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Science, to be science, must be public, objective, predictive, reproducible, systematic, and cumulative. The published article is the only medium that allows these characteristics to exist.
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What YOU Needto Know about
Communication, Writing, & Science
Tom LangTom Lang Communications and Training
The Importance of Writing and Publishing in Science
Science cannot exist without writing!
Writing is the only form of communication that allows science to be distinct from authority, intuition, and tradition as a way of establishing truth.
Science, to be science, must be public, objective, predictive, reproducible, systematic, and cumulative.
The published article is the only medium that allows these characteristics to exist.
If the purpose of science is to discover, the final stage of research is to publish the discovery.
If the results are not published, from a scientific standpoint, the research never took place.
The awful truth . . .
If you have chosen to become a scientist, you have chosen to
become a writer!
Why You May Not Like to Write: Practice vs. Applied Writing
"The original source [of false assumptions about writing] is the artificial communication a student is required to perform in college.
In writing only for professors, a student learns to write for audiences of one, audiences who know more than the writer knows, and audiences who have no instrumental interest in what the report contains."
J. Mathes and D. Stevensen
Differences in the Direction of the Flow of Information
Practice writing: information usually goes from a student learning the topic to a teacher already knowledgeable about the topic. Applied writing: information must go from an author knowledgeable about the topic to a reader who needs to learn about it.
Differences in How Writing is Evaluated
Practice writing: is graded on grammar or "quality of thought." The text itself is evaluated.Applied writing: is evaluated by how it helps others in the organization to function. The text is by evaluated by assessing readers’ understanding of it.
Differences in the Intrinsic and Instrumental Aspects of Writing
Practice writing: the intrinsic value of writing is emphasized; the words themselves are the art. Applied writing: the instrumental or functional value of writing is paramount: "transparent" text is always preferred to "style."
Differences in Expression vs. Functional Communication
Practice writing: writing is often taught as personal expression (writer-based texts) to foster students' maturation. Applied writing: writing must be a part of social communication (reader-based texts) to make possible prolonged and complex scientific activities.
An Emphasis of Words vs. Words, Images, Numbers, and Design
Practice writing: usually emphasizes only wordsApplied writing: requires tables, diagrams, graphs, maps, illustrations, photographs, equations, and sometimes even graphic design
In other words, what we learn about writing in school does not prepare us for writing in our jobs or professions.
Writing the Technical Report
"The technical report is an act of communication by a professional in an
organizational system to transfer information necessary for the system
to continue to function."
Organizational Communication System
You
Inputs Outputs
Others in the Organization
An Important Distinction
• Your technical tasks as a problem-solver differ from your report-writing tasks as a communicator!
• These two roles require different
perspectives and different skills
Organizational Communication System
YouTechnical
Inputs Tasks OutputsWriting
Tasks
Others in the Organization
Design the Report around the Organization System
Introduce it to the system
Fit it into the system
Organizational Communication System
Assignment YouBackground TechnicalInformation Tasks
Problem Writing Statement Tasks
Others in the Organization
The 4-part Introduction
1. Background statement
2. Problem statement
3. Task statement
4. Summary statement
Original Introduction
The symmetrically spiraled curve program was designed and written to compute the basic characteristics of a symmetrically spiraled circular curve. In addition to those characteristics, the program will also compute the deflection angles required to set stakes at quarter stations (every 25 feet) along the curve.
Data SetsTwo data sets are required by the symmetrically
spiraled curve program for every curve that is to be computed . . .
Revised Introduction
Symmetrically spiraled curves accommodate the natural driving path of the motorist. Properly designed, these curves produce a more comfortable ride. However, engineers have hesitated to use these curves because of the difficulty in calculating them. The symmetrically spiraled curve program was written to compute the basic characteristics of the curve more easily. This memo explains how to arrange the necessary data sets on computer cards so that highway engineers can use the symmetrically spiraled curve program to design a curve.
Revised Introduction
Symmetrically spiraled curves accommodate the natural driving path of the motorist. Properly designed, these curves produce a more comfortable ride. However, engineers have hesitated to use these curves because of the difficulty in calculating them. The symmetrically spiraled curve program was written to compute the basic characteristics of the curve more easily. This memo explains how to arrange the necessary data sets on computer cards so that highway engineers can use the symmetrically spiraled curve program to design a curve.
1. Background statement: provides the context for understanding the problem and approach
2. Problem statement: describes the nature, scope, severity, or importance of the problem that stimulated the research
3. Task statement: indicates the research question, hypothesis, approach, or activities undertaken to investigate the problem
4. Summary statement: tells readers what they will find if they continue to read
Part 1: Background Statement
“In patients with atherosclerotic vascular disease, aspirin is recommended to prevent myocardial infarction and graft occlusion.”
Part 2: Problem Statement
“However, aspirin is also associated with bleeding. Patients are often asked to stop taking aspirin before bronchoscopy, to reduce the risk of bleeding. The effectiveness of this practice has never been tested.”’
Part 3: Task Statement
“Thus, we sought to determine whether aspirin really does increase the risk of bleeding after bronchoscopy.”
Part 4: Summary Statement
“. . . in which we compared the number and severity of bleeding events in those taking aspirin with those who were not and determined that aspirin does not increase the risk of bleeding.”
Problems with Introductions
• Weak background and problem statements
• Many authors assume readers will know 1) what problem was studied 2) why the problem is important
General Organization of Reports
• Most reports have multiple, complex audiences
• Magazine publishers segment their market by printing different editions for each market segment
• Segment the report so that different audiences can read selectively
General Organization
Write two components: 1) a summary component that
summarizes the problem and solution for all readers
2) a complete component that presents the details and implications for specific readers
• Make each self-sufficient and capable of standing alone
General Organization
1. Write the complete component first
2. Create the summary component by editing the full component until it is suitable for the primary audience
The Summary Component
A Heading Segment
A Task Segment
A Summary Segment
Heading Segment
Identifies the author(s), recipient(s) or distribution list, topic, date, related communications
This information should allow readers to place the report in time and context.
Task Segment
Describes your understanding of the task; identifies the data, files, or materials you were given to work with; and details what you did to complete the task
(This is the four-part introduction)
Summary Segment
Briefly presents the results (including figures and tables, if necessary) and conclusions of the report
The Complete Component
The segments will vary, depending on the circumstance
However, reports will usually have a beginning, a middle, and an ending segment
Beginning segment: usually the full form of the task segment that appears in abbreviated form in the summary component
Middle segment: quite variable
May present arguments for fact, value (desired ends), or policy (desired means to an end)
Divide the segments into coherent parts with informative headings
Order the segments and make the order known to readers
Ending segment: includes the conclusions, recommendations, and appendices of supporting data
SUMMARY COMPONENTHeading Segment
Title, Author, Distribution list, Date, Related Documents Task Segment (4-part introduction)
Summary Segment
COMPLETE COMPONENTBeginning Segment (4-part introduction)
Middle SegmentEnding Segment
Conclusions Recommendations
Appendices
The P.A.S.T of a Technical Report
Every Document has a P.A.S.T. PurposeAudienceSettingTopic
Determining the PURPOSE of Your Report
Before you begin to write, ask:• What result do you want to achieve? • How should the world to be different? • What decisions or behaviors do you
want from your readers?
First, describe (to yourself) the way things are now.
Then, describe (to yourself) the way you want things to be, for example:
• You want your boss to accept your proposal for a new project.
• You want the employees in three departments to be able to use a new software program
Concern About
How Readers Feel Now, before Your
Report
How You Want Them to Feel after Reading Your
Report
You The CEO has no opinion about you because you are new; she is open-minded.
The CEO now believes that you are a talented, competent researcher
The Topic The lab manager is using an outdated process but is happy with it.
The manager now feels that it may be time to upgrade the process
Themselves The client is hesitant to buy your product.
The client now feels confident that buying your product is the right thing to do.
Characterizing the AUDIENCE of Your Report
Determine who will (and who should) read your report.
Classify each reader by his or her role in the organization: • Decision-makers• Advisors to decision-makers• Implementers of the decisions
Characterizing the AUDIENCE of Your Report
Classify each reader by his or her role in relationship to you: • Primary audience• Secondary audiences• Immediate audiences• External• Remote in time and place
Characterizing the AUDIENCE of Your Report
• Ask your readers what they want, especially the primary audience.
• Ask about purpose, audience, setting, and topic; coverage; length; amount of time you should devote to writing; who you should coordinate with in writing the report, and so on.
Know the Communication Needs of Your Audience
• What do they want to know? • What do they already know?• What do they need to know?• What do they think they know that
isn’t so?
False Assumptions about Audiences of Technical Reports
• That the person addressed is the audience (the obvious audience may not be the true primary audience)
• That the audience consists of specialists in your field
• That the report has a finite period of use; it may be filed and kept for years
False Assumptions about Audiences of Technical Reports
• That the author will be available to answer questions about the
report• That the audience is familiar with
your job and why you wrote the report
• That the audience wants to read the report and has time to read it
Understanding the SETTING in which Your Report Will be Read
Will your readers:• Study the report in an office? • Skim the text on a plane or subway? • Scan the headings and figures during a
meeting? • Read the report closely at a lab bench to
follow directions?• Read different parts of the report in
different settings
Organizing the TOPIC of Your Report
To Report Research Activities• Why did you start? (Introduction)• What did you do? (Methods)• What did you find? (Results)• What does it mean? (Discussion)
To Help Readers Accept Your Ideas, Services, or Products
Stress the following characteristics:• High relative advantage• High compatibility with values • High visibility of its usefulness • Easy “triability” before adoption • Low complexity
To Compare Two or More Alternatives
Divided Pattern Alternating PatternFurnace A Cost EfficiencyFurnace B Cost Efficiency
Cost Furnace A Furnace BEfficiency Furnace A Furnace B
To Negotiate Agreement: Steps in Principled Negotiation
• Separate the people from the problem
• Focus on issues, not positions• Look for areas of mutual benefit• Decide on the basis of objective
criteria
The secret to good writing
Have something to say.
Say it.
Stop!