Where in World History Where in World History is Mexico?is Mexico?

So Much More than

Montezuma and Silver

Mexico in the Content Mexico in the Content StandardsStandards

7th Grade Standards7.7: Students compare and contrast the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures of the Meso-American and Andean civilizations. 7.11 Students analyze political and economic change in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries (the Age of Exploration, the Enlightenment, and the Age of Reason). 10th Grade Standard

10.4: Students analyze patterns of global change in the era of New Imperialism in at least two of the following regions or countries: Africa, Southeast Asia, China, India, Latin America, and the Philippines.

Reasons Mexico Needs MORE Reasons Mexico Needs MORE AttentionAttention

Proximity to United States

Longstanding Economic/Cultural ties

Changing demographics in the U.S. and especially California

And Most Importantly….And Most Importantly….

Mexico is an excellent case study for some of

the major themes, processes, and

concepts that define the study of World

History.

Purpose of PresentationPurpose of PresentationShow how Mexico was a part of broader historical currents during the Independence periodDiscuss content material on two topics in which Mexico can be included as an defining examplePresent material that is hopefully new and engaging!

Some Essential Questions that a Discussion of

Mexico Can Address

How are individuals/cultures shaped by society and how is society shaped by individuals/cultures? What is the impact of government or power on society? How is power maintained and achieved?Does history show a progression toward equality and the rights of the individual?

What is the impact of government or power on society? How is power achieved and maintained?

Independence Period in Spanish America, 1808-

1821

Topic 1: Subjects into Citizens

The “Subject” in the Medieval/Early Modern World

Relationship, political and social, based on familial ties, community/parish, and professional/religious organizations (guilds, sodalities)People exercise “rights” as members of a corporate body, not as individualsMonarch is seen as the arbiter of these often heterogeneous and unequal corporate entities (no concept of equality)Sense of shared identity, trans-local duties weak or non-existent; i.e.: one serves the king/queen, not an abstract nation-stateProblem with the “Three Estates” terminology

The CitizenIdea of citizenship generated in the climate of intellectual and political conflictNotion that all people should exercise rights as individuals, not as members of corporate bodiesMainly a response to the growth of a wealthy, non-noble class excluded from direct and legitimate avenues of political authorityIndividual has an obligation not only to the monarch but to his fellow citizen as well (in hindsight, this will be seen as nascent nationalism)Should NOT be automatically associated with ideas of “democratic” government

Subject in the Spanish Empire:Are we the people or are you the people?

Who are these people anyway?

Different categories of “Subjects”

Problem: people fell outside of the legally defined categories, namely criollos, mestizos, and mulattos

BUT Spanish legal and social practices were notoriously complicated and contradictory, allowing significant social mobility if you knew the right people and had cash

The Two Republics in Spanish AmericaRepublica de los Espanoles

Originally a category for peninsulares, but most criollos fell into this groupPart of a legal/political system set up according to Castillian practices and NOT based on the patchwork of local/regional systemsFor many “Spaniards” this was a new experience and many bristled at the unfamiliar system and regulations. Ex: the Pizarro family in Peru.Resentment and rebellion were not uncommon.

Republica de los Indios

Reserved for “civilized” Indian communities that had sworn loyalty to king and made peace with SpaniardsIndian groups kept a large portion of the land they occupied as a people (but this varies widely)Local politics/affairs were left to the Indians and a separate courts system was established to addressMost Important: Indian communities are formally integrated into the corporate legal and political traditions.

The Kingdom (or colony?) of Mexico

As a kingdom

As a colony-in-training under the Bourbon Reforms (1780)

Re-emergence of regionalism

Neat legal categories and the republicas inadequate

Process of Independence in Mexico

Napoleon’s Invasion of Iberia, 1808Political crises throughout Spanish EmpireWho wields legitimate political power when the monarch is enjoying a forced vacation in Southern France and some French guy claims to be the King of Spain?Political crises reshapes political landscape THROUGHOUT THE ENTIRE SPANISH EMPIRE! More land, people than France and U.S. combined.

Insurgents in the Countryside

The traditional narrative: Father Miguel Hidalgo single-handedly kicks out the Spanish crown (and then names at least one road in every Mexican town after himself)Indians vs. Criollos vs. Mestizos“Long live the King, Death to Bad Government!” and those godless Frenchmen gotta go.Rebels reacting to both economic and political conditions

Urban ElitesSalons of Mexico City

Role of the Enlightenment

Love the insurgency, but we’re NOT going to have another French Revolution

Sovereignty reverts to the “people” (but remember, not all people are the “people”)

Reform vs. Independence

Constitution of 1812Representation and the Spanish Cortes: Provinces vs. KingdomsThe constitution as an “American” documentMost “Liberal” constitution of its era?Initiated the largest popular election that the world had ever seenModel for subsequent Spanish/Latin American constitutions“We are all Spaniards now.”

The Return of the King (and Fernando VII Screws Up)

Rollback of political reforms

Attempt to re-establish authoritarianism

Backlash in the kingdoms (or colonies?)

Dead insurgents, conspiring elites, and turncoat generals

New Nations/New CitizensMexico declares independence in 1821

We were all Spaniards, now we’re all Mexicans and we like the dead Indians, but the living ones are a bit of an embarrassment

Too much democracy too soon?

Federalism vs. Centralism

The civil wars that afflict Mexico and Latin America are extension of the conflict between regionalism vs. centralism and the mestizo/criollo cities vs. the Indian countryside

Topic 2: Insurgency- It’s Nothing New

(But It’s Not that Old)

Popular rebellions: Spain and Mexico

Who commands the military?

Jose de la Cruz, Felix Calleja, Augustin Iturbide

Insurgency in Mexico

Most active in central and southern MexicoInsurgents hiding in the country, but are affiliated with variety of small villagesInsurgents led by Hidalgo NOT supported by elites in Mexico CityBut some insurgent groups, like the one led by Father Maria Morelos, are working with urban elites.

Insurgent DemographicsDisplaced farmersLandless peasantsSOME regional elites (Miguel Allende)ClergyDevout CatholicsAnd, of course, opportunistsNOT AN INDIAN REVOLT!

Guerillas and Guerilleros

Term “Geurilla” comes into usage during this time periodIn both Mexico and Spain, return of Fernando does not stop the rebelsEventually, largest rebels groups are put down by military, but at the cost of political legitimacy. When urban elites finally give up on Fernando VII and they manage to convince army to join their side, independence occurs with little bloodshed (after nearly a decade of civil war, though)

Characteristics of Modern Insurgency Revealed in

the Course of Mexican Independence

Large armies are trained to fight other large armies, not small groups hiding in the jungle.Martial law really irritates people accustomed to little, if any, outside interferenceCrack-downs on all citizens only compels more people to join the other sideThere will always be more angry civilians than content, well-fed soldiers.Insurgent leaders either become martyrs or politicians

What the World Can Learn from Mexico

Political legitimacyEnlightenment and its place in modern political thoughtTransition from monarchy and subjects to constitutional government and citizenshipWho benefits/who loses in this transitionIt is EXTREMELY tough, if not impossible, to put down widespread popular insurgencyMexico is part of the “Age of Democratic Revolutions”