WHY NOT SEE IT MY WAY?

Persuasion and Argumentation

LEARNING TARGETS

Students will be able to:•Define ethos, pathos, and logos•Distinguish between examples of pathos, ethos, and logos 

WHY NOT SEE IT MY WAY?

Rhetoric, the art of argument, developed in the fifth century B.C.E. in Sicily to help everyday people argue that they should be entitled to recover property seized by a tyrant. See? Real estate has always been “location, location, location”—or lack thereof.

This section will take you step by step through the process of writing convincing arguments, whether they're letters of application, essays, editorials, letters to the editor, critical reviews, or job evaluations. That's because the process for all persuasive writing is essentially the same, as you'll discover here.

First, you'll learn how to write a persuasive document that appeals to reason, using a business letter and an excerpt from the Declaration of Independence as models. Next, we'll explore appeals to emotion, using part of Thomas Paine's incendiary pamphlet Common Sense as a model. Then, I'll show you how to write a persuasive essay based on an appeal to ethics. You'll also discover how to disarm the opposition, a key strategy for constructing any effective argument. The section concludes with a discussion of logical fallacies, so you can make sure you won't make any of these blunders as you write

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IT WON’T BE GREEK TO YOUPersuasive writing moves readers to action or belief.

Aristotle, the Big Greek Daddy of Persuasion, believed that argument meant discovering all the available ways of persuasion in a situation where the truth was up for grabs.

Aristotle settled on three ways that people could convince others to adopt a certain point of view or approve a course of action. Broadly stated, he identified these three elements as …

1. Logos. The appeal to the audience's reason2. Pathos. The appeal to the audience's emotions3. Ethos. The degree of confidence that the speaker's character or personality

inspires in readers.The goal of these three appeals is the same, although each one takes a different approach. Each appeal can be used separately, or they can be combined to increase the persuasive mojo. When you argue a point in writing, you analyze a subject, topic, or issue in order to persuade your readers to think or act a certain way.

Let's start with the first appeal on Aristotle's hit parade, the appeal to reason

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A + B = C; APPEAL TO REASON

(LOGOS)Whether our argument concerns public affairs or some other subject, we must know some, if not all, of the facts about the subject on which we are to argue. Otherwise, we can have no materials out of which to construct arguments.—Aristotle, Rhetoric

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A + B = C; APPEAL TO REASON

(LOGOS)Appeals based on reason rely on facts rather than on emotion. In turn, each logical argument in your essay must be supported by evidence: facts, statistics, expert testimony, or details about the argument. The basic organization for a persuasive essay or letter developed on a logical argument looks like this:

• Introduction. Catches the reader's attention and states your argument. Includes a concise statement of your position on an issue that will interest your readers.

• Body. States each logical argument by presenting supporting evidence. Disarms the opposition, establishes the writer's credibility, and sets an effective tone.

• Conclusion. Restates your argument and summarizes your main points.

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A + B = C; APPEAL TO REASON

(LOGOS)Here's an example of a logical argument constructed this way. It's in the form of a cover letter to accompany a resumé.

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A + B = C; APPEAL TO REASON

(LOGOS)Logical arguments are developed in two basic ways: inductively or deductively.

Specific to General: Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning draws a logical conclusion from specific facts. It depends on drawing inferences from particular cases to support a generalization or claim. Many of our everyday conclusions are based on inductive reasoning. For example, if three people whose judgment you respect tell you that a particular movie is worth seeing, you'll conclude that the movie is most likely something you'll enjoy. It might even be worth the $8.50 ticket (not counting the popcorn and soda).

Therefore, the success of an essay built inductively depends on the strength of your examples. When it comes to examples in argumentation, more is often better, but space is always a consideration. As a result, you're better off presenting a handful of examples in detail than a pile of proof without much backing. When in doubt, stick with the magical number three: introduction, three examples, conclusion. This gives you a balanced, five-paragraph essay or letter and meets reader expectations.

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A + B = C; APPEAL TO REASON

(LOGOS)General to Specific: Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction, from a general premise to particular conclusions. Sometimes, it depends on a logical structure called a syllogism. Here's an example:

• Major premise: All men are mortal.• Minor premise: Herman is a man.• Conclusion: Therefore, Herman is mortal.

If you accept the major premise that all men will eventually kick the bucket and the minor premise that Herman is a man, then you have to accept the conclusion. Most written arguments collapse because the major premise isn't true. The rest of the argument, built on a rickety frame, is bound to crash.

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A + B = C; APPEAL TO REASON

(LOGOS)However, a syllogism can be valid but not true, as in this example:

• Major premise: Ten chefs can cook faster than one chef.• Minor premise: One chef can make a soufflé in an hour.• Conclusion: Therefore, 10 chefs can make a soufflé in six minutes.

To use deductive reasoning correctly, first make sure that the major premise is true. If it isn't valid, the rest of the argument will bomb. Then craft a minor premise that logically follows the first one. Finally, decide if the conclusion is sound.

It's not likely that you'll be using formal syllogisms in your writing, but you will be using this method of thinking when you construct an argument deductively. The following excerpt from the Declaration of Independence relies on a deductive pattern to make its argument.

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A + B = C; APPEAL TO REASON

(LOGOS)

The Declaration of Independence: an analysis of the three persuasive appeals.

http://mail.baylorschool.org/~jstover/technology/techfair04/DecofIndappeals.htm

TAKE THE HIGH ROAD: the appeal to ethics (ETHOS)

Ethics is our moral sense, our sense of right and wrong.

The credibility and persuasiveness of your claims is in direct proportion to your reader's view of you as a person of good sense, good moral character, and good intentions—your ethics. Your trustworthiness arises from the quality of your proof and your ability to take the high ground. Cheap shots weaken your argument, especially if they intentionally deceive your audience.

The following argument is especially strong not only because it draws on solid examples and ethics, but also because the writer is not afraid to admit his own culpability

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TAKE THE HIGH ROAD: the appeal to ethics (ETHOS)

THE BLAME GAMEhttp://www.infoplease.com/cig/writing-well/take-high-road-appeal-to-ethics.html

TUG THE HEARTSTRINGS: appeal to emotions

(PATHOS)I Will Fight No More Forever

• Tell General Howard I know his heart. What he told me before, I have in my heart. I am tired of fighting. Our chiefs are killed. Looking Glass is dead. Toohoolhoolzote is dead. The old men are all dead. It is the young men who say yes and no. He who led on the young men is dead. It is cold and we have no blankets. The little children are freezing to death. My people, some of them, have run away to the hills and have no blankets, no food: no one knows where they are—perhaps freezing to death. I want to have time to look for my children and see how many I can find. Maybe I shall find them among the dead. Hear me, my chiefs. I am tired; my heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever.

• —Chief Joseph, 1877

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TUG THE HEARTSTRINGS: appeal to emotions

(PATHOS)Chief Joseph uses emotion to persuade his audience that he will never again fight a battle. The stately sentences, simple diction, and poignant details combine to create a tragic tone that convinces readers of his sincerity—and his heartbreak.

An effective essay can draw its strength from facts and reasoning, but logic can carry you just so far with certain readers. Depending on your audience and topic, you're going to want to pour on some feeling. You do this by appealing to your reader's needs:

• Physical needs (food, water, sleep, air, protection from injury and harm)• Social needs (status, power, freedom, approval, belonging, fitting in)• Psychological needs (love, affection, security, self-esteem, respect)

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TUG THE HEARTSTRINGS: appeal to emotions

(PATHOS)Following is an example of a persuasive appeal that relies on emotion. It's from Thomas Paine's The Crisis. Paine's essay was so effective that it propelled the colonies into the Revolutionary War.

• These are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will in this crisis shrink from the service of his country; but he that stands it NOW deserves the love and thanks for man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly; 'tis dearness only that gives everything its value. Heaven knows how to put a proper price upon its goods; and it would be strange indeed, if so celestial an article as FREEDOM should not be highly rated. Britain, with an army to enforce her tyranny, has declared that she has a right (not only to TAX) but “to BIND us in ALL CASES WHATSOEVER,” and if being bound in that manner is not slavery, then there is no such thing as slavery upon earth. Even the expression is impious, for so unlimited a power can belong only to God …

• —Thomas Paine, The Crisis, Number I (1776)

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THE MOMENT OF TRUTH

Which persuasive strategy do you use? Use reason, emotion, and ethics (or some combination of these) based on the following considerations:

• What kind of persuasion is most likely to sway your readers as you deal in an open and honest manner?

• What objections, if any, are they likely to have to your argument?• How strong is your case? (Use more examples, facts, statistics, and other

“hard” proof if your argument is weak.)

Don't use appeals to emotion in place of solid arguments or to stir up feelings that are dangerous or harmful

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EXEMPLAR ESSAYBRINGING BABIES BACK TO JAPANDirections:•Underline the thesis statement twice•Underline each topic sentence once•Highlight transitional words and phrases•Annotate the rhetorical appeals and circle the evidence

•E = Ethos•L = Logos•P = Pathos

MY WAY OR THE HIGHWAY: Acknowledging the Opposition

As much as you might like to, you can't ignore the arguments against your opinion. Think of it like the dog next door—you know, the one who barks all night, no matter how much you moan. Sometimes, you just have to take action.

You can deal with the opposition by …

• Identifying the main arguments against your side.• Acknowledging the arguments in your writing.• Countering the opposition.

With the barking dog next door, you're on your own.

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MY WAY OR THE HIGHWAY: Acknowledging the Opposition

Start by considering your audience. The more information you have about your readers, the easier it will be for you to anticipate possible opposition. This table lays it all out:

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TYPE OF AUDIENCE TYPE OF OPPOSITION

NEUTRAL LIKELY VERY LITTLE

FRIENDLY NONE

HOSTILE A GREAT DEAL

UNKNOWN UP FOR GRABS

MY WAY OR THE HIGHWAY: Acknowledging the Opposition

There are three main ways that you can deal with the opposition to decrease its force. These methods are …

1. Show the opposition is wrong.2. Show the opposition has some merit, but give a point of your own that is

just as convincing.3. Show the opposition has merit, but your point is stronger.

Let's look at each strategy in turn.

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MY WAY OR THE HIGHWAY: Acknowledging the Opposition

Method 1: Show the Opposition is WrongThe following passage acknowledges the opposition straight away and then sets about disproving it.

Very few people claim to really like television commercials. Most people say that television commercials are annoying and insulting. The best that people can say about television commercials is that they give us time to get something to eat. But this view is unfair, since TV commercials have many advantages

OPPOSITION: First of all, many people claim that television commercials are more misleading than informative. They say that television ads manipulate the truth in order to get people to buy products.

REBUTTAL: While it is true that television advertisers use strategies that encourage viewers to buy things, there are strong laws and regulations that ensure truth in advertising.

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