Where are the Women?Gender, Governments and Graduates

The Question

50

04

93

73

50

0

Why?

• Development in a country• Motives in lower-income countries are less

• Civic Participation• Private Sector Experience• Willingness To Run

50

04

93

50

04

55

50

0 6

Putting it Together

Does post-secondary education relative to males effect the representation of females relative to males in national parliaments?

Hypothesis

Hypothesis

Increased representation of females in college level education Increased representation of females in

national parliaments

The Education Multiplier

• Election chance = (Education Multiplier)(Political Gender Multiplier)(Other Factors)• Education Multiplier = (Gender Education Access)(Other

Determinants)

Method

Data

• WDI• Independent Variable• 3,893 Observations of Tertiary Education Ratios

• Dependent Variable• 2,735 Observations of Parliamentary Ratios

Changes

Changes

Changes

Uganda, Kuwait, Sweden

Case Studies

Uganda

Education Percent female: 43% Female Parliament Members: 35%

Kuwait

Education Percent Female: 220% Female Parliament Members: 6%

Sweden

Education Percent Female: 152% Female Parliament Members: 45%

Results

Correlation

College Ratio Parliament Ratio

College Ratio 1

Parliament Ratio 0.0966 1

Correlation

Correlation

 

Model type

Country

Fixed

Effects, No

Lag

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 10

Years

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 15

Years

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Region

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quota

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quotas

and Regions

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Types

of Quotas

Tertiary Education Ratio 0.0521*** 0.0428*** 0.0862*** 0.0576*** 0.106*** 0.104*** 0.123***

-3.89 -4.55 -10.39 -6.67 -7.66 -7.57 -8.37

GDP Per Capita 0.000975**

*

0.000903*** 0.000685*** 0.000635*** 0.000575**

*

0.000663*** 0.000535**

*

-12.83 -11.69 -9.52 -10.72 -8.1 -8.79 -7.3

Female Percentage of

Population

-0.275 0.955 -2.102** 2.287*** 0.305 0.505 0.537

(-0.64) -1.42 (-2.88) -7.13 -0.44 -0.74 -0.75

Population Size 3.00e-08** 2.45e-08* 2.75e-08* 1.06e-08* 9.65e-09* 8.56E-09 8.99E-09

-2.73 -2.34 -2.21 -2.33 -2.06 -1.84 -1.88

Urban Population Size 0.308** 0.421** 0.202 -0.193** -0.188** -0.225** -0.208**

-2.67 -3.09 -1.52 (-3.24) (-2.70) (-3.23) (-2.86)

UN Region -0.0467*** -0.0557**

(-3.30) (-3.28)

Has Quotas 0.466 -0.694

-0.24 (-0.35)

Has Legislated Quotas 0.164

Has Constitutional Quotas 1.197

-0.45

_cons 2.389 -60.72 97.26** -105.5*** -11.72 -17.7 -23.74

-0.11 (-1.77) -2.64 (-6.39) (-0.34) (-0.51) (-0.65)

N 1004 911 842 911 691 691 655

 

Model type

Country

Fixed

Effects, No

Lag

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 10

Years

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 15

Years

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Region

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quota

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quotas

and Regions

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Types

of Quotas

Tertiary Education Ratio 0.0521*** 0.0428*** 0.0862*** 0.0576*** 0.106*** 0.104*** 0.123***

-3.89 -4.55 -10.39 -6.67 -7.66 -7.57 -8.37

GDP Per Capita 0.000975**

*

0.000903*** 0.000685*** 0.000635*** 0.000575**

*

0.000663*** 0.000535**

*

-12.83 -11.69 -9.52 -10.72 -8.1 -8.79 -7.3

Female Percentage of

Population

-0.275 0.955 -2.102** 2.287*** 0.305 0.505 0.537

(-0.64) -1.42 (-2.88) -7.13 -0.44 -0.74 -0.75

Population Size 3.00e-08** 2.45e-08* 2.75e-08* 1.06e-08* 9.65e-09* 8.56E-09 8.99E-09

-2.73 -2.34 -2.21 -2.33 -2.06 -1.84 -1.88

Urban Population Size 0.308** 0.421** 0.202 -0.193** -0.188** -0.225** -0.208**

-2.67 -3.09 -1.52 (-3.24) (-2.70) (-3.23) (-2.86)

UN Region -0.0467*** -0.0557**

(-3.30) (-3.28)

Has Quotas 0.466 -0.694

-0.24 (-0.35)

Has Legislated Quotas 0.164

Has Constitutional Quotas 1.197

-0.45

_cons 2.389 -60.72 97.26** -105.5*** -11.72 -17.7 -23.74

-0.11 (-1.77) -2.64 (-6.39) (-0.34) (-0.51) (-0.65)

N 1004 911 842 911 691 691 655

 

Model type

Country

Fixed

Effects, No

Lag

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 10

Years

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 15

Years

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Region

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quota

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quotas

and Regions

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Types

of Quotas

Tertiary Education Ratio 0.0521*** 0.0428*** 0.0862*** 0.0576*** 0.106*** 0.104*** 0.123***

-3.89 -4.55 -10.39 -6.67 -7.66 -7.57 -8.37

GDP Per Capita 0.000975**

*

0.000903*** 0.000685*** 0.000635*** 0.000575**

*

0.000663*** 0.000535**

*

-12.83 -11.69 -9.52 -10.72 -8.1 -8.79 -7.3

Female Percentage of

Population

-0.275 0.955 -2.102** 2.287*** 0.305 0.505 0.537

(-0.64) -1.42 (-2.88) -7.13 -0.44 -0.74 -0.75

Population Size 3.00e-08** 2.45e-08* 2.75e-08* 1.06e-08* 9.65e-09* 8.56E-09 8.99E-09

-2.73 -2.34 -2.21 -2.33 -2.06 -1.84 -1.88

Urban Population Size 0.308** 0.421** 0.202 -0.193** -0.188** -0.225** -0.208**

-2.67 -3.09 -1.52 (-3.24) (-2.70) (-3.23) (-2.86)

UN Region -0.0467*** -0.0557**

(-3.30) (-3.28)

Has Quotas 0.466 -0.694

-0.24 (-0.35)

Has Legislated Quotas 0.164

Has Constitutional Quotas 1.197

-0.45

_cons 2.389 -60.72 97.26** -105.5*** -11.72 -17.7 -23.74

-0.11 (-1.77) -2.64 (-6.39) (-0.34) (-0.51) (-0.65)

N 1004 911 842 911 691 691 655

 

Model type

Country

Fixed

Effects, No

Lag

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 10

Years

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 15

Years

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Region

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quota

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quotas

and Regions

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Types

of Quotas

Tertiary Education Ratio 0.0521*** 0.0428*** 0.0862*** 0.0576*** 0.106*** 0.104*** 0.123***

-3.89 -4.55 -10.39 -6.67 -7.66 -7.57 -8.37

GDP Per Capita 0.000975**

*

0.000903*** 0.000685*** 0.000635*** 0.000575**

*

0.000663*** 0.000535**

*

-12.83 -11.69 -9.52 -10.72 -8.1 -8.79 -7.3

Female Percentage of

Population

-0.275 0.955 -2.102** 2.287*** 0.305 0.505 0.537

(-0.64) -1.42 (-2.88) -7.13 -0.44 -0.74 -0.75

Population Size 3.00e-08** 2.45e-08* 2.75e-08* 1.06e-08* 9.65e-09* 8.56E-09 8.99E-09

-2.73 -2.34 -2.21 -2.33 -2.06 -1.84 -1.88

Urban Population Size 0.308** 0.421** 0.202 -0.193** -0.188** -0.225** -0.208**

-2.67 -3.09 -1.52 (-3.24) (-2.70) (-3.23) (-2.86)

UN Region -0.0467*** -0.0557**

(-3.30) (-3.28)

Has Quotas 0.466 -0.694

-0.24 (-0.35)

Has Legislated Quotas 0.164

Has Constitutional Quotas 1.197

-0.45

_cons 2.389 -60.72 97.26** -105.5*** -11.72 -17.7 -23.74

-0.11 (-1.77) -2.64 (-6.39) (-0.34) (-0.51) (-0.65)

N 1004 911 842 911 691 691 655

 

Model type

Country

Fixed

Effects, No

Lag

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 10

Years

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 15

Years

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Region

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quota

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quotas

and Regions

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Types

of Quotas

Tertiary Education Ratio 0.0521*** 0.0428*** 0.0862*** 0.0576*** 0.106*** 0.104*** 0.123***

-3.89 -4.55 -10.39 -6.67 -7.66 -7.57 -8.37

GDP Per Capita 0.000975**

*

0.000903*** 0.000685*** 0.000635*** 0.000575**

*

0.000663*** 0.000535**

*

-12.83 -11.69 -9.52 -10.72 -8.1 -8.79 -7.3

Female Percentage of

Population

-0.275 0.955 -2.102** 2.287*** 0.305 0.505 0.537

(-0.64) -1.42 (-2.88) -7.13 -0.44 -0.74 -0.75

Population Size 3.00e-08** 2.45e-08* 2.75e-08* 1.06e-08* 9.65e-09* 8.56E-09 8.99E-09

-2.73 -2.34 -2.21 -2.33 -2.06 -1.84 -1.88

Urban Population Size 0.308** 0.421** 0.202 -0.193** -0.188** -0.225** -0.208**

-2.67 -3.09 -1.52 (-3.24) (-2.70) (-3.23) (-2.86)

UN Region -0.0467*** -0.0557**

(-3.30) (-3.28)

Has Quotas 0.466 -0.694

-0.24 (-0.35)

Has Legislated Quotas 0.164

Has Constitutional Quotas 1.197

-0.45

_cons 2.389 -60.72 97.26** -105.5*** -11.72 -17.7 -23.74

-0.11 (-1.77) -2.64 (-6.39) (-0.34) (-0.51) (-0.65)

N 1004 911 842 911 691 691 655

 

Model type

Country

Fixed

Effects, No

Lag

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 10

Years

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 15

Years

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Region

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quota

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quotas

and Regions

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Types

of Quotas

Tertiary Education Ratio 0.0521*** 0.0428*** 0.0862*** 0.0576*** 0.106*** 0.104*** 0.123***

-3.89 -4.55 -10.39 -6.67 -7.66 -7.57 -8.37

GDP Per Capita 0.000975**

*

0.000903*** 0.000685*** 0.000635*** 0.000575**

*

0.000663*** 0.000535**

*

-12.83 -11.69 -9.52 -10.72 -8.1 -8.79 -7.3

Female Percentage of

Population

-0.275 0.955 -2.102** 2.287*** 0.305 0.505 0.537

(-0.64) -1.42 (-2.88) -7.13 -0.44 -0.74 -0.75

Population Size 3.00e-08** 2.45e-08* 2.75e-08* 1.06e-08* 9.65e-09* 8.56E-09 8.99E-09

-2.73 -2.34 -2.21 -2.33 -2.06 -1.84 -1.88

Urban Population Size 0.308** 0.421** 0.202 -0.193** -0.188** -0.225** -0.208**

-2.67 -3.09 -1.52 (-3.24) (-2.70) (-3.23) (-2.86)

UN Region -0.0467*** -0.0557**

(-3.30) (-3.28)

Has Quotas 0.466 -0.694

-0.24 (-0.35)

Has Legislated Quotas 0.164

Has Constitutional Quotas 1.197

-0.45

_cons 2.389 -60.72 97.26** -105.5*** -11.72 -17.7 -23.74

-0.11 (-1.77) -2.64 (-6.39) (-0.34) (-0.51) (-0.65)

N 1004 911 842 911 691 691 655

 

Model type

Country

Fixed

Effects, No

Lag

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 10

Years

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 15

Years

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Region

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quota

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quotas

and Regions

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Types

of Quotas

Tertiary Education Ratio 0.0521*** 0.0428*** 0.0862*** 0.0576*** 0.106*** 0.104*** 0.123***

-3.89 -4.55 -10.39 -6.67 -7.66 -7.57 -8.37

GDP Per Capita 0.000975**

*

0.000903*** 0.000685*** 0.000635*** 0.000575**

*

0.000663*** 0.000535**

*

-12.83 -11.69 -9.52 -10.72 -8.1 -8.79 -7.3

Female Percentage of

Population

-0.275 0.955 -2.102** 2.287*** 0.305 0.505 0.537

(-0.64) -1.42 (-2.88) -7.13 -0.44 -0.74 -0.75

Population Size 3.00e-08** 2.45e-08* 2.75e-08* 1.06e-08* 9.65e-09* 8.56E-09 8.99E-09

-2.73 -2.34 -2.21 -2.33 -2.06 -1.84 -1.88

Urban Population Size 0.308** 0.421** 0.202 -0.193** -0.188** -0.225** -0.208**

-2.67 -3.09 -1.52 (-3.24) (-2.70) (-3.23) (-2.86)

UN Region -0.0467*** -0.0557**

(-3.30) (-3.28)

Has Quotas 0.466 -0.694

-0.24 (-0.35)

Has Legislated Quotas 0.164

Has Constitutional Quotas 1.197

-0.45

_cons 2.389 -60.72 97.26** -105.5*** -11.72 -17.7 -23.74

-0.11 (-1.77) -2.64 (-6.39) (-0.34) (-0.51) (-0.65)

N 1004 911 842 911 691 691 655

 

Model type

Country

Fixed

Effects, No

Lag

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 10

Years

Country Fixed

Effects,

Education

Lagged 15

Years

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Region

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quota

Effects

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Quotas

and Regions

Education

Lagged Ten

Years, Types

of Quotas

Tertiary Education Ratio 0.0521*** 0.0428*** 0.0862*** 0.0576*** 0.106*** 0.104*** 0.123***

-3.89 -4.55 -10.39 -6.67 -7.66 -7.57 -8.37

GDP Per Capita 0.000975**

*

0.000903*** 0.000685*** 0.000635*** 0.000575**

*

0.000663*** 0.000535**

*

-12.83 -11.69 -9.52 -10.72 -8.1 -8.79 -7.3

Female Percentage of

Population

-0.275 0.955 -2.102** 2.287*** 0.305 0.505 0.537

(-0.64) -1.42 (-2.88) -7.13 -0.44 -0.74 -0.75

Population Size 3.00e-08** 2.45e-08* 2.75e-08* 1.06e-08* 9.65e-09* 8.56E-09 8.99E-09

-2.73 -2.34 -2.21 -2.33 -2.06 -1.84 -1.88

Urban Population Size 0.308** 0.421** 0.202 -0.193** -0.188** -0.225** -0.208**

-2.67 -3.09 -1.52 (-3.24) (-2.70) (-3.23) (-2.86)

UN Region -0.0467*** -0.0557**

(-3.30) (-3.28)

Has Quotas 0.466 -0.694

-0.24 (-0.35)

Has Legislated Quotas 0.164

Has Constitutional Quotas 1.197

-0.45

_cons 2.389 -60.72 97.26** -105.5*** -11.72 -17.7 -23.74

-0.11 (-1.77) -2.64 (-6.39) (-0.34) (-0.51) (-0.65)

N 1004 911 842 911 691 691 655

Conclusion

Pragmatic Utility

• Current Approaches• Political Changes• Funding• Awareness

• Solution• Education = Starting Point

Ethical Implications

• Gender Issues > Immediate Discrimination• Underlying Inequality• Top Down Solutions Fail

Why Do We Care

Equitable Government -> Equitable Societies

• Female Friendly Social Policies• Overall Education• Healthcare