,000 (7,500–8,400)

2,000–2,200 (8,400–9,200)

2,200–2,400 (9,200–10,000)

2,400–2,600 (10,000–10,900)

2,600–2,800 (10,900–11,700)

2,800–3,000 (11,700–12,600)

3,000–3,200 (12,600–13,400)

3,200–3,400 (13,400–14,200)

3,400–3,600 (14,200–15,100)

>3,600 (>15,100)

Average per capita energyconsumption of the world from 1961to 2002[74]

in 2003 to 3,754 calories (15,710 kJ).[74]

During the late 1990s Europeans had 3,394calories (14,200 kJ) per person, in thedeveloping areas of Asia there were 2,648calories (11,080 kJ) per person, and in sub-Saharan Africa people had 2,176 calories(9,100 kJ) per person.[74][75] Total foodenergy consumption has been found to berelated to obesity.[76]

The widespread availability of nutritionalguidelines[77] has done little to address theproblems of overeating and poor dietarychoice.[78] From 1971 to 2000, obesityrates in the United States increased from14.5% to 30.9%.[79] During the sameperiod, an increase occurred in the averageamount of food energy consumed. Forwomen, the average increase was 335calories (1,400 kJ) per day (1,542 calories (6,450 kJ) in 1971 and 1,877calories (7,850 kJ) in 2004), while for men the average increase was 168calories (700 kJ) per day (2,450 calories (10,300 kJ) in 1971 and 2,618calories (10,950 kJ) in 2004). Most of this extra food energy came froman increase in carbohydrate consumption rather than fatconsumption.[80] The primary sources of these extra carbohydrates aresweetened beverages, which now account for almost 25 percent of dailyfood energy in young adults in America,[81] and potato chips.[82]

Consumption of sweetened drinks such as soft drinks, fruit drinks, icedtea, and energy and vitamin water drinks is believed to be contributing tothe rising rates of obesity[83][84] and to an increased risk of metabolicsyndrome and type 2 diabetes.[85]

As societies become increasingly reliant on energy-dense, big-portions, and fast-food meals, the associationbetween fast-food consumption and obesity becomes more concerning.[86] In the United States consumption offast-food meals tripled and food energy intake from these meals quadrupled between 1977 and 1995.[87]

Agricultural policy and techniques in the United States and Europe have led to lower food prices. In the UnitedStates, subsidization of corn, soy, wheat, and rice through the U.S. farm bill has made the main sources ofprocessed food cheap compared to fruits and vegetables.[88] Calorie count laws and nutrition facts labelsattempt to steer people toward making healthier food choices, including awareness of how much food energy isbeing consumed.

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 8 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

A 1680 painting by JuanCarreno de Miranda of a girlpresumed to have Prader–Willi syndrome[102]

Obese people consistently under-report their food consumption as compared to people of normal weight.[89]

This is supported both by tests of people carried out in a calorimeter room[90] and by direct observation.

Sedentary lifestyle

A sedentary lifestyle plays a significant role in obesity.[91] Worldwide there has been a large shift towards lessphysically demanding work,[92][93][94] and currently at least 30% of the world's population gets insufficientexercise.[93] This is primarily due to increasing use of mechanized transportation and a greater prevalence oflabor-saving technology in the home.[92][93][94] In children, there appear to be declines in levels of physicalactivity due to less walking and physical education.[95] World trends in active leisure time physical activity areless clear. The World Health Organization indicates people worldwide are taking up less active recreationalpursuits, while a study from Finland[96] found an increase and a study from the United States found leisure-timephysical activity has not changed significantly.[97]

In both children and adults, there is an association between television viewing time and the risk ofobesity.[98][99][100] A review found 63 of 73 studies (86%) showed an increased rate of childhood obesity withincreased media exposure, with rates increasing proportionally to time spent watching television.[101]

Genetics

Like many other medical conditions, obesity is the result of an interplaybetween genetic and environmental factors. Polymorphisms in various genescontrolling appetite and metabolism predispose to obesity when sufficient foodenergy is present. As of 2006, more than 41 of these sites on the human genomehave been linked to the development of obesity when a favorable environment ispresent.[103] People with two copies of the FTO gene (fat mass and obesityassociated gene) have been found on average to weigh 3–4 kg more and have a1.67-fold greater risk of obesity compared with those without the risk allele.[104]

The differences in BMI between people that are due to genetics variesdepending on the population examined from 6% to 85%.[105]

Obesity is a major feature in several syndromes, such as Prader–Willi syndrome,Bardet–Biedl syndrome, Cohen syndrome, and MOMO syndrome. (The term"non-syndromic obesity" is sometimes used to exclude these conditions.)[106] Inpeople with early-onset severe obesity (defined by an onset before 10 years ofage and body mass index over three standard deviations above normal), 7%harbor a single point DNA mutation.[107]

Studies that have focused on inheritance patterns rather than on specific geneshave found that 80% of the offspring of two obese parents were also obese, in contrast to less than 10% of theoffspring of two parents who were of normal weight.[108] Different people exposed to the same environment

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 9 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

The disease scroll (Yamai no soshi,late 12th century) depicts a womanmoneylender with obesity, considereda disease of the rich.

have different risks of obesity due to their underlying genetics.[109]

The thrifty gene hypothesis postulates that, due to dietary scarcity during human evolution, people are prone toobesity. Their ability to take advantage of rare periods of abundance by storing energy as fat would beadvantageous during times of varying food availability, and individuals with greater adipose reserves would bemore likely to survive famine. This tendency to store fat, however, would be maladaptive in societies withstable food supplies.[110] This theory has received various criticisms, and other evolutionarily-based theoriessuch as the drifty gene hypothesis and the thrifty phenotype hypothesis have also been proposed.[111][112]

Other illnesses

Certain physical and mental illnesses and the pharmaceutical substances used to treat them can increase risk ofobesity. Medical illnesses that increase obesity risk include several rare genetic syndromes (listed above) as wellas some congenital or acquired conditions: hypothyroidism, Cushing's syndrome, growth hormonedeficiency,[113] and the eating disorders: binge eating disorder and night eating syndrome.[2] However, obesityis not regarded as a psychiatric disorder, and therefore is not listed in the DSM-IVR as a psychiatric illness.[114]

The risk of overweight and obesity is higher in patients with psychiatric disorders than in persons withoutpsychiatric disorders.[115]

Certain medications may cause weight gain or changes in body composition; these include insulin,sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, atypical antipsychotics, antidepressants, steroids, certain anticonvulsants(phenytoin and valproate), pizotifen, and some forms of hormonal contraception.[2]

Social determinants

While genetic influences are important to understanding obesity, theycannot explain the current dramatic increase seen within specificcountries or globally.[116] Though it is accepted that energy consumptionin excess of energy expenditure leads to obesity on an individual basis,the cause of the shifts in these two factors on the societal scale is muchdebated. There are a number of theories as to the cause but most believeit is a combination of various factors.

The correlation between social class and BMI varies globally. A reviewin 1989 found that in developed countries women of a high social classwere less likely to be obese. No significant differences were seen amongmen of different social classes. In the developing world, women, men,and children from high social classes had greater rates of obesity.[117]

An update of this review carried out in 2007 found the samerelationships, but they were weaker. The decrease in strength ofcorrelation was felt to be due to the effects of globalization.[118] Amongdeveloped countries, levels of adult obesity, and percentage of teenage

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 10 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

children who are overweight, are correlated with income inequality. A similar relationship is seen among USstates: more adults, even in higher social classes, are obese in more unequal states.[119]

Many explanations have been put forth for associations between BMI and social class. It is thought that indeveloped countries, the wealthy are able to afford more nutritious food, they are under greater social pressureto remain slim, and have more opportunities along with greater expectations for physical fitness. In undevelopedcountries the ability to afford food, high energy expenditure with physical labor, and cultural values favoring alarger body size are believed to contribute to the observed patterns.[118] Attitudes toward body weight held bypeople in one's life may also play a role in obesity. A correlation in BMI changes over time has been foundamong friends, siblings, and spouses.[120] Stress and perceived low social status appear to increase risk ofobesity.[119][121][122]

Smoking has a significant effect on an individual's weight. Those who quit smoking gain an average of4.4 kilograms (9.7 lb) for men and 5.0 kilograms (11.0 lb) for women over ten years.[123] However, changingrates of smoking have had little effect on the overall rates of obesity.[124]

In the United States the number of children a person has is related to their risk of obesity. A woman's riskincreases by 7% per child, while a man's risk increases by 4% per child.[125] This could be partly explained bythe fact that having dependent children decreases physical activity in Western parents.[126]

In the developing world urbanization is playing a role in increasing rate of obesity. In China overall rates ofobesity are below 5%; however, in some cities rates of obesity are greater than 20%.[127]

Malnutrition in early life is believed to play a role in the rising rates of obesity in the developing world.[128]

Endocrine changes that occur during periods of malnutrition may promote the storage of fat once more foodenergy becomes available.[128]

Consistent with cognitive epidemiological data, numerous studies confirm that obesity is associated withcognitive deficits.[129] Whether obesity causes cognitive deficits, or vice versa is unclear at present.

Infectious agents

The study of the effect of infectious agents on metabolism is still in its early stages. Gut flora has been shown todiffer between lean and obese humans. There is an indication that gut flora in obese and lean individuals canaffect the metabolic potential. This apparent alteration of the metabolic potential is believed to confer a greatercapacity to harvest energy contributing to obesity. Whether these differences are the direct cause or the result ofobesity has yet to be determined unequivocally.[130]

An association between viruses and obesity has been found in humans and several different animal species. Theamount that these associations may have contributed to the rising rate of obesity is yet to be determined.[131]

Pathophysiology

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 11 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

A comparison of a mouse unable toproduce leptin thus resulting inobesity (left) and a normal mouse(right)

A graphic depiction of a leptinmolecule

There are many possible pathophysiological mechanisms involved in thedevelopment and maintenance of obesity.[132] This field of research hadbeen almost unapproached until the leptin gene was discovered in 1994by J. M. Friedman's laboratory.[133] These investigators postulated thatleptin was a satiety factor. In the ob/ob mouse, mutations in the leptingene resulted in the obese phenotype opening the possibility of leptintherapy for human obesity. However, soon thereafter J. F. Caro'slaboratory could not detect any mutations in the leptin gene in humanswith obesity. On the contrary Leptin expression was increased proposingthe possibility of Leptin-resistance in human obesity.[134] Since thisdiscovery, many other hormonal mechanisms have been elucidated thatparticipate in the regulation of appetite and food intake, storage patternsof adipose tissue, and development of insulin resistance. Since leptin'sdiscovery, ghrelin, insulin, orexin, PYY 3-36, cholecystokinin, adiponectin, as well as many other mediatorshave been studied. The adipokines are mediators produced by adipose tissue; their action is thought to modifymany obesity-related diseases.

Leptin and ghrelin are considered to be complementary in their influence on appetite, with ghrelin produced bythe stomach modulating short-term appetitive control (i.e. to eat when the stomach is empty and to stop whenthe stomach is stretched). Leptin is produced by adipose tissue to signal fat storage reserves in the body, andmediates long-term appetitive controls (i.e. to eat more when fat storages are low and less when fat storages arehigh). Although administration of leptin may be effective in a small subset of obese individuals who are leptindeficient, most obese individuals are thought to be leptin resistant and have been found to have high levels ofleptin.[135] This resistance is thought to explain in part why administration of leptin has not been shown to beeffective in suppressing appetite in most obese people.[132]

While leptin and ghrelin are produced peripherally, they control appetitethrough their actions on the central nervous system. In particular, theyand other appetite-related hormones act on the hypothalamus, a regionof the brain central to the regulation of food intake and energyexpenditure. There are several circuits within the hypothalamus thatcontribute to its role in integrating appetite, the melanocortin pathwaybeing the most well understood.[132] The circuit begins with an area ofthe hypothalamus, the arcuate nucleus, that has outputs to the lateralhypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), the brain'sfeeding and satiety centers, respectively.[136]

The arcuate nucleus contains two distinct groups of neurons.[132] Thefirst group coexpresses neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide

(AgRP) and has stimulatory inputs to the LH and inhibitory inputs to the VMH. The second group coexpressespro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) and has stimulatoryinputs to the VMH and inhibitory inputs to the LH. Consequently, NPY/AgRP neurons stimulate feeding andinhibit satiety, while POMC/CART neurons stimulate satiety and inhibit feeding. Both groups of arcuate

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 12 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

nucleus neurons are regulated in part by leptin. Leptin inhibits the NPY/AgRP group while stimulating thePOMC/CART group. Thus a deficiency in leptin signaling, either via leptin deficiency or leptin resistance, leadsto overfeeding and may account for some genetic and acquired forms of obesity.[132]

Public healthThe World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that overweight and obesity may soon replace more traditionalpublic health concerns such as undernutrition and infectious diseases as the most significant cause of poorhealth.[137] Obesity is a public health and policy problem because of its prevalence, costs, and healtheffects.[138] The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening for all adults followed bybehavioral interventions in those who are obese.[139] Public health efforts seek to understand and correct theenvironmental factors responsible for the increasing prevalence of obesity in the population. Solutions look atchanging the factors that cause excess food energy consumption and inhibit physical activity. Efforts includefederally reimbursed meal programs in schools, limiting direct junk food marketing to children,[140] anddecreasing access to sugar-sweetened beverages in schools.[141] When constructing urban environments, effortshave been made to increase access to parks and to develop pedestrian routes.[142]

Many countries and groups have published reports pertaining to obesity. In 1998 the first US Federal guidelineswere published, titled "Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight andObesity in Adults: The Evidence Report".[143] In 2006 the Canadian Obesity Network published the "CanadianClinical Practice Guidelines (CPG) on the Management and Prevention of Obesity in Adults and Children".This is a comprehensive evidence-based guideline to address the management and prevention of overweight andobesity in adults and children.[68]

In 2004, the United Kingdom Royal College of Physicians, the Faculty of Public Health and the Royal Collegeof Paediatrics and Child Health released the report "Storing up Problems", which highlighted the growingproblem of obesity in the UK.[144] The same year, the House of Commons Health Select Committee publishedits "most comprehensive inquiry [...] ever undertaken" into the impact of obesity on health and society in theUK and possible approaches to the problem.[145] In 2006, the National Institute for Health and ClinicalExcellence (NICE) issued a guideline on the diagnosis and management of obesity, as well as policyimplications for non-healthcare organizations such as local councils.[146] A 2007 report produced by Sir DerekWanless for the King's Fund warned that unless further action was taken, obesity had the capacity to cripple theNational Health Service financially.[147]

Comprehensive approaches are being looked at to address the rising rates of obesity. The Obesity Policy Action(OPA) framework divides measure into 'upstream' policies, 'midstream' policies, 'downstream' policies.'Upstream' policies look at changing society, 'midstream' policies try to alter individuals' behavior to preventobesity, and 'downstream' policies try to treat currently afflicted people.[148]

Management

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 13 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

The main treatment for obesity consists of dieting and physical exercise.[68] Diet programs may produce weightloss over the short term,[149] but maintaining this weight loss is frequently difficult and often requires makingexercise and a lower food energy diet a permanent part of a person's lifestyle.[150][151] All types of low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets appear equally beneficial.[152] The heart disease and diabetes risks associatedwith different diets also appear to be similar.[153] Success rates of long-term weight loss maintenance withlifestyle changes are low, ranging from 2–20%.[154] Dietary and lifestyle changes are effective in limitingexcessive weight gain in pregnancy and improve outcomes for both the mother and the child.[155] Intensivebehavioral counseling is recommended in those who are both obese and have other risk factors for heartdisease.[156]

Three medications, orlistat (Xenical), lorcaserin (Belviq) and a combination of phentermine and topiramate(Qsymia) are currently available and have evidence for long term use.[157] Weight loss with orlistat is modest,an average of 2.9 kg (6.4 lb) at 1 to 4 years.[158] Its use is associated with high rates of gastrointestinal sideeffects[158] and concerns have been raised about negative effects on the kidneys.[159] The other two medicationsare available in the United States but not Europe.[160] Lorcaserin results in an average 3.1 kg weight loss (3% ofbody weight) greater than placebo over a year;[161] however, it may increase heart valve problems.[160] Acombination of phentermine and topiramate is also somewhat effective;[162] however, it may be associated withheart problems.[160] There is no information on how these drugs affect longer-term complications of obesitysuch as cardiovascular disease or death.[157]

The most effective treatment for obesity is bariatric surgery.[163] Surgery for severe obesity is associated withlong-term weight loss, improvement in obesity related conditions,[164] and decreased overall mortality. Onestudy found a weight loss of between 14% and 25% (depending on the type of procedure performed) at10 years, and a 29% reduction in all cause mortality when compared to standard weight loss measures.[165]

Complications occur in about 17% of cases and reoperation is needed in 7% of cases.[164] Due to its cost andrisks, researchers are searching for other effective yet less invasive treatments including devices that occupyspace in the stomach.[166]

EpidemiologyIn earlier historical periods obesity was rare, and achievable only by a small elite, although already recognisedas a problem for health. But as prosperity increased in the Early Modern period, it affected increasingly largergroups of the population.[168] In 1997 the WHO formally recognized obesity as a global epidemic.[81] As of2008 the WHO estimates that at least 500 million adults (greater than 10%) are obese, with higher rates amongwomen than men.[169] The rate of obesity also increases with age at least up to 50 or 60 years old[170] andsevere obesity in the United States, Australia, and Canada is increasing faster than the overall rate ofobesity.[19][171][172]

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 14 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

World obesity prevalence among males (left) and females (right).[167]

<5%

5–10%

10–15%

15–20%

20–25%

25–30%

30–35%

35–40%

40–45%

45–50%

50–55%

>55%

Once considered a problem only of high-income countries, obesity rates are risingworldwide and affecting both thedeveloped and developing world.[31] Theseincreases have been felt most dramaticallyin urban settings.[169] The only remainingregion of the world where obesity is notcommon is sub-Saharan Africa.[2]

History

Etymology

Obesity is from the Latin obesitas, which means "stout, fat, or plump". Ēsus is the past participle of edere (toeat), with ob (over) added to it.[173] The Oxford English Dictionary documents its first usage in 1611 by RandleCotgrave.[174]

Historical attitudes

Ancient Greek medicine recognizes obesity as a medical disorder, and records that the Ancient Egyptians saw itin the same way.[168] Hippocrates wrote that "Corpulence is not only a disease itself, but the harbinger ofothers".[2] The Indian surgeon Sushruta (6th century BCE) related obesity to diabetes and heart disorders.[176]

He recommended physical work to help cure it and its side effects.[176] For most of human history mankindstruggled with food scarcity.[177] Obesity has thus historically been viewed as a sign of wealth and prosperity. Itwas common among high officials in Europe in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance[175] as well as in AncientEast Asian civilizations.[178]

With the onset of the industrial revolution it was realized that the military and economic might of nations weredependent on both the body size and strength of their soldiers and workers.[81] Increasing the average bodymass index from what is now considered underweight to what is now the normal range played a significant rolein the development of industrialized societies.[81] Height and weight thus both increased through the19th century in the developed world. During the 20th century, as populations reached their genetic potential forheight, weight began increasing much more than height, resulting in obesity.[81] In the 1950s increasing wealthin the developed world decreased child mortality, but as body weight increased heart and kidney disease becamemore common.[81][179] During this time period insurance companies realized the connection between weightand life expectancy and increased premiums for the obese.[2]

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 15 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

During the Middle Ages andthe Renaissance obesity wasoften seen as a sign ofwealth, and was relativelycommon among the elite:The Tuscan GeneralAlessandro del Borro,attributed to Charles Mellin,1645[175]

Venus of Willendorf created24,000–22,000 BC

Many cultures throughout history have viewed obesity as the result of acharacter flaw. The obesus or fat character in Greek comedy was a glutton andfigure of mockery. During Christian times food was viewed as a gateway to thesins of sloth and lust.[9] In modern Western culture, excess weight is oftenregarded as unattractive, and obesity is commonly associated with variousnegative stereotypes. People of all ages can face social stigmatization, and maybe targeted by bullies or shunned by their peers.[180]

Public perceptions in Western society regarding healthy body weight differ fromthose regarding the weight that is considered ideal – and both have changedsince the beginning of the 20th century. The weight that is viewed as an idealhas become lower since the 1920s. This is illustrated by the fact that the averageheight of Miss America pageant winners increased by 2% from 1922 to 1999,while their average weight decreased by 12%.[181] On the other hand, people'sviews concerning healthy weight have changed in the opposite direction. InBritain the weight at which people considered themselves to be overweight wassignificantly higher in 2007 than in 1999.[182] These changes are believed to bedue to increasing rates of adiposity leading to increased acceptance of extrabody fat as being normal.[182]

Obesity is still seen as a sign of wealth and well-being in many parts of Africa.This has become particularly common since the HIV epidemic began.[2]

The arts

The first sculptural representations of the human body 20,000–35,000 years agodepict obese females. Some attribute the Venus figurines to the tendency toemphasize fertility while others feel they represent "fatness" in the people of thetime.[9] Corpulence is, however, absent in both Greek and Roman art, probablyin keeping with their ideals regarding moderation. This continued through muchof Christian European history, with only those of low socioeconomic statusbeing depicted as obese.[9]

During the Renaissance some of the upper class began flaunting their large size,as can be seen in portraits of Henry VIII of England and Alessandro delBorro.[9] Rubens (1577–1640) regularly depicted full-bodied women in hispictures, from which derives the term Rubenesque. These women, however, stillmaintained the "hourglass" shape with its relationship to fertility.[183] During the19th century, views on obesity changed in the Western world. After centuries ofobesity being synonymous with wealth and social status, slimness began to beseen as the desirable standard.[9]

Society and culture

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 16 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

Services must accommodate obesepeople with specialist equipment suchas much wider chairs.[192]

Economic impact

In addition to its health impacts, obesity leads to many problems including disadvantages inemployment[184][185] and increased business costs. These effects are felt by all levels of society fromindividuals, to corporations, to governments.

In 2005, the medical costs attributable to obesity in the US were an estimated $190.2 billion or 20.6% of allmedical expenditures,[186][187][188] while the cost of obesity in Canada was estimated at CA$2 billion in 1997(2.4% of total health costs).[68] The total annual direct cost of overweight and obesity in Australia in 2005 wasA$21 billion. Overweight and obese Australians also received A$35.6 billion in government subsidies.[189] Theestimate range for annual expenditures on diet products is $40 billion to $100 billion in the US alone.[190]

Obesity prevention programs have been found to reduce the cost of treating obesity-related disease. However,the longer people live, the more medical costs they incur. Researchers therefore conclude that reducing obesitymay improve the public's health, but it is unlikely to reduce overall health spending.[191]

Obesity can lead to social stigmatization and disadvantages inemployment.[184] When compared to their normal weight counterparts,obese workers on average have higher rates of absenteeism from workand take more disability leave, thus increasing costs for employers anddecreasing productivity.[193] A study examining Duke Universityemployees found that people with a BMI over 40 kg/m2 filed twice asmany workers' compensation claims as those whose BMI was 18.5–24.9 kg/m2. They also had more than 12 times as many lost work days.The most common injuries in this group were due to falls and lifting,thus affecting the lower extremities, wrists or hands, and backs.[194] TheAlabama State Employees' Insurance Board approved a controversialplan to charge obese workers $25 a month for health insurance thatwould otherwise be free unless they take steps to lose weight andimprove their health. These measures started in January 2010 and apply

to those state workers whose BMI exceeds 35 kg/m2 and who fail to make improvements in their health afterone year.[195]

Some research shows that obese people are less likely to be hired for a job and are less likely to bepromoted.[180] Obese people are also paid less than their non-obese counterparts for an equivalent job; obesewomen on average make 6% less and obese men make 3% less.[196]

Specific industries, such as the airline, healthcare and food industries, have special concerns. Due to rising ratesof obesity, airlines face higher fuel costs and pressures to increase seating width.[197] In 2000, the extra weightof obese passengers cost airlines US$275 million.[198] The healthcare industry has had to invest in specialfacilities for handling severely obese patients, including special lifting equipment and bariatric ambulances.[199]

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 17 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

United States PresidentWilliam Howard Taft wasoften ridiculed for beingoverweight

Costs for restaurants are increased by litigation accusing them of causing obesity.[200] In 2005 the US Congressdiscussed legislation to prevent civil lawsuits against the food industry in relation to obesity; however, it did notbecome law.[200]

With the American Medical Association's 2013 classification of obesity as a chronic disease,[10] it is thoughtthat health insurance companies will more likely pay for obesity treatment, counseling and surgery, and the costof research and development of fat treatment pills or gene therapy treatments should be more affordable ifinsurers help to subsidize their cost.[201] The AMA classification is not legally binding, however, so healthinsurers still have the right to reject coverage for a treatment or procedure.[201]

In 2014, The European Court of Justice ruled that morbid obesity is a disability. The Court argued that if anemployee's obesity prevents him from "full and effective participation of that person in professional life on anequal basis with other workers", then it shall be considered a disability and that firing someone on such groundsis discriminatory.[202]

Size acceptance

The principal goal of the fat acceptance movement is to decrease discriminationagainst people who are overweight and obese.[203][204] However, some in themovement are also attempting to challenge the established relationship betweenobesity and negative health outcomes.[205]

A number of organizations exist that promote the acceptance of obesity. They haveincreased in prominence in the latter half of the 20th century.[206] The US-basedNational Association to Advance Fat Acceptance (NAAFA) was formed in 1969and describes itself as a civil rights organization dedicated to ending sizediscrimination.[207]

The International Size Acceptance Association (ISAA) is a non-governmentalorganization (NGO) which was founded in 1997. It has more of a global orientationand describes its mission as promoting size acceptance and helping to end weight-based discrimination.[208] These groups often argue for the recognition of obesityas a disability under the US Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA). TheAmerican legal system, however, has decided that the potential public health costsexceed the benefits of extending this anti-discrimination law to cover obesity.[205]

Childhood obesityThe healthy BMI range varies with the age and sex of the child. Obesity in children and adolescents is definedas a BMI greater than the 95th percentile.[15] The reference data that these percentiles are based on is from 1963to 1994 and thus has not been affected by the recent increases in rates of obesity.[16] Childhood obesity has

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 18 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

reached epidemic proportions in the 21st century, with rising rates in both the developed and developing world.Rates of obesity in Canadian boys have increased from 11% in the 1980s to over 30% in the 1990s, whileduring this same time period rates increased from 4 to 14% in Brazilian children.[209]

As with obesity in adults, many factors contribute to the rising rates of childhood obesity. Changing diet anddecreasing physical activity are believed to be the two most important causes for the recent increase in theincidence of child obesity.[210] Because childhood obesity often persists into adulthood and is associated withnumerous chronic illnesses, children who are obese are often tested for hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia,and fatty liver.[68] Treatments used in children are primarily lifestyle interventions and behavioral techniques,although efforts to increase activity in children have had little success.[211] In the United States, medications arenot FDA approved for use in this age group.[209]

Other animalsObesity in pets is common in many countries. In the United States, 23–41% of dogs are overweight, and about5.1% are obese.[212] The rate of obesity in cats was slightly higher at 6.4%.[212] In Australia the rate of obesityamong dogs in a veterinary setting has been found to be 7.6%.[213] The risk of obesity in dogs is related towhether or not their owners are obese; however, there is no similar correlation between cats and theirowners.[214]

Notes1. WHO 2000 p.62. Haslam DW, James WP (2005). "Obesity". Lancet (Review) 366 (9492): 1197–209. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-

1 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2805%2967483-1). PMID 16198769(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16198769).

3. WHO 2000 p.94. Kushner, Robert (2007). Treatment of the Obese Patient (Contemporary Endocrinology) (http://books.google.com/?

id=vWjK5etS7PMC). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. p. 158. ISBN 1-59745-400-1. Retrieved April 5, 2009.5. Adams JP, Murphy PG (July 2000). "Obesity in anaesthesia and intensive care"

(http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/85/1/91). Br J Anaesth 85 (1): 91–108. doi:10.1093/bja/85.1.91(https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fbja%2F85.1.91). PMID 10927998 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10927998).

6. NICE 2006 p.10–117. Imaz I, Martínez-Cervell C, García-Alvarez EE, Sendra-Gutiérrez JM, González-Enríquez J (July 2008). "Safety and

effectiveness of the intragastric balloon for obesity. A meta-analysis". Obes Surg 18 (7): 841–6. doi:10.1007/s11695-007-9331-8 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11695-007-9331-8). PMID 18459025(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18459025).

8. Barness LA, Opitz JM, Gilbert-Barness E (December 2007). "Obesity: genetic, molecular, and environmental aspects".American Journal of Medical Genetics 143A (24): 3016–34. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.32035(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fajmg.a.32035). PMID 18000969 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000969).

9. Woodhouse R (2008). "Obesity in art: A brief overview" (http://books.google.com/?id=nXRU4Ea1aMkC&pg=PA271&lpg=PA271). Front Horm Res. Frontiers of Hormone Research 36: 271–86.doi:10.1159/000115370 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1159%2F000115370). ISBN 978-3-8055-8429-6. PMID 18230908(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18230908).

10. Pollack, Andrew (June 18, 2013). "A.M.A. Recognizes Obesity as a Disease" (http://www.webcitation.org/6Hav05TK0).New York Times. Archived from the original (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/19/business/ama-recognizes-obesity-as-a-disease.html?_r=0) on June 18, 2013.

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 19 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

a-disease.html?_r=0) on June 18, 2013.11. Weinstock, Matthew (June 21, 2013). "The Facts About Obesity"

(http://www.hhnmag.com/hhnmag/HHNDaily/HHNDailyDisplay.dhtml?id=5870001020). H&HN. American HospitalAssociation. Retrieved June 24, 2013.

12. Sweeting HN (2007). "Measurement and Definitions of Obesity In Childhood and Adolescence: A field guide for theuninitiated" (http://www.nutritionj.com/content/6/1/32). Nutr J 6 (1): 32. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-6-32(https://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1475-2891-6-32). PMC 2164947(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2164947). PMID 17963490(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17963490).

13. NHLBI p.xiv14. Gray DS, Fujioka K (1991). "Use of relative weight and Body Mass Index for the determination of adiposity". J Clin

Epidemiol 44 (6): 545–50. doi:10.1016/0895-4356(91)90218-X (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0895-4356%2891%2990218-X). PMID 2037859 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2037859).

15. "Healthy Weight: Assessing Your Weight: BMI: About BMI for Children and Teens"(http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/childrens_BMI/about_childrens_BMI.htm). Center fordisease control and prevention. Retrieved April 6, 2009.

16. Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Wei R, Kuczmarski RL, Johnson CL (June 2001). "Prevalence of overweight in US children:comparison of US growth charts from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention with other reference values forbody mass index" (http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/73/6/1086). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 73 (6): 1086–93. PMID 11382664(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11382664).

17. "BMI classification" (http://apps.who.int/bmi/index.jsp?introPage=intro_3.html). World Health Organization. Retrieved15 February 2014.

18. 1 (lb/sq in) is more precisely 703.06957964 (kg/m2).19. Sturm R (July 2007). "Increases in morbid obesity in the USA: 2000–2005"

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2864630). Public Health 121 (7): 492–6.doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2007.01.006 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.puhe.2007.01.006). PMC 2864630(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2864630). PMID 17399752(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17399752).

20. Kanazawa M, Yoshiike N, Osaka T, Numba Y, Zimmet P, Inoue S (December 2002). "Criteria and classification ofobesity in Japan and Asia-Oceania". Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 11 Suppl 8: S732–S737. doi:10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s8.19.x(https://dx.doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1440-6047.11.s8.19.x). PMID 12534701(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12534701).

21. Bei-Fan Z (December 2002). "Predictive values of body mass index and waist circumference for risk factors of certainrelated diseases in Chinese adults: study on optimal cut-off points of body mass index and waist circumference inChinese adults". Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 11 Suppl 8: S685–93. doi:10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s8.9.x(https://dx.doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1440-6047.11.s8.9.x). PMID 12534691(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12534691).

22. Poulain M, Doucet M, Major GC, Drapeau V, Sériès F, Boulet LP, Tremblay A, Maltais F (April 2006). "The effect ofobesity on chronic respiratory diseases: pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies"(http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/174/9/1293). CMAJ 174 (9): 1293–9. doi:10.1503/cmaj.051299(https://dx.doi.org/10.1503%2Fcmaj.051299). PMC 1435949(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1435949). PMID 16636330(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16636330).

23. Berrington de Gonzalez A, Hartge P, Cerhan JR, Flint AJ, Hannan L, MacInnis RJ, Moore SC, Tobias GS, Anton-CulverH, Freeman LB, Beeson WL, Clipp SL, English DR, Folsom AR, Freedman DM, Giles G, Hakansson N, Henderson KD,Hoffman-Bolton J, Hoppin JA, Koenig KL, Lee IM, Linet MS, Park Y, Pocobelli G, Schatzkin A, Sesso HD, WeiderpassE, Willcox BJ, Wolk A, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Willett WC, Thun MJ (2010). "Body-mass index and mortality among1.46 million white adults" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3066051). The New England Journal ofMedicine 363 (23): 2211–9. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1000367 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa1000367).PMC 3066051 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3066051). PMID 21121834(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21121834).

24. Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL (March 2004). "Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000"(http://www.csdp.org/research/1238.pdf) (PDF). JAMA 291 (10): 1238–45. doi:10.1001/jama.291.10.1238

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 20 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

(http://www.csdp.org/research/1238.pdf) (PDF). JAMA 291 (10): 1238–45. doi:10.1001/jama.291.10.1238(https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.291.10.1238). PMID 15010446 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15010446).

25. Allison DB, Fontaine KR, Manson JE, Stevens J, VanItallie TB (October 1999). "Annual deaths attributable to obesity inthe United States" (http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/282/16/1530). JAMA 282 (16): 1530–8.doi:10.1001/jama.282.16.1530 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.282.16.1530). PMID 10546692(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10546692).

26. Whitlock G, Lewington S, Sherliker P, Clarke R, Emberson J, Halsey J, Qizilbash N, Collins R, Peto R (March 2009)."Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies"(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2662372). Lancet 373 (9669): 1083–96. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60318-4 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2809%2960318-4). PMC 2662372(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2662372). PMID 19299006(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19299006).

27. Calle EE, Thun MJ, Petrelli JM, Rodriguez C, Heath CW (October 1999). "Body-mass index and mortality in aprospective cohort of U.S. adults" (http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/341/15/1097). N. Engl. J. Med. 341 (15):1097–105. doi:10.1056/NEJM199910073411501 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199910073411501).PMID 10511607 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10511607).

28. Pischon T, Boeing H, Hoffmann K, Bergmann M, Schulze MB, Overvad K, van der Schouw YT, Spencer E, Moons KG,Tjønneland A et al. (November 2008). "General and abdominal adiposity and risk of death in Europe". N. Engl. J. Med.359 (20): 2105–20. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0801891 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa0801891). PMID 19005195(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19005195).

29. WHO Expert, Consultation (Jan 10, 2004). "Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications forpolicy and intervention strategies.". Lancet 363 (9403): 157–63. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(03)15268-3(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0140-6736%2803%2915268-3). PMID 14726171(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14726171).

30. Manson JE, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Hankinson SE, Hennekens CH, Speizer FE (1995)."Body weight and mortality among women". N. Engl. J. Med. 333 (11): 677–85. doi:10.1056/NEJM199509143331101(https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199509143331101). PMID 7637744(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7637744).

31. Tsigos C, Hainer V, Basdevant A, Finer N, Fried M, Mathus-Vliegen E, Micic D, Maislos M, Roman G, Schutz Y,Toplak H, Zahorska-Markiewicz B (April 2008). "Management of Obesity in Adults: European Clinical PracticeGuidelines" (http://www.gojaznost.org/gs/dodatak/OMTFManagementofObesityinAdults2008.pdf) (PDF). The EuropeanJournal of Obesity 1 (2): 106–16. doi:10.1159/000126822 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1159%2F000126822). PMID 20054170(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20054170).

32. Fried M, Hainer V, Basdevant A, Buchwald H, Deitel M, Finer N, Greve JW, Horber F, Mathus-Vliegen E, Scopinaro N,Steffen R, Tsigos C, Weiner R, Widhalm K (April 2007). "Inter-disciplinary European guidelines on surgery of severeobesity". Int J Obes (Lond) 31 (4): 569–77. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803560 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ijo.0803560).PMID 17325689 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17325689).

33. Peeters A, Barendregt JJ, Willekens F, Mackenbach JP, Al Mamun A, Bonneux L (January 2003). "Obesity in adulthoodand its consequences for life expectancy: A life-table analysis" (http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/138/1/24). Annals ofInternal Medicine 138 (1): 24–32. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-138-1-200301070-00008(https://dx.doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-138-1-200301070-00008). PMID 12513041(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12513041).

34. Grundy SM (2004). "Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (6):2595–600. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0372 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1210%2Fjc.2004-0372). PMID 15181029(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15181029).

35. Seidell 2005 p.936. Bray GA (2004). "Medical consequences of obesity". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (6): 2583–9. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-

0535 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1210%2Fjc.2004-0535). PMID 15181027 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15181027).37. Shoelson SE, Herrero L, Naaz A (May 2007). "Obesity, inflammation, and insulin resistance". Gastroenterology 132 (6):

2169–80. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2007.03.059 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1053%2Fj.gastro.2007.03.059). PMID 17498510(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17498510).

38. Shoelson SE, Lee J, Goldfine AB (July 2006). "Inflammation and insulin resistance"(http://www.jci.org/articles/view/29069). J. Clin. Invest. 116 (7): 1793–801. doi:10.1172/JCI29069

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 21 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

(https://dx.doi.org/10.1172%2FJCI29069). PMC 1483173 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1483173).PMID 16823477 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16823477).

39. Dentali F, Squizzato A, Ageno W (July 2009). "The metabolic syndrome as a risk factor for venous and arterialthrombosis". Semin. Thromb. Hemost. 35 (5): 451–7. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1234140 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1055%2Fs-0029-1234140). PMID 19739035 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19739035).

40. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, McQueen M, Budaj A, Pais P, Varigos J, Lisheng L (2004)."Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEARTstudy): Case-control study". Lancet 364 (9438): 937–52. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17018-9(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2804%2917018-9). PMID 15364185(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15364185).

41. Darvall KA, Sam RC, Silverman SH, Bradbury AW, Adam DJ (February 2007). "Obesity and thrombosis". Eur J VascEndovasc Surg 33 (2): 223–33. doi:10.1016/j.ejvs.2006.10.006 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejvs.2006.10.006).PMID 17185009 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17185009).

42. Yosipovitch G, DeVore A, Dawn A (June 2007). "Obesity and the skin: skin physiology and skin manifestations ofobesity". J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 56 (6): 901–16; quiz 917–20. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2006.12.004(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jaad.2006.12.004). PMID 17504714 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17504714).

43. Hahler B (June 2006). "An overview of dermatological conditions commonly associated with the obese patient". OstomyWound Manage 52 (6): 34–6, 38, 40 passim. PMID 16799182 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16799182).

44. Arendas K, Qiu Q, Gruslin A (2008). "Obesity in pregnancy: pre-conceptional to postpartum consequences". Journal ofObstetrics and Gynaecology Canada : JOGC = Journal D'obstétrique Et Gynécologie Du Canada : JOGC 30 (6): 477–88. PMID 18611299 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18611299).

45. Anand G, Katz PO (2008). "Gastroesophageal reflux disease and obesity" (http://www.medreviews.com/pubmed.cfm?j=3&v=8&i=4&p=233). Rev Gastroenterol Disord 8 (4): 233–9. PMID 19107097(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19107097).

46. Harney D, Patijn J (2007). "Meralgia paresthetica: diagnosis and management strategies". Pain Med (Review) 8 (8):669–77. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00227.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1526-4637.2006.00227.x).PMID 18028045 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18028045).

47. Bigal ME, Lipton RB (January 2008). "Obesity and chronic daily headache". Curr Pain Headache Rep (Review) 12 (1):56–61. doi:10.1007/s11916-008-0011-8 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11916-008-0011-8). PMID 18417025(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18417025).

48. Sharifi-Mollayousefi A, Yazdchi-Marandi M, Ayramlou H, Heidari P, Salavati A, Zarrintan S, Sharifi-Mollayousefi A(February 2008). "Assessment of body mass index and hand anthropometric measurements as independent risk factorsfor carpal tunnel syndrome". Folia Morphol. (Warsz) 67 (1): 36–42. PMID 18335412(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18335412).

49. Beydoun MA, Beydoun HA, Wang Y (May 2008). "Obesity and central obesity as risk factors for incident dementia andits subtypes: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Obes Rev (Meta-analysis) 9 (3): 204–18. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00473.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-789X.2008.00473.x). PMID 18331422(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18331422).

50. Wall M (March 2008). "Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri)". Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep (Review)8 (2): 87–93. doi:10.1007/s11910-008-0015-0 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11910-008-0015-0). PMID 18460275(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18460275).

51. Munger KL, Chitnis T, Ascherio A (2009). "Body size and risk of MS in two cohorts of US women"(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2777074). Neurology (Comparative Study) 73 (19): 1543–50.doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c0d6e0 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1212%2FWNL.0b013e3181c0d6e0). PMC 2777074(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2777074). PMID 19901245(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19901245).

52. Basen-Engquist, Karen; Chang, Maria (16 November 2010). "Obesity and Cancer Risk: Recent Review and Evidence".Current Oncology Reports 13 (1): 71–76. doi:10.1007/s11912-010-0139-7 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11912-010-0139-7). PMID 21080117 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21080117).

53. Choi HK, Atkinson K, Karlson EW, Curhan G (April 2005). "Obesity, weight change, hypertension, diuretic use, andrisk of gout in men: the health professionals follow-up study". Arch. Intern. Med. (Research Support) 165 (7): 742–8.doi:10.1001/archinte.165.7.742 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Farchinte.165.7.742). PMID 15824292(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15824292).

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 22 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15824292).54. Tukker A, Visscher TL, Picavet HS (April 2008). "Overweight and health problems of the lower extremities:

osteoarthritis, pain and disability". Public Health Nutr (Research Support) 12 (3): 1–10.doi:10.1017/S1368980008002103 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS1368980008002103). PMID 18426630(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18426630).

55. Molenaar EA, Numans ME, van Ameijden EJ, Grobbee DE (November 2008). "[Considerable comorbidity inoverweight adults: results from the Utrecht Health Project]". Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd (English abstract) (in Dutch) 152(45): 2457–63. PMID 19051798 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19051798).

56. Esposito K, Giugliano F, Di Palo C, Giugliano G, Marfella R, D'Andrea F, D'Armiento M, Giugliano D (2004). "Effectof lifestyle changes on erectile dysfunction in obese men: A randomized controlled trial". JAMA (RandomizedControlled Trial) 291 (24): 2978–84. doi:10.1001/jama.291.24.2978 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.291.24.2978).PMID 15213209 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15213209).

57. Hunskaar S (2008). "A systematic review of overweight and obesity as risk factors and targets for clinical interventionfor urinary incontinence in women". Neurourol. Urodyn. (Review) 27 (8): 749–57. doi:10.1002/nau.20635(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fnau.20635). PMID 18951445 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18951445).

58. Ejerblad E, Fored CM, Lindblad P, Fryzek J, McLaughlin JK, Nyrén O (2006). "Obesity and risk for chronic renalfailure". J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. (Research Support) 17 (6): 1695–702. doi:10.1681/ASN.2005060638(https://dx.doi.org/10.1681%2FASN.2005060638). PMID 16641153 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16641153).

59. Makhsida N, Shah J, Yan G, Fisch H, Shabsigh R (September 2005). "Hypogonadism and metabolic syndrome:Implications for testosterone therapy". J. Urol. (Review) 174 (3): 827–34. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000169490.78443.59(https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2F01.ju.0000169490.78443.59). PMID 16093964(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16093964).

60. Pestana IA, Greenfield JM, Walsh M, Donatucci CF, Erdmann D (October 2009). "Management of "buried" penis inadulthood: an overview". Plast. Reconstr. Surg. (Review) 124 (4): 1186–95. doi:10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181b5a37f(https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FPRS.0b013e3181b5a37f). PMID 19935302(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19935302).

61. Schmidt DS, Salahudeen AK (2007). "Obesity-survival paradox-still a controversy?". Semin Dial (Review) 20 (6): 486–92. doi:10.1111/j.1525-139X.2007.00349.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1525-139X.2007.00349.x). PMID 17991192(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17991192).

62. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (June 2003). "Behavioral counseling in primary care to promote a healthy diet:recommendations and rationale". Am Fam Physician (Review) 67 (12): 2573–6. PMID 12825847(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12825847).

63. Habbu A, Lakkis NM, Dokainish H (October 2006). "The obesity paradox: Fact or fiction?". Am. J. Cardiol. (Review)98 (7): 944–8. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.04.039 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amjcard.2006.04.039).PMID 16996880 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16996880).

64. Romero-Corral A, Montori VM, Somers VK, Korinek J, Thomas RJ, Allison TG, Mookadam F, Lopez-Jimenez F(2006). "Association of bodyweight with total mortality and with cardiovascular events in coronary artery disease: Asystematic review of cohort studies". Lancet (Review) 368 (9536): 666–78. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69251-9(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2806%2969251-9). PMID 16920472(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16920472).

65. Oreopoulos A, Padwal R, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Fonarow GC, Norris CM, McAlister FA (July 2008). "Body mass index andmortality in heart failure: A meta-analysis". Am. Heart J. (Meta-analysis, Review) 156 (1): 13–22.doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2008.02.014 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ahj.2008.02.014). PMID 18585492(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18585492).

66. Oreopoulos A, Padwal R, Norris CM, Mullen JC, Pretorius V, Kalantar-Zadeh K (February 2008). "Effect of obesity onshort- and long-term mortality postcoronary revascularization: A meta-analysis". Obesity (Silver Spring) (Meta-analysis)16 (2): 442–50. doi:10.1038/oby.2007.36 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Foby.2007.36). PMID 18239657(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18239657).

67. Diercks DB, Roe MT, Mulgund J, Pollack CV, Kirk JD, Gibler WB, Ohman EM, Smith SC, Boden WE, Peterson ED(July 2006). "The obesity paradox in non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes: Results from the Can Rapidrisk stratification of Unstable angina patients Suppress ADverse outcomes with Early implementation of the AmericanCollege of Cardiology/American Heart Association Guidelines Quality Improvement Initiative". Am Heart J (ResearchSupport) 152 (1): 140–8. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2005.09.024 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ahj.2005.09.024).PMID 16824844 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16824844).

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 23 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

PMID 16824844 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16824844).68. Lau DC, Douketis JD, Morrison KM, Hramiak IM, Sharma AM, Ur E (April 2007). "2006 Canadian clinical practice

guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children summary"(http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/176/8/S1). CMAJ (Practice Guideline, Review) 176 (8): S1–13.doi:10.1503/cmaj.061409 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1503%2Fcmaj.061409). PMC 1839777(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1839777). PMID 17420481(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17420481).

69. Bleich S, Cutler D, Murray C, Adams A (2008). "Why is the developed world obese?". Annu Rev Public Health(Research Support) 29: 273–95. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090954(https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.publhealth.29.020907.090954). PMID 18173389(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18173389).

70. Drewnowski A, Specter SE (January 2004). "Poverty and obesity: the role of energy density and energy costs"(http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/79/1/6). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. (Review) 79 (1): 6–16. PMID 14684391(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14684391).

71. Nestle M, Jacobson MF (2000). "Halting the obesity epidemic: a public health policy approach"(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1308552). Public Health Rep (Research Support) 115 (1): 12–24.doi:10.1093/phr/115.1.12 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fphr%2F115.1.12). PMC 1308552(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1308552). PMID 10968581(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10968581).

72. James WP (March 2008). "The fundamental drivers of the obesity epidemic". Obes Rev (Review) 9 (Suppl 1): 6–13.doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00432.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-789X.2007.00432.x). PMID 18307693(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18307693).

73. Keith SW, Redden DT, Katzmarzyk PT, Boggiano MM, Hanlon EC, Benca RM, Ruden D, Pietrobelli A, Barger JL,Fontaine KR, Wang C, Aronne LJ, Wright SM, Baskin M, Dhurandhar NV, Lijoi MC, Grilo CM, DeLuca M, WestfallAO, Allison DB (2006). "Putative contributors to the secular increase in obesity: Exploring the roads less traveled"(http://www.nature.com/ijo/journal/v30/n11/full/0803326a.html). Int J Obes (Lond) (Review) 30 (11): 1585–94.doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803326 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ijo.0803326). PMID 16801930(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16801930).

74. "EarthTrends: Nutrition: Calorie supply per capita"(https://web.archive.org/web/20110611160708/http://earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_db/index.php?theme=8&variable_ID=212&action=select_countries). World Resources Institute. Archived from the original(http://earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_db/index.php?theme=8&variable_ID=212&action=select_countries) on 2011-06-11. Retrieved Oct 18, 2009.

75. "USDA: frsept99b" (http://www.scribd.com/doc/1470965/USDA-frsept99b). United States Department of Agriculture.Retrieved January 10, 2009.

76. "Diet composition and obesity among Canadian adults" (http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/2009004/article/10933-eng.htm). Statistics Canada.

77. National Control for Health Statistics. "Nutrition For Everyone"(http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Retrieved 2008-07-09.

78. Marantz PR, Bird ED, Alderman MH (March 2008). "A call for higher standards of evidence for dietary guidelines". AmJ Prev Med 34 (3): 234–40. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.11.017 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amepre.2007.11.017).PMID 18312812 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18312812).

79. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CL (October 2002). "Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults,1999–2000" (http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/288/14/1723). JAMA 288 (14): 1723–1727.doi:10.1001/jama.288.14.1723 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.288.14.1723). PMID 12365955(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12365955).

80. Wright JD, Kennedy-Stephenson J, Wang CY, McDowell MA, Johnson CL (February 2004). "Trends in intake of energyand macronutrients—United States, 1971–2000" (http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5304a3.htm).MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53 (4): 80–2. PMID 14762332 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14762332).

81. Caballero B (2007). "The global epidemic of obesity: An overview". Epidemiol Rev 29: 1–5.doi:10.1093/epirev/mxm012 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fepirev%2Fmxm012). PMID 17569676(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17569676).

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 24 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17569676).82. Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB (23 June 2011). "Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term

Weight Gain in Women and Men" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3151731). The New England Journalof Medicine (Meta-analysis) 364 (25): 2392–404. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1014296(https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa1014296). PMC 3151731(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3151731). PMID 21696306(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21696306).

83. Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB (August 2006). "Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematicreview" (http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/84/2/274). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. (Review) 84 (2): 274–88. PMC 3210834(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3210834). PMID 16895873(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16895873).

84. Olsen NJ, Heitmann BL (January 2009). "Intake of calorically sweetened beverages and obesity". Obes Rev (Review) 10(1): 68–75. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00523.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-789X.2008.00523.x).PMID 18764885 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18764885).

85. Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Després JP, Willett WC, Hu FB (November 2010). "Sugar-sweetened beverages andrisk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis"(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2963518). Diabetes Care (Meta-analysis, Review) 33 (11): 2477–83.doi:10.2337/dc10-1079 (https://dx.doi.org/10.2337%2Fdc10-1079). PMC 2963518(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2963518). PMID 20693348(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20693348).

86. Rosenheck R (November 2008). "Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: a systematic review of a trajectorytowards weight gain and obesity risk". Obes Rev (Review) 9 (6): 535–47. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00477.x(https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-789X.2008.00477.x). PMID 18346099(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18346099).

87. Lin BH, Guthrie J and Frazao E (1999). "Nutrient contribution of food away from home". In Frazão E. AgricultureInformation Bulletin No. 750: America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences(http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib-agricultural-information-bulletin/aib750.aspx). Washington, DC: USDepartment of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. pp. 213–239.

88. Pollan, Michael (22 April 2007). "You Are What You Grow"(http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/22/magazine/22wwlnlede.t.html?ex=1186027200&en=bbe0f6a2c10e3b3c&ei=5070).New York Times. Retrieved 2007-07-30.

89. Kopelman and Caterson 2005:324.90. Metabolism alone doesn't explain how thin people stay thin. John Schieszer (The Medical Post).91. Seidell 2005 p.1092. "WHO: Obesity and overweight"

(https://web.archive.org/web/20081218104805/http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/).World Health Organization. Archived from the original(http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/) on December 18, 2008. Retrieved January 10,2009.

93. "WHO | Physical Inactivity: A Global Public Health Problem"(http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/index.html). World Health Organization. RetrievedFebruary 22, 2009.

94. Ness-Abramof R, Apovian CM (February 2006). "Diet modification for treatment and prevention of obesity". Endocrine(Review) 29 (1): 5–9. doi:10.1385/ENDO:29:1:135 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1385%2FENDO%3A29%3A1%3A135).PMID 16622287 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16622287).

95. Salmon J, Timperio A (2007). "Prevalence, trends and environmental influences on child and youth physical activity".Med Sport Sci (Review). Medicine and Sport Science 50: 183–99. doi:10.1159/000101391(https://dx.doi.org/10.1159%2F000101391). ISBN 978-3-318-01396-2. PMID 17387258(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17387258).

96. Borodulin K, Laatikainen T, Juolevi A, Jousilahti P (June 2008). "Thirty-year trends of physical activity in relation toage, calendar time and birth cohort in Finnish adults". Eur J Public Health (Research Support) 18 (3): 339–44.doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckm092 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Feurpub%2Fckm092). PMID 17875578(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17875578).

97. Brownson RC, Boehmer TK, Luke DA (2005). "Declining rates of physical activity in the United States: what are the

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 25 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

97. Brownson RC, Boehmer TK, Luke DA (2005). "Declining rates of physical activity in the United States: what are thecontributors?". Annu Rev Public Health (Review) 26: 421–43. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144437(https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.publhealth.26.021304.144437). PMID 15760296(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15760296).

98. Gortmaker SL, Must A, Sobol AM, Peterson K, Colditz GA, Dietz WH (April 1996). "Television viewing as a cause ofincreasing obesity among children in the United States, 1986–1990". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med (Review) 150 (4): 356–62. doi:10.1001/archpedi.1996.02170290022003 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Farchpedi.1996.02170290022003).PMID 8634729 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8634729).

99. Vioque J, Torres A, Quiles J (December 2000). "Time spent watching television, sleep duration and obesity in adultsliving in Valencia, Spain". Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. (Research Support) 24 (12): 1683–8.doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801434 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ijo.0801434). PMID 11126224(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11126224).

100. Tucker LA, Bagwell M (July 1991). "Television viewing and obesity in adult females"(http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/81/7/908) (PDF). Am J Public Health 81 (7): 908–11. doi:10.2105/AJPH.81.7.908(https://dx.doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.81.7.908). PMC 1405200(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1405200). PMID 2053671(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2053671).

101. "Media + Child and Adolescent Health: A Systematic Review"(http://ipsdweb.ipsd.org/uploads/IPPC/CSM%20Media%20Health%20Report.pdf) (PDF). Ezekiel J. Emanuel. CommonSense Media. 2008. Retrieved April 6, 2009.

102. Mary Jones. "Case Study: Cataplexy and SOREMPs Without Excessive Daytime Sleepiness in Prader Willi Syndrome.Is This the Beginning of Narcolepsy in a Five Year Old?" (http://www.esst.org/newsletter2000.htm). European Society ofSleep Technologists. Retrieved April 6, 2009.

103. Poirier P, Giles TD, Bray GA, Hong Y, Stern JS, Pi-Sunyer FX, Eckel RH (May 2006). "Obesity and cardiovasculardisease: pathophysiology, evaluation, and effect of weight loss". Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (Review) 26 (5): 968–76. doi:10.1161/01.ATV.0000216787.85457.f3 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1161%2F01.ATV.0000216787.85457.f3).PMID 16627822 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16627822).

104. Loos RJ, Bouchard C (May 2008). "FTO: the first gene contributing to common forms of human obesity". Obes Rev(Review) 9 (3): 246–50. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00481.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-789X.2008.00481.x). PMID 18373508 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18373508).

105. Yang W, Kelly T, He J (2007). "Genetic epidemiology of obesity". Epidemiol Rev (Review) 29: 49–61.doi:10.1093/epirev/mxm004 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fepirev%2Fmxm004). PMID 17566051(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17566051).

106. Walley AJ, Asher JE, Froguel P (June 2009). "The genetic contribution to non-syndromic human obesity". NatureReviews Genetics (Review) 10 (7): 431–42. doi:10.1038/nrg2594 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg2594).PMID 19506576 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19506576).

107. Farooqi S, O'Rahilly S (December 2006). "Genetics of obesity in humans"(http://edrv.endojournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/7/710). Endocr. Rev. (Review) 27 (7): 710–18. doi:10.1210/er.2006-0040(https://dx.doi.org/10.1210%2Fer.2006-0040). PMID 17122358 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17122358).

108. Kolata,Gina (2007). Rethinking thin: The new science of weight loss – and the myths and realities of dieting. Picador.p. 122. ISBN 0-312-42785-9.

109. Walley, Andrew J., Asher, Julian E., Froguel, Philippe (July 2009). "The genetic contribution to non-syndromic humanobesity." (http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v10/n7/full/nrg2594.html). Nat Rev Genet. (Review) 10 (7): 431–42.doi:10.1038/nrg2594 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg2594). PMID 19506576(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19506576). "However, it is also clear that genetics greatly influences thissituation, giving individuals in the same 'obesogenic' environment significantly different risks of becoming obese."

110. Chakravarthy MV, Booth FW (2004). "Eating, exercise, and "thrifty" genotypes: Connecting the dots toward anevolutionary understanding of modern chronic diseases". J. Appl. Physiol. (Review) 96 (1): 3–10.doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00757.2003 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1152%2Fjapplphysiol.00757.2003). PMID 14660491(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14660491).

111. Wells JC (2009). "Thrift: A guide to thrifty genes, thrifty phenotypes and thrifty norms". International Journal of Obesity(Review) 33 (12): 1331–1338. doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.175 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fijo.2009.175). PMID 19752875(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19752875).

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 26 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19752875).112. Wells JC (2011). "The thrifty phenotype: An adaptation in growth or metabolism?". American Journal of Human Biology

(Review) 23 (1): 65–75. doi:10.1002/ajhb.21100 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fajhb.21100). PMID 21082685(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21082685).

113. Rosén T, Bosaeus I, Tölli J, Lindstedt G, Bengtsson BA (1993). "Increased body fat mass and decreased extracellularfluid volume in adults with growth hormone deficiency". Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf) 38 (1): 63–71. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.1993.tb00974.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2265.1993.tb00974.x). PMID 8435887(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8435887).

114. Zametkin AJ, Zoon CK, Klein HW, Munson S (February 2004). "Psychiatric aspects of child and adolescent obesity: areview of the past 10 years". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry (Review) 43 (2): 134–50. doi:10.1097/00004583-200402000-00008 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2F00004583-200402000-00008). PMID 14726719(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14726719).

115. Chiles C, van Wattum PJ (2010). "Psychiatric aspects of the obesity crisis". Psychiatr Times 27 (4): 47–51.116. Yach D, Stuckler D, Brownell KD (January 2006). "Epidemiologic and economic consequences of the global epidemics

of obesity and diabetes". Nat. Med. 12 (1): 62–6. doi:10.1038/nm0106-62 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnm0106-62).PMID 16397571 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16397571).

117. Sobal J, Stunkard AJ (March 1989). "Socioeconomic status and obesity: A review of the literature". Psychol Bull(Review) 105 (2): 260–75. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.105.2.260 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.105.2.260).PMID 2648443 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2648443).

118. McLaren L (2007). "Socioeconomic status and obesity". Epidemiol Rev (Review) 29: 29–48.doi:10.1093/epirev/mxm001 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fepirev%2Fmxm001). PMID 17478442(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17478442).

119. Wilkinson, Richard; Pickett, Kate (2009). The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better.London: Allen Lane. pp. 91–101. ISBN 978-1-84614-039-6.

120. Christakis NA, Fowler JH (2007). "The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32 Years". New EnglandJournal of Medicine (Research Support) 357 (4): 370–379. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa066082(https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMsa066082). PMID 17652652 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17652652).

121. Björntorp P (2001). "Do stress reactions cause abdominal obesity and comorbidities?". Obesity Reviews 2 (2): 73–86.doi:10.1046/j.1467-789x.2001.00027.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1467-789x.2001.00027.x). PMID 12119665(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12119665).

122. Goodman E, Adler NE, Daniels SR, Morrison JA, Slap GB, Dolan LM (2003). "Impact of objective and subjective socialstatus on obesity in a biracial cohort of adolescents". Obesity Reviews (Research Support) 11 (8): 1018–26.doi:10.1038/oby.2003.140 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Foby.2003.140). PMID 12917508(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12917508).

123. Flegal KM, Troiano RP, Pamuk ER, Kuczmarski RJ, Campbell SM (November 1995). "The influence of smokingcessation on the prevalence of overweight in the United States" (http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/333/18/1165). N.Engl. J. Med. 333 (18): 1165–70. doi:10.1056/NEJM199511023331801(https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199511023331801). PMID 7565970(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7565970).

124. Chiolero A, Faeh D, Paccaud F, Cornuz J (1 April 2008). "Consequences of smoking for body weight, body fatdistribution, and insulin resistance" (http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/87/4/801). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. (Review) 87 (4):801–9. PMID 18400700 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18400700).

125. Weng HH, Bastian LA, Taylor DH, Moser BK, Ostbye T (2004). "Number of children associated with obesity in middle-aged women and men: results from the health and retirement study". J Women's Health (Larchmt) (Comparative Study)13 (1): 85–91. doi:10.1089/154099904322836492 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1089%2F154099904322836492).PMID 15006281 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15006281).

126. Bellows-Riecken KH, Rhodes RE (February 2008). "A birth of inactivity? A review of physical activity and parenthood".Prev Med (Review) 46 (2): 99–110. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.08.003(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ypmed.2007.08.003). PMID 17919713(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17919713).

127. "Obesity and Overweight" (http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/media/en/gsfs_obesity.pdf) (PDF). World HealthOrganization. Retrieved February 22, 2009.

128. Caballero B (March 2001). "Introduction. Symposium: Obesity in developing countries: biological and ecologicalfactors" (http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/131/3/866S). J. Nutr. (Review) 131 (3): 866S–870S. PMID 11238776

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 27 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

factors" (http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/131/3/866S). J. Nutr. (Review) 131 (3): 866S–870S. PMID 11238776(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11238776).

129. Smith E, Hay P, Campbell L, Trollor JN (2011). "A review of the association between obesity and cognitive functionacross the lifespan: implications for novel approaches to prevention and treatment"(http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00920.x/abstract). Obesity Reviews (Review) 12 (9): 740–755. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00920.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-789X.2011.00920.x).PMID 21991597 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21991597).

130. DiBaise JK, Zhang H, Crowell MD, Krajmalnik-Brown R, Decker GA, Rittmann BE (April 2008). "Gut microbiota andits possible relationship with obesity". Mayo Clinic proceedings. Mayo Clinic (Review) 83 (4): 460–9.doi:10.4065/83.4.460 (https://dx.doi.org/10.4065%2F83.4.460). PMID 18380992(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18380992).

131. Falagas ME, Kompoti M (July 2006). "Obesity and infection". Lancet Infect Dis (Review) 6 (7): 438–46.doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70523-0 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2806%2970523-0). PMID 16790384(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16790384).

132. Flier JS (2004). "Obesity wars: Molecular progress confronts an expanding epidemic". Cell (Review) 116 (2): 337–50.doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)01081-X (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0092-8674%2803%2901081-X).PMID 14744442 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14744442).

133. Zhang, Y; Proenca, R; Maffei, M; Barone, M; Leopold, L; Friedman, JM (Dec 1, 1994). "Positional cloning of the mouseobese gene and its human homologue.". Nature (Research Support) 372 (6505): 425–32. doi:10.1038/372425a0(https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F372425a0). PMID 7984236 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7984236).

134. Considine, RV; Considine, EL; Williams, CJ; Nyce, MR; Magosin, SA; Bauer, TL; Rosato, EL; Colberg, J; Caro, JF (Jun1995). "Evidence against either a premature stop codon or the absence of obese gene mRNA in human obesity."(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC295988). The Journal of Clinical Investigation (Research Support) 95(6): 2986–8. doi:10.1172/jci118007 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1172%2Fjci118007). PMC 295988(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC295988). PMID 7769141(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7769141).

135. Hamann A, Matthaei S (1996). "Regulation of energy balance by leptin". Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes (Review) 104(4): 293–300. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1211457 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1055%2Fs-0029-1211457). PMID 8886745(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8886745).

136. Boulpaep, Emile L.; Boron, Walter F. (2003). Medical physiology: A cellular and molecular approach. Philadelphia:Saunders. p. 1227. ISBN 0-7216-3256-4.

137. Loscalzo, Joseph; Fauci, Anthony S.; Braunwald, Eugene; Dennis L. Kasper; Hauser, Stephen L; Longo, Dan L. (2008).Harrison's principles of internal medicine. McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 0-07-146633-9.

138. Satcher D (2001). The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44206/). U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service,Office of Surgeon General. ISBN 978-0-16-051005-2.

139. Moyer VA (4 September 2012). "Screening for and management of obesity in adults: U.S. Preventive Services TaskForce recommendation statement". Annals of Internal Medicine (Practice Guideline) 157 (5): 373–8. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-157-5-201209040-00475 (https://dx.doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-157-5-201209040-00475). PMID 22733087(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22733087).

140. Brook Barnes (2007-07-18). "Limiting Ads of Junk Food to Children"(http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/18/business/18food.html). New York Times. Retrieved 2008-07-24.

141. "Fewer Sugary Drinks Key to Weight Loss - healthfinder.gov" (http://www.healthfinder.gov/news/newsstory.aspx?docID=625759). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved Oct 18, 2009.

142. Brennan Ramirez LK, Hoehner CM, Brownson RC, Cook R, Orleans CT, Hollander M, Barker DC, Bors P, Ewing R,Killingsworth R, Petersmarck K, Schmid T, Wilkinson W (December 2006). "Indicators of activity-friendlycommunities: An evidence-based consensus process". Am J Prev Med (Research Support) 31 (6): 530–32.doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2006.07.026 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amepre.2006.07.026). PMID 17169714(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17169714).

143. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (1998). Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment ofOverweight and Obesity in Adults (http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/obesity/ob_gdlns.pdf) (PDF). InternationalMedical Publishing, Inc. ISBN 1-58808-002-1.

144. Storing up problems; the medical case for a slimmer nation. London: Royal College of Physicians. 2004-02-11. ISBN 1-86016-200-2.

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 28 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

86016-200-2.145. Great Britain Parliament House of Commons Health Committee (May 2004). Obesity – Volume 1 – HCP 23-I, Third

Report of session 2003–04. Report, together with formal minutes(http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmselect/cmhealth/23/2302.htm). London, UK: TSO (TheStationery Office). ISBN 978-0-215-01737-6. Retrieved 2007-12-17.

146. "Obesity: guidance on the prevention, identification, assessment and management of overweight and obesity in adultsand children" (http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG43NICEGuideline.pdf) (PDF). National Institute for Health andClinical Excellence(NICE). National Health Services (NHS). 2006. Retrieved April 8, 2009.

147. Wanless, Sir Derek; Appleby, John; Harrison, Anthony; Patel, Darshan (2007). Our Future Health Secured? A review ofNHS funding and performance. London, UK: The King's Fund. ISBN 1-85717-562-X.

148. Sacks G, Swinburn B, Lawrence M (January 2009). "Obesity Policy Action framework and analysis grids for acomprehensive policy approach to reducing obesity". Obes Rev 10 (1): 76–86. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00524.X(https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-789X.2008.00524.X). PMID 18761640(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18761640).

149. Strychar I (January 2006). "Diet in the management of weight loss" (http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/174/1/56).CMAJ (Review) 174 (1): 56–63. doi:10.1503/cmaj.045037 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1503%2Fcmaj.045037). PMC 1319349(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1319349). PMID 16389240(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16389240).

150. Shick SM, Wing RR, Klem ML, McGuire MT, Hill JO, Seagle H (April 1998). "Persons successful at long-term weightloss and maintenance continue to consume a low-energy, low-fat diet". J Am Diet Assoc 98 (4): 408–13.doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(98)00093-5 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0002-8223%2898%2900093-5). PMID 9550162(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9550162).

151. Tate DF, Jeffery RW, Sherwood NE, Wing RR (1 April 2007). "Long-term weight losses associated with prescription ofhigher physical activity goals. Are higher levels of physical activity protective against weight regain?"(http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/85/4/954). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. (Randomized Controlled Trial) 85 (4): 954–9.PMID 17413092 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17413092).

152. Johnston, Bradley C.; Kanters, Steve; Bandayrel, Kristofer; Wu, Ping; Naji, Faysal; Siemieniuk, Reed A.; Ball, Geoff D.C.; Busse, Jason W.; Thorlund, Kristian; Guyatt, Gordon; Jansen, Jeroen P.; Mills, Edward J. (3 September 2014)."Comparison of Weight Loss Among Named Diet Programs in Overweight and Obese Adults". JAMA 312 (9): 923.doi:10.1001/jama.2014.10397 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2014.10397).

153. Naude, CE; Schoonees, A; Senekal, M; Young, T; Garner, P; Volmink, J (2014). "Low carbohydrate versus isoenergeticbalanced diets for reducing weight and cardiovascular risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis.". PLOS ONE(Research Support) 9 (7): e100652. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100652(https://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0100652). PMID 25007189(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25007189).

154. Wing RR, Phelan S (2005). "Long-term weight loss maintenance". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (Review)82 (1 Suppl): 222S–225S. PMID 16002825 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16002825).

155. Thangaratinam S, Rogozinska E, Jolly K, Glinkowski S, Roseboom T, Tomlinson JW, Kunz R, Mol BW, CoomarasamyA, Khan KS (16 May 2012). "Effects of interventions in pregnancy on maternal weight and obstetric outcomes: meta-analysis of randomised evidence" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3355191). BMJ (Clinical researched.) (Meta-analysis) 344: e2088. doi:10.1136/bmj.e2088 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.e2088). PMC 3355191(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3355191). PMID 22596383(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22596383).

156. LeFevre, Michael L. (26 August 2014). "Behavioral Counseling to Promote a Healthful Diet and Physical Activity forCardiovascular Disease Prevention in Adults With Cardiovascular Risk Factors: U.S. Preventive Services Task ForceRecommendation Statement". Annals of Internal Medicine 161: 587. doi:10.7326/M14-1796(https://dx.doi.org/10.7326%2FM14-1796).

157. Yanovski SZ, Yanovski JA (Jan 1, 2014). "Long-term drug treatment for obesity: a systematic and clinical review."(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3928674). JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association(Review) 311 (1): 74–86. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.281361 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2013.281361).PMC 3928674 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3928674). PMID 24231879(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24231879).

158. Rucker D, Padwal R, Li SK, Curioni C, Lau DC (2007). "Long term pharmacotherapy for obesity and overweight:

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 29 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

158. Rucker D, Padwal R, Li SK, Curioni C, Lau DC (2007). "Long term pharmacotherapy for obesity and overweight:updated meta-analysis" (http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/335/7631/1194). BMJ (Meta-analysis) 335 (7631): 1194–99. doi:10.1136/bmj.39385.413113.25 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.39385.413113.25). PMC 2128668(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2128668). PMID 18006966(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18006966).

159. Wood, Shelley. "Diet Drug Orlistat Linked to Kidney, Pancreas Injuries"(http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/740855?src=mp&spon=30). Medscape. Medscape News. Retrieved 26 April2011.

160. Wolfe SM (21 August 2013). "When EMA and FDA decisions conflict: differences in patients or in regulation?". BMJ(Clinical research ed.) 347: f5140. doi:10.1136/bmj.f5140 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.f5140). PMID 23970394(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23970394).

161. Bays HE (March 2011). "Lorcaserin: drug profile and illustrative model of the regulatory challenges of weight-loss drugdevelopment". Expert review of cardiovascular therapy (Review) 9 (3): 265–77. doi:10.1586/erc.10.22(https://dx.doi.org/10.1586%2Ferc.10.22). PMID 21438803 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21438803).

162. Bays HE, Gadde KM (December 2011). "Phentermine/topiramate for weight reduction and treatment of adversemetabolic consequences in obesity". Drugs Today (Review) 47 (12): 903–14. doi:10.1358/dot.2011.47.12.1718738(https://dx.doi.org/10.1358%2Fdot.2011.47.12.1718738). PMID 22348915(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22348915).

163. Colquitt, JL; Pickett, K; Loveman, E; Frampton, GK (Aug 8, 2014). "Surgery for weight loss in adults". The Cochranedatabase of systematic reviews (Meta-analysis, Review) 8: CD003641. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003641.pub4(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD003641.pub4). PMID 25105982(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25105982).

164. Chang SH, Stoll CR, Song J, Varela JE, Eagon CJ, Colditz GA (2014). "The effectiveness and risks of bariatric surgery:an updated systematic review and meta-analysis, 2003-2012". JAMA Surgery (Meta-analysis, Review) 149 (3): 275–87.doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2013.3654 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjamasurg.2013.3654). PMID 24352617(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24352617).

165. Sjöström L, Narbro K, Sjöström CD, Karason K, Larsson B, Wedel H, Lystig T, Sullivan M, Bouchard C, Carlsson B,Bengtsson C, Dahlgren S, Gummesson A, Jacobson P, Karlsson J, Lindroos AK, Lönroth H, Näslund I, Olbers T, StenlöfK, Torgerson J, Agren G, Carlsson LM (August 2007). "Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality in Swedish obesesubjects". N. Engl. J. Med. (Research Support) 357 (8): 741–52. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa066254(https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa066254). PMID 17715408 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17715408).

166. Weintraub, Karen. "New allies in war on weight" (http://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2014/06/29/novel-ways-lose-weight-include-stomach-gel-electrical-impulses/LLzowmiW9d8yZsXXiHSOWN/story.html). The Boston Globe. TheBoston Globe. Retrieved 30 June 2014.

167. "Global Prevalence of Adult Obesity"(http://www.iotf.org/database/documents/GlobalPrevalenceofAdultObesity16thDecember08.pdf) (PDF). InternationalObesity Taskforce. Retrieved January 29, 2008.

168. Haslam D (March 2007). "Obesity: a medical history". Obes Rev (Review). 8 Suppl 1: 31–6. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00314.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-789X.2007.00314.x). PMID 17316298(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17316298).

169. "Obesity and overweight" (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/index.html). World Health Organization.Retrieved April 8, 2009.

170. Seidell 2005 p.5171. Howard NJ, Taylor AW, Gill TK, Chittleborough CR (2008). "Severe obesity: Investigating the socio-demographics

within the extremes of body mass index". Obesity Research & Clinical Practice 2 (1): I–II.doi:10.1016/j.orcp.2008.01.001 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.orcp.2008.01.001). PMID 24351678(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24351678).

172. Tjepkema M (2005-07-06). "Measured Obesity–Adult obesity in Canada: Measured height and weight". Nutrition:Findings from the Canadian Community Health Survey (http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-620-m/2005001/article/adults-adultes/8060-eng.htm). Ottawa, Ontario: Statistics Canada.

173. "Online Etymology Dictionary: Obesity" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=obesity). Douglas Harper.Retrieved December 31, 2008.

174. "Obesity, n" (http://www.oed.com/). Oxford English Dictionary 2008. Retrieved March 21, 2009.175. Zachary Bloomgarden (2003). "Prevention of Obesity and Diabetes"

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 30 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

175. Zachary Bloomgarden (2003). "Prevention of Obesity and Diabetes"(http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/26/11/3172.full). Diabetes Care (Review) 26 (11): 3172–3178.doi:10.2337/diacare.26.11.3172 (https://dx.doi.org/10.2337%2Fdiacare.26.11.3172). PMID 14578257(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14578257).

176. "History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence"(http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf) (PDF). Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar. 2007. Retrieved2008-09-19.

177. Theodore Mazzone; Giamila Fantuzzi (2006). Adipose Tissue And Adipokines in Health And Disease (Nutrition andHealth). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. p. 222. ISBN 1-58829-721-7.

178. Keller p. 49179. Breslow L (September 1952). "Public Health Aspects of Weight Control"

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1526346). Am J Public Health Nations Health 42 (9): 1116–20.doi:10.2105/AJPH.42.9.1116 (https://dx.doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.42.9.1116). PMC 1526346(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1526346). PMID 12976585(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12976585).

180. Puhl R, Brownell KD (December 2001). "Bias, discrimination, and obesity". Obes. Res. (Review) 9 (12): 788–805.doi:10.1038/oby.2001.108 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Foby.2001.108). PMID 11743063(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11743063).

181. Rubinstein S, Caballero B (2000). "Is Miss America an undernourished role model?". JAMA (Letter) 283 (12): 1569.doi:10.1001/jama.283.12.1569 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.283.12.1569). PMID 10735392(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10735392).

182. Johnson F, Cooke L, Croker H, Wardle J (2008). type = Comparative Study "Changing perceptions of weight in GreatBritain: comparison of two population surveys" (http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/337/jul10_1/a494). BMJ 337:a494. doi:10.1136/bmj.a494 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.a494). PMC 2500200(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2500200). PMID 18617488(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18617488).

183. Fumento, Michael (1997). The Fat of the Land: Our Health Crisis and How Overweight Americans Can HelpThemselves. Penguin (Non-Classics). p. 126. ISBN 0-14-026144-3.

184. Puhl R., Henderson K., and Brownell K. 2005 p.29185. Johansson E, Böckerman P, Kiiskinen U, Heliövaara M (2009). "Obesity and labour market success in Finland: The

difference between having a high BMI and being fat". Economics and Human Biology 7 (1): 36–45.doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2009.01.008 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ehb.2009.01.008). PMID 19249259(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19249259).

186. Cawley J, Meyerhoefer C (January 2012). "The medical care costs of obesity: An instrumental variables approach".Journal of Health Economics 31 (1): 219–230. doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.10.003(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhealeco.2011.10.003). PMID 22094013(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22094013).

187. Finkelstein EA, Fiebelkorn IA, Wang G (1 January 2003). "National medical spending attributable to overweight andobesity: How much, and who's paying" (http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/content/full/hlthaff.w3.219v1/DC1). HealthAffairs. Online (May). doi:10.1377/hlthaff.w3.219 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1377%2Fhlthaff.w3.219).

188. "Obesity and overweight: Economic consequences"(http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/economic_consequences.htm). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.22 May 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-05.

189. Colagiuri S, Lee CM, Colagiuri R, Magliano D, Shaw JE, Zimmet PZ, Caterson ID (2010). "The cost of overweight andobesity in Australia" (http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/192_05_010310/col10841_fm.html). The Medical Journal ofAustralia (Comparative Study) 192 (5): 260–4. PMID 20201759 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20201759).

190. Cummings, Laura (5 February 2003). "The diet business: Banking on failure"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/2725943.stm). BBC News. Retrieved 25 February 2009.

191. van Baal PH, Polder JJ, de Wit GA, Hoogenveen RT, Feenstra TL, Boshuizen HC, Engelfriet PM, Brouwer WB(February 2008). "Lifetime Medical Costs of Obesity: Prevention No Cure for Increasing Health Expenditure"(http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050029). PLoS Med. (Comparative Study) 5 (2):e29. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050029 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0050029). PMC 2225430(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2225430). PMID 18254654

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 31 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2225430). PMID 18254654(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18254654).

192. Bakewell J (2007). "Bariatric furniture: Considerations for use" (http://www.ijtr.co.uk/cgi-bin/go.pl/library/article.cgi?uid=23858;article=IJTR_14_7_329_333). Int J Ther Rehabil 14 (7): 329–33.

193. Neovius K, Johansson K, Kark M, Neovius M (January 2009). "Obesity status and sick leave: a systematic review".Obes Rev (Review) 10 (1): 17–27. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00521.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-789X.2008.00521.x). PMID 18778315 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18778315).

194. Ostbye T, Dement JM, Krause KM (2007). "Obesity and workers' compensation: Results from the Duke Health andSafety Surveillance System". Arch. Intern. Med. (Research Support) 167 (8): 766–73. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.8.766(https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Farchinte.167.8.766). PMID 17452538 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17452538).

195. "Alabama "Obesity Penalty" Stirs Debate" (http://www.webmd.com/diet/news/20080825/alabama-obesity-penalty-stirs-debate). Don Fernandez. Retrieved April 5, 2009.

196. Puhl R., Henderson K., and Brownell K. 2005 p.30197. Lisa DiCarlo (2002-10-24). "Why Airlines Can't Cut The Fat"

(http://www.forbes.com/2002/10/24/cx_ld_1024obese.html). Forbes.com. Retrieved 2008-07-23.198. Dannenberg AL, Burton DC, Jackson RJ (2004). "Economic and environmental costs of obesity: The impact on airlines".

American journal of preventive medicine (Letter) 27 (3): 264. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2004.06.004(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amepre.2004.06.004). PMID 15450642(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15450642).

199. Lauren Cox (July 2, 2009). "Who Should Pay for Obese Health Care?" (http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Diet/obese-health-care-bariatric-ambulances/story?id=7981746). ABC News. Retrieved 2012-08-06.

200. "109th U.S. Congress (2005–2006) H.R. 554: 109th U.S. Congress (2005–2006) H.R. 554: Personal Responsibility inFood Consumption Act of 2005" (http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-554). GovTrack.us. Retrieved2008-07-24.

201. Basulto, Dominic (June 20, 2013). "A changing battlefield in the fight against fat"(http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/innovations/wp/2013/06/20/a-changing-battlefield-in-the-fight-against-fat/?wpisrc=nl_tech_b). The Washington Post. Retrieved June 20, 2013. (WebCite archive(http://www.webcitation.org/6HWwftXgI))

202. "Obesity can be deemed a disability at work - EU court" (http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/12/18/eu-courts-obesity-idUSL1N0U20PE20141218). Reuters. December 18, 2014. Retrieved December 18, 2014.

203. "What is NAAFA" (http://www.capitalnaafa.org/whatisnaafa.html). National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance.Retrieved February 17, 2009.

204. "ISAA Mission Statement" (http://www.size-acceptance.org/mission.html). International Size Acceptance Association.Retrieved February 17, 2009.

205. Pulver, Adam (2007). An Imperfect Fit: Obesity, Public Health, and Disability Anti-Discrimination Law(http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1316106). Social Science Electronic Publishing. RetrievedJanuary 13, 2009.

206. Neumark-Sztainer D (March 1999). "The weight dilemma: a range of philosophical perspectives". Int. J. Obes. Relat.Metab. Disord. (Review). 23 Suppl 2: S31–7. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0800857 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ijo.0800857).PMID 10340803 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10340803).

207. National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance (2008). "We come in all sizes" (http://www.naafaonline.com/dev2/).NAAFA. Retrieved 2008-07-29.

208. "International Size Acceptance Association – ISAA" (http://www.size-acceptance.org/). International Size AcceptanceAssociation. Retrieved January 13, 2009.

209. Flynn MA, McNeil DA, Maloff B, Mutasingwa D, Wu M, Ford C, Tough SC (February 2006). "Reducing obesity andrelated chronic disease risk in children and youth: a synthesis of evidence with 'best practice' recommendations". ObesRev (Review). 7 Suppl 1: 7–66. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2006.00242.x (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-789X.2006.00242.x). PMID 16371076 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16371076).

210. Dollman J, Norton K, Norton L (December 2005). "Evidence for secular trends in children's physical activity behaviour"(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1725088). Br J Sports Med (Review) 39 (12): 892–7; discussion 897.doi:10.1136/bjsm.2004.016675 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbjsm.2004.016675). PMC 1725088(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1725088). PMID 16306494(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16306494).

211. Metcalf B, Henley W, Wilkin T (2012). "Effectiveness of intervention on physical activity of children: systematic review

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 32 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

References

Further readingObesity (https://www.dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Nutritional_and_Metabolic_Disorders/Obesity/) atDMOZ

211. Metcalf B, Henley W, Wilkin T (2012). "Effectiveness of intervention on physical activity of children: systematic reviewand meta-analysis of controlled trials with objectively measured outcomes (EarlyBird 54)". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)(Review, Meta-analysis) 345: e5888. doi:10.1136/bmj.e5888 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.e5888).PMID 23044984 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23044984).

212. Lund Elizabeth M. (2006). "Prevalence and Risk Factors for Obesity in Adult Dogs from Private US VeterinaryPractices" (http://www.jarvm.com/articles/Vol4Iss2/Lund.pdf) (PDF). Intern J Appl Res Vet Med 4 (2): 177–86.

213. McGreevy PD, Thomson PC, Pride C, Fawcett A, Grassi T, Jones B (May 2005). "Prevalence of obesity in dogsexamined by Australian veterinary practices and the risk factors involved". Vet. Rec. 156 (22): 695–702.doi:10.1136/vr.156.22.695 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fvr.156.22.695). PMID 15923551(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15923551).

214. Nijland ML, Stam F, Seidell JC (June 2009). "Overweight in dogs, but not in cats, is related to overweight in theirowners". Public Health Nutr 13 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1017/S136898000999022X(https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS136898000999022X). PMID 19545467(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19545467).

Bhargava A, Guthrie JF (2002). "Unhealthy eating habits, physical exercise and macronutrient intakes are predictors ofanthropometric indicators in the Women's Health Trial: Feasibility Study in Minority Populations". British Journal ofNutrition (Randomized Controlled Trial) 88 (6): 719–728. doi:10.1079/BJN2002739(https://dx.doi.org/10.1079%2FBJN2002739). PMID 12493094 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12493094).Bhargava A (2006). "Fiber intakes and anthropometric measures are predictors of circulating hormone, triglyceride, andcholesterol concentration in the Women's Health Trial". Journal of Nutrition (Research Support) 136 (8): 2249–2254.PMID 16857849 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16857849).Jebb S. and Wells J. Measuring body composition in adults and children In:Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, MichaelJ. Stock, William H. Dietz (2005). Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children. Blackwell Publishing.pp. 12–28. ISBN 1-4051-1672-2.Kopelman P., Caterson I. An overview of obesity management In:Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J. Stock,William H. Dietz (2005). Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 319–326. ISBN 1-4051-1672-2.National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) (1998). Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, andTreatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults (http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/obesity/ob_gdlns.pdf) (PDF).International Medical Publishing, Inc. ISBN 1-58808-002-1."Obesity: guidance on the prevention, identification, assessment and management of overweight and obesity in adultsand children" (http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG43NICEGuideline.pdf) (PDF). National Institute for Health andClinical Excellence(NICE). National Health Services (NHS). 2006. Retrieved April 8, 2009.Puhl R., Henderson K., and Brownell K. Social consequences of obesity In:Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, MichaelJ. Stock, William H. Dietz (2005). Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children. Blackwell Publishing.pp. 29–45. ISBN 1-4051-1672-2.Seidell JC. Epidemiology — definition and classification of obesity In:Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J.Stock, William H. Dietz (2005). Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children. Blackwell Publishing.pp. 3–11. ISBN 1-4051-1672-2.World Health Organization (WHO) (2000). Technical report series 894: Obesity: Preventing and managing the globalepidemic. (http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_894_(part1).pdf) (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization.ISBN 92-4-120894-5.

15/05/15 21:19Obesity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Página 33 de 33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity

Many authors (2015). "Obesity 2015" (http://www.thelancet.com/series/obesity-2015). The Lancet.Fumento, Michael (1997). The Fat of the Land: Our Health Crises and How Overweight Americans can HelpThemselves (http://books.google.com/books?id=Qr8hAQAAMAAJ). New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-026144-3.Keller, Kathleen (2008). Encyclopedia of Obesity (http://books.google.com/?id=aRp2rJrEqZsC). Thousand Oaks, Calif:Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 1-4129-5238-7.Kolata, Gina (2007). Rethinking Thin: The New Science of Weight Loss – and the Myths and Realities of Dieting.Picador. ISBN 0-312-42785-9.Kopelman, Peter G.; Caterson, Ian D.; Dietz, William H., eds. (2009). Clinical obesity in Adults and Children(http://books.google.com/books?id=1W2M1lnHeccC) (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-0763-4.Levy-Navarro, Elena (2008). The Culture of Obesity in Early and Late Modernity. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-230-60123-5.Pool, Robert (2001). Fat: Fighting the Obesity Epidemic. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511853-7.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obesity&oldid=661462882"

Categories: Obesity Bariatrics Body shape Nutrition

This page was last modified on 8 May 2015, at 20:18.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms mayapply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registeredtrademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.