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What is TCP/IP ?
1. ? 1
1-1 1
1-2. 2
2. 3
2-1. 3
2-1-1. 3
2-1-2. 5
2-1-3. 11
2-1-4. 18
2-2. 20
2-2-1. Signaling 20
2-2-2. 22
2-2-3. (TOPOLOGY) 27
2-2-4. 31
2-3. 32
2-3-1. (Twisted Pair) 32
2-3-2. TP (TP cable) 32
2-3-3. (Coaxial cable) 33
2-3-4. (Fiber Optics) 35
2-4. 37
2-4-1. (SDM : Space division Multiplexing) 37
2-4-2. (FDM : Frequency Division Multiplexing) 37
2-4-3. (TDM : Time Division Multiplexing) 37
2-4-4. (STDM : Statistical Time Division Multiplexing) 37
2-5. 38
2-5-1. CSMA/CD 38
2-5-2. TOKEN PASSING 39
2-6. LAN 41
2-6-1. EtherNet 41
2-6-2. Fast EtherNet 43
2-6-3. Gigabit EtherNet 45
2-6-4. Token Ring 47
2-6-5. FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) 48
2-6-6. VLAN (Virtual LAN) 50
2-7. Switching 55
2-7-1. (Circuit Switching) 57
2-7-2. (Packet Switching) 59
3. 62
3-1. 62
3-1-2. 62
3-1-3. 63
3-2. 64
3-2-1. (fragmentation packetization and reassembly) 64
3-2-2. (encapsulation) 64
3-2-3. (connection control) 65
3-2-4. (flow control) 65
3-2-5. (error control) 65
3-2-6. (synchronization) 65
3-2-7. (sequence) 65
3-2-8. (addressing) 65
3-2-9. (multiplexing) 66
3-2-10 66
3-3. 67
3-3-1. / (direct/indirect) 67
3-3-2. / (monolithic/structured) 68
3-3-3. / (symmetric/asymmetric) 68
4. OSI 7 70
4-1. OSI 7 (OSI 7 Layer) 70
4-2. Layer 1 - Physical Layer 74
4-3. Layer 2 - Data Link Layer 76
4-3-1. EtherNet 81
4-3-2. Ehernet MAC 81
4-3-3. Ethernet 84
4-4. Layer 3,4 - Network, Transport Layer 89
4-4-1. Layer 3 - Transport Layer 90
4-4-2. Layer 4 - Transport Layer 99
4-5. Layer 5,6,7 - Session, Presentation, Application Layer 103
5. Internetworking 104
5-1. Internetworking ? 104
5-2 104
5-2-1 104
5-2-2. 106
5-3. 108
5-3-1. (REPEATER) 108
5-3-2. (BRIDGE) 109
5-3-3. (HUB) 111
5-3-4. (SWITCHING HUB) 112
5-3-5 (ROUTER) 113
5-3-6. RAS 115
5-3-7. DCE 115
5-4. 116
5-4-1. RIP 116
5-4-2. OSPF 116
5-4-3. HDLCSDLC 1175-4-4. BGP 117
5-4-5. LAP-DB 1195-4-6. IGRPEIGRP 120
5-5. 121
5-5-1. (GateWay) 121
5-5-2. 122
What is NetWork ?
1. ?
1-1
.
.
.... ( ), e-Mail, , , ,
NFS PC copy .
. , ...
.
.
' ' . .
? .
. .
.
.
.
SUN "Network is computer. Computer is network."
.
, ' '
.
.
What is NetWork ?
1-2.
, , .
.
.
.
(Back Bone) .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
What is NetWork ?
2.
2-1.
.
.
.
2-1-1.
.
.
, node, link, station . node
, link .
station Teminal . Teminal , FAX
.
FDDI ? Fiber Distributed Data Interface.
100Mbps LAN .
What is NetWork ?
, ,
.
.
, , , .
. ,
Cable LAN
. LAN
,
. , , , ,
. LAN twisted pair
cable ,
(logical channel)
. ,
What is NetWork ?
2-1-2.
(Terminal)
communication .
TTY Mode Termianl
Intelligent Terminal .
(DTE : Data Teminal Equipment)
CCITT( ),EIA( ), ISO(
) . (DCE : Data Circuit Terminating
Equipment) ,
.
25pin, 37/9pin 15pin
.
, , .
. FAX TV .
DSU .
(DTE : Data Terminal Equipment) .
, , , , .
What is NetWork ?
( , )
.
.
, HDLC
DCE .
Terminal
1.
( , ) 2 (
) ,
2.
Terminal .
.
(CCU:Communication Control Unit) .
, ETB(End of Transmisson
Block), EXT(End of Text)
,
.
What is NetWork ?
(Terminal Interface)
(1)
(DTE) (interface) .
(Protocol) . DTE/DCE
DTE/DCE
.
. 56Kbps Modem . v.90
56Kbps 3Com X2 Roackwell
K56Flex . 56Kbps Modem
.
.
ISO(International Organization for Standardization:
) ITU-T(International Telecommunication Union: ) .
(2) DTE/DCE
DTE/DCE Interface( ) DTE(Date Terminal Equipment)
DCE(Data Circuit Terminating Equipment)
Protocal
.
DTE (CCU:Communication Control Unit)
. 2
.
Modem DSU . Modem DSU
CCITT (DCE) .
DTE DCE
DTE/DCE .
,
.
What is NetWork ?
(1) CCITT (Consultative Comittee on International Telegaphy and Telephony)
CCITT 1959 ITU( :International Telecommunication
Union) . CCITT
.
, , , , , .
(2) ISO (International Standard Organization)
ISO 1947 80 . ISO 150
,
. TC(Technical Committee)97
TC97 15 SC(Sub-Committee) . SC
SC6 SC6 3
.
(3) EIA(Electronic Industries Association)
EIA 1924 RMA(Radio Manufacture Association) EIA
. TR-30(Data Transmission)
. TR-30 2 TR-30.1 ,
TR-30.2 .TR-30 1962 RS-232
.
(4) FTSC (Federal Telecommunication Standards Committee)
FTSC ,
CCITT,ISO , FTSC
.
(FED-STD-1005,FED-STD-1006 )
FIPS
.
(5)Bell System
Bell .
Bell
.
CCITT CCITT
X V .
What is NetWork ?
A CCITT
B
C
D
E ,
F
G,H,J
M.N
O
P
Q
R1,R2
R,S,T,U
V
K,L
X
Z
[CCITT ]
V.1 2
V.2
V.3 CCITT No.5
V.4 7
V.5
(600,1200,2400,9600bps )
V.6
(600,1200,2400,3600,9600bps )
V.15
V.20
V.22 ( ) 1200bps
V.22BIS 1200bps
V.23 600/1200
V.24
V.25
V.26 4 2400bps
V.26BIS 2400/1200bps
V.27 4800bps
V.27BIS 4800bps
V.27TER 4800/2400bps
What is NetWork ?
V.29 9600bps
V.35 60-108kHZ 48kbps
V.36 60-108kHZ 48kbps
V.37 60-108kHZ 72kbps
V.41
V.50
[CCITT V ]
X.1
X.2
X.3 ,
X.4 CCITT No.5
X.20 DTE,DCE
X.20BIS V.21 DTE,DCE
X.21 DTE DCE
X.21BIS V DTE PDN
X.24 DTE DCE
X.25 DCE DTE
X.28 PDN DTE/DCE
X.29 DTE PAD
X.40 (Primary group)
X.50
[CCITT X ]
What is NetWork ?
2-1-3.
.
. .
.
4 ? 6
. 5 10
. ,
.
. 1
.
( , )
( )
.
.
(Circuit Switching)
.
(SDM : Space division Multiplexing)
.
SDM (Space division Multiplexing)
What is NetWork ?
(TDM : Time Division Multiplexing)
(Multiplexor) .
Time Switch Time Switch
Time Slot . .
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing
.
. PCM
.
.
.
( ) DSU(Digital Service Unit)
. X.21 DTE, DCE .
(Packet Switching)
1960
( )
. 1960
. ARPA
. ARPA
.
.
What is NetWork ?
. , .
.
Packet Switching
A B . A B
, .
. , .
(store and forward)
B .
B
. B
. B .
, ,
,
.
Virtual Circuit( ) .
.
.
.
. Datagram(
) .
. ,
.
.
.
What is NetWork ?
, deadlock .
8 - 16 .
.
.
,
What is NetWork ?
, .
,
, (Packet Switch)
(Packet MultipleXer:PMX) .
.
(Packet mode Terminal) ,
. (None Packet mode Terminal)
, .
, .
( ) .
(TDM: Time Division Multiplex) (STDM:
Statistic Time Division Multiplex) . TDM
STDM
.
TDM
TDM
TDM
( ) . ,
. 64Kbps 4 TDM
.
64kbps 4 256kps
What is NetWork ?
64kbps . TDM
. .
.
.
TDM . TDM
(Time Slot)
. TDM
. , TDM
.
STDM
STDM TDM
.
STDM
STDM 4
9.6Kbps 128Kbps . STDM
. STDM
. STDM
. STDM .
STDM . , STDM
Queueing STDM
. STDM
What is NetWork ?
. STDM
. STDM , Queuing
.
. STDM 128Kbps .
What is NetWork ?
2-1-4.
. ( ,
) PCM .
.
.
2 . .
, , .
0 carrier 1 carrier .
0 1
. 0 1 .
2 , 4 , 8 .
0 1
. NRZ. ,
.
? +V, -V .
AMI(Alternate Mark Inversion) .
0 0 [V] 1 +[V] -[V]
. .
What is NetWork ?
(1)
. 128
-256 , (BCC) .
polling selectiing system contention syetem .
=> => => .
(2) HDLC
HDLC High level Data Link Control procedure ,
ATM, ISDN
. HDLC
. HDLC CRC(Cyclic Redundancy Check code)
check . .
.
.
.
.
,
, DSU, CSU
.
.
. PCM ,
SDNS MUX MX13 . PCM 56Kbps
. SDNS MUX HSM (High
Speed Modem) 128K ~ 768Kbps
. MX13 PCM SDNS MUX T1/E1
T1/E1 Screen Cable .
Screen Cable O/R (Optical Repeater)
P-O/R , HDSL (High bit rate Digital Subscriber
Line) .
What is NetWork ?
2-2.
2-2-1. Signaling
Broadband
TV ,
(FDM:Frequency Division Multiplex)
, . (Coaxial Cable)
(Fiber Cable) .
TV .
,
.
.
.
BaseBand
LAN .
(FDM:Frequency Division Multiplex)
, (TDM:Time Divisional Multiplexing) .
(Attenuation )
.
Table 2.1
What is NetWork ?
ps., Data Channel
.
. Twisted Pairs,
, , Bandwidth .
.
.
Bandwidth 10310MHZ
300MHZ Bandwidth Twisted Pairs 1 2MHZ
Bandwidth . GHZ Bandwidth .
Bandwidth
. Bandwidth
. bps(bit per
second) . 1.54Mbit .
1.54Mbps Bandwidth .
Bandwidth .
What is NetWork ?
2-2-2.
Peer To Peer
Peer-to-Peer 2.1
. ,
. Peer to Peer Client Server
, ,
.
. Peer-to-Peer
, .
Client/Server .
Client/Server
.
Figure 2.1 Peer to Peer Network
What is NetWork ?
Peer to Peer 1.
Lan Card
NIC(Network Interface Card) NIU(Network Interface Unit) .
. LAN
, LAN ,
. (ISA, EISA,
PCI, PCMCIA ), (AUI, TP, BNC ) ( , )
. .
Peer to Peer 2.
HUB
(HUB) , (Repeter)
. .
.
.
(AUI, BNC, TP ) , TP(Twisted Pair)
. 10Base-T, 100Base-Tx, 100Base-Fx 100VG-AnyLAN
. SNMP(Simple Network Management Protocol) (Dummy)
(Intelligent) , (Stackable)
. , (Switching) .
What is NetWork ?
Peer to Peer 3.
UTP
UPT (Pair)
. LAN EIA/TIA-568 . USOC(Universal Service Order
Codes) RJ-45/RJ-11 . USOC Bell Operation Company
FCC .
(FCC Part 68, Subpart F, Section 68502) USOC
EIA/TIA-568
.
4 (2Pair) .
LAN 8 (4Pair)
. EIA/TIA-568
RJ-45 . UTP
.
Peer to Peer 3.
UTP RJ-45
. RJ-45 UTP ,
RJ-45 UTP .
What is NetWork ?
Client/Server
(Server) ' ' .
PC
, . Lan Client Server .
Figure 2.2 Client / Server
Client/Server
.
(terminal) .
, . (Dummy),
(Intelligent) .
2.2
LAN .
.
Client/Server .
, DB(Data Base), .
. , PC
, PC .
What is NetWork ?
Host Terminal
, ,
Client/Server
.
.
CPU , . Telnet hitel
PC
.
What is NetWork ?
2-2-3. (TOPOLOGY)
. Point-to-Point Star Ring .
.
.
.
Figure 2.3
Star Topology
,
Point-to-Point .
,
. ,
,
. , (Star) 2.4
(Concentrator) (Point-to-Point)
, (Station) .
, .
Figure 2.4 Star Topology
What is NetWork ?
Bus Topology
(Bus) 2-5
. , , ,
. (Backbone)
. T Point-to-Point ,
(Adapter) (Terminator)
. (Baseband) ,
, Bus Topology
, ,
.
, CSMA/CD . .
Figure 2.4 BUS Topology
What is NetWork ?
Ring Topology
(Ring) . 2.5
, ,
. FDDI(Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
. FDDI 1987 ANSI X3T9.5 .
,
LAN .
,
. Point-to-Point .
, .
.
. (Checking) (Recovery) ,
FDDI(Fiber Data Distributed Interface) .
Figure 2.5 Ring Topology
What is NetWork ?
Tree Topology
.
.
Figure 2.6 Tree Topology
What is NetWork ?
2-2-4.
LAN(Local Area Network)
LAN ,
. LAN
(Point-to-point) . LAN(Local Area Network)
,
.
. .
ps., LAN 1973 5 22 , PARC(Palo Alto Research Center) Computer
Science Dr. Robert M. Metcalfe (Ethernet) .
, Metcalfe 'DARPA(Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency)' ,
'ALOHA NET' . .
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network) LAN LAN
LAN , MAN
LAN .
MAN . LAN
, WAN .
WAN (Wide Area Network)
WAN(Wide Area Network) , , ( )
. LAN MAN . WAN
.
VAN (Value Added Network)
VAN WAN, MAN
.
What is NetWork ?
2-3.
,
Bounded, Unbounded . Unbounded
, Bounded .
2-3-1. (Twisted Pair)
Twisted Pair
.
.
, .
.
. (1-10Mbps) ,
. PC .
2-3-2. TP (TP cable)
2.7 TP . TP
, UTP(Unshielded Twisted Pair)
STP(Shielded Twisted Pair) . 100M ,
(Category) 1 5
. 10Base-T 100Base-Tx .
, TP
. TP , STP .
Figure 2.7 The Structure of TP Cable
What is NetWork ?
3( CAT.3 CAT3 ) 10M , 5
100M . 6 , 5
. 2-2 . TP
.
Table 2.2 The Character of Category
3( CAT.3 CAT3 ) 10M , 5
100M . 6 , 5
. TP
.
2-3-3. (Coaxial cable)
,
, ,
. , LAN
.
500hm 750hm .
Ethernet 50hm . Baseband Broadband
3/8 , 1/2 . Baseband LAN
10-12Mbit .
Thick Thin . Thin
. 10Base-2 . Thick Thin
. 10Base-5
. 2.8 .
What is NetWork ?
Figure 2.8 Coaxial Cable
10Base-2 5 , , ,
. BNC
, T ,
(Terminator) .( 2.9 ) 10Base-2 200M
.
Figure 2.9 The Connection of Coaxial Cable
10Base-5 , 10Base-T 2
, (Transceiver) .
, AUI . AUI
.( 2.10 ) 10Base-5 500M .
Figure 2.10 The Connection of AUI Cable
What is NetWork ?
ps., ,
. . BNC
, T , T
. , BNC ,
. .
2-3-4. (Fiber Optics)
,
.
.
LED
.
.
, .
, .
.
. ,
. (3.3GHZ)
, . 1Gbit ,
1 1 . ,
.
,
. . 2.11
, 2.12 .
, 2Km, 20Km
.( , ATM 622M )
.
Figure 2.11 The Structure of Optical Cable
What is NetWork ?
Figure 2.12 The Structure of Connector
Table 2.3 .
Table 2.3 Cable Specification
What is NetWork ?
2-4.
2-4-1. (SDM : Space division Multiplexing)
. SDM
.
2-4-2. (FDM : Frequency Division Multiplexing)
Bandwidth
Sub-Channel .
Baseband Signal
(Carrier Signal)
.
2-4-3. (TDM : Time Division Multiplexing)
,
. FDM
TDM
. TDM
.
2-4-4.
(STDM : Statistical Time Division Multiplexing)
Channel Allocation TDM
.
. Port
TDM .
. TDM TDM STDM
ATM .
What is NetWork ?
2-5.
2-5-1. CSMA/CD
. Carrier Sense
.
.
Multiple Access .
Collision Detection .
CSMA/CD LAN ' ' .
CSMA
,
. IEEE 802.3 .
.(Carrier Sensing )
, . .
(Multiple Access )
.(Collision Detection)
.
Figure 2.13 CSMA / CD
What is NetWork ?
CSMA / CD
. .
. .
CSMA/CD
1980 2 IEEE(IEEE : Isntitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
) 802 LAN . IEEE 802 ANSI(American National Standards Institute, )
, LAN
.
2-5-2. TOKEN PASSING
,
.
.
1. Token Ring
(Token Ring) LAN
.
, IEEE 802.5 .
.
Token Ring
. .
.
What is NetWork ?
Token Ring
. .
CSMA/CD . . .
Figure 2.14 Token Ring
2. Token bus
(Token Bus) LAN ,
. , (Dummy)
,
.
Token Bus
. . .
Token Bus
. CSMA/CD .
.
What is NetWork ?
2-6. LAN
2-6-1. EtherNet
Ethernet Contention LAN .
1970 CSMA/CD . CSMA/CD
1980 IEEE IEEE802.3
. LAN .
,
. .
10Mbps .
(10Base-5) . .
.
UTP .
.
EtherNet
IEEE 3 .
10Base-FL . .
10Base-5 500m . Thick 2.5m
.
10Base-2 Thin 200m .
10Base-T UTP , 100m .
EtherNet
CSMA/CD . (Node)
. (Broadcast)
. ,
What is NetWork ?
. CSMA/CD
.
. CSMA/CD
, .
.
UTP 10Mbps
. (Concentrator) . 10Mbps
. 100Mbps . 100Mbps
.
.
. (Dedicate) ,
. . ,
" " .
.
,
.
1518Byte 64Byte .
What is NetWork ?
2-6-2. Fast EtherNet
. MPEG 1.5Mbps .
MPEG-II 6Mbps .
10Mbps ,
. , 10Mbps
100Mbps . UTP
. LAN ,
100Mbps . 2.4 2.5 100M LAN
.
Table 2.4
Table 2.5
What is NetWork ?
100Mbps
. CSMA/CD
. IEEE 802.3 .
10 .
10Base-T 5 UTP .
, , , IBM, , SVC
.
LAN .
, , SVC,
.
Figure 2.15 The Architecture of Fast EtherNet
,
(Virtual pipe) . ,
,
.
.
.
100Mbps
.
What is NetWork ?
2-6-3. Gigabit EtherNet
10Mbps 1000Mbps .
.
. UTP .
ATM .
,
. 2.6 , ,
.
Table 2.6
(Gigabit Ethernet) 1000Mbps
10/100
(Fast Ethernet) 2-3 10 . ,
100
.
LAN .
802.3(CSMA/CD) 802.3
, IP, IPX,
.
, .
CSMA/CD(Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)
(full duplex)
.
( ) . (UTP) 99 .
What is NetWork ?
Figure 2.16 The Architecture of Gigabit EtherNet
, , ,
.
NIC(Network Interface Card) 100Mbps
,
.
10 15% 40 50%
.
What is NetWork ?
2-6-4. Token Ring
Token Ring IBM , 4-16Mbps
DATA ,
. 2-5-2 ..
What is NetWork ?
2-6-5. FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
FDDI 100Mbps passing LAN
.
FDDI(Fiber Distributed Digital Interfaces Networks) 1980 ANSI
LAN Token Ring 10
100Mbps 200Km .
Ethernet 10Mbps N/W .
Bandwidth ANSI , , ATM LAN
LAN FDDI
Figure 2.17 The Architecture of FDDI
FDDI fiber( ) Dual Ring( ) .
FDDI Ring SMT(Station ManagemenT)
SMT FDDI Ring Link Backup ring
. FDDI Ethernet
MTU . FDDI 100Mb/s Token-passing,
Dual-ring LAN . Dual Ring Architectur data Ring
Ring . FDDI
. Single Mode Multi Mode . Single
Laser , Multi LED . , Laser
.
What is NetWork ?
Figure 2.18 The Architecture of FDDI
What is NetWork ?
2-6-6. VLAN (Virtual LAN)
(VLAN : Virtual LAN) LAN
LAN . LAN
.
2.19 A B
. A
B .
Figure 2.19 The Architecture of Virtual Lan
.
.
,
. , , FDDI
, .
,
.
,
, .
,
.
.
What is NetWork ?
.
, ,
, . 2.19
, ,
.
Figure 2.19 The Congestion of Network
,
. 2.20 ,
, .
, 2.21
, 3 .
.
.
Figure 2.20 The bottleneck between Router
What is NetWork ?
Figure 2.21 The avoid of bottleneck between Router
4 .
.
(Polysy-based) .
, .
. A , B
.
.
. ( 2.22 ) Port
,
. ,
.
Figure 2.22 The Port-Based Virtual LAN
What is NetWork ?
MAC MAC MAC
. MAC
. ( 2-23 ) MAC
, .
Figure 2.23 The MAC-Based Virtual LAN
(TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, Netbeui )
. ( 2.24)
,
.
.
Figure 2.24 The Protocol-Based Virtual LAN
What is NetWork ?
IP IPX
, IP . ( 2.25 )
, .
.
.
3 .
Figure 2.25 The Network-Based Virtual LAN
What is NetWork ?
2-7. Switching
(Circuit
Switching) (Packet Switching) .
LAN 95 10
.
. .
LAN LAN
.
.
95 LAN .
. (dedicated-bandwidth)
(switched) LAN
.
LAN
. 10Mbps
PC 10Mbps .
, , . LAN
.
(circuit) . (packet)
LAN ,
, FDDI LAN . (cell) ATM
LAN WAN .
Figure 2.26 The Model of Switched Network
What is NetWork ?
.
LAN .
(virtual) LAN .
LAN 3 (IP)
.
.
What is NetWork ?
2-7-1. (Circuit Switching)
.
.
, . ,
.
,
. CODE, FPORMAT, SPEED, PROTOCOL ,
Station - .
' '(PSTN:Public-Switched Telephone Network; ) .
1:1
.
PSDN(Public-Switched Data Network)
.
1:1
.
Circuit Switching Network .
Figure 2.27 The Circuit Switching Concept
A C A ,
C B, D, E, F .
' ...' B, D, E, F
.
'Closed Circuit' .
What is NetWork ?
.
, A C ,
.
,
. , B, D, E, F
.
Circuit Switching Null-Modem . PC
Null-Modem , DOS FX
NC Link, 95 .
What is NetWork ?
2-7-2. (Packet Switching)
.
IDLE TIME .
.
.
.
(Store and
Forward) .
IEEE LAN ' ' ' '
. circuit switched network
.
.
Figure 2.28 The Packet Switching Concept
A C B D
?
.
packet
What is NetWork ?
. , ,
, .
A F 0 A
1 B 2 C A 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36,
42, 48, 54 . TDMA(Time Division Multiple
Access) . .
A C 100 10
1 circuit switching 10
(A ).
Figure 2.29 Packet Segmentation
packet switching network A 6
(9 6) + 1 = 55 .
Figure 2.30 Data transfer time
5.5
. A
.
A F
.
( A F )
(DTE:Data Terminal Equipment) ,
What is NetWork ?
access control 'Random Access' 'Token'
.
Random access ALOHA, CSMA/CD .
random access CSMA/CD .
Token token ring, token bus .
: ( ) . bps(bit per second) 100bps 100 . Mbps .
Mbps
64kbps .
: .
. 64kbps
.
64kbps ADSL 64kbps
(ADC) . Mbps
.
LAN : Local Area Network . , WAN
.
WAN : Wide Area Network. LAN LAN . DTE : (terminal) .
, , DTE .
ALOHA , ALOHA 1970 random
access (
). center .
DTE .
DTE DTE
DTE
.
ALOHA 100 10
.
What is NetWork ?
3.
.
(communication protocol ) .
.
3-1.
.
. ,XXX ? , , YYY .. .
,
. .
,
. ,
.
3-1-2.
.
, 1970 .
ARRPA (Advanced Research Project Agency )
.
,
.
. ARPA
, CCITT
X.25 . X.25
,
.
.
What is NetWork ?
.
3-1-3.
-
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
CCITT ISO (
)
.
.
(OSI: Open System Interconnection) . OSI
.
What is NetWork ?
3-2.
,
.
3-2-1. (fragmentation packetization and reassembly)
,
.
(PDU : Protocol Data Unit) .
3-2-2. (encapsulation)
PDU . 3 .
: . : : .
Figure 3.1 Segmentation and Reassembly
Figure 3.2 Capsulation
What is NetWork ?
3-2-3. (connection control)
(connection establishment)
, (data transfer), (connection termination) 3
.
3-2-4. (flow control)
. / PDU
(ACK) .
ACK .
3-2-5. (error control)
PDU .
3-2-6. (synchronization)
2
. , , , 2
.
3-2-7. (sequence)
. , ,
.
3-2-8. (addressing)
, ,
.
What is NetWork ?
3-2-9. (multiplexing)
.
1:1 ,
(upward multiplexing) (downward multiplexing ) .
,
.
, ,
.
3-2-10
.
(priority): : (security) :
What is NetWork ?
3-3.
/ / /
.
3-3-1. / (direct/indirect)
.
(a) (point to point)
. (b) (multi point)
(a) . (a)
(b)
.
Figure 3.3 The Classification of Protocol
(c)
. (d)
catinet .
What is NetWork ?
3-3-2. / (monolithic/structured)
,
.
HDLC
.
,
.
,
.
.
OSI .
3-3-3. / (symmetric/asymmetric)
,
.
.
Figure 3.4 Each Protocol Layer
.
What is NetWork ?
.
.
What is NetWork ?
4. OSI 7
, ? OS
. ( )
. 95 ' '
,
. FTP, .
, ,
.
ISO(International Standards Organization) OSI(Open Systems
Interconnection) 7 Layer Reference Model .
4-1. OSI 7 (OSI 7 Layer)
1977 1983 .
IBM SNA DEC
DECNet .
OSI 7
.
.
OSI 7 .
7
Application Layer WWW, Telnet, NetBIOS,
FTPPresentation Layer
Session Layer
Tranport Layer TCP/IP
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
Figure 4.1 OSI 7 Layers
What is NetWork ?
.
7 : Application Layer .
.
6 : Presentation Layer
.
5 : Session Layer . .
4 : Transport Layer .
.
3 : Network Layer
.
2 : Data Link Layer .
.
1 : Physical Layer .
7 , ,
. 1,2 3,4 ,
5,6,7 .
OS . DOS
OS OS
NOS(Network OS) . 3 NOS UNIX,
NetWare, Windows .
What is NetWork ?
ISO 7 ,
. 7
WAN TCP/IP
. , 1 2 Ethernet , 3 4
TCP/IP, NetBuei, IPX .
OSI 7 (OSI )
IEEE1394 . 5,6,7
' ' . Telnet, FTP, e-mail (SMTP, POP), News
(NNTP), NetBIOS .
LAN 1, 2 .
.
What is NetWork ?
OSI 7
OSI 7 Layer .
,
.
SendingApplication Layer (Layer 7) .
Presentation Layer (Layer 6) .
Session Layer (Layer 5) .
Transport Layer (Layer 4) ,
.
Network Layer (Layer 3) .
Data Link Layer (Layer 2) ,
.
Physical Layer (Layer 1) , ,
.
ReceivingPhysical Layer (Layer 1) , ,
.
Data Link Layer (Layer 2) .
Network Layer (Layer 3) .
Transport Layer (Layer 4) .
Session Layer (Layer 5) .
Presentation Layer (Layer 6) .
.
Application Layer (Layer 7) .
What is NetWork ?
4-2. Layer 1 - Physical Layer
.
.
. 10/90
10% 90% .
,
.
10Mbps (Ethernet) .
( )
( ) 1Mbps .
.
100Mbps .
.
(twisted pair line) . TP
.
. TP UTP(Unshielded TP)
STP(Shielded TP) TP STP UTP
. UTP 10Mbps , 100Mbps
.
Figure 4.2 , ,
.
.
0% .
.
What is NetWork ?
.
.( 2Mbps
)
1 RS-232 . RS-232 15m
9600bps 1 +3V , 0 -3V
. 12V . PC COM1 COM4
RS-232C . Ethernet 0V
-2V .
1 . ' (
)' . RS-232 1 1 (point-to-point) .
( ) .
.
Figure 4.3 a) Point to Point, b) BUS, c) Star, d) Ring
What is NetWork ?
4-3. Layer 2 - Data Link Layer
.
.
(
).
. , , .
(Transfer Control)
(asynchronous) (synchronous)
. ' '
, . PC
COM1-COM4 . ABC ABC
ASCII 41h, 42h, 43h . 414243h
414243h 2 10000001 10000010 10000011 .
.
.
.
(Asynchronous)
.
1 . ( 0) . . , ( 1) .
What is NetWork ?
.
9600 [bps] .. 1 over 9600 = 104 sec .
1 0 0
104 + 52(sampling ) = 156 sec 104 sec 8
, .
,
. 8MB
1MB .
, ,
. PC PC
. PC
PC .
(Synchronous)
' ' .
. , , .
.
.
. 1 01 0 10
1 0 0 1 (transition)
.
What is NetWork ?
DPLL(Digital Phase Locked Loop)
.
64
1518 . (Frame) (
). 10101010 7 10101011
.
.
, .
.
What is NetWork ?
(Error Control)
' ' .
. .
, 8 1
. A
(ascii code) 100 0001 0 100 0001 .
127 7
8 . vi, mail
7 .
1
. 1
. A 101 0001
0 101 0001 . 1 3
. 1
. ,
.
( , ).
9600 bps 104 sec ,
. (burst error)
( ) .
CRC(Cyclic Redundancy Check)
. PC CRC .
CRC
polynomial generator (CRC-16 1 1000 0000
0000 0101) -2 . CRC-16
16 .
.
CRC polynomial generator
. CRC
FCS(Frame Check Sequence) .
What is NetWork ?
(Flow Control)
. ( )
. 1 1
DTE
.
. ,
.
Ack .
Xon/Xoff .
(Multiple Access Control)
(Multiple Access Control) .
, , , DTE
. DTE
.
'Random Access' 'Token' Random Access
CSMA/CD .
What is NetWork ?
4-3-1. EtherNet
OSI 7 1, 2 LAN . IEEE 802.3
. 1, 2 2
LLC(Link Layer Contorl) MAC(Medium Access Contorl) . LLC
MAC . 2 MAC
.
MAU .
Figure 4.4 EtherNet
4-3-2. Ehernet MAC
MAC , ,
, .
.
64 1518 octet
Preamble
SFD
DA
SA
FCS
7 octet 1 octet 6 octet 6 octet 46 1500 octet 4octet
SFD : Start Frame Delimiter DA : Destination Address
SA : Source Address FCS : Frame Check Sequence
1 . (CSMA/CD
What is NetWork ?
.
10101010 7 ,
) ( , 10101011
, , .)
. 6 , 48 ,
. FCS 32 G(X) CRC
FCS CRC . , IEEE
. , MAC 24
, 24 .
00-20-AF-21-3C-80 00:20:AF:21:3C:80 24
. 3COM 00-60-8C, 00-20-AF, 00-A0-24
. 00-AA-00 .
. CRC .
2
.
. DA
CRC .
MAC . Random Access
CSMA/CD . MAC .
. . . (JAM) 32 .
. 16 .
.
.
.
.
SFD . , . , .
CRC . .
What is NetWork ?
,
.
Figure 4.5
What is NetWork ?
4-3-3. Ethernet
10Base2, 10Base5, 10BaseT . 10
Mbps 2 200m( 185m), 5 500m
. T Twited UTP .
10Base5 10Base2 10Base5 10Base2 .
.
10Base5 . 50
10Base2 Thick ( ).
Yellow .
.
Figure 4.6 10Base5
10Base5 ( 1cm
) .
10Base2 50 185m .
(10Base5 ) . 10Base2
Thin . BNC ( BNC
) . .
What is NetWork ?
Figure 4.7 10Base2
Thick Net Thin Net 50 ( )
.
. 1 0V, 0 -2.05V .
Thin Net 185m
, .
. ,
. .
.
.
10Base5 10Base2 2 , 3 .
.
.
round trip delay
.
.
What is NetWork ?
10BaseT
10BaseT . UTP
RJ-45 . STP TP
.
Figure 4.8 10BaseT
.
DTE PC
10BaseT .
100m . 4 ( ), 5 .
Figure 4.9 Hub 10BaseT
What is NetWork ?
...
1,2 ,
. .
, .
.
. CSMA/CD (
)
.
,
. FDDI .
1,2 .
XDSL, .
Modulator/DeModulator
. , TDMA
. 8000 , 8
24 .
.
24 1 ,
?
1 8000 , 8 8 8000 = 64000
8000 64000 24 + 8000 = 1544000,
1.544 [Mbps] .
1.544 [Mbps] ? T1
. .
.
, 64Kbps , T1 6 , 12
7 56kbps . 56kbps
.
, 56kbps .
, ADSL, HDSL ? DSL
What is NetWork ?
. .
DSL AD
. 1Mbps
AD DA
. , .
64Kbps
.
. TV
.
What is NetWork ?
4-4. Layer 3,4 - Network, Transport Layer
OSI 7 1, 2 . , 3~7
1, 2 MAC
. .
1,2
. .
10BaseT ,
. MAC
. ,
, fp
. 3, 4 .
,
. , 2
. ,
3 . , 2 , 3, 4
.
.
' ' . ' ' .
'
' ( ).
, . ,
.
3
.
(routing) . 3
. QoS(Quality of Service)
, .
, .
4 . 3
5 .
WinSock , .
4 .
3, 4 3, 4 TCP/IP
NetBEUI .
What is NetWork ?
4-4-1. Layer 3 - Transport Layer
IP(Internet Protocol) TCP/IP 3, 4 . ARPA
.
TCP/IP suite . TCP 4 , IP 3 . IP
.
IP
IP IP
. IP MAC
.( , )
IP 32 1 .
(netro.ajou.ac.kr)
11001010000111100000101110111011
10
2 11001010 00011110 00001011 10111011
16 CA. 1E. 0B. BB
10 202. 30. 11. 187
202.30.11.187 .
A , B , C
. A , C
.
1 8 9 16 17 24 25 32
A0 ID ID
0.H.H.H
127.H.H.H
B1 0 ID ID
128.N.H.H
191.N.H.H
C1 1 0 ID
ID
192.N.N.H
233.N.N.H
D1 1 1 0
234.0.0.0
239.255.255.255
Figure 4.10 IP Class
What is NetWork ?
4.10 ID , ID
. 0 . DTE
, IP IP
.
.
A 7 ID 24 ID
. B 14 ID 16 ID , C
21 ID 8 ID . A ARPANET
C . IP 192 233
C .
0 1 . 0
1
.
D MBONE
. ,
.
10000 B
. LG B 150.150.X.X
. 2 65536 .
10000 20 100
( ) .
. ID
.
IP 32 IP 1
ID ID , 0 ID .
150.150.50.214 255.255.255.0 /
IP AND .
IP150. 150. 50. 214
10010110 10010110 00110010 11010110
11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000
, 150. 150. 50. 0
What is NetWork ?
, C 127 ,
? .
255.255.255.128 128 IP .
IP
( ) . IP
IP .
, ?
.
202.30.11.187 C 255.255.255.0
. 202.30.11.187 202.30.11.44
202.30.0.11 .
.
.
IP . AND
.
202.30.11.187
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
AND
255.255.255.0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
202.30.11.0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
.
202.30.11.44 .
202.30.11.44
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
AND
255.255.255.0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
202.30.11.0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
' ' ' '
. 202.30.0.11
What is NetWork ?
202.30.0.11
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
AND
255.255.255.0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
202.30.0.0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
' ' 202.30.11.0 202.30.0.0
.
What is NetWork ?
IP
IP . IP
NIC(Network Information Center) . InterNIC IP
, - ,
. - NIC(APNIC) NIC
KRNIC . www.krnic.net .
KRNIC (ISP) IP ISP
. ISP IP IP
. ,
. ID
.
IP . .. PC
? winipcfg TCP/IP
. ' ' .
Figure 4.11 winipcfg
What is NetWork ?
IP .
? IP .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
ID
D M
(TTL:Time To Live)
IP
IP
(65,546 )
Figure 4.12 IP Datagram
IP .
IP . 4 0100 .
6(IPV6 ) .
ISO QoS
. .
TTL . 8
256 .
.
1 1 1
IP 255 .
What is NetWork ?
, .
.
, .
4
4
3
3
2
2
1 1
Figure 4.13
,
. 4
.
.
RIP(Routing
Information Protocol) .
?
.
202.30.X.X 202.30.11.X 202.30.0.X
. 202.30.X.X 202.30.11.X
202.30.11.2 202.30.0.X 202.30.0.4 .
.
Figure 4.14
What is NetWork ?
202.30.11.187 202.30.11.44 202.30.0.11
.
?
. tracert ,
traceroute .
202.30.11.187 . 202.30.11.187 Netro
Linux telnet login traceroute . 150.150.50.214
.
Figure 4.15 traceroute
202.30.11.2 .
202.30.0.1 165.133.249.137 .
PC 202.30.11.187 tracert .
What is NetWork ?
Figure 4.16 tracert
134.75.68.2 202.30.0.4 202.30.11.187 .
tracert .
. KIX
. KRNIC
.
ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
IP 3 ARP . IP SA DA
, MAC
. IP MAC ARP .
ARP
ARP .
What is NetWork ?
4-4-2. Layer 4 - Transport Layer
4 ' ' . IP
.
. .
. .
.
(connection-oriented)
(connectionless) .
. . TCP/IP
TCP UDP .
.
Figure 4.17 TCP and UDP Protocol
What is NetWork ?
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol) TCP Reliable Stream Service .
. ,
.
TCP
. IP IP .
,
.
TCP
TCP .
. TCP code
.
.
.
Open Listen . Open
Listen . TCP
Ack(acknowledge)
. Ack TCP (time out)
. time out
.
TCP ,
. . TCP
,
.
.
What is NetWork ?
TCP
TCP PDU(Protocol Data Unit)
. .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ack
URG
Figure 4.18 TCP Segment (PDU)
TCP .
.
.
4.17 .
WWW 8080 . .
. Ack
. .
UDP(User Datagram Protocol)
UDP .
, , .
.
? , TCP
- .
, TCP
.
UDP .
What is NetWork ?
TCP/IP, ARP, UDP 3,4 . 3,4
.
- SLIP/PPP
1 1 ( , , )
IP . IP
SLIP(Serial Line Interface Protocol) PPP(Point to Point Protocol) .
SLIP .
. PPP TCP .
- NetBIOS/NetBEUI
DOS DOS BIOS Call .
BIOS Call
. IBM
NetBIOS .
. OSI 4, 5 .
IBM NetBIOS Extended User Interface NetBEUI
. NetBIOS int 2Fh API , NetBEUI
.
NetBIOS/NetBEUI Microsoft Enterprise Network ,
. , ' '
. 95 NT
NetBIOS .
. (UDP
). . TCP/IP 1.2
1.5 .
NetBEUI TCP/IP IPX NetBIOS . TCP/IP
NetBEUI NT 95 NetBEUI ,
TCP/IP .
- DLC(Data Link Control)
DLC IEEE802.2
. JetDirect HP
.
What is NetWork ?
4-5. Layer 5,6,7 - Session, Presentation, Application Layer
5,6,7
4 . 5,6 7
.
5
. ,
.
.
. .
.
C
16 , 32 .
.
. ( ) .
. telnet, FTP, SMTP, POP,
SNMP, WWW ' ' ' ' .
What is NetWork ?
5. Internetworking
5-1. Internetworking ?
(Internetworking)
. , LAN WAN .
,
. ,
, , .
.
(Repeater), (Bridge), (Router),
(Gateway) , . [
5.1] 4 OSI 7 .
,
.
.
Figure 5.1
5-2
5-2-1
.
. ,
What is NetWork ?
. .
5.4 ,
.
LAN LAN WAN .
LAN ,
, LAN .
, LAN
. LAN
" " .
, .
, .
" " .
.
,
.
.
.
.
Figure 5.2 ISDN
What is NetWork ?
,
.
,
.
, [ 5.2] ISDN
.
5-2-2.
5-2-1 ,
. 5-4
.
. ,
TCP/IP . IPX
, .
.
TCP/IP 'IP (Routing) '
.
(Forwarding) (Filtering) ,
. LAN , ,
3 ,
, .
LAN LAN
, .
. ,
. 3
, ,
.
.
LAN
(Destination) (Source)
, .
What is NetWork ?
.
3 ,
.
.
,
,
. ,
, ,
LAN .
(Bridging) LAN ,
.
[ 5.5] .
What is NetWork ?
5-3.
5-3-1. (REPEATER)
,
.
. ,
.
, ,
.
.
1 ,
, . ,
.
2 . 0.5
4 . 4
.([ 5.3] , [ 5.4]
OSI .)
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4 OSI
What is NetWork ?
5-3-2. (BRIDGE)
,
, .
. , ,
.
, 2 .
, .
(Local) (Remote) ,
LAN , LAN LAN
WAN , LAN
. .
, .
, ([ 5.5]
, [ 5.6] OSI ).
Figure 5.5 Bridge
What is NetWork ?
Figure 5.6 Bridge OSI
What is NetWork ?
5-3-3. (HUB)
HUB . HUB
LAN
.
Dummy HUB ( )
SNMP(Simple Network Management Protocol)
Management Intelligent HUB .
LAN . LAN
. .(
CSMA/CD )
. HUB
.
LAN (Dedicated Medium Switching)
Switching HUB ( LAN Switch)
, Dedicate .
.
Figure 5.8 8
SH-1200M HUB
What is NetWork ?
5-3-4. (SWITCHING HUB)
,
.
LAN
.
.
Figure 5.9
Cisco Catalyst5000
What is NetWork ?
5-3-5 (ROUTER)
LAN WAN LAN
.
,
LAN , LAN WAN
, ,
. 3 .
, .
.
. (Static Routing)
(Dynamic Routing)
.
,
. (Brouter)
,
, .
.([ 5-10] OSI
, [ 5.11] 2501
Rustle 4501 .)
Figure 5.10
What is NetWork ?
Figure 5.11 Cisco 2501 Router, Rustle Router
Figure 5.12 Cisco 2501 Router
What is NetWork ?
5-3-6. RAS
RAS Remote Access Server Remote Access System ,
. RAS ,
RAS (Terminal Server)
(Communication Server) . RAS WAN
LAN . PC '
' ISP , ISP
RAS .
RAS PPP , , X.25, ISDN BRI PRI,
ATM, DS-3 PSTN WAN
.
. RAS
, RAS
, . ,
LAN . [ 5.13]
.
Figure 5.13
5-3-7. DCE
DCE WAN ,
WAN ,
.
DCE (MODEM)
DSU(Digital Service Unit), CSU(Channel Service Unit), HSM(High Speed Modem),
FDSU(Fractional DSU) . DSU 56/64Kbps , CSU
T1/E1 , FDSU HSM 768Kbps .
What is NetWork ?
5-4.
5-4-1. RIP
RIP(Routing Information Protocol) Distance-Vector
1980 . RIP (Hop) 15
, 15 .
. RIP
15 ,
.
RIP
. RIP 30
. 30
. RIP VLSM(Variable Length
Subnet Mask) . RIP
. RIP RIP Version II
. RIP II VLSM
RIP
. RIP IP IPX
, IPX RIP .
5-4-2. OSPF
OSPF(Open Shortest Path First) Link-State
. OSPF (Area) .
, . IP
. 1 ,
2 ( 0.0.0.0)
. .
OSPF RIP .
RIP . OSPF
(Path Cost) .
. '1' , '10'
. OSPF
.
OSPF VLSM ,
. . OSPF Version 1
What is NetWork ?
Version 2 Version 2 ,
OSPF .
5-4-3. HDLCSDLC
HDLC(High-level Data Link Control) ISO 1974
, , X.25
LAPB(Link Access Procedure, Balanced) ISDN
LAPD(Link Access Procedure, D-Channel) .
, .
SDLC(Synchronous Data Link Control) HDLC
, IBM .
HDLC , , ,
. ,
16 FCS(Frame Check
Sequence) .
.
, HDLC
.
HDLC , " HDLC" . SDLC
.
SDLC SDLC ' (Station)' .(
.) HDLC , ,
, SDLC .
, ,
. .
. .
.
5-4-4. BGP
BGP(Border Gateway Protocol) RFC 1105
, EGP(Exterior Gateway Protocol)
.
, BGP EGP . BGP
AS(Autonomous System) BGP
, AS BGP ,
What is NetWork ?
BGP AS AS
.
BGP ,
, . , BPG
, .
TCP .
BGP RIP (Distance Vector) ,
, AS
, (Counting to Infinity)
. BGP .
AS ?
AS Autonomous System , " "
. , " " "
" .
ISP(Internet Service Provider)
. ISP
.
ISP
. AS .
AS , ( , , ) ,
. AS
AS ,
EGP , IGP(Interior Gateway Protocol)
. IGP RIP OSPF , EGP BGP .
What is NetWork ?
5-4-5. LAP-DB
LAPD LAPB ISDN X.25 , HDLC
. ,
,
D .
LAPD , 2
.
. D (throughput)
,
D .
LAP 2 X.25 LAPB 2
, ' '(SAPI : Service Access Point Identifier), '
'(TEI : Terminal Endpoint Identifier) 2
. SAPI ,
, TEI
. 2 SAPI TEI , '
'(DLCI : Data Link Connection Identifier) .(
DLCI .)
LAPB Point-to-Point
LAPD . Point-to-Mutipoint
, .
Point-to-Point Point-to-Multipoint
. TEI '1' .
What is NetWork ?
5-4-6. IGRPEIGRP
IGRP(Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) EIGRP(Enhanced IGRP) (Cisco)
,
. RIP IGRP .
, , , . IGRP
(Load Balancing) . EIGRP IGRP
.
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.
What is NetWork ?
5-5.
5-5-1. (GateWay)
(Gateway)
, OSI 7 .
. IBM SNA(System Network Architecture) X.25
.
,
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Figure 5.14 GateWay
What is NetWork ?
5-5-2.
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. LAN
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.
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What is NetWork ?
Figure 5.15 LAN
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3 . 3 IP
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What is NetWork ?
(Cut-through) ,
.
,
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,
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,
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, (Congestion)
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What is NetWork ?
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.
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.
,
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. [ 5.17] [ 5-1]
.
,
.
Figure 5.16 , LAN
Figure 5.17 ,
What is NetWork ?
5.1 ,
What is NetWork ?
2 3
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.
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