Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
‘What is the effect of musical consonance, specifically
the perfect fifth musical interval, on emotional,
psychological and neurophysical health?’ A systematic
review with case studies.
DISSERTATION
JOANNA FRANCES SHAIRP
MSC MENTAL HEALTH: PSYCHOLOGICAL THERAPIES
CENTRE FOR PSYCHIATRY
BARTS AND THE LONDON SCHOOL OF
MEDICINE AND DENTISTRY
WOLFSON INSTITUTE OF PREVENTATIVE MEDICINE
2
Part time MSc in Mental Health: Psychological Therapies
2013-2015
Queen Mary College, University of London
Student: Joanna Frances SHAIRP
130149893
Supervisor: Mark Freestone
Date of Submission: 10 August 2015
Word Count: 16, 469 words
The word count excludes:
Title, Personal details, Contents page, Appendices and Reference List.
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Tables of contents 3-5
Abstract 6-7
Glossary 8-9
Quotation 10
Introduction 11-17
Aims and Objectives 17
Methods 18-31
Systematic Review Methods 18-25
Prisma Flow Diagram 24
Case Study Methods 25-31
Results 31-69
Systematic review Results 31-44
Data Extraction Form 33-36
Case Study Results 44-64
Case Study Quantitative Results 44-51
Case Study Qualitative Results 51-61
Artistic Representations 61-63
Narrative Synthesis of Results 64-68
Discussion 68-77
Limitations 78-82
Conclusion 82-85
Appendices
Appendix 1: Ethical Approval
Certificate
86-87
Appendix 2: Information Form and
Consent Form
88-90
Appendix 3: Research
Questionnaire
91-93
Appendix 4: Diary Sheet
94
4
Appendix 5: Comparison
Questionnaire
95
Appendix 6: Articles included in
Systematic Review
96
Appendix 7: Papers thrown out
with reasons
97-103
Appendix 8: Quality Assessment
Table
104-108
Appendix 9: Case Study
Quantitative results
109-112
Appendix 10: Case Study
Qualitative results: Stage 1 Waves
and Water
113-118
Appendix 11: Case Study
Qualitative results: Stage 1 Perfect
Fifth
119-125
Appendix 12: Stage 2 Waves and
Water 126-131
Appendix 13: Stage 2 Perfect Fifth
132-138
Appendix 14: Waves and Water
Initial Thematic Map
139
Appendix 15: Waves and Water
Developed Thematic Map
140
Appendix 16: Perfect Fifth Initial
Thematic Map
141
Appendix 17: Perfect Fifth
Developed Thematic Map
142
References
143-167
5
TABLES
Table 1 PICOS Inclusion and
Exclusion criteria 21-23
Table 2 Stages of Thematic
Analysis 30
Table 3 Final result of
electronic search 31
Table 4 Final results from
other sources 32
Table 5
Data Extraction Table 33-36
Table 6 Quality scores from
STROBE 39-40
Table 7 Assessment of
Credibility of
Measures
41-42
Table 8 Assessment of
Credibility of
Interventions
42-43
6
ABSTRACT
Background
Alternative therapies play an increasingly important role in mental health care. This
paper investigates the psychological and neural responses to the perfect fifth musical
interval, identifying outcome correlations with an altered state of consciousness and the
default mode network.
Methods
Firstly, a systematic review was undertaken searching electronic databases Pub Med,
Web of Science, Psych INFO, Cochrane, Embase, Scopus, between January 1980 and
June 2015.
Secondly, 4 mixed method case studies were carried out on healthy volunteers between
November 2014 and March 2015. Case studies compared the perfect fifth musical
interval to sounds of waves and water.
Results
Nine observational studies were eligible. The perfect fifth musical interval elicits robust
neural responses and beneficial psychological responses.
Case study results support the systematic review outcomes with all participants
preferring the perfect fifth experience. T test results were favourable. Thematic mapping
identified three major themes for the perfect fifth experience; (1) ‘psychological
responses’, (2) ‘physical responses’ and (3) ‘spiritual and transpersonal’.
7
Conclusions
Case study results complement systematic review findings adding further understanding
and detail. Results suggest robust neural and cognitive responses and beneficial
psychological effects. Responses may be comparable to those observed during a resting
state, when the default mode network is activated.
8
GLOSSARY
Music Therapy Client’s subjective experience and
interaction with music.
Sound Therapy The impact of sound vibrations on the
body or energy system.
Consonance Pleasantness to the ear
Dissonance Unpleasantness to the ear
Musical Intervals A combination of two simultaneously
sounded notes.
The octave The most consonant musical interval with
a 2:1 ratio.
The perfect fifth musical interval The second most consonant musical
interval with a 3:2 ratio.
Tuning forks Basic musical tools. The aluminium C
256 Hz, G 348 Hz, high C 4096 Hz, C
4225 Hz and C 4160 Hz, aluminium
136.1 Hz and set of steel octave forks are
used.
The Biofield Bio electromagnetic energy field
hypothesised as surrounding all living
things (Hammerschlag & Jain, 2012).
9
Altered State A highly focused state which diffuses
external thoughts (Oakley & Halligan,
2013)
Default Mode Network Area of brain activated during resting
state.
Construal Theory Study of cognition which compares
abstract v concrete mind-sets and their
effect on attitude judgements, choices
and human behaviour (Gilead et al,
2014).
10
‘I am convinced of the truth of Pythagoras’ saying that
Nature is sure to act consistently….I conclude that the
same numbers by means of which the agreement of
sounds affect our ears with delight, are the very same
which please our eyes and our minds.’
Leone Battista Alberti (1404-1472).
11
INTRODUCTION
At a time of increasing need for mental health treatments (Collins et al, 2011), there is
heightened demand for clinically relevant research into alternative therapies (Sarris et
al, 2013). Music and sound has been used through the centuries to influence well-being
(Nilsson, 2008), and there are increasing numbers of studies investigating their potential
therapeutic effects on psychological health, (Philip, 1994), including their effects on
stress, anxiety, depression and self-esteem, (Campbell, 1995; Dileo & Brandt, 2007;
Hays et al, 2002, Knight & Rickard, 2001).
When two different musical notes are played simultaneously they create a musical
interval. The word ‘consonance’ describes combinations of notes which are perceived
as pleasant (Di Stefano and Bertolaso, 2014), and ‘dissonance’ describes combinations
which are perceived as unpleasant or ‘rough’ (Woods, 1976). The difference between
the two notes of a musical interval is known as the interval size. It is usually expressed
in semitones, or more precisely as a frequency ratio. The perfect fifth musical interval,
with a 3:2 frequency ratio, separated by 7 semitones (Zenter & Kagan, 1998), is
considered the second most consonant musical interval after the octave (Schellenberg &
Trehub, 1994). The perfect fifth is produced by combining a lower note with a note
which is seven keys higher on a piano (Bones et al, 2014). A common combination for
the perfect fifth is a C and a G.
MUSICAL CONSONANCE
There are different explanations as to why some pairs of notes sound more pleasing than
others. 2500 years ago Pythagoras investigated a mathematical approach and concluded
that intervals with simple frequency ratios, are the most pleasing to the ear (Kung et al,
2014). Leading on from this, Helmholtz’s (1954) critical band theory proposes this is
due to the level of compatibility between the two notes as they pass through the critical
12
bands which behave like auditory sieves (Schellenberg & Trehub, 1994). Intervals with
complicated frequency ratios, tend to have two tones which are incompatible in the
inner ear cochlear basilar membrane. The sound is perceived as beating or dissonance.
Consonance occurs with simple frequency ratios, where the two notes are compatible.
Simple frequency ratios occur all around us in nature. Doolittle et al (2014), find that
the North African Songbird uses pitches which have simple frequency ratios, and
predict that future research will reveal that more species have a preference for simple
consonant ratios. Trainor (1997) refers to the exceptional status of simple frequency
ratios, and after researching infant reactions to musical intervals, Trainor & Heinmiller
(1998) conclude that simple frequency ratios are much easier to process than complex
ratios.
Furthermore, when adults are asked to rate musical intervals in order of agreeableness,
very consistent results are achieved across studies (Zentner & Kagan, 1998). Simple
consonant musical intervals are consistently ranked ‘beautiful’ and ‘harmonious’, whilst
dissonant intervals are consistently ranked ‘unpleasant’ (Levelt et al, 1966). This
reliability of meaning has been investigated by different theorists (Cooke, 1959; Meyer,
1973; Sethares, 1993) and suggests a profound dimension is present in the unique
psychoacoustic properties of musical intervals.
SOUND THERAPY
Sound therapy has been described as a direct result of acoustical vibrations on body and
brain functions (Crowe & Scovel, 1996). It is an unconscious phenomenon. The existing
literature (Goldman, 1992; Gerber, 1988; McClellan, 1991) emphasises that what is
important in sound therapy, is not the pleasure gained from the sound, rather it is the
way in which the properties of the sound interact unconsciously with the patient,
without any mindful cognitive involvement (Crowe & Scrovel, 1996). Music therapy is
13
different. It is traditionally understood to be how the individual enjoys and experiences
the sounds of music, which relates to the person’s existing mood, memories, social and
cultural situation (Crowe & Scrovel, 1996).
This paper focuses on sound therapy and the therapeutic effects of the second most
consonant musical interval, the perfect fifth (Kung et al, 2014). We examine the perfect
fifth musical interval out of musical context, investigating its specific qualities, and its
psychological and neural effects. Trainor and Trehub (1993) conclude that children find
it easier to resonate with melodies which contain the perfect fifth musical interval,
because it is easier to process, encode, and retain than more complex ratios.
MODELS OF SOUND
Trainor et al (2002) suggest that musical intervals are processed and encoded in the
auditory cortex of the brain. The auditory model of sound, where sound deciphers into
neural activity in the inner ear, is described by Michely & Oxenham (2009). However,
there is evidence that we respond to sound frequencies which are inaudible to the
human ear (Oohashi et al, 2000). Leading on from this, Itoh, Suwazano, Nakada (2010)
present an alternative model of sound, where acoustics travel through the air in a non-
linear way, independent of inner ear stimulation.
The crucial supposition of this alternative model is the existence of a bio
electromagnetic energy field around the body (Coakley & Barren, 2012). After years of
investigation, in 1994 this energy field was recognised by The National Institute of
Health, and named the ‘Biofield’. This name was subsequently approved by the U S
National Library of Medicine, (Rubik, 2002).
Movaffaghi & Farsi, (2009) postulate that sound frequencies interact with the biofield.
They theorise that rotating protons, irons, amino acids and electrons produce
electromagnetic fields around the human body. These particles absorb the sound
14
frequencies, causing ever increased movement and realignment, which subsequently
produces changes in the biofield. Biofield information is thus duplicated onto the
emotional, mental and physical bodies. This hypothesis is increasingly accepted (Creath
and Schwartz, 2005; Oschman, 2000), and has been researched by Popp (2008) on a
cellular level.
THE FIBONACCI PROPORTIONS OF THE PERFECT FIFTH.
Theorists through the ages have agreed there exists a hierarchy amongst musical
intervals (Costa et al, 2000). Jacobs (1969) concludes that although the perfect fifth is
ranked second in consonance after the octave, it is much more powerful than the octave.
He proposes that, in the case of the octave, the similarity of the two notes means that
there is no sense of remoteness between them. The perfect fifth is different. The two
notes are unquestionably different and Jacobs (1969) describes a dynamic attraction
between them which is like magnetism.
Theorists have investigated correlations between mathematical structure and pleasing
aesthetic sounds (Hughs, 2002). The perfect fifth musical interval, with a simple 3:2
Pythagorean ratio, is the critical musical interval because it represents the way into the
Fibonacci sequence of numbers. Numbers 2 and 3 are the first two calculated numbers
from the sequence. The Fibonacci sequence, where the two previous numbers are added
to determine the next number, is experienced all around us. It exhibits geometrically in
aesthetically pleasing architecture and art (Grigos, 2013). It manifests in well-ordered
natural patterns, such as flower formations, leaves and branches, and the shapes of sea
shell spirals, crabs and fish (Li, Zang, Cao, 2005; Skinner, 2006), which represent the
golden section proportions (Doczi, 2005). We also notice this spiral pattern in the
human body, and the embryo, the ear and heart are especially remarkable (Doczi, 2005).
It presents in the DNA double helix, and in red and white blood cells (Doczi, 2005). It
15
even appears in financial market trends and cycles (Buttell, 2014; McHugh, 2015). It is
beyond the limits of this paper to go further into the details of Fibonacci proportions,
however it is hard to believe that one of nature’s most elementary patterns, occurring all
around us, is pure coincidence. James (1978) talks of ‘an unseen order, and our
supreme good lies in harmoniously adjusting thereto’.
ALTERNATIVE BRAIN STATES
Foss et al (2007) reveal brain changes following exposure to the perfect fifth musical
interval and recommend further investigation. Sacks (2006) postulates that one
important attribution of music is its ability to induce a trance or altered state. Feldman
(2004) comments on brain changes which have been observed during an altered state of
consciousness. Indeed, it has been observed that both the perfect fifth musical interval,
and ‘an altered state’ elicit neural changes which occur in the frontal cortex of the brain.
The concept of an altered state is somewhat controversial (Wagstaff, 1998). It is defined
by Marin & Bhattacharya (2013) as ‘an extremely focused state of consciousness
occurring during intense engagement in an activity’. McGeown et al (2009),
investigating altered state neural correlates, find that an altered state produces brain
activity which is normally identified during a resting state known as the default mode
network.
The Default Mode Network (DMN) is an important and new concept in neuroscience. It
defines a set of brain regions which are active during periods of self-focus and rest
(Vessel, Starr, Rubin, 2013). Vessel et al, (2013) hypothesise that activation of the
default mode network may be triggered by strong aesthetic appreciation which is typical
of fixation or trance. This paper is an opportunity to consider these concepts in the light
of the perfect fifth musical interval.
16
AN INNOVATIVE STUDY
We investigate two hypotheses. The primary hypothesis postulates that exposure to the
perfect fifth musical interval influences psychological and neurophysiological health.
The secondary hypothesis is that there is an association between responses to the perfect
fifth musical interval, and those observed during an altered state, and activated by the
default mode network.
The principle musical intervals have been extensively researched. They have been
investigated for their psychological and neural effects, for their effects on body
movement (Komeilipoor et al, 2015), speech and communication (Okada, Lachs &
Boone, 2014), cognitive functioning (Hansen & Melzner, 2014) and synaesthesia
responses (Lubar, 2004). There is, however, no current paper exclusively researching
the perfect fifth musical interval.
This paper is a unique opportunity to combine a systematic review of all available
literature encompassing the psychological and neural effects of the perfect fifth musical
interval, alongside original case study data. The JBL model of evidence based
healthcare (Pearson et al, 2005) considers the systematic review to be a key part of
evidence synthesis for decision making in healthcare. A systematic review dissipates the
bias of a literature review, and is uniquely suited to new concepts and gaps in research
(Schlosser, 2007). Methodologically rigorous and reproducible, it aims to analyse and
synthesise all available evidence on a particular topic, and make a best estimate
judgement of its clinical effectiveness. It includes the following stages:
1) The protocol. A predetermined plan for the systematic review which minimises
bias.
2) Stating the hypotheses, aims and objectives.
3) Detailing rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria for the literature.
17
4) Detailing the search strategy and time frame.
5) Detailing the quality assessment of each paper, and any exclusion criteria based
on quality considerations.
6) Detailing data extraction details.
7) Explaining the data synthesis.
8) Piloting the feasibility of the study.
The systematic review occupies the highest position in clinical research hierarchies and
provides important information for clinicians and researchers. A systematic approach to
this new hypothesis acknowledges the importance of different perspectives (Di Stefano
& Bertolaso, 2014), ensuring that all outcomes will be considered, alongside original
case study results, offering a new evidence based perspective on the psychological, and
neural effects of the perfect fifth musical interval.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
This study has two aims. Firstly, to identify psychological, and neural responses to the
perfect fifth musical interval through a systematic literature search, and secondly to
explore the effects of projecting the perfect fifth musical interval onto the body, within
the biofield, using tuning forks.
Within these there are four study objectives. The first is to provide relevant background
evidence to support further research into the perfect fifth musical interval. The second is
to conduct a systematic review for comprehensive coverage of this subject. Thirdly, we
will carry out four case studies on healthy adult volunteers, and synthesise results
alongside systematic review findings. The final objective is to explore how far exposure
to the perfect fifth musical interval may elicit responses which correlate with the default
mode network (DMN) and an altered state.
18
METHODS
1) SYSTEMATIC REVIEW METHODS
A systematic search was undertaken for literature published between January 1980 and
June 2015.
Hanson – Abromeit & Moore (2014) stress the risk of publication bias if only published
papers are scrutinised for a systematic review. Significant results are much more likely
to be published than negative results (Bowling, 2009), and authors may conform to a
journal in order to have their study published. Searching standard electronic databases is
likely to reveal only half of all pertinent studies (McManus et al, 1998). To achieve a
comprehensive choice of papers, a broad literature search was undertaken, venturing
beyond standard electronic databases.
Experts consulted
It is essential to source and contact experts in order to uncover all the relevant literature.
Two experts from the field of music and sound therapy, Jennie Hillman, professional
singer, and Peter Goldman, sound therapist, and medical psychiatrist, Dr Z Zabur, all
expressed an interest in this study, and were invited to identify relevant literature. Each
identified pertinent papers listed in the references.
Specialist libraries at The Royal Academy of Music, Westminster Music Library, The
Royal College of Music and the Barbican Music Library were suggested by Jennie
Hillman. An online search was conducted using identical search terms as used for the
electronic databases.
Grey Literature
For such an exploratory study there is likely to be relevant unpublished literature. Grey
literature is defined as ‘information produced on all levels of government, academia,
19
business and industry, in electronic print formats, not controlled by commercial
publishing’. (ICGL Luxembourg definition, 1997 – Expanded in New York, 2004; cited
in Kings College London (2004). Systematic Reviews). Grey literature incorporates
theses, conference proceedings and all unpublished work. The Open Grey Database was
searched, alongside the conference proceedings citation index, using the Web of
Science Refine Results option. The authors of three unpublished theses were contacted
for further information.
1) Shah, S. (2010). Thesis on the relationship between mathematics and Music.
2) Rogers, S. (2009). Dissertation on Consonance and Dissonance.
3) Haden, G, P. (2011). Thesis on perceptual abilities underlying music perception.
Electronic Search
The researcher sought support from a trained research librarian (Hanson- Abromeit &
Moore, 2014), at Whitechapel medical library in October 2014, familiarising her with
the structure and terminology of electronic databases.
Two computer assisted systematic literature searches were undertaken, the first in
October 2014, the second in June 2015. The research question was broken down into
concepts to identify relevant search terms. A thesaurus and music dictionary identified
synonyms (Slonimsky, 1975; Kennedy, 2006). The ‘perfect fifth musical interval’ is
also known as the ‘perfect fifth’ and pertains to ‘consonant intervals’ and ‘musical
intervals’. Researcher knowledge was helpful in recognising search terms (Cooper,
2010). Consistent with the study title, these 4 search terms were combined with
‘psychological’, ‘emotional’ and ‘neural’. Truncating ‘neuro’, achieved many irrelevant
results, however other studies used the terms ‘neurophysiological’ and
‘neurobiological’ interchangeably, so these were added.
20
The following databases were searched from January 1980 – October 2014 for relevant
studies: AMED, COCHRANE COLLABOARTIONS, EMBASE, PSYCHINFO, PUB
MED, SCOPUS, and WEB OF SCIENCE. Search terms were: perfect fifth musical
interval OR perfect fifth, OR musical intervals OR consonant intervals AND
psychological OR emotional OR neurophysiological OR neurobiological OR neural.
A second systematic literature search was carried out in June 2015, to identify
additional papers published since October 2014. Identical databases were searched,
except AMED which was not available at Queen Mary Library, and identical search
terms were used.
Catalogues at The Newton Library, Cambridge, and The British Library were searched
in June 2015. It was not possible to do an identical search for The Newton Library
because only three possible combinations are allowed. A judgement was made on the
most relevant search terms, and it was decided on: perfect fifth, musical intervals AND
psychological. The British Library advised that simply the words musical intervals
should be searched.
Sandra Trehub Publications and The Fibonacci Quarterly (1980- 2015) were searched
electronically.
Hand Searching
Hand searching is essential for any systematic search. (McManus et al, 1998). The
following journals were hand searched in October 2014, and again in June 2015.
The Journal of Music Therapy 1980 – 2015
The British Journal of Music Therapy 1980 – 2015
The Journal of Sound and Vibration 1980 – 2015
Psychopathology 1980 – 2015
21
Selection of Papers
All journals and data bases were meticulously searched from 1980 – June 2015. There
was no restriction on language, unless we could not obtain an abstract in English. The
search was thoroughly documented in a reference notebook. In stage 1 relevant abstracts
were identified against inclusion criteria. Backward and forward citations and
references from initial selected articles were reviewed to identify others.
In stage 2 full texts of potential primary papers were scanned against inclusion and
exclusion criteria. Stages 1 and 2 were repeated in June 2015, screening any papers
identified since October 2014. Inclusion criteria were extensive, taking account of the
exploratory nature of this subject.
TABLE 1: PICOS Inclusion and Exclusion criteria:
Study Characteristic Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Participants 1). Human participants,
both sexes, from all
cultures, all ages,
including infants.
2). Healthy and unhealthy
human participants, those
with psychopathology, and
with brain impairments.
1). Studies with < 10
human participants.
2). Exclusively animal
participants.
22
3). Animal participants if
combined with at least 10
human participants.
Intervention/Exposure 4). Studies investigating
psychological, emotional
and neurophysiological
responses to the harmonic
perfect fifth musical
interval. May include
responses to other musical
intervals.
3) Studies investigating
melodic musical intervals.
Comparator/Control 5). Comparison of other
musical intervals.
Outcomes of Interest. 6). At least one primary
outcome of psychological,
emotional, responses
(dependent variable)
measured using
observation, self-report or
interviews, after exposure
to the perfect fifth
(independent variable).
OR
At least one primary
outcome of neuro
physiological responses
4). Papers describing a
‘judgement’ of the
accuracy or pleasantness
of musical intervals. Only
papers which specifically
evaluate response
outcomes to the perfect
fifth musical interval are
included.
5). Papers describing
outcomes other than
23
(dependent variable)
measured using
appropriate scientific
measures (MRI, MEG,
PET, FFR, and EEG).
psychological, emotional
and neural responses.
6). Papers using a double
interpretation of measures.
For example when a
drawing is reinterpreted.
Study Type 7). Papers published after
1980.
8). Any study design.
9). Published or Grey
Literature.
10). Qualitative,
quantitative or mixed
methods studies.
7). Papers published
before 1980.
8). Papers in a language
other than English (or
translation).
Exclusion criteria 1,3,5,6,8 were added after the pilot study, to limit the number of
papers reviewed, due to limited word count.
A total of 9 papers were identified. The flow chart (Moher et al, 2009) gives a thorough
representation of the search.
24
PRISMA Flow Diagram
Source: Moher et al (2009)
Records identified through
database search (n=404)
Citations and references (n=23)
Papers identified through other
sources, including British library,
Google, Sandra Trehub publications
and other recommendations (n=21)
Records after duplicates removed (n=103)
(n=345)
Abstracts screened
(n=345)
Excluded (n=275)
Unable to obtain (n=4)
Not relevant (n=271)
Full-text articles
assessed for eligibility
(n=70)
Full text articles excluded
with reasons
(see Appendix)
(n=61)
Studies included for
narrative synthesis
(see Appendix)
(n=9)
Ide
nti
fica
tio
nS
cre
en
ing
Eli
gib
ilit
yIn
clu
de
d
25
Full versions of the 9 studies meeting inclusion and exclusion criteria were accessed.
Pertinent data was extracted using the Cochrane Group data extraction form, version 3,
April 2014, which meets Methodological Expectations of Cochrane Interventions
(MECIR) standards for collection of review information. Collective data was displayed
in a data extraction table.
Quality Assessment
Included studies were all observational. Their quality was assessed using STROBE:
Strengthening the reporting of observational studies in Epidemiology. This is a list of 22
items considered essential for quality reporting of observational studies exploring a new
hypothesis. Additional items relevant to the present review were added (Dinos et al,
2009). To identify the more robust studies, additional tables were constructed to
determine credibility of measures used, and credibility of interventions, looking at
specific precautions taken to address bias. The quality assessment was used to focus on
strengths of the evidence, rather than to exclude studies (Brooke-Sumner et al, 2015).
Data Analysis
Pertinent data relating to perfect fifth response outcomes was analysed and compared
for trends and themes using narrative synthesis (Popay, 2006). A systematic approach,
narrative synthesis amalgamates themes and outcomes and explores relationships
between them. It uses coding and thematic analysis to identify themes, and thematic
mapping to present them. Themes are considered alongside quality results, and a
synthesis of all included papers undertaken, in the light of implications for future
research. Hypotheses emerging from the synthesis are used to translate case study data
(Simons, 2013).
26
2) CASE STUDY METHODS
Case Study Hypothesis:
The frequencies of the perfect fifth musical interval, sounded by tuning forks, create
changes in the biofield. Positive outcomes may be acknowledged as ‘good feelings’
or ‘improved mood’. (Movaffaghi & Farsi, 2009).
Four longitudinal case studies (2 males, 2 females) were undertaken in a clinical setting.
Case studies are a popular method for exploratory investigation (Denzin and Lincoln,
2003). They may elicit important findings and are efficient in terms of time, money and
effort (Schulz & Grimes, 2002). Each case study experienced 3 sessions of the perfect
fifth musical interval and 3 sessions of listening to sounds of waves and water. The
perfect fifth procedure is not accredited. The researcher is qualified and insured to carry
out the procedure.
An information sheet stating the procedures and the purpose of the research,
emphasising participants’ voluntary participation, and their entitlement to cease at any
point, was prepared for Queen Mary ethics committee. A covering letter, the informed
consent form, questionnaires, diary sheets, and comparison feedback forms were
produced for approval by ethics. A safe cupboard was prepared for data storage. Ethical
approval was obtained from Queen Mary ethics committee in July 2014. See appendices
1-5 for proof of ethical approval and example of consent form and questionnaires.
Recruitment:
The project was advertised in a Sussex magazine from November 2014 to May 2015
inviting volunteers. Volunteers were selected using three criteria; they are healthy
27
adults, they are non-professional musicians (Gaser & Schlaug, 2003), they are prepared
to complete 6 sessions, plus necessary questionnaires and diaries.
Participants:
Two male and two female Caucasian adults were recruited. Age range was 52-72 years.
Participants were professional or retired.
Data Collection:
A mixed methods design was used. Data was collected using a self -explanatory semi-
structured self-report questionnaire completed after each session. The advantages are
that although questions are fixed they allow flexibility and space to elicit subjective
responses outside of researcher influence (Bowling, 2009). A weekly diary was
completed between sessions, recording the unit of analysis (Yin, 2003), which is
observations, feelings and psychological responses to each session. The diary allowed
for reflection after each session and was not influenced by the researcher. A final
comparison questionnaire was used, where volunteers were asked to compare the two
experiences, and state which they preferred and why. Volunteers drew an artistic
representation of both procedures as an alternative measure of self-expression (Smith &
Williams, 1999). These tools avoid researcher interaction and influence, and thus
address bias.
Confidentiality and Data Storage:
All data was treated as confidential and stored in a locked cupboard. Volunteer’s details
are anonymous and stored separately from data.
28
Bias and Conflicts of interest:
The researcher regularly practises this therapy thus potential bias exists due to therapist
expectancy which might unconsciously influence results. Using a second researcher to
coordinate questionnaire feedback and thematic analysis, reduced this risk.
Risks:
Procedures were carried out in a well-used Sussex therapy room. The same room was
used throughout the experiment, and the researcher was present for all sessions. Tuning
forks are used for assessment in medicine and have no documented risks (Boulton &
Garrow, 2006).
Procedures:
Volunteers completed 3 sessions of perfect fifth procedure and 3 sessions of waves and
water. The order of receiving procedures was randomly rotated. 1 male and 1 female
received the perfect fifth procedure first. The other male and female experienced the
waves and water first.
The perfect fifth musical interval was formed by sounding the C and the G tuning forks
simultaneously.
The therapist works around the four sides of the volunteer (front, left, back, right),
sounding the perfect fifth, beginning above the head, descending down the body, to the
feet, listening for dissonance in the sound. This is information identified through sound
and picked up as dissonance.
Next the therapist sounds the perfect fifth close to the seven joints of the body (ankle,
knee, hip, wrist, elbow, shoulder, jaw), listening for dissonance.
If dissonance is identified, the therapist continues to sound the perfect fifth musical
interval until it dissipates (Atman Academy, UK and Europe, 2010).
29
The therapist uses appropriate body tuners to reinforce the perfect fifth efficacy.
For the sounds of waves and water, volunteers relax on a couch listening to sounds of
waves and water from a CD, for 15-20 minutes (Waves-the sounds of Britain’s shores,
The British Library, 2011).
Attrition
All volunteers completed the 6 sessions. It is possible that attrition may be more
prevalent if additional sessions are mandatory, thus more research is required on this.
Quantitative Measures
3 dependent variables; enjoyable, helpful, beneficial were evaluated using a 1-10 point
likert scale, a subjective outcome measure, for each of the two independent variables;
perfect fifth and waves and water.
Qualitative measures
Observations, feelings and psychological responses to the sessions, were recorded in the
questionnaires and diary sheet.
Data Analysis
1) Qualitative analysis:
Questionnaires, diaries and final comparison sheet were coded and synthesised using
latent inductive thematic analysis (Clark and Braun, 2006). This method is useful for
investigating an exploratory concept. The inductive approach is data driven, providing a
bottom up description of the data, which identifies important themes and patterns. A
final list of themes is produced whose deeper meanings are interpreted, using existing
theories and hypothesises from systematic review findings.
30
TABLE 2: Stages of Thematic Analysis:
STAGE DESCRIPTION OF PROCESS
1) Familiarisation with data. Reading data. Noting initial ideas.
2) Generating initial codes. Coding is systematically identifying
interesting ideas in data. Collating data
relevant to each code.
3). Identifying themes. Collating codes into themes.
4). Reviewing themes. Checking themes with coded extracts.
Creating thematic map.
5). Defining themes. Refining and establishing clear names for
each theme.
6). Discussion Selection of extracts. Relating themes to
hypothesis, and to systematic review.
2) Quantitative Analysis
Total mean scores and standard deviations for the 4 case studies were tabulated, and
displayed graphically. Mann Whitney tests and t tests were calculated from first
principles (excel) to compare mean outcomes. The Quantative data supports the
thematic analysis, a process called triangulation, capturing a deeper interpretation of
data.
Where a systematic review has exposed new hypotheses, case studies are a means of
exploring the evidence, and act as a basis for future research (Simons, 2013).
31
Piloting:
The research project was successfully piloted by one volunteer in November and
December 2014.
RESULTS
1) SYSTEMATIC REVIEW RESULTS
Electronic database Amed was not accessible through Queen Mary library on 3 June
2015, thus it was not included in the final search.
TABLE 3: Final results from the electronic search as on 3 June 2015 were as
follows:
DATABASE RESULTS Potential papers
COCHRANE 7 0
EMBASE 87 16
PSYCHINFO 50 19
PUB MED 90 17
SCOPUS 3 2
WEB OF SCIENCE 167 21
TOTAL 404 75
32
TABLE 4: Final results from ‘other sources’:
SOURCE POTENTIAL PAPERS
References & Citations 23
British Library 14
Cambridge Library 0
Hand Searching 0
Sandra Trehub Publications 2
Dr. Jabur 1
Google 4
TOTAL 44
The electronic database search identified 404 potential papers, and a further 23 from
citations and references. Other sources revealed 21 potential papers. Of these 448
papers 103 were duplicates, thus 345 abstracts were screened against inclusion criteria.
Where an abstract was unclear, the full text was read. 275 were excluded.
70 full text articles were assessed for eligibility against inclusion and exclusion criteria
and 61 were excluded with reasons (see Appendix 7). Thus this systematic review
included 9 observational studies.
33
TABLE 5: DATA EXTRACTION TABLE
Study Design Participants Interventions and
Methods
Aims and
Objectives
Measures Perfect Fifth
Outcomes
External Validity
Bones, Hopkins,
Krishnan &
Plack (2014)
Cross sectional 1). 28/32 (18
females)
completed
psychological test.
2). 19 completed
psychological and
neural tests.
Mean age 22
years.
1). Psychological
testing: Pleasantness
attributed to 24
intervals from
audio device
presented
diotically (both
notes to both ears,
and dichotically
(one note to each
ear).
2). Neural testing
–EEG: using
same intervals as
for (1). Electrode
on forehead
measured FFR’s.
To explore the
separate
contributions
made by the
neural cochlea
envelope and
temporale fine
structure of
basilicar
membrane (TFS)
on consonance
sensitivity.
1). ‘Pleasantness’
ratings for intervals
using -3 to +3 scale.
Consonance
preference
calculated by
subtracting mean z
scores of dissonant
intervals from z
scores of consonant
intervals.
2). Scalp recorded
electrophysiological
frequency
following responses
(FFR’s) for
consonant and
dissonant intervals.
Harmonic salience
calculated.
3). FFR analysis.
1). Perfect fifth
attains highest
pleasantness rating
of all musical
intervals,
diotically (2.2)
and dichotically
(0.28). F= 210.60,
p< 0.01.
2). Harmonic
salience is highest
for perfect fifth
diotically (0.34)
and dichotically
(0.28).
3). Consonance
preference for
perfect fifth
parallels high
neural activity in
FFR.
Results consistent
with previous
studies on
consonance.
Hansen &
Melzner (2014)
Cross sectional 95/100. 69
females, 26 males.
Mean age 22.47
years.
Testing cognitive
functioning in
response to perfect
fifth and
augmented fourth
intervals presented
over headphones.
To investigate if
perfect fifth and
augmented fourth
can change how
people think and
process
information
(Construal level).
1). Category
breadth: 32
products allocated
into non-
overlapping groups.
2). Local v global
processing:
matching figures
with logos.
3) Comparison of
group v individual
attitudes.
With perfect fifth:
1). More
categories used (4,
90) =2.50, p=0.05.
2) More local
perceptual shapes
chosen (p=0.05)
3) Judgements
individualised.
Construal theory
(CLT) has
implications for
psychology in
attitude
judgements and
choices, and for
psychological
disorders (Watkins
2011).
34
Study Design Participants Interventions and
Methods
Aims and
Objectives
Measures Perfect Fifth
Outcomes
External Validity
Okada, Lachs &
Boone (2012)
Cross sectional 24 undergraduates Testing use of
consonant and
dissonant
intervals in
agreeable and
disagreeable
speech samples. Using headphones
information giver
gave best possible
directions, and
information
receiver tracked
route. Each pair
participated in
agreeable and
disagreeable
situations.
To observe which
musical intervals
used in agreeable
and disagreeable
conversations.
The number of
consonant and
dissonant intervals
present in speech
analysed using
Fishers exact test.
Perfect fifth used
much more in
agreeable speech
(7/46 v 2/48).
Fishers exact test
shows significant
relationship
between perfect
fifth and agreeable
conversation, (p=
0.032)
Results support
theoretical basis
that intervals are
used in speech to
convey emotion
(Pardo 2006,
2012).
Curtis &
Bharucha (2010).
Cross sectional 1). 9 females.
Mean age 19.3
2). 10 (4 males, 6
females). Mean
age 18.7
3). 24/27 (13
females. 11 males.
Mean age 19.6.
4A) 10 (4 females,
6 males). Mean
age 19.6.
4B) 5 males.
Mean age 18.6
Testing accurate
portrayal of 4
emotions in speech. (happy,
sad, angry, and
pleasant)
Category testing:
judging pairs of
intervals.
To investigate if
musical intervals
in speech elicit the
same emotional
meanings as
intervals in music.
1). Mean number of
intervals and
duration in each
speech sample.
2) Subjective
ratings (1-7). Linear
regression for
specific interval
features.
3) Comparing
subjective
responses using
binominal
distribution.
4) Category
responses to
musical intervals.
In Exp. 3 the
perfect fifth was
positively
correlated with
happiness (27.7%)
and pleasantness
(17% up and 5.7%
down).
Musical intervals
may have an
emotionally
communicative
role in speech,
consistent with
music.
Findings have
implications for
mental health and
psychology.
35
Study Design Participants Interventions and
Methods
Aims and
Objectives
Measures Perfect Fifth
Outcomes
External Validity
Bidelman &
Krishnan (2009)
Cross sectional 10 (6 females, 4
males)
1). Psychological
testing:
1). Subjective
rating of most
pleasant interval
from a pair over
headphones.
2).Neural testing:
EEG. Observing
neural activity
from FFR’s in
response to
intervals.
To explore neural
responses to
musical intervals.
1). Subjective
pleasantness ratings
for intervals. Mean
calculated.
2). Autocorrelation
functions (ACF’s)
computed for each
FFR to index
dominant
periodicies from
each FFR.
Neural pitch
salience estimated
from FFR ACF’s
using periodic
template analysis.
1).Preference for
consonant
intervals.
Perfect fifth (0.9)
equal to unison,
and slightly lower
than octave (0.95).
2).3rd strongest
neural response
for perfect fifth
(0.75), compared
to unison (0.95)
and octave (0.85).
Neural pitch
salience (F=17.47,
p< 0.0001).
Confirms
hierarchical order
of musical
intervals at neural
level.
Perfect fifth may
require fewer
brain resources
than dissonant
intervals, which
may be why they
are preferred.
Oelmann &
Laeng (2009).
Mixed repeated
measures factorial
design.
1). 29 (15 males,
14 females).
2). 33 (11 males,
21 females).
3). 30 (11 males,
19 females) from
(1 &2).
Psychological
testing:
1). Attributing
adjectives to 4
intervals via
headphones.
2) Same as (1) but
using different
interval
combinations.
3) 5 folk songs
each attributed
emotional
meaning.
To investigate
whether there are
unique emotional
associations for
specific musical
intervals.
1). Qualitative:
matching antonyms
to represent each
interval.
2). Semantic
differential scale.
3).ANOVA
analysis.
4). SD’s.
5). 95% confidence
intervals.
6). Group analysis
naïve v
professional.
1). Significant
effect of interval
and meaning F=
(69, 644)=6.5,
P< 0.001. Perfect
fifth rated clear,
flexible, robust,
vigorous, calm,
definite, hopeful,
masculine, inert,
serious, pleasing,
and gloomy.
Perfect fifth
relates to happy,
free Chinese
Wedding song.
Findings
consistent with
previous research.
Findings show
reliable responses
to perfect fifth,
suggesting unique
acoustic features.
Calls for more
research into use
of musical
intervals in
psychology and
therapy.
Foss, Altschuler
& James (2007).
Cross sectional. 13 (6 females, 4
males). Mean age
20.3 years.
3 males mean age
22.5 years.
Neural testing: MRI scan with
major seventh,
sixth and perfect
fifth.
To study neural
activation patterns
of 3 intervals.
1). Brain scan
images from MRI.
2) Blood oxygen
levels.
Neural activity
and blood activity
levels lower than
dissonant
intervals.
Findings support
Pythagorean ratio
rules and previous
research (Blood,
1999).
36
Study Design Participants Interventions and
Methods
Aims and
Objectives
Measures Perfect Fifth
Outcomes
External Validity
Krantz, Merker
& Madison
(2004)
Cross sectional 35 (22 females, 13
males). Mean age
31.7 years.
Psychological
testing:
1). Free word
association for
each interval
presented via
headphones.
2) Rating scale
assessment of
appropriateness of
10 adjectives
describing each
interval.
1). To investigate
the psychological
meanings of
individual musical
intervals.
2). To carry out a
more thorough
investigation than
has been done
before.
1). Free word
assessment
measures.
2). 11 point rating
scale.
3). Mean rating for
each of 10
adjectives.
4). Factor analysis
for main responses.
5) 95% confidence
intervals for each
word for each
interval.
Perfect fifth
scored low for
disharmony (2.5),
disquiet (2.75),
sadness (3.0), and
monotonous (3.9).
For calm (4.0)
lower than fourth,
third, unison.
For resolute (5.6)
second to unison.
For harmony it
scored highest
(6.0).
For wholeness
(6.1) second to
octave.
For joy (5.0) equal
to octave, second
after sixth.
For open (5.9)
third after sixth
and octave.
Confirms unique
meaning for each
interval.
Important for
future impact on
psychology.
Costa, Bitti, &
Bonfiglioni
(2000)
Cross sectional 45 (15 males, 28
females). Mean
age 23.05 years.
Psychological
testing: Computer
organ over
headphones (2 sets
of 24 intervals).
Questionnaire
choice of
adjectives.
1). To verify if
adjectives used in
past research are
appropriate to
categorise
intervals.
2). To investigate
the hierarchy of
intervals.
1). Subjective
adjective ratings for
intervals (1-7).
Factor analysis.
2) 3 way ANOVA
for different
responses.
3) ANOVA tests
for different
independent
variables (pitch,
consonance,
expertise).
Strong
psychological
associations for
perfect fifth.
Emotional
significance is
higher than power
and activity.
Meanings:
pleasurable,
gentle, healthy,
agreeable,
stimulating,
acrimonious.
Verifies
consistency with
earlier works, and
the hierarchy of
musical intervals.
37
Extracted data confirms 3 studies investigating psychological effects of the perfect fifth,
1 study exploring neural responses, and 2 papers exploring both psychological and
neural responses. Finally, 2 papers investigate musical intervals in speech, and one
paper investigates if musical intervals influence cognitive functioning. Combining
psychological and neural techniques provides stronger evidence of robust responses to
the perfect fifth. Indeed 2 papers use EEG which is very sensitive to human brain
functioning (Oohashi et al, 2000), and one uses MRI imaging. Coding and thematic
mapping identified significant themes for the perfect fifth musical interval, represented
diagrammatically as follows:
38
THEMATIC MAP FOR IDENTIFIED PAPERS
Psychological
outcomes
High,
harmonic
salience
Elicits strong,
positive
adjectives
Pleasantness
Follows
Pythagorean
ratios
Used in
agreeable
conversation in
speech
Use in
speech
Neural
outcomes
Can affect
attitudes,
judgements
and choices
Robust neural responses,
stronger neural pitch
salience than dissonant
intervals
Requires fewer
brain resources
than dissonant
intervals
Changes how
we process
information
May induce
concrete mindset
Harmonicity
Cognitive
processing
Encourages
individualised
judgements
Affects mental
construal
39
QUALITY ASSESSMENT:
TABLE 6: QUALITY SCORES FROM STROBE.
ITEM
Bones
(2014)
Hansen
(2014)
Okada
(2012)
Curtis
(2010)
Bidelman
(2009)
Oelmann
(2009)
Foss
(2007)
Krantz
(2004)
Costa
(2000)
Title Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Abstract Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Background Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Objectives Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Design Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Setting P P P P P P P P P
Participants Y Y P P Y Y Y Y N
Variables Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Measurement Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Bias Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Study size P P N Y P Y N Y N
Quant
variables
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Stats methods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Subgroups Y N N/A N/A N/A Y Y N/A Y
Missing data N N N N N N N N N
Analysis Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Sensitivity
analysis
N N N N N N N N N
Results Y Y N P N P N N N
Attrition Y Y N Y N Y N N N
Flow diagram N N N N N N N N N
Descriptive
data
Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Numbers N N N N N N N N N
Reporting Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Main Results P Y P Y Y Y P Y Y
Categories Y Y Y Y Y P Y Y Y
40
Other
analysis
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Key results Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Limitations P Y Y Y P P Y N P
Interpretation Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
External
validity
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Funding N N N N N N N N N
Definitions Y N N N Y Y Y P Y
Consent/
Ethical
approval
N N N P Y N Y N N
Internal
validity
P P P P P P P P P
TOTAL 23 22 19 22 22 23 23 20 21
Quality scores are all similar, ranging from 19 to 23 out of a possible 34. For a more
detailed table see Appendix 8. Because observational studies have questionable quality,
and all scored ‘partially’ for internal validity, 2 additional credibility assessment tables
were constructed. Credibility relates to previous use of measures and intervention
precautions taken against bias. These criteria suggest that internal validity has been
considered. All observational studies have bias (Grimes & Schulz, 2002), and
obviously bias can never be completely eliminated, or trustworthiness assured, however
these details go some way towards indicating credibility for these observational studies.
41
TABLE 7: ASSESSMENT OF CREDIBILITY OF MEASURES
STUDY MEASURES PREVIOUSLY USED SATISFACTORY
CREDIBILITY
Bones et al (2014) 1). Consonance ratings
-3 to +3.
2). FFR’s measured for
consonant and
dissonant intervals
3) Fast-fourier
transform (FFT)
4). Pitch salience
measure
1). McDermott et al
(2010).
2). Golblick & Pfeiffer
(1969).
3). Pressnitzer,
Patterson &
Krumbholz (2001).
4). Bidelman &
Krishnan (2009)
YES
Hansen & Melzner
(2014)
1). Category breadth.
2). Global v local
visual preference.
3). Grouped v
individualised
evaluations.
4) Kimchi- Palmer
figure task.
1). Liberman et al
(2002).
1). Shapira et al (2012).
1). Trope & Libermann
(2000)
1). Friedman et al
(2003).
1&3). Legerwood et al
(2010)
3). Bruchman & Evans
(2013).
2&4). Gasper & Clore
(2002)
2&4).Forster (2011)
2 &4). Kimchi &
Palmer (1982)
YES
Okada et al (2012) 96 utterances analysed
by:
1) Information given as
landmark name.
2) received/ reply
3) Giver replied again.
4). Pitch extraction in
PRAAT
1, 2, 3&4). Boersma &
Weenink (2010).
1, 2 &3). Pardo (2006)
4). Software Sibelius
(2008).
YES
Curtis & Bharucha
(2010)
Pitch contour analysed
using
1). Praat
2). Prosogram
computer model.
3). Mean intensity,
duration, FF and FO.
1). Boersma (2001).
2). Mertents (2004).
2) Patel (2005)
2). Patel et al (2006).
3). Juslin & Laukka
(2003)
YES
Bidelman & Krishnan
(2009)
1). Consonance ratings
measured using
comparison of pairs.
Neural measures –
2). Periodicies:
FFR/ACF’s
3). Neural pitch
salience estimated
using periodic template
analysis.
1). Plomp & Levelt
(1965).
2) Langner (1983)
2). Cariani & Delgutte
(1996).
2&3). Cedolin &
Delgutte (2005).
3). Larson et al (2008).
3). Houtsma &
Goldstein (1972)
3). Houtsma (1979).
YES
Oelmann & Laeng
(2009)
1). Qualitative –
Attributing given
1). Adjective selection
Hevner (1936),
Farnsworth (1954),
YES
42
adjectives for each
interval.
2). Quantitative:
Semantic differential
scale between
antonyms.
Gabrielsson &
Lindstrom (2001),
Danielou (1968).
2). Robson (1993)
Foss et al (2007) 1). Neural
activation/blood flow
measured by brain
imagining. Brain
voyager software
package.
2).SPM analysis of
blood oxygenation
level response to
intervals.
1). Blood et al (1999).
1).Koelsch et al (2005)
2) Not clearly stated.
PARTIALLY
Krantz & Merker
(2004)
Free word and rating
scale assessment
measures.
Maher (1980, 1982),
Bozzi (1985), Costa
(2000), Cooke (1959).
YES
Costa et al (2000). 1). Anova comparison
of adjective ratings 1-7
using questionnaire.
1). Adjectives
attributed to Cooke
(1959).
1) Chailley (1985),
Meyer & Berlyne
(1982).
YES
TABLE 8: ASSESSMENT OF CREDIBILITY OF INTERVENTIONS
STUDY INTERVENTION PRECAUTIONS
FOR BIAS
AND PREVIOUS
USE
BIAS
ADDRESSED
Bones et al (2014) 1). Psychological testing of
interval pleasantness.
2). Electrophysiology.
1). Practise run.
Ratings z scored.
McDermott et al (2010).
2). ER 30 tubing
inspected.
Goblick & Pfeiffer
(1969).
Bidelman & Krishnan
(2009, 2011).
Krishnan & Plack (2011)
YES
Hansen & Melzner
(2014).
Testing Cognitive
functioning.
1). Participants listened to
5 conditions (concrete,
reverberation, C-F, non-
segmentation, abstract) and
created a shopping list.
2). Modified Kimchi-
Palmer task – choosing
logos to match figure
1). Controlled for mood
affecting construal -
(Gasper & Clore, 2002).
2). Used by Gasper &
Clore (2002)
Forster (2011), Kimchi
Palmer, 1982.
YES
Okada et al (2012) Use of consonant and
dissonant intervals in
agreeable and disagreeable
speech.
Counterbalancing
procedure for sequence
effects.
Boone et al (2007)
YES
43
Boone (2003)
Schreuder et al (2005).
Gregory et al (1997).
Curtis & Bharucha
(2010).
Testing speech portrayal of
4 emotions. Actresses
performed 16 emotional
scenarios (sadness, anger,
happiness, pleasantness)
using facial expressions.
Informed consent.
Stimulus presented 3
times.
(Ekman, Levenson &
Friesen, 1983)
YES
Bidelman &
Krishnan (2009)
1).Psychological testing.
Selecting most consonant
interval of 36 pairs. T test
compared consonant and
dissonant intervals.
2) Neural FFR’s recorded
in response to 9 intervals.
1). Order of intervals
randomly assigned.
Intervals matched those in
similar studies (Kameoka
& Kuriyagawa, 1969B).
2). Dichotic presentation
ensured distortion did not
obscure FFR’s. (Elsisy &
Krishnan, 2008) or
isolated brainstem
responses (Houtsma,
1972, 79).
YES
Oelmann & Laeng
(2009)
Psychological testing.
1). Participants judged how
antonyms matched musical
intervals.
2). Participants rated 5
melodies for interval
associated meaning.
1&2). Questionnaires
minimise bias.
1). Stimuli presented
randomly to control for
fatigue.
1&2).Similar
interventions in Costa et
al (2000) and Mithen
(2006).
YES
Foss et al (2007) Neural testing for 3
intervals in random order
on headphones.
Ethical approval and
consent.
Participants blinded to
purpose of interventions.
Listening task with no
activity to confound
results.
Part of another study –
thus isolated from other
musical effects.
Similar interventions in
Zatorre et al (1998) and
Maess et al (2001).
YES
Krantz & Merker
(2004)
Psychological testing.
1). Subjects choose
appropriate word for each
interval.
2). Rate appropriateness of
10 adjectives for each
interval.
1&2). Order of intervals
randomised.
1&2) Interventions
validated by previous
research (Maher 1980,
1982; Bozzi 1985; Costa
2000).
YES
Costa et al (2000) Psychological testing of 2x
24 intervals presented for
2.5 minutes, over
headphones.
Participants blinded.
Order randomised.
Rating scale previously
used.
Questionnaires minimise
bias.
YES
Results indicate that some effort has been made to consider internal validity. All
measures have been previously used, apart from Foss et al (2007), who give no
44
information on blood oxygenation levels as a measure and thus only score ‘partially’ for
measures. Precautions have been taken against bias for all interventions, therefore an
effort has been made towards credibility. Only 2 studies, Foss et al (2007) and Bideman
and Krishnan (2009) clearly document informed consent and ethical approval, and 1
partially (Curtis & Bharucha, 2010), however all document hypotheses, objectives and
analysis. Reliability of results suggest some external validity. Similarity of results
means there is no need for quality weighting.
2) CASE STUDY RESULTS
a) CASE STUDY - QUANTITATATIVE RESULTS
Actual scores, mean scores and standard deviations were calculated for the six
sessions. Where a range was given in actual scores (eg. 4-5), the mid-point was
taken.
45
Volunteer A (Female)
Summary of Actual Scores
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3
Perfect Fifth procedure PF1 PF2 PF3 Total
Enjoyable 6.0 5.0 5.0 16.0
Helpful 2.0 3.0 3.0 8.0
Beneficial 3.0 3.0 3.0 9.0
PF Total 11.0 11.0 11.0 33.0
PF Mean (SD) 3.7 (2.1) 3.7 (1.2) 3.7 (1.2)
Water and Waves procedure WW1 WW2 WW3 Total
Enjoyable 2.0 2.0 3.0 7.0
Helpful 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0
Beneficial 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0
W&W Total 4.0 4.0 5.0 13.0
W & W Mean (SD) 1.3 (0.6) 1.3 (0.6) 1.7 (1.2)
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer A: Perfect Fifth
Enjoyable Helpful Beneficial
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer A: Water and Waves
Enjoyable Helpful Beneficial
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer A Mean scores: Perfect Fifth
vs W&W
PF Mean W&W Mean
46
Volunteer B (Female)
Summary of Actual Scores
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 Total
Perfect Fifth procedure PF1 PF2 PF3
Enjoyable 8.0 8.0 9.0 25.0
Helpful 8.0 8.0 9.0 25.0
Beneficial 8.0 8.0 9.0 25.0
PF Total 24.0 24.0 27.0 75.0
PF Mean (SD) 8.0 (0.0) 8.0 (0.0) 9.0 (0.0)
Water and Waves procedure WW1 WW2 WW3 Total
Enjoyable 4.0 7.0 7.0 18.0
Helpful 2.0 7.0 7.0 16.0
Beneficial 4.0 7.0 8.0 19.0
W&W Total 10.0 21.0 22.0 53.0
W & W Mean 3.3 (1.2) 7.0 (0.0) 7.3 (0.6)
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer B: Perfect Fifth
Enjoyable Helpful Beneficial
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer B: Water and WavesEnjoyable Helpful Beneficial
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer B Mean scores: Perfect Fifth
vs W&W
PF Mean W&W Mean
47
Volunteer C (Male)
Summary of Actual Scores
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 Total
Perfect Fifth procedure PF1 PF2 PF3
Enjoyable 6.0 7.0 9.0 22.0
Helpful 4.0 7.0 6.0 17.0
Beneficial 6.0 6.0 9.0 21.0
PF Total 16.0 20.0 24.0 60.0
PF Mean (SD) 5.3 (1.2) 6.7 (0.6) 8.0 (1.7)
Water and Waves procedure WW1 WW2 WW3 Total
Enjoyable 7.0 8.0 8.0 23.0
Helpful 5.0 8.0 5.0 18.0
Beneficial 5.0 8.0 8.0 21.0
W&W Total 17.0 24.0 21.0 62.0
W & W Mean (SD) 5.7 (1.2) 8.0 (0.0) 7.0 (1.7)
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer C: Perfect Fifth
Enjoyable Helpful Beneficial
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer C: Water and WavesEnjoyable Helpful Beneficial
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer C Mean scores: Perfect Fifth
vs W&W
PF Mean W&W Mean
48
Volunteer D (Male)
Summary of Actual Scores
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 Total
Perfect Fifth procedure PF1 PF2 PF3
Enjoyable 7.0 6.5 6.5 20.0
Helpful 6.0 7.0 6.0 19.0
Beneficial 7.0 6.0 7.0 20.0
PF Total 20.0 19.5 19.5 59.0
PF Mean (SD) 6.7 (0.6) 6.5 (0.5) 6.5 (0.5)
Water and Waves procedure WW1 WW2 WW3 Total
Enjoyable 2.0 5.5 4.0 11.5
Helpful 3.0 6.0 4.5 13.5
Beneficial 2.0 5.5 5.0 12.5
W&W Total 7.0 17.0 13.5 37.5
W & W Mean (SD) 2.3 (0.6) 5.7 (0.3) 4.5 (0.5)
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer D: Perfect FifthEnjoyable Helpful Beneficial
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer D: Water and Waves
Enjoyable Helpful Beneficial
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Volunteer D Mean scores: Perfect Fifth
vs W&W
PF Mean W&W Mean
49
Summary of Mean Scores for all Four Volunteers
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 Overall
Perfect Fifth procedure PF1 PF2 PF3 PF Ove
Enjoyable 6.8 6.6 7.4 6.9
Helpful 5.0 6.3 6.0 5.8
Beneficial 6.0 5.8 7.0 6.3
PF Mean (SD) 5.9 (0.9) 6.2 (0.4) 6.8 (0.7) 6.3 (0.6)
Water and Waves procedure WW1 WW2 WW3 WW Ove
Enjoyable 3.8 5.6 5.5 5.0
Helpful 2.8 5.5 4.4 4.2
Beneficial 3.0 5.4 5.5 4.6
W&W Mean (SD) 3.2 (0.5) 5.5 (0.1) 5.1 (0.6) 4.6 (0.4)
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Ave Volunteers A-D Mean scores*: Perfect
Fifth vs W&W**
PF Average W&W Average
0
2
4
6
8
10
Enjoyable Helpful Beneficial Average
Ave Volunteers A-D Averages
PF Overall WW Overall
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Ave Volunteers A-D: Perfect Fifth
Enjoyable Helpful Beneficial
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3
Ave Volunteers A-D: Water and Waves
Enjoyable Helpful Beneficial
50
Quantative results for volunteers A-D all show positive correlations; results increase
with number of sessions experienced for both the perfect fifth and waves and water.
Overall mean scores show the perfect fifth procedure scoring consistently higher than
the waves and water procedure. The directionality of the graphs show the perfect fifth
scores as more stable and reliable than the waves and water. Perfect fifth graphs show a
steady cumulative rise over the 3 sessions. Waves and water graphs show a slow start in
session 1, with a considerable rise in session 2, followed by a dip in session 3.
Baseline scores for session 1 show that the perfect fifth mean scores (5.9), and standard
deviation (SD 0.5) is nearly double the waves and water mean scores (3.2, SD 0.5). The
difference diminishes over sessions 2 and 3 as volunteers become more accustomed to
the procedures and more accepting of the waves and water.
For volunteer A, scores for the perfect fifth experience are consistent across the 3
sessions (actual scores 11, 11, 11 /30). For waves and water scores are considerably
lower and there is a marginal increase in session 3(actual scores 4, 4, 5). Volunteer B
scores consistently high for the perfect fifth (actual scores 24, 24, 27), however for
waves and water experience, scores start lower but more than double in sessions 2 and 3
(actual scores 10, 21, 22). Volunteer C’s scores consistently increase for the perfect fifth
(actual scores 16, 20, 24), whereas for the waves and water they start elevated, and then
dip slightly in session 3 (actual scores 17, 24, 21). Volunteer D scores consistently
favourably for the perfect fifth (actual scores 20, 19.5, 19.5), however scores for the
waves and water start low in session 1, rise considerably in session 2, and dip again in
session 3 (actual scores 7, 17, 13.5).
The bar charts show limited discrimination between dependent variables helpful and
beneficial, compared to enjoyable/beneficial and enjoyable/helpful.
51
Mann Whitney U values were not significant due to the low number of participants
(n=4). Critical values were 0, so p> 0.05. Two tailed T Test results showed a tendency
towards significance at baseline session 1 for enjoyable (p= 0.078, p< 0.1) and
beneficial (p=0.078, p< 0.1), and for overall (p = 0.081, p< 0.1). Thus we are 90%
confident that these results are not down to chance. Session 1 scores for helpful were
not significant (p= 0.206, p< 0.250).
Overall these results are encouraging given the small sample population (n=4) and
strongly suggest further investigation with a higher sample number would be
instructive. See Appendix 9 for Mann Whitney and T test tabulated results.
b) CASE STUDY - QUALITATIVE RESULTS: THEMATIC ANALYSIS.
1) Stage 1: Initial coding:
The number of codes per volunteer depended on the amount of data provided by
each volunteer. Those who wrote more in questionnaires and diaries provided
more data, and have a higher coding score. Volunteer B provided the most data,
followed by volunteer C.
Example of initial coding for volunteers:
VOLUNTEER B
Not as relaxing as would
have thought
Session 1
Comparison feedback
Question 2
Question 1
Relaxed breathing Session 2 Question 13
Relaxing Session 3 Question 11
Made me think of
Frightening things
Session 1 Diary sheet 4/2.15 (10th
Feb)
Rather angry noise of the
wind
Comparison feedback
Session 2
Question 1
Question 15
Unpleasant Session 1 Diary sheet 4/2/15 (10th
Feb)
52
Initial Coding results:
a) Waves and water
Volunteer A – 23
Volunteer B – 46
Volunteer C – 29
Volunteer D – 23
a) Perfect Fifth
Volunteer A – 33
Volunteer B – 40
Volunteer C – 33
Volunteer D – 22
2) Stage 2: Organising data into meaningful groups or codes.
Example of stage 2 organisation:
RELIGIOUS/
TRANSPERSONAL
At peace
Induced a trance like state
It was very magical
Purity of the sound
The sound ‘touched’ the
body
It was as if it was leading
me into silence
Perfect fifth was dying
away into silence
Compare Question 2
Compare Question 3
Session 1 Question 10
Compare Question 1
Compare Question 5
Compare Question 3
Session 1 Question 10
Compare Question 1
Session 3 D S 28/1/15
53
Waves and Water codes
INITIAL THEME TOTAL CODES
SURPRISE 20
FRIGHTENING 13
MOVEMENT/ACTIVITY
OF WATER AND MIND
31
CONFUSION 24
STRESSFUL 25
Perfect Fifth codes
INITIAL THEME TOTAL CODES
ENJOYABLE 17
RELAXING 12
PSYCHOLOICALLY BENEFICIAL 32
PHYSICAL CHANGES 15
RELIGIOUS/TRANSPERSONAL 21
COGNITIVE/ANALYTICAL 18
For full details see appendices 10-13
54
3) Stage 3: Sorting the codes into potential themes to create an initial thematic
map:
a) Potential themes for Waves and Water:
Surprise – 8 subthemes
Frightening – 9 subthemes
Movement/Activity – 9 subthemes
Confusion – 5 subthemes
Stressful/Negative -5 subthemes
Miscellaneous – 2 subthemes
Themes were generally negative for waves and water. ‘Not as relaxing as
would have thought’ and ‘not as enjoyable as anticipated’ from volunteer A
were common themes which were combined under surprise. There is a
sense that all volunteers expected the water and waves to be a much better
experience.
Frightening was a major theme with frightening thoughts, ‘unnerving’
images and old memories emerging in response to the water sounds.
For the theme of activity/movement, there were references to moving water,
‘like flushing a toilet’, ‘urge to go to the toilet’, from volunteer A, and ‘like
bathwater running away’ from volunteer B, and reference to ‘the surging
sound of water draining’, from volunteer D, with the sound generally
perceived as ‘unsafe’. Mind activity also comes under this theme, with
comments such as ‘active mind’ from volunteer B, and ‘mind and thoughts
active’ from volunteer C.
55
There was general confusion as volunteers did not know what to make of
the water sounds and kept changing their minds. For example Volunteer B
said it was ‘1/3rd enjoyable’, ‘2/3rds enjoyable’, ‘partially enjoyable’, and
‘up and down emotional responses’.
The stressful/negative theme was prevalent for all volunteers with
references to ‘a dark mood’, ‘I wish it would end’, ‘physical tightness in
chest’ and ‘made me think of the tritone’, which is the most dissonant
musical interval, frequently occurring in fear-provoking music.
There were a few positive comments, for example volunteer A ‘found myself
drifting off’, ‘chilled’, and volunteer C ‘moderately enjoyable’, however
these were marginal and placed in ‘miscellaneous’ theme.
b) Potential themes for Perfect Fifth:
Enjoyable – 5 subthemes
Relaxing – 8 subthemes
Psychologically beneficial – 13 subthemes
Physical changes – 6 subthemes
Cognitive/analytical – 4 subthemes
Religious/transpersonal – 10 subthemes
Themes were positive for the perfect fifth. There were numerous comments
on the enjoyable theme. Volunteer A called it ‘enjoyable’, with ‘enjoyable
sounds from tuning forks’, and ‘preferred the perfect fifth’. Volunteer B
associated it with an illustration of the sun, and volunteer C was ‘looking
56
forward to the next session’. Volunteer D called it ‘enjoyable’ and ‘non-
intrusive’.
Volunteer A said the procedure was ‘more relaxing than anticipated’ and
Volunteer B called it ‘calming’ Volunteer C called it ‘soothing’, ‘repetitive’
with ‘short term relaxing effects’ and volunteer D felt ‘rested’. These were
all combined under relaxing theme.
The perfect fifth procedure was judged as psychologically beneficial.
Volunteer A talked of an ‘improved mood due to pain relief’, said it
‘relieved tension’ and ‘put me at a sense of ease’, volunteer B said it
‘produced good mood’ and felt a ‘well-ordered state of mind’, and ‘wanted it
to go on for longer’. Volunteer C described it as ‘mood calming’ and drew
what resembled rhythmical sounds around a human face, a sketch which
which had a therapeutic feel to it. Volunteer D called it ‘more therapeutic’
giving ‘emotional improvement’ and eliciting a ‘level mood’. Volunteer D
drew a representation of a body seated on a chair with sound vibrating
around the body seemingly in the biofield area.
All volunteers documented physical changes. Volunteer A ‘forgot aches
and pains’, felt ‘short term physical improvement for of aching joints one
day’, noticed ‘improvement of shoulder joint and wrist pain and flexibility’,
and a ‘pleasant warming sensation around left knee’. Volunteer B felt
‘tingling in left hand’, and ‘pleasant tingling sensation in left knee’ and
noted it was ‘physically beneficial’ and ‘mentioned it to osteopath’.
Volunteer C felt ‘slightly light headed’ but noticed ‘no bodily changes’.
Volunteer D experienced ‘bodily changes’ and ‘physical relief from sore hip
pain, lower back pain, gut discomfort’ and ‘felt bodily ‘peace’ in lower
back’.
57
A prominent theme was the spiritual /transpersonal nature of the perfect
fifth experience. Volunteer A thought it was ‘like a bell’ and ‘reminded me
of a monastery’. Volunteer B said ‘the sound touched the body’ and was
‘magical’ and ‘was leading me into silence’. It ‘induced a trance like state’,
noting ‘the purity of the sound’. Volunteer C also commented that it
‘induced a trance like state’. In addition, the ‘mind was quieter, induced an
almost meditation like state’ and he ‘felt strangely reinforced or all-
together’. Volunteer C commented that ‘it was like praying’. All four
volunteers used the word ‘peace’ in association with the perfect fifth musical
interval.
The experience elicited reflective cognitive and analytical responses.
Volunteer B called it ‘interesting/fascinating’ saying it ‘evoked interest in
researching the subject through experts’ and was ‘listening for overtones,
and ‘reflecting on musical harmony. Volunteer C reflected on the ‘frequency
of the perfect fifth similar to the rhythm of waves and breathing’
For initial thematic maps see appendices 14 & 16.
4) Stage 4: Reviewing themes
a) Waves and Water
Themes were developed and refined to create a developed thematic map. The
‘miscellaneous’ theme was removed due to limited content. ‘Confusion’ theme
which indicated up and down emotional and mental responses was combined
with ‘movement/ activity of water and mind’ and renamed
‘movement/activity’. ‘Frightening’ was combined with ‘stressful/negative’ as
both have common psychological effects. The final developed map contains
three themes:
58
Stressful/negative – 4 subthemes
Surprise – 9 subthemes
Movement/activity – 7 subthemes
b) Perfect Fifth
Themes ‘enjoyable’ and ‘relaxing’ were incorporated into ‘psychologically
beneficial’ since they play an important role in psychological improvement.
For subthemes, ecclesiastical references were grouped together as ‘similarities to
church’, whilst references to an altered state were grouped together as ‘trance and
meditation’. There were 4 main themes for the developed thematic map:
Psychologically beneficial – 11 sub themes
Spiritual/transpersonal – 4 sub themes
Physical responses – 6 sub themes
Cognitive responses – 3 sub themes
For developed thematic maps see appendices 15 & 17.
c) Stage 5: Defining and naming final themes
a) Waves and Water
The essence of each theme was identified and it became clear that all three
developed themes tended towards one common theme. The experience was
not expected to be stressful, confusing, emotionally exhausting, frightening,
or unpredictable. ‘Frightening’ ‘confusion’ and ‘stressful’ became sub
59
themes, whilst ‘toilet’, ‘water’ and ‘reminiscing’ were included under sub
theme ‘active thinking. The one final theme was called ‘unfulfilled
expectations’ and had 6 subthemes.
Final thematic map for waves and water
Unfulfilled
expectations
Active
thinking
Negative
physical
reactions
Stressful
Frightening
Not
enjoyable
Confusion
60
b). Perfect Fifth
‘Cognitive/analytical’ was identified as a part of ‘psychological responses’,
since a stimulated mind plays an important role in psychological health
(Elderhostel adventures in lifelong learning, 2007). Cognitive sub themes
‘reflecting on music’ and ‘wanted to research subject’ were combined in
‘reflective’ sub theme, and ‘interesting sound vibrations’ was included in
‘interested/fascinated’ sub theme. ‘Physical responses’ such as pain relief
strongly connects to ‘psychological responses’, since relief from physical
pain generally generates psychologically improvement. ‘Psychological
responses’ are a main hypothesis of this study, and ‘spiritual
/transpersonal’ is the secondary hypothesis. Under
‘spiritual/transpersonal’ ‘similarities to church’ was changed to a more
general ‘religious’, and ‘altered state and DMN’ was added to ‘trance’, as
these combined constitute the secondary hypothesis. For ‘physical
responses’, ‘light headed’, ‘tingling’ and ‘warming’ were combined, and
‘short term improvement was included under ‘relief from skeletal aches and
pains’. The three final themes are thus:
1) Psychological responses – 7 sub themes
2) Physical responses – 3 sub themes
3) Spiritual/transpersonal – 4 sub themes
61
Final thematic map for perfect fifth
Artistic Representations
Artistic representations of the two experiences consistently reflect questionnaire
comments. Sketches representing the perfect fifth are positive, show themes of yellow
sunlight, sounds vibrating around a human form, and sounds from a bell. Sketches
representing the waves and water seem more negative, showing dark, jagged and abrupt
strokes, and a portrayal of moving and enveloping water. This artistic medium is
consistent with qualitative data.
Psychological
responses
Spiritual
transpersonal
Physical
responses
Peace
Sleepy
Trance /
Altered state/
DMN
Relieved
tension and
emotions
Pain relief
Improved
mood
Therapeutic
Reflective
Relief from
skeletal aches
and pains
Interested /
fascinated
Warming
and tingling
sensations
Improved
joint
flexibility
Religious
62
ARTISTIC REPRESENTATIONS FROM COMPARISON QUESTIONNAIRE.
Perfect Fifth Volunteer A
Volunteer B
Volunteer C
Volunteer D
63
Waves and Water Volunteer A
Volunteer B
Volunteer C
Volunteer D
64
NARRATIVE SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS
The purpose of narrative synthesis is to assimilate outcomes from the different papers,
and from case study data, into themes which answer the research question (Cooper,
2010). There are similarities between case study results and literature results,
particularly those pertaining to the psychological and emotional effects of the perfect
fifth musical interval, and to cognitive functioning.
Systematic Review
Systematic review findings indicate that the perfect fifth musical interval elicits robust,
positive psychological responses which supports the primary hypothesis of the study.
The perfect fifth musical interval produces a consistently high ‘pleasantness’ rating.
Bones et al (2014) confirm pleasantness ratings of (2.2) diotically and (1.8) dichotically.
These are generally consistent with Bidelman & Krishnan (2009) whose mean
consonance ratings show the perfect fifth scoring highly (0.9), equal to the unison, but
slightly lower than the octave (0.95). Costa et al (2000) use a 3 way ANOVA to
demonstrate that each musical interval has a unique meaning (F11, 985) = 50.34, p<
0.001).
Several papers rate the perfect fifth musical interval by attributing meaning through
adjectives. Using meanings taken from other theorists, Costa et al (2000) document the
perfect fifth musical interval as consonant, agreeable, gentle, stimulating, healthy,
pleasurable and acrimonious, and find the high emotional value of the perfect fifth
musical interval to be more significant than its activity and power. Oelmann & Laeng
(2009) attribute even stronger meanings to the perfect fifth, rating it clear, hopeful,
rigorous, masculine, definite, robust and flexible, eliminating any negative connotations
such as acrimonious, which was present in Costa et al (2000). Krantz & Merker (2004),
65
using free word assessment, find the perfect fifth scores highest for harmony (6.0),
second for resolute (5.6) and equal second with the octave for joy (5,0).
Indeed, if musical intervals hold specific meanings then we expect them to also be
expressive in speech. Okada et al (2012) find that the perfect fifth, alongside the perfect
fourth, is used much more frequently in agreeable conversations, than it is in
disagreeable conversations (Fishers exact test, p= 0.032). On the other hand, while they
acknowledge that the ratio size of the interval plays a significant role in emotional
meaning, with the perfect fifth positively correlating with happiness and pleasantness in
music, Curtis & Bharucha (2010) find this does not necessarily follow in speech.
The systematic review identifies neural outcomes which support the primary hypothesis.
In 2 studies FFR’s are recorded from EEG’s (Bones et al, 2014; Bidelman & Krishnan,
2009) and in another MRI brain imaging is carried out with a Siemens Trio 3-T MRI
(Foss et al, 2007). Results show that the brain is indeed responding to the perfect fifth
musical interval. Bidelman & Krishnan (2009) find that consonant intervals produce
stronger neural pitch salience than dissonant intervals, with the perfect fifth scoring
0.75, third after the octave (0.85) and the unison (0.9). Bones et al (2014) find that the
perfect fifth produces the highest harmonic salience of all the musical intervals when
tested diotically (0.35) and dichotically (0.28), indicating significantly more harmonic
salience in the diotic condition (t=3.19, p= 0.05). Foss et al (2007), investigating neural
activation patterns alongside blood oxygen level responses, find that the perfect fifth
and other consonant intervals demonstrate less brain activation than dissonant intervals.
Findings suggest that dissonant intervals may stimulate particular brain regions, with
non-musicians displaying more activity in the right IFG, and musicians displaying more
activity in the left IFG. Results of blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD)
responses follow the Pythagorean ratio pattern where more complicated dissonant
66
intervals show higher neural activity. While there is a blood oxygenation response to the
perfect fifth musical interval, it is smaller than for dissonant intervals.
Researching how sound affects cognitive functioning and mental construal, Hansen &
Melzner (2014) use the perfect fifth musical interval as a familiar sound combination
(Krumhansl, 1979), to represent low level concrete construal, or a ‘specific’ sound
stimulus (Gilead, Liberman & Maril, 2014). Investigating if this simple stimulus can
affect attitude judgements and choices, findings indicate that the perfect fifth
encourages subjects to use more specific categories to classify objects, and to
individualise judgements. Subjects were influenced to be much more detailed and
specific and precisely individualise their choices, thus experiencing a concrete rather
than abstract mind-set (Gilead et al, 2014). For example we may refer specifically to
‘jeans’ rather than abstractedly to ‘clothes’.
Case Studies
Case studies encourage deeper analysis and perspectives (Simons, 2013). The diary
method allows for deeper reflection to make sense of the experience. Case study results
support systematic review findings that the perfect fifth elicits generally positive
psychological responses. All volunteers preferred the perfect fifth experience over the
waves and water. Quantitative results find the perfect fifth experience generally
positive, with T test results at baseline session 1 close to significant for enjoyable (p =
0.078), beneficial (p = 0.078), and overall (p = 0.081). Qualitative results support this,
identifying eight subthemes pertaining to the theme of ‘psychological responses’;
improved mood, therapeutic, reflective, pain relief, interested/fascinated, relieved
tension and emotions and peace. These results, taken from diary extracts and
questionnaires, are more detailed than the systematic review findings, eliciting very
specific and personal responses to the perfect fifth musical interval.
67
Even the artistic representations reflect positive responses to the perfect fifth.
Illustrations of yellow sunlight from volunteers A and B, one depicting an image of a
bell and the words ‘calm’, the other documenting the ‘purity’ of the perfect fifth sound,
are robust indicators of positive affect. Volunteers C and D both depict the perfect fifth
sound close to the body, and seemingly interacting with it.
Moreover, all case study volunteers documented physical sensations in response to the
perfect fifth, such as heat, tingling and relief from physical pain and skeletal distress.
Stage 1 initial coding documents that volunteer A ‘forgot aches and pains’ and noted
‘improvement of shoulder joint and wrist pain’. Volunteer B felt ‘tingling in left hand’
and ‘pleasant tingling sensation in left knee’, whilst volunteer C felt ‘light headed’.
Volunteer D felt ‘physical relief from sore hip pain, lower back pain and gut
discomfort’. These are surprising outcomes which go far beyond what was expected
from the project.
The third significant theme from the case study data is the spiritual and transpersonal
nature of the experience. All volunteers found the experience ‘peaceful’. Volunteer A
thought the sound was ‘like a bell’ and ‘reminded me of a monastery’ and felt they were
‘drifting away’. Volunteer B said it was ‘very magical’ and commented on the ‘purity of
the sound’ which ‘induced a trance like state’. Volunteer C found it ‘like praying’ and
‘like bells on cymbals used in some religions’ and also said it ‘induced a trance like
state’ making him feel ‘slightly sleepy’ and ‘strangely all-together’. Once again this
goes beyond what we found in the systematic review findings.
The case study thematic results indicate that the perfect fifth stimulates detailed interest
and a deep level of reflection. Two subthemes are ‘interested/fascinated’ and
‘reflective’. Two volunteers felt ‘reflective’ and thought the sound was ‘interesting’ and
‘fascinating’. This was a particularly strong theme for volunteer B, who found that the
68
experience stimulated a desire to research every possible detail about the perfect fifth
musical interval and about harmony. She states it ‘evoked an interest in researching the
subject through experts’, and she ‘enjoyed reflecting on musical harmony’. She
mentioned the experience to the osteopath, assiduously contacted composer friends
about the musical interval, and stated in one diary entry ‘I spoke to a man who is very
knowledgeable about the Fibonacci Sequence’, finding herself fascinated by its
appearance in nature and in the financial markets. This data supports Hansen &
Melzner’s (2014) findings on metal construal where the perfect fifth encourages
subjects to be much more specific and detailed in their thinking, indicating that the
perfect fifth musical interval may affect cognitive functioning.
The results from the systematic review and from the case studies have identified neural,
psychological and emotional outcomes of the perfect fifth musical interval. Case study
findings do seem to support systematic review findings, especially regarding
psychological outcomes and cognitive functioning. Moreover, case study results seem
to go further, identifying unexpected physical and transpersonal outcomes.
DISCUSSION
MAIN FINDINGS
This paper investigates psychological, and neural effects of the perfect fifth musical
interval. Systematic review results indicate that the perfect fifth elicits consistently high
‘pleasantness’ ratings, and attracts consistently positive adjective meanings. However
this does not necessarily follow in speech.
Neural outcomes elicited by EEG show that the brain responds strongly to the perfect
fifth, producing higher FFR’s and stronger pitch salience than for dissonant intervals.
69
MRI imaging shows the perfect fifth demonstrating less brain activity and less blood
oxygenation than dissonant intervals. The perfect fifth may also influence cognitive
functioning, influencing more detailed and individualised thinking.
Case study results support the systematic review findings. T test results are close to
significance for enjoyable (p=0.078), beneficial (p=0.078) and overall (p=0.081).
Thematic findings highlight three themes; positive psychological responses, spiritual
and transpersonal responses, and physical responses. Positive psychological responses
parallel those indicated in the systematic review. The spiritual/transpersonal and
physical responses are supplementary to the systematic review findings and contribute a
deeper theoretical context to the results.
WIDER CONTEXT
This project highlights associations between the perfect fifth musical interval and
various theoretical concepts. The main purpose of the study was to investigate
psychological and neural effects of the perfect fifth musical interval. In the event we
have achieved far more than this, uncovering additional themes and hypotheses, which
are supported by case study thematic results. Indeed the strength of this paper lies in the
diversity of methods used and the unexpected results obtained. By combining a
systematic literature review with original case study data, we have added greater
substance to the results and theories obtained, and are thus able to discuss them in a
much wider context. The neural results are the most measurable outcomes from the
systematic review, and they show that something is definitely happening at a neural
level after exposure to the perfect fifth musical interval. The case studies cannot support
these findings directly, however their own deeper interpretation of the perfect fifth
experience warrants further investigation.
70
The consistent meanings attributed to the perfect fifth in the systematic review, through
adjectives, generally supports theorist’s findings that there does exist a hierarchical
meaning scale for musical intervals (Cooke, 1959; Sethares 1993, Meyer, 1953, 1973;
Chailley, 1985, Krumhansl, 1997). Indeed Bidelman & Krishnan’s (2009) findings into
the neural correlates of musical intervals, provide evidence that this hierarchy also
exists at a subcortical level. Within the hierarchy, the perfect fifth (3:2) is rated the
second most consonant interval after the octave (2:1). The case study results support
this theory with the perfect fifth scoring highly for ‘enjoyable’ and ‘beneficial’, and
thematic results stating that the perfect fifth is ‘enjoyable’, ‘relaxing’, ‘calming’, had a
‘pleasant atmosphere’ and ‘produced a good mood’.
The harmony of the perfect fifth frequency ratio elicited positive psychological effects
for the case studies. The 8 case study subthemes pertaining to the theme of
‘psychological responses’; improved mood, therapeutic, reflective, pain relief,
interested/fascinated, relieved tension and emotions, peace, probe much deeper than
the systematic review thematic findings, and connect to the two other main thematic
themes ‘physical responses’ and ‘spiritual/transpersonal’. Identifying these deeper
meanings may be consistent with the way participants were exposed to the perfect fifth
musical interval. It is worth noting that perfect fifth exposure is different for the
systematic review compared to the case studies. While studies identified by the
systematic review exposed participants to the perfect fifth musical interval through
audio devices (Okada et al, 2012; Curtis & Bharucha, 2010) and headphones (Bones et
al, 2014; Hansen & Melzner, 2014; Bidelman & Krishnan, 2009; Oelmann & Laeng,
2009; Foss et al, 2007; Krantz et al, 2004; Costa et al, 2000), the case studies all
experienced a clinical setting, where the perfect fifth musical interval was projected
into the biofield, and thus onto the body for 15-20 minutes, very accurately, using the C
and G tuning forks. We do not know how accurate the musical interval was for each of
71
the systematic review experiments, as studies exposed participants to the interval for a
different lengths of time, ranging from 2.4 secs for 2 mins to 6 secs for 2 mins 30 secs,
with some studies not stating the duration ( Bones et al: 2.4 secs, 25 in 2 mins; Hansen
& Melzner: not stated; Okada et al: not stated; Curtis & Bharucha: not stated;
Bidelman & Krishnan: 200ms in duration, including 10 ms cos 2 ramp at beginning
and end; Oelmann & Laeng: not stated; Foss et al: duration 4 sec with 12 sec break
between intervals; Krantz et al: not stated; Costa et al: duration 6, 3 secs and repeated
for up to 2 mins 30 secs – considered appropriate timing), and with varied loudness,
ranging from 70 to 80 Db (Bones et al: 77Db diotic, 80 Db dichotic; Hansen &
Melzner:70 Db; Okada et al: Db not stated; Curtis & Bharucha: Db not stated;
Bidelman & Krishnan: 70 Db; Oelmann & Laeng: Db not stated; Foss et al: Db not
stated; Krantz et al: Db not stated; Costa et al: 75 Db). Indeed Curtis & Bharucha
(2010) indicate similar outcomes for the perfect fifth and the perfect fourth, 2 intervals
which are similar in ratio, and thus require absolute accuracy to be able to distinguish
between them.
Since the case studies experienced the perfect fifth deliberately projected into the
biofield, we may hypothesise that the overall impact may be purer and more powerful.
Indeed Mills & Jain (2010) suggest that biofield therapies, acting on the
biolelectromagnetic energy body, may connect with biochemical, physiological and
even cellular signalling mechanisms. Case study results identified 7 subthemes all of
which pertain to improved mood and improved physical condition, and all volunteers
were keen to experience it again. Although results were seemingly not quite so
profound for the systematic review, the consistency of reliable findings suggests that the
perfect fifth musical interval, does have a positive psychological impact even when it is
delivered through auditory devices and headphones.
72
The artistic representations offer further evidence pertaining to the positive effects of
the perfect fifth musical interval and its interaction with the biofield. Whereas emphasis
is on yellow sunlight and the purity of the perfect fifth sound for the female candidates,
the male volunteers depicted the interval sound resonating close to the body and
interacting with it, seemingly in the biofield area. The biofield has been arduously
researched in the last 20 years (Brown, 2009) and the effects of biofield therapies
reported (Jhaveri et al, 2008; Yan et al, 2008). The case study representations seem to
depict the musical interval interacting with the human biofield and eliciting positive
responses.
The biofield hypothesis, where the perfect fifth sound frequency reacts with the
biofield, and resonates back onto the body (Movaffaghi & Farsi, 2009), may go some
way towards understanding the physical responses identified by the case studies. All 4
case studies experienced physical responses to the perfect fifth, from ‘tingling in left
hand’ and ‘warmth’ to ‘pleasant warming sensation around left knee’ and ‘physical
relief from sore hip pain and lower back pain’ We can postulate that relief from physical
pain and skeletal distress correlates with positive psychological outcomes, improved
mood, and restored mental well-being. Indeed there is a correlation between pain and
mental health deterioration leading to depression, anxiety, low self-esteem and even
suicide (Orbach, 1994). It therefore follows that an experience which seems to offer
some relief to physical pain and discomfort, does improve psychological well-being.
Indeed this links to the case study hypothesis that the vibrations of the perfect fifth
musical interval interact with the biofield, creating changes in the biofield, which may
be identified as ‘good feelings’ or ‘improved mood’.
The case study results support a spiritual and transpersonal theme. The transpersonal
nature of these results is not replicated by the systematic review findings, however it is
worth noting that the case study experience included a one to one relationship with a
73
therapist (Horvarth & Luborsky, 1993). Indeed, we can hypothesise that the power of
the therapeutic alliance, combined with the very individual experience of the perfect
fifth projected onto the biofield, may elicit stronger and deeper responses, than it might
in a purely experimental setting.
One paper, (Hansen & Melzner, 2014), in the systematic review suggests that sound
stimuli may affect cognitive functioning and thus may manipulate mental construal.
Construal theory and concrete versus abstract mind-set is another interesting concept
which has been brought to light by this study. Indeed social cognition functioning and
the difference between abstract and concrete mind-sets and it is an important area of
psychology and social research. The close parallels between the Hansen & Melzner
paper results, and case study results, which indicate the perfect fifth may influence more
specific and individualised thinking and judgements, is an important area for future
research. It indicates that the perfect fifth may be relevant for future investigations into
behavioural and cognitive functioning, and for psychology as a whole.
These results also share associations with Gilead et al’s (2014) hypothesis that there
may be a link between the concrete mind, goal directed action, and greater activation of
the default mode network regions. They found that the frontal parietal system of the
prefrontal cortex is activated when performing specifically focused concrete ‘how’
activities. This is consistent with research indicating the default mode network is
activated alongside goal focused contextual details (Addis et al, 2007).
DOES THE PERFECT FIFTH MUSICAL INTERVAL GENERATE AN
ALTERED STATE AND ACTIVATE THE DEFAULT MODE NETWORK?
The concept of an altered state or trance, whilst controversial, has been highlighted by
case study results. It is important to say that these results do not confirm the existence of
an altered state, but merely highlight a gap in knowledge.
74
Marin & Bhattacharya (2013), define ‘an altered state’ as a temporary change of
consciousness which includes a focused awareness on a point of interest. They liken it
to the psychological experience of being ‘in the zone’ or ‘in flow’ which brings with it
positive feelings of relaxation, pleasure and happiness. Research has identified brain
changes during ‘an altered state’. Whilst some studies have shown increased neural
activation patterns (Cojan et al, 2009), Peres et al, (2012), identify changes in several
brain areas, specifically showing lower levels of activity in the prefronal cortex. This is
consistent with Woody et al (2003), and Gruzelier (1998, 2000), who identifies that it
may also be associated with stimulation of limbic inhibition. Furthermore, there seem to
be similarities between the intense focus of ‘an altered state’ and the self-focus of the
default mode network of neuroscience.
The default mode network describes the activation of certain brain regions when
someone is in a self-focused and resting state (Vessel, Starr & Rubin, 2013). Typically
it is activated when we are relaxed and day dreaming, and not engaged in cognitive
activity. McGoewn et al (2009) suggest it may activate whenever we feel a profound
aesthetic gratitude and fascination, which also occurs during ‘an altered state’ (Vessel et
al, 2013). Prefrontal cortex changes are documented as occurring during both an altered
state and activation of the default mode network (McGeown et al, 2009). Indeed similar
changes have been documented after exposure to consonant musical intervals (Foss et
al, 2007).
Systematic review papers comment on neural responses to the perfect fifth musical
interval. MRI shows similarities with the lower activation responses to an altered state.
Foss et al (2007) document less neural activity with the perfect fifth compared to
dissonant intervals. Investigating blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD)
outcomes, Bidelman & Krishnan (2009) find that the response to the perfect fifth is also
lower than for dissonant intervals. In addition, they postulate that consonant intervals
75
encourage regular neural activity, compared to the irregular neural activity elicited by
dissonant intervals. It seems likely that the brain prefers the simple regular information
produced by consonant sounds, because it is easier to process, and requires less brain
resources than that produced by dissonant intervals (Burns, 1999). Calculating neural
pitch salience (a sophisticated harmonicity measure) from FFR’s, they find that
consonant intervals produce higher pitch salience than dissonant intervals (p<0.001),
with the perfect fifth scoring (0.75) after the octave (0.85) and the unison (0.95). This is
consistent with Bones et al (2014) whose findings indicate that the perfect fifth has the
largest harmonic salience of all intervals, especially when tested diotically (t=3.19, p=
0.05). This indicates that the perfect fifth’s harmony status may exist at cortical brain
levels. Linking the two concepts together, Chen et al (2013) have hypothesised that
higher pitch salience may also help activate the default mode network.
The concept of a resting state may be one comparable outcome for the altered state, the
default mode network and the perfect fifth. Relaxation was a prominent outcome for the
case studies, resulting in therapeutic responses, and connecting to the very transpersonal
nature of the experience. The passive nature of trance and the default network state,
occasions an easing of activity, as transpires during relaxation. Moreover, Varga &
Kekecs (2014) document increased oxytocin and cortisol levels, which control
relaxation, during an altered state.
Case study findings provide some of the strongest indications of associations between
the perfect fifth experience and ‘an altered state’. Volunteers clearly found the perfect
fifth experience transpersonal, spiritual, peaceful and soporific. Moreover, two
volunteers specifically and clearly documented that the perfect fifth musical interval
‘induced a trance like state’. Volunteer A said it ‘reminded me of a monastery’ creating
a sense of ‘peace’. One volunteer felt ‘slightly sleepy’ and ‘strangely altogether’,
affirming the perfect fifth experience ‘induced an almost meditation like state’.
76
Volunteer C, who felt ‘sceptical about this experience’ and had originally thought that
the perfect fifth sounded like ‘new age pseudoscientific mumbo jumbo’, conceded that
‘by the third session I had rather grown to like its effect, surprisingly’, and thought it
was ‘like praying’.
Assimilated findings are sympathetic to the hypothesis that the perfect fifth experience
has associations with an altered state, and with the default mode network. However the
strongest evidence comes from the case study thematic analysis, which only represents a
sample size of 4, and has limited external validity. We cannot draw conclusions, and
further research is recommended. Drawing the various strands together, Chen et al
(2013) hypothesise that high pitch salience, or harmonicity, which is consistent with the
perfect fifth musical interval (Bidelman & Krishnan, 2009), may help to activate the
default mode network, consistent with a resting or altered state.
THEORETICAL CONTEXT
The outcomes of this study have far surpassed original expectations, aims and
hypotheses. If we approach these findings from a broader theoretical context, we
recognise that the perfect fifth musical interval has been a restorative experience,
improving psychological balance, cognitive functioning and skeletal discomfort, albeit
for a small sample of people. We hypothesise that this may be because of the 3:2
connection to the Fibonacci sequence of numbers.
Perhaps through the perfect fifth musical interval, we are investigating the return of the
physical, mental and emotional bodies to their correct frequency proportions, and the
order which we experience all around us in the Fibonacci proportions of aesthetics and
nature. Grigos (2013) refers to the order of the Fibonacci sequence as ‘a higher beauty’
which could not have evolved by chance. By returning our physical, mental and
emotional bodies to this healthy resonance, we are literally re harmonising our unique
77
biofield template and absorbing the proportions of the Fibonacci frequency pattern.
Doczi (1981) refers to it as ‘the secret power of a cosmic order’.
In a sense results suggest that the perfect fifth musical interval nourishes and recharges
the body and the mind. By connecting to the intention of the perfect fifth musical
interval we begin to shift our frequencies and realign our bio electromagnetic energy
field, re-establishing balance with life’s natural proportions, where everything is ‘in
tune’ as it should be.
Results suggest that in addition to encouraging psychological and physical
improvement, the perfect fifth induces a state of almost heightened perception,
improving individualised cognitive functioning, and sharpening our unique appetite for
focused detail and information. Indeed it is through our unique experience with the
perfect fifth musical interval, that we can begin to understand the harmony inherent in
the 3:2 frequency ratio which stems from the Fibonacci sequence of numbers.
Although we cannot draw conclusions from these exploratory results, the associations
documented here, require further investigation. Indeed the synthesis process has
allowed for a much deeper interpretation of the data, identifying associations which
were not apparent when considering the isolated themes. Synthesis of the quantitative
and qualitative results has strengthened the arguments, and added weight to the
findings, increasingly adding support to the research question and the primary and
secondary hypotheses.
78
LIMITATIONS
This paper has a number of limitations. Despite the opinion that systematic reviews are
scientific and minimise bias (Higgins & Green, 2011), all identified papers are case
studies, which limits the overall quality of the study. There is a danger that
observational case studies only publish significant findings. These papers compared a
range of musical intervals taking into consideration historical theories, which could
have influenced judgements.
All observational studies contain bias (Grimes & Schulz, 2002) which undermines
validity. Only 3 studies address stimulus confounding (Bones et al, 2014; Hansen &
Melzner, 2014; Foss et al, 2007), and details on selection and possible false, indirect
and casual associations (Grimes & Schulz, 2002) are not adequately addressed.
The subjective nature of outcomes weakens their reliability. Even where results appear
significant, they are subjective word associations, adjective ratings, and comparison of
antonyms, and are vulnerable to different interpretations of the same adjective. Only
one paper controls for mood swings (Hansen & Melzner, 2014), one for individual
consonance preference (Bones et al, 2014), one for activity confounding (Foss et al,
2007) and one for fatigue or practise effects (Oelmann & Laeng, 2009). Okada et al
(2012), Bidelman & Krishnan (2009), Foss et al (2007), Krantz et al (2004) and Costa et
al (2000) all control for sequence effects. Results are thus vulnerable to personal,
unstable factors, and may deviate from the truth. However, measures and interventions
have been historically used in musical interval evaluations (Tables 7 & 8). It seems
exploratory research has not found an alternative method of rating musical intervals.
79
Systematic review sample sizes were small ranging from 5 participants in one
experiment (Curtis & Bharucha, 2010) to 95 (Hansen & Melzner, 2014). This affects
reliable interpretation and external validity. Although sample numbers tend to be lower
in observational studies, a sample of 5 falls within the exclusion criteria. However,
Curtis & Bharucha conducted 5 experiments and 4 were within inclusion criteria, so this
very small sample size was included. Across all 9 systematic review studies, 248
participants were documented as female, and 144 as male (discounting Okada et al,
2012, who did not specify). These numbers introduce gender bias, and we do not know
if similar results would be achieved with equal gender.
When identifying relevant papers for the systematic review, we found no studies
exclusively investigating the perfect fifth musical interval. Papers generally examined a
selection of musical intervals. This was time consuming because it involved extracting
minuscule amounts of sometimes irrelevant information about this one musical interval.
One paper, Hansen and Melzner (2014) did not test musical intervals per say, rather it
used the perfect fifth (C/G chords) to trigger concrete construal, investigating its effect
on cognitive processing. This introduced a new concept into the review, which was
included under neural responses. Moreover, many different concepts are introduced
throughout this paper, which are outside of the main focus of the study. The danger was
to meander off into superfluous territory, increasing the word count beyond limits.
Definitions of ‘naïve’, ‘amateur’ and ‘professional’ musicians were very different
across studies, making it impossible to accurately define them. We had originally
intended to omit professional musicians from the sample, given their expert musical ear,
however we were unable to achieve this.
80
The accuracy of reporting is unreliable and limits the quality of the papers. Only 3
studies mention ethical approval and consent, although it is likely that more did address
it but failed to record it. Krantz et al (2004) do not clearly report the procedure and the
free word association exercise is unclear. In addition sample sizes given by Bones et al
(2014) are confusing and evidently incorrectly documented. The behavioural
experiment documents 28 participants of which 18 are documented as female. The
subsequent neural experiment which included 19 of the same subjects, misstates the
correct numbers of males and females. Moreover, it is unclear what Bones et al mean by
the word ‘electrophysiology’. A subsequent reference to Bidelman & Krishnan (2009)
implies that this is an EEG, however, exact interpretation is unclear.
Papers show an understandable level of diversity in interventions and measures making
them difficult to compare. Neural tests included monitoring scalp FFR’s, brain
scanning, and cognitive testing of choices. Psychological tests and measures
predominantly looked at adjectives in relation to intervals, either by free word
assessment, numerical rating scales or semantic differential. Neural measures vary from
FFR regularities and calculation of neural pitch salience, to measuring blood oxygen
levels, and type and frequency of cognitive choices. Despite the heterogeneity, outcome
tendencies were reliable across studies, showing consistency with historical theories.
Case studies were recruited from a small East Sussex catchment area which introduces
location bias. Future recruitment should cover a broader geographic field, potentially
beyond the UK. In addition, volunteer age range was narrow (52-72 years), and future
research should include a wider range.
Case study results were affected by subjective factors. The 10 point likert scale is an
individual rating scale and not objective across participants, or even across
questionnaires for each participant. For example, qualitative feedback shows all
81
participants preferring the perfect fifth experience. However quantitatively, candidate C
scored higher for the water and waves (total score for 3 sessions 62, compared to 60 for
perfect fifth), despite indicating that he preferred the perfect fifth, and documenting
‘surprise that I preferred the perfect fifth to water and waves’.
The diary method may encourage recall bias. Although allowing for reflection, memory
may exaggerate or downplay effects.
Although case studies were longitudinal with 3 sessions of each experience, there was
no way of measuring the cumulative improvement after only one, two or three sessions.
More sessions would give the opportunity to test cumulative impact, however this might
test volunteer patience.
In the questionnaire volunteers had difficulty discriminating between measures
‘beneficial’ and ‘helpful’. Scores were either very low, or very different for ‘helpful’
and ‘beneficial’ which influenced results. If we had referred to ‘helpful’ as ‘positive
experience’, it would have been easier to grade.
The small case study sample size of 4 participants constrained it to a small sample
exploratory exercise. 4 subjects is too small to obtain Mann Whitney results and one
candidate can greatly influence results. Although T test results were promising and
show a tendency towards significance for baseline session 1 for enjoyable (p = 0.078) ,
beneficial ( p = 0.078) and overall, ( p = 0.081), candidate C influenced results by
scoring higher for water and waves, even though he clearly stated he preferred the
perfect fifth experience. It is imperative that this experiment is repeated with a higher
number of participants in the future, in order to test for more robust statistical
significance.
Although this paper was written over 2 years, it was a time consuming project.
Attempting a mixed methods systematic review alongside mixed methods longitudinal
82
case studies is essentially 4 individual dissertations. Case studies took 6-8 weeks to
complete after recruitment, and this was time consuming for the researcher who was
running a small practise alongside the research. Although an additional researcher
helped with thematic analysis, the writing was done solely by one researcher.
CONCLUSION
For a small exploratory study, this paper has surpassed expectations with the ideas and
hypotheses it has generated.
There are indications that the perfect fifth musical interval may impact psychological
well-being, emotion regulation, and neurophysiology, and may affect attitude
judgements and how we process information. The transpersonal nature of the perfect
fifth experience suggests there may be associations with an altered state and the default
mode network of neuroscience.
Future research must concentrate on validating these promising findings. Any future
systematic review should consider additional outcomes, including papers investigating
synaesthesia (Beeli et al, 2005), and effects on body movement (Komeilipoor, 2015).
We should also investigate melodic intervals alongside harmonic intervals. Case study
results should be replicated, and should be longitudinal, incorporating more sessions,
with a greater sample size, drawing volunteers from a wider age range, aiming to
include children as well. Controlling for mood changes and confounding factors would
allow a more robust statistical analysis. Larger studies should preferably include EEG’s
and brain imaging, to allow for evaluation of brain changes, FFR’s and neural pitch
salience.
83
The case study measure ‘helpful’ confused participants and should be eliminated in
future studies. Instead, future studies could include a transpersonal measure ‘Did you
find the experience spiritual or transpersonal?’ which links to the concept of an altered
state.
Since this was the first exploratory study on the perfect fifth, we incorporated a two
tailed non-directional hypothesis for T test results. Larger studies in the future could
incorporate a one tailed directional hypothesis.
In the long term the aim would be to move away from case studies and conduct larger
randomised control trials, with a treatment as usual group, for example CBT. It is also
important to venture beyond healthy participants if progress is to be made. Case study
results indicate that there are no harmful effects of the perfect fifth musical interval,
promoting it as non-evasive and safe. Research conducted using participants suffering
from anxiety disorders and depression for example, is likely to produce more
quantifiable results, measured using acceptable methods such as Becks anxiety and
depression inventories, or Hamilton rating scales.
This project highlights associations between the perfect fifth musical interval and
different concepts. We recommend more research needs to be done on the associations
with an altered state and the default mode network. The default network is in itself a
novel concept and the precise neural and cognitive processes which support it require
further understanding and investigation (Grecius et al, 2003). Experiments have been
conducted where neural activity has been recorded whilst participants are in a resting
state, and not performing any cognitive task (Mars et al, 2012). Future research should
look into this further.
McGeown et al (2009), hypothesise that there is a connection between hypnosis and the
default network resting state. If more research was done in this area it would be
84
interesting to compare neural responses to hypnosis, and to the perfect fifth experience,
using brain imaging, EEG’s, comparing FFR responses.
The biofield theory has been investigated by science and is increasingly relevant for
research on alternative therapies. Construal theory and concrete versus abstract mind-set
is another interesting concept which has been brought to light by this study. However
these concepts are really outside of the main focus of this paper. This study touches
upon them, and broader research will undoubtedly further investigate them.
This paper is important because findings may have implications for emotion regulation
linked to mental and physical health, and also cognitive functioning and clinical
practise. Findings spotlight music therapy and acoustic psychology as important areas
for future research. Undoubtedly the perfect fifth experience is interesting because it is
simple and non-evasive. At a time of cost cutting and constraints on health service
budgets, attention should be drawn to its low fixed cost, and the ease with which it can
be learnt, and executed.
Although we cannot draw conclusions about how far the perfect fifth musical interval
may be useful in a clinical setting, these small study findings are encouraging and
emphasis must be on future research and larger clinical investigation, if we are to
provide a robust evidence base for clinical practise, psychology and improved mental
health.
It is important to understand that theorising and research cannot work in isolation.
Robust evidence based research into alternative therapies is limited, and funding scarce
(Maha & Shaw, 2007). If we are to truly encourage a more positive attitude towards
alternative therapies, we must influence the sceptical attitudes held by many scientists
and psychologists. It is about changing a whole archetype of attitudes so that adequate
funding and approval is more available for a different type of intervention. This study
85
was constrained by sample size. In the event we have produced yet another small
exploratory paper. Perhaps the time has now come to truly put the perfect fifth musical
interval to the test with large scale sampling and supportive funding.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
Researcher Joanna Shairp is a clinical hypnotherapist and complementary practitioner
86
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1 – ETHICAL APPROVAL CERTIFICATE
Queen Mary, University
of London
Room W117
Queen’s Building
Queen Mary University
of London
Mile End Road
London E1 4NS
Queen Mary Ethics of
Research Committee
Hazel Covill
Research Ethics
Administrator
Tel: +44 (0) 20 7882
7915
Email:
Professor Kam Bhui
Old Anatomy Building, Room 202
Centre for Psychiatry
Wolfson Institute
Charterhouse Square
London 3rd June
2014
To Whom It May Concern:
Re: QMREC2014/35 – What is the effect of musical
consonance, specifically the perfect fifth musical interval
87
on emotional, psychological and neurophysical health? A
systematic review with case studies.
The above study was conditionally approved by The Queen
Mary Ethics of Research Committee (Panel D) on the 14th May
2014; full approval was ratified by Chair’s Action on the 3rd June
2014.
This approval is valid for a period of two years, (if the study is
not started before this date then the applicant will have to
reapply to the Committee).
Yours faithfully
Ms Elizabeth Hall – QMREC Chair. Patron: Her
Majesty the Queen
Incorporated by
Royal Charter as Queen
Mary
and Westfield
College, University of
London
88
APPENDIX 2 – INFORMATION FORM AND CONSENT FORM.
For Office Use Only:
Rec Reference …………….
Date received: ……………
Pro forma information sheet and consent form
Information sheet
A comparison between experiencing the perfect fifth musical interval and listening to the sound of water and waves.
Researcher: Joanna Shairp - [email protected]
Supervisor: Professor Kamaldeep Bhui – [email protected]
We would like to invite you to be part of this research project, if you would like to. You should only agree to take part if you want to, it is entirely up to you. If you choose not to take part there won’t be any disadvantages for you and you will hear no more about it.
Please read the following information carefully before you decide to take part; this will tell you why the research is being done and what you will be asked to do if you take part. Please ask if there is anything that is not clear or if you would like more information.
If you decide to take part you will be asked to sign the attached form to say that you agree.
You are still free to withdraw at any time and without giving a reason.
Sound therapy is increasingly used as a form of alternative and complementary therapy.
The purpose of this research project is to explore the experience of the perfect fifth musical interval, and compare it to the experience of listening to the sound of water and waves.
The perfect fifth musical interval will be sounded accurately using tuning forks. The C and the G tuning forks are sounded together to create the perfect fifth musical interval. The sound of water and waves will be played on a CD.
89
Four case studies will be carried out. Each participant will have 6 sessions altogether. Each person will receive 3 sessions experiencing the perfect fifth musical interval, and 3 sessions experiencing the sounds of water and waves.
After each session participants will complete a semi- structured questionnaire with open questions, allowing them to talk freely about the experience. They can comment on any emotional, psychological or bodily changes they may have noticed during or after treatment, or not. After each session they are asked if they would recommend the experience. At the end of the 6 sessions they are asked to comment on which experience they preferred.
The perfect fifth procedure will follow the Atman Academy (2010) procedure guidelines. The perfect fifth musical interval will be sounded around the whole body, including the neck, shoulders, elbows, wrists, hips, knees and ankles. The water and waves procedure will involve lying on a couch and listening to the sound of water and waves.
The aims of this study are to highlight any differences between the 2 procedures and thus assess any effects of exposure to the perfect fifth musical interval. This study may also act as a basis for future studies.
It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part. If you do decide to take part you will be given this information sheet to keep and be asked to sign a consent form.
If you have any questions or concerns about the manner in which the study was
conducted please, in the first instance, contact the researcher responsible for the
study. If this is unsuccessful, or not appropriate, please contact the Secretary at the
Queen Mary Ethics of Research Committee, Room W117, Queen’s Building, Mile End
Campus, Mile End Road, London or [email protected].
90
Consent form
Please complete this form after you have read the Information Sheet and/or listened to an explanation about the research.
Title of Study: An exploration of the effects of the perfect fifth musical interval as compared to listening to water and waves on a beach. _______________________________________ Queen Mary Ethics of Research Committee Ref: ________________
. • Thank you for considering taking part in this research. The person organizing the research must explain the project to you before you agree to take part.
. • If you have any questions arising from the Information Sheet or explanation already given to you, please ask the researcher before you decide whether to join in. You will be given a copy of this Consent Form to keep and refer to at any time.
. • I understand that if I decide at any other time during the research that I no longer wish to participate in this project, I can notify the researchers involved and be withdrawn from it immediately.
. • I consent to the processing of my personal information for the purposes of this research study. I understand that such information will be treated as strictly confidential and handled in accordance with the provisions of the Data Protection Act 1998.
Participant’s Statement:
I ___________________________________________ agree that the research project named above has been explained to me to my satisfaction and I agree to take part in the study. I have read both the notes written above and the Information Sheet about the project, and understand what the research study involves.
Signed: Date:
Investigator’s Statement:
I ___________________________________________ confirm that I have carefully
explained the nature, demands and any foreseeable risks (where applicable) of the
proposed research to the volunteer
91
APPENDIX 3
RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE
DATE:
PROCEDURE: Perfect fifth musical interval / Water and Waves. Please indicate.
PARTICIPANT: A B C D. Please indicate.
Thank you for participating in this explorative study of the perfect fifth musical interval.
Below is a list of questions.
I’d like you to answer them as fully and as honestly as possible, taking as much time as
you need. If you need extra paper then please ask.
You don’t have to answer a question if you don’t want to.
When you have finished please then put the questionnaire in the envelope provided and
hand it to the supervisor/researcher.
Thank you. We are very grateful for your participation and co-operation.
QUESTIONS:
1) Have you ever experienced this procedure before?
2) How were you feeling today before experiencing the perfect fifth interval or the
water/waves sound?
3) What are your thoughts about the procedure you received?
4) Did you find the procedure enjoyable?
92
5) On a scale of 1-10 how enjoyable was it? 10 being maximum score.
6) Did you find the procedure beneficial?
7) On a scale of 1-10 how beneficial was it? 10 being the maximum score.
8) Did you find the procedure helpful?
9) On a scale of 1-10 how helpful was it? 10 being the maximum score.
10) How do you feel after the procedure? Give a brief description if possible
avoiding general terms such as ‘better’ or worse’.
11) Did you notice any changes in emotions after the procedure?
93
12) How is your mood after the procedure?
13) Did you notice any bodily changes?
14) Do you have any other comments which may be relevant?
15) Would you consider this again?
16) Would you recommend this to other people?
THANK YOU FOR PARTICIPATING. When you have finished please put your
Questionnaire in the envelope provided.
94
APPENDIX 4- DIARY SHEET
A comparison between experiencing the perfect fifth musical interval and listening to the
sound of water and waves.
Weekly Diary Sheet for volunteer A B C D – please indicate.
Thank you for agreeing to keep a diary of your observations between sessions.
Please date each entry. Thank you for your co-operation.
95
APPENDIX 5 – COMPARISON BETWEEN WATER AND WAVES AND
EXPERIENCING THE PERFECT FIFTH MUSICAL INTERVAL
COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIENCING THE PERFECT FIFTH
MUSICAL INTERVAL AND THE SOUND OF WATER AND WAVES.
Thank you for taking part in this research project. Your feedback is much appreciated
and completely confidential.
This is the final sheet for you to complete.
1) Please compare the two sound interventions you have experienced, and say in as
much detail as you can, which you preferred and why?
2) Please comment on the psychological and emotional nature of the two
experiences, and any bodily or other changes and sensations you may have
experienced either during or after the sessions, or not.
Please add anything else you feel is appropriate.
3) Please could you draw anything you like which you feel represents:
a) The perfect fifth musical interval experience
b) The water and waves sound experience
Extra paper is available.
Thank you for taking part in the research project.
96
APPENDIX 6
ARTICLES INCLUDED IN SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
BONES, O, HOPKINS, K, KRISHNAN, A, PLACK, C, J. (2014). Phase
locked activity in the human brainstem predicts preference for musical
consonance. Neuropsychologia. 58, 23-32.
HANSEN, J, MELZNER, J. (2014). What you hear shapes how you
think: Sound patterns change level of construal. Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology. 54, 131-138.
OKADA, B, M, LACHS, L, BOONE, B. (2012). Interpreting tone of
voice: Musical pitch relationships convey agreement in dyadic
conversation. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 132 (3), 208-214.
CURTIS, M, E, BHARUCHA, J, J. (2010). The Minor Third
Communicates Sadness in Speech, Mirroring its use in Music. Emotion.
10 (3), 335-348.
BIDELMAN, G, M, KRISHNAN, A. (2009). Neural Correlates of
Consonance, Dissonance, and the Hierarchy of Musical Pitch in the
Human Brainstem. The Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (42), 13171-13165.
OELMANN, H, LAENG, B. (2009). The emotional meaning of harmonic
intervals. Cognitive Processing. 10, 113-131.
FOSS, H, ALTSCHULER, E, L, JAMES, K, H. (2007). Neural correlates
of the Pythagorean ratio rules. Cognitive Neuroscience and
Neuropsychology. 18 (15), 1521-1525.
KRANTZ, G, MERKER, B, MADISON, J. (2004). Subjective Reactions
to Musical Intervals Assessed by Rating Scales. Proceedings of the 8th
Conference on Music Perception and Cognition. Evanston, USA.
COSTA, M, BITTI, R, BONFIGLIOLI, L. (2000). Psychological
Connotations of Harmonic Musical Intervals. Psychology of Music. 28
(4), 4-22.
97
APPENDIX 7
PAPERS THROWN OUT WITH REASONS
PAPER REASON
1). KOMEILIPOOR, N, RODGER, M,
W, M, CRAIG, C, M, CESARI, P.
(2015). (Dis-) Harmony in movement:
effects of musical dissonance on
movement timing and form. Exp Brain
Res. 233, 1585-1595.
Looks at the effects on body movements
rather than the effects on psychological
health.
AKRE K L, BERNAL X, RAND S,
RYAN M J (2014). Harmonic calls and
indifferent females: no preference for
human consonance in an anuran. Royal
Society Publishing Org. 2014. 1-5.
Not measuring the effects/attractiveness
of the perfect fifth. Rather measuring the
attractiveness of the octave.
BIDELMAN, G, M, GRALL, J. (2014).
Functional Organisation for musical
consonance and tonal pitch hierarchy in
human auditory cortex. Neuroimage
2014. 1:101, 202-214.
Less than 10 participants.
KUNG C C, HSEIH T H, LIOU J Y, LIN
K J, SHAW F Z , LIANG S F (2014).
Musicians and non-musicians different
reliance of features in consonance
perception: A behavioural and ERP study.
Clinical Neurophysiology. 18, 452-463.
No measurement of the effects of the
perfect fifth.
LERUD K D, ALMONTE F V, KIM J C,
LARGE E W (2014). Mode-locking
neurodynamics predict human auditory
brainstem responses to musical intervals.
Hearing Research. 308, 41-49.
No focus on the perfect fifth.
PAPERVASILIOU P, VATAKIS A
(2014). Emotional responses to musical
intervals with specific acoustical
properties and the effect of the induced
emotions in duration perception.
Procedia-Social and Behavioural
Sciences. 126, 237-238.
Unable to obtain
LI X, DE BEUCKELAER A, GUO J,
MA F, XU M, LIU J (2014). The Grey
Matter volume of the amygdala is
correlated with the perception of melodic
intervals: A voxel morphometry study.
PLOS ONE. 9 (6), 1-7.
No measurement of the effects of the
perfect fifth. Looks at the amygdala
specifically and not at the perfect fifth.
YUDKIN D A, TROPE Y (2014). Music
changes the way you think. Scientific
American. June 2014.
No measurement of the effects of the
perfect fifth.
BIDELMAN, G, M. (2013). The role of
the auditory brainstem in processing
Purely a literature review with no
subjects. Background only.
98
musically relevant pitch. Front. Psychol.
13 (4), 264.
LEE, K, M ( ). Neural representation
of musical intervals in the human
brainstem. Dissertation Abstracts
International. Section A. Humanities and
Social Sciences. 73 (4A), 1232.
Unable to obtain.
KORSAKOVA, K, M (2013).
Proportions in Motion. In: Topicality of
Musical Universals. 6-11.
Looks at a hypothesis. No measurement
of the effects of the perfect fifth.
MASATAKA N, PERLOVSKY L
(2013). Cognitive interference can be
mitigated by consonant music and
facilitated by dissonant music. Scientific
Reports. 3 (2028), 1-6.
No measurement of the effects of the
perfect fifth.
RAGOZZINE F (2013). Correspondence
in Perception of the Tritone Paradox and
perfect fifth/perfect fourth intervals.
Music Perception. 30 (4), 391-406.
No measurement of the effects of the
perfect fifth.
BLINOWSKA K J, KWASKIEWICZ K,
JEDRZGOZAK W W, SHARZYNSKI H
(2012). Musical ratios in in sounds from
the Human Cochlea. PLOS ONE. 7 (5), 1-
7.
Describes how the cochlea of the inner
ear contains resonant cavities of defined
lengths whose ratios strikingly reflect the
ratios of 3:2, 4:3, 2:1. No measurement
of the effects of the perfect fifth.
COUSINEAU, M, McDERMOTT, J, H,
PERETZ, I. (2012). The basis of musical
consonance as revealed by congenital
amusia. PNAS.109 (48), 19858-19863.
No specific measures of the perfect fifth
musical interval, and no specific
responses.
BIDELMAN, G, M, HEINZ, M, G.
(2011). Auditory-nerve responses predict
pitch attributes related to musical
consonance – dissonance for normal and
impaired hearing. J. Accoust. Soc.
Am.130 (3), 1488-1502.
Number of participants not stated. Based
on other primary data.
ITOH K, SUWAZONO S, NAKADA T
(2010). Central auditory processing of
noncontextual consonance in music: An
evoked potential study. J. Accoust. Soc.
Am. 128 (6), 3781-3787.
No specific detailed measures of the
effects of the perfect fifth. Too general.
McDERMOTT, J, H, LEHR, A, J,
OXENHAM, A, J. (2010). Individual
differences reveal the basis of
consonance. Current Biology. 20, 1035-
1041.
Number of participants not clearly stated.
BERGELSON, E, ISARDI, W, J. (2009).
A neurophysiological study into the
foundations of tonal harmony.
Neuroreport 2009. 20, 239-244.
No specific effects or responses to the
perfect fifth. Simply stated that changes
were noted without specifying what
changes.
BOWLING D L, GILL K, CHOI J D,
PRINZ J, PURVES D (2009). Major and
minor music compared to excited and
Comparing musical intervals in music in
music to intervals found in speech. Does
mention that perfect fifth is one of the
99
subdued speech. Acoustical Society of
America. 127 (1), 491-503.
simplest ratios typically prevalent in
ratios of excited speech. Mostly focuses
on major and minor music spectra rather
than specific musical intervals.
HEFFERENAN, B, LONGTIN, A.
(2009). Pulse-coupled neurons models as
investigative tools for musical
consonance. Journal of Neuroscience
Methods. 183 (1), 95-106.
No real effects or responses to the perfect
fifth musical interval noted.
TRAMO, M, J, CARIANI, P, A,
DELGUTTE, B, BRAIDA, L, D. (2009).
Neurobiology of harmony perception. In
PERETZ, I, ZATORRE, R. (2009). The
cognitive neuroscience of music. New
York. Oxford University Press. 127-151.
Only 1 human participant. No responses
to the perfect fifth musical interval
specified.
McDERMOTT, J, H, OXENHAM, A, J.
(2008). Music Perception, pitch and
auditory system. Current Opinion in
Neurobiology. 18, 452-463.
Did not consider specific effects of the
perfect fifth musical interval.
MINATI L, ROSAZZA C, D’INCERTI
L, PIETROCINI E , VALENTINI L,
SCALIOLI V, LOVEDAY C,
BRUZZONE M G (2008). Functional
MRI Event related potential study of
sensory consonance and dissonance in
musicians and non-musicians.
Cognitive Neuroscience and
NeuroPsychology. 20, 87-92.
About general consonance and
dissonance and not specific musical
intervals.
SHAPIRA LOTS, I, S, STONE, L.
(2008). Perception of musical consonance
and dissonance: an outcome of neural
synchronisation. Journal R Soc. Interface.
5, 1429-1434.
No responses to the perfect fifth musical
interval specified. Reference only.
BLINOWSKA K J, JEDRZEJCZAK W
W, KONOPKA W (2007). Resonant
modes of otoacoustic emissions.
Physiological Measurement. 28, 1293-
1302.
No effects of musical intervals. About
hearing.
ROGERS S E, LEVITIN D J (2007).
Memory for musical intervals: Cognitive
differences for consonance and
dissonance. Canadian Acoustics. 35 (3),
56-57.
About judgements of intervals and not
their effects.
KRANTZ, G, MADISON, G, MERKER,
B. (2006). Melodic Intervals as reflected
in body movement. 9th International
Conference on Music Perception and
Cognition. University of Bologna, 265-
268.
Paper considers melodic musical
intervals and not harmonic musical
intervals.
100
BEELI, G, ESSLEN, M, JANCKE, L.
(2005). When coloured sounds taste
sweet. Nature. 434, 38.
Looks at synaesthesia and does not
consider the responses to the perfect fifth
musical interval.
LANGNER G, OCSHE M (2005). The
neural basis of pitch and harmony in the
auditory system. Musicae Scientiae. 10,
185-208.
Very general. Not specific to the effects
of the perfect fifth.
SCHON D, REGNAULT P, YSTAD S,
BESSON M (2005). Sensory consonance:
An ERP study. Music Perception: An
Interdisciplinary Journal. 23 (2), 105-
118.
Rather vague on perfect fifth. No real
measurement of perfect fifth effects.
VURMA A, ROSS J (2005). Production
and perception of musical intervals.
Music Perception. 23 (4), 331-344.
No measurement of the effects of the
perfect fifth. About measurement and
accuracy of musical intervals. Mentions
the perfect fifth as a stable and strong
interval.
WATANABE S, UOZUMI M, TANAKA
N (2005). Discrimination of consonance
and dissonance in Java Sparrows.
Behavioural Processes. 70, 203-208.
Looking at consonance and not
specifically at the perfect fifth.
COSTA, M, FINE, P, BITTI, P, E, R.
(2004). Interval Distribution, mode and
tonal strength of melodies as predictors of
perceived emotion. Music Perception. 22
(1), 1-14.
Looks at melodies and not musical
intervals.
LUBAR, K. (2004). Colour Intervals:
Applying concepts of musical consonance
and dissonance to colour. Leonardo. 37
(2), 127-132.
Looks at synaesthesia and not at the
responses to the perfect fifth.
PARK (2004). Two level processing of
musical intervals. ICMPC8. 331-334.
Only looks at the perfect fourth which is
an important interval in Korea. Similar to
perfect fifth: see Blinowska (2007)
article to get relationship between perfect
fourth and perfect fifth.
McDERMOTT J, HAUSER M. (2004).
Are consonant intervals music to their
ears? Spontaneous acoustic preferences in
a non-human primate. Cognition. 94,
B11-B21.
No specific measurements of perfect
fifth. Looks at general consonance only.
SHIBA R, NEMOTO I (2004).
Perception of consonance and dissonance
of musical chords: a
magnetoencephalographic study.
Proceedings of the 8th International
Conference on Music Perception and
Cognition. Evanston. ICMPC8. 307-309.
No measurement of effects of perfect
fifth. Just focuses on perception of
musical intervals.
ITOH, K, SUWAZANO, S, NAKADA,
T. (2003). Cortical Processing of musical
consonance: An evoked potential study.
Only 8 participants.
101
Cognitive Neuroscience and
Neuropsychology. 14 (18), 2303-2306.
SCHWARTZ D A, HOWE C Q,
PURVES D (2003). The statistical
structure of human speech sounds
predicts musical universals. The Journal
of Neuroscience. 23 (18), 7160-7168.
About consonance ratings and intervals
present in speech. No measurement of
effects of perfect fifth.
TRAINOR L J, TSANG C D, CHUNG V
H W (2002). Preference for sensory
consonance in 2 and 4 month old infants.
Music Perception. 20 (2), 187-194.
No specific measurements of perfect
fifth. Generally looks at sensitivity of a 2
month old to musical consonance.
FISHMAN, Y, I, VOLKOV, I, O, NOH,
M, D, GARELL, P, C, BAKKEN, H,
AREZZO, J, C, HOWARD, M, A,
STEINSCHNEIDER. (2001).
Consonance and Dissonance of musical
chords: Neural correlates in auditory
cortex of monkeys and humans. Journal
of Neuropyschology. 86, 2761-2788.
Only 2 human participants.
McKINNEY, M, F. (2001). Neural
correlates of pitch and roughness: toward
the neural code for melody and harmony
perception. Dissertation Abstracts
International: Section B: The Sciences
and Engineering. 63 (7B), 3176.
No human participants. 10 cats only.
McKINNEY, M, F, TRAMO, M, J,
DELGUTTE, B. (2001). Neural correlates
of musical consonance in the inferior
colliculus. Havard Medical School.
Department of Neurology.
No human participants. Cats only and
number not stated.
TRAMO, M, J, CARIANI, P, A,
DELGUTTE, B, BRAIDA, I, D. (2001).
Neurobiological foundations for the
theory of harmony in western tonal
music. Ac. Science. 930, 92-116.
Only 1 human participant.
TREHUB S E (2001). Musical
predispositions in infancy. Annals New
York Academy of Sciences. 1-16.
Not relevant to perfect fifth.
IZUMI A (2000). Japanese monkeys
perceive sensory consonance of chords. J.
Accoust. Soc. Am. 108 (6), 3073-3077.
Shows monkeys sensitivity to musical
consonance, but no measurement of the
effects of the perfect fifth.
SMITH, L, D, WILLIAMS, R, N. (1999).
Children’s Artistic Responses to Musical
Intervals. The American Journal of
Psychology. 112 (3), 383-410.
Double Interpretation of data (artistic
drawings).
TRAINOR L J, HEINMILLER B M
(1998). The development of evaluative
responses to music: Infants prefer to
listen to consonance over dissonance.
Infant Behaviour and Development. 21
(1), 77-88.
No specific measurements of perfect
fifth.
102
TRAINOR, L, J. (1997). Effect of
frequency ratios on infants and adults
discrimination of simultaneous intervals.
Journal of Experimental Psychology. 23
(5), 1427-1439.
No specific responses noted to the
perfect fifth musical interval.
SCHELLENBERG E G, TRAINOR L J
(1996) Sensory consonance and the
perceptual similarity of complex tone
harmonic intervals: Test of adult and
infant listeners. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 100
(5), 3321-3328.
Judgements of musical intervals. No
measurement of the effects of the perfect
fifth.
SCHELLENBERG E G, TREHUB S E
(1996). Children’s discrimination of
melodic intervals. Developmental
Psychology. 32 (6), 1039-1050.
No measurement of the effects of the
perfect fifth.
SCHELLENBERG, E, G, TREHUB, S,
E. (1996). Natural musical intervals:
Evidence from infant listeners.
Psychological Science. 7 (5), 272-277.
No specific responses noted to the
perfect fifth musical interval.
SCHELLENBERG E G, TREHUB S E
(1994). Frequency ratios and the
perception of tone patterns. Psychonomic
Bulletin and Review. 1 (2), 191-201.
Judgement of musical intervals. No
measurement of the effects of perfect
fifth.
TRAINOR, L, J, TREHUB, S, E. (1993).
Musical Context Effects in Infants and
Adults: Key Distance. Journal of
Experimental Psychology. 19 (3), 615-
626.
No specific responses noted to the
perfect fifth.
TRAINOR, L, J, TREHUB, S, E. (1993).
What mediates Infants’ and Adults’
Superior Processing of the Major over the
Augmented Triad? Music Perception. 11
(2), 185-196.
No specific responses noted to the
perfect fifth.
RAKOWSKI A (1990). Intonation
variants of musical intervals in isolation
and in musical contexts. Psychology of
Music. 18 (1), 60-72.
Unable to obtain.
DEWITT, L, A, CROWDER, R, G.
(1987). Tonal fusion of consonant
musical intervals: The Oomph in Stumpf.
Perception and Psychophysics. 41 (1),
73-84.
Looks at the speed of response times and
not at specific responses to the perfect
fifth.
RAKOWSKI A (1985). The perception of
musical intervals by music students.
Bulletin of the council of research in
Music Education. 85, 175-186.
Unable to obtain.
METZ, S, PICK A D, UNZE, M, G.
(1981). A psychophysical study of the
perception of consonance and dissonance.
Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society. 17
(2), 89-92.
No measurement of perfect fifth. Looks
at major fifth.
103
MEYER, T, F. (1980). A rigorous test for
the proposition that musical intervals
have different psychological effects.
American Journal of psychology. 93 (2),
309-327.
No specific psychological, emotional or
neural outcomes to the perfect fifth
musical interval noted.
104
APPENDIX 8:
STROBE QUALITY ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST
ITEM RECOMMENDATION STUDY
Bo Ha Ok Cur Bid Oel Fos Kr Co
Title and
Abstract
1a Indicate the study’s
design with a
commonly used term in
the title or abstract.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
1b Provide in the abstract
an informative and
balanced summary of
what was done or
found.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Introduction
Background/
Rationale
2 Explain the scientific
background and
rationale for the
investigation being
reported.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Objectives 3 State specific
objectives, including
any pre specified
hypotheses.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Methods
Study Design 4 Present key elements of
the study design in the
paper.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Setting 5 Describe the setting,
location, and relevant
dates, including periods
of recruitment,
exposure, follow up
and data collection.
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Participants 6a Case-control study:
Give the eligibility
criteria, and the sources
and methods of case
ascertainment and
control selection. Give
the rationale for the
choice of cases and
controls.
Cross-sectional study:
Give the eligibility
criteria, and the sources
Y
Y
P
P
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
105
and methods of
selection of
participants.
6b Case control study: For
matched studies, give
matching criteria and
the number of controls
per case.
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Variables 7 Clearly define all
outcomes, exposures,
predictors, potential
confounders, and effect
modifiers. Give
diagnostic criteria if
applicable.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Data sources/
measurement
8 For each variable of
interest, give sources of
data and details of
methods of assessment
(measurement).
Describe the
comparability of
assessment methods if
there is more than one
group.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Bias 9 Describe any efforts to
address potential
sources of bias
(selection of
participants,
intervention fidelity,
measures, attrition.
Hanson-Abomeit
&Moore, 2014).
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Study size 10 Explain how the study
size was arrived at.
P
P
N
Y
P
Y
N
Y
N
Quantitative
variables
11 Explain how
quantitative variables
were handled in the
analyses. If applicable
describe which
groupings were chosen
and why.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Statistical
methods
12
a Describe all statistical
methods, including
those used to control
for confounding.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
12
b Describe any methods
used to examine
subgroups and
interactions.
Y
N
n/a
n/a
n/a
Y
Y
n/a
Y
12
c Explain how missing
data were addressed.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
12
d Case control study –
explain how matching
of cases and controls
was addressed.
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
106
12
d Cross sectional study-
Describe analytical
methods taking account
of sampling strategy.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
12
e Describe any
sensitivity analysis.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Results
Participants 13
a Report numbers of
individuals at each
stage of study-e.g.
numbers potentially
eligible, examined for
eligibility, confirmed
eligible, included in the
study, completing
follow up. And
analysed.
Y
Y
N
P
N
P
N
N
N
13
b Give reasons for non-
participation at each
stage.
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
N
13
c Consider use of flow
diagram.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Descriptive
data
14
a Give characteristics of
study participants (e.g.
demographic, clinical,
social) and information
on exposures and
potential confounders.
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
14
b Indicate number of
participants with
missing data for each
variable of interest.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Outcome data 15 Case control study-
Report numbers in each
exposure category, or
summary measures of
exposure.
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
15 Cross sectional study-
Report numbers of
outcome events or
summary measures.
N
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Main results 16
a Give unadjusted
estimates and, if
applicable, confounder-
adjusted estimates and
their precision (e.g.
95% confidence
interval). Make clear
which confounders are
adjusted for and why
they are included.
P
Y
P
Y
Y
Y
P
Y
Y
107
16
b Report category
boundaries when
continuous variables
were categorised.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
P
Y
Y
Y
16
c If relevant, consider
translating estimates of
relative risk into
absolute risk for a
meaningful time
period.
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Other analysis 17 Report other analyses
done-e.g. analyses of
subgroups and
interactions, and
sensitivity analysis
(tests robustness of
results, looking for
uncertainty in
input/output).
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Discussion
Key results 18 Summarise key results
with reference to study
objectives.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Limitations 19 Discuss limitations of
the study, taking into
account sources of
potential bias or
imprecision. Discuss
both direction and
magnitude of any
potential bias.
P
Y
Y
Y
P
P
Y
N
P
Interpretation 20 Give a cautious overall
interpretation of results
considering objectives,
limitations, multiplicity
of analyses, results
from similar studies,
and other relevant
evidence.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Generalizability
(external
validity)
21 Discuss the
generalizability
(external validity) of
the study results.
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Other Information.
Funding 22 Give the source of
funding and the role of
the funders for the
present study, and if
applicable, for the
original study on which
the present article is
based.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Additional
items
Definitions 23 Give clear definitions
of participants. Clearly
differentiate between
108
‘non-musicians’,
‘amateur musicians’
and ‘professional
musicians’, if
appropriate, quoting
number of years trained
and number of practise
hours per week.
Y
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
P
Y
Consent and
ethical
approval
24 Say that consent was
gained, and ethical
approval given, and by
which body.
N
N
N
P
Y
Y
Y
N
N
Internal
validity
25 Give adequate
indications that the
observed effects and
responses are truly
attributed to the
intervention.
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
TOTAL YES
23
22
19
22
22
23
23
20
21
Y=Yes, N=No, P=Partially, N/A=Not applicable
Key:
Bo: Bones, Hopkins, Krishnan & Plack (2014)
Ha: Hansen & Melzner (2014)
Ok: Okada, Lachs & Boone (2012)
Cu: Curtis & Bharucha (2010)
Bid: Bidelmann & Krishnan (2009)
Oel: Oelmann & Laeng (2009)
Fos: Foss, Altschuler, James (2007)
Kr: Krantz & Merker (2004)
Co: Costa, Bitti & Bonfiglioi (2000).
109
APPENDIX 9
CASE STUDY RESULTS:
QUANTITATIVE RESULTS:
9 (1): Average of All Responses (“Enjoyable, “Helpful” and “Beneficial”)
SECTION 1
OVERALL: Average of all
responses (Enjoyable,
Helpful, Beneficial
PF WW PF WW PF WW PF WW
A 3.7 1.3 3.7 1.3 3.7 1.7 3.7 1.4
B 8.0 3.3 8.0 7.0 9.0 7.3 8.3 5.9
C 5.3 5.7 6.7 8.0 8.0 7.0 6.7 6.9
D 6.7 2.3 6.5 5.7 6.5 4.5 6.6 4.2
Scores Ranks Scores Ranks Scores Ranks Scores Ranks
PFA 3.7 4 3.7 2 3.7 2 3.7 2
PFB 8.0 8 8.0 7 9.0 8 8.3 8
PFC 5.3 5 6.7 5 8.0 7 6.7 6
PFD 6.7 7 6.5 4 6.5 4 6.6 5
WWA 1.3 1 1.3 1 1.7 1 1.4 1
WWB 3.3 3 7.0 6 7.3 6 5.9 4
WWC 5.7 6 8.0 7 7.0 5 6.9 7
WWD 2.3 2 5.7 3 4.5 3 4.2 3
Mann-Whitney test
PF WW PF WW PF WW PF WW
Sum of ranks 24 12 18 17 21 15 21 15
U values 14 2 8 7 11 5 11 5
U (lower) 2 7 5 5
Critical value (p<0.05) 0 0 0 0
Significance No No No No
T tests
t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances
Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2
Mean 5.9167 3.1667 6.2083 5.5000 6.7917 5.1250 6.3056 4.5972
Variance 3.4352 3.4444 3.3218 8.6296 5.3958 6.9144 3.7562 5.6818
Observations 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 0 0 0
df 6 5 6 6
t Stat 2.0969 0.4098 0.9500 1.1121
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.0404 0.3495 0.1894 0.1543
t Critical one-tail 1.9432 2.0150 1.9432 1.9432
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.0808 0.6989 0.3788 0.3086
t Critical two-tail 2.4469 2.5706 2.4469 2.4469
OverallSession 1 Session 2 Session 3
110
9 (2): “Enjoyable” Responses
SECTION 2
ENJOYABLE
Volunteer PF WW PF WW PF WW PF WW
A 6.0 2.0 5.0 2.0 5.0 3.0 5.3 2.3
B 8.0 4.0 8.0 7.0 9.0 7.0 8.3 6.0
C 6.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 8.0 7.3 7.7
D 7.0 2.0 6.5 5.5 6.5 4.0 6.7 3.8
Scores Ranks Scores Ranks Scores Ranks Scores Ranks
PFA 6.0 4 5.0 2 5.0 3 5.3 3
PFB 8.0 8 8.0 7 9.0 7 8.3 8
PFC 6.0 4 7.0 5 9.0 7 7.3 6
PFD 7.0 6 6.5 4 6.5 4 6.7 5
WWA 2.0 1 2.0 1 3.0 1 2.3 1
WWB 4.0 3 7.0 5 7.0 5 6.0 4
WWC 7.0 6 8.0 7 8.0 6 7.7 7
WWD 2.0 1 5.5 3 4.0 2 3.8 2
Mann-Whitney test
PF WW PF WW PF WW PF WW
Sum of ranks 22 11 18 16 21 14 22 14
U values 12 1 8 6 11 4 12 4
U (lower) 1 6 4 4
Critical value (p<0.05) 0 0 0 0
Significance No No No No
T tests
t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances
Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2
Mean 6.7500 3.7500 6.6250 5.6250 7.3750 5.5000 6.9167 4.9583
Variance 0.9167 5.5833 1.5625 6.8958 3.8958 5.6667 1.5833 5.5255
Observations 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 0 0 0
df 4 4 6 5
t Stat 2.3534 0.6877 1.2127 1.4690
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.0391 0.2647 0.1354 0.1009
t Critical one-tail 2.1318 2.1318 1.9432 2.0150
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.0782 0.5295 0.2708 0.2018
t Critical two-tail 2.7764 2.7764 2.4469 2.5706
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 Overall
111
9 (3): “Helpful” Responses
SECTION 3
HELPFUL
PF WW PF WW PF WW PF WW
A 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 2.7 1.0
B 8.0 2.0 8.0 7.0 9.0 7.0 8.3 5.3
C 4.0 5.0 7.0 8.0 6.0 5.0 5.7 6.0
D 6.0 3.0 7.0 6.0 6.0 4.5 6.3 4.5
Scores Ranks Scores Ranks Scores Ranks Scores Ranks
PFA 2.0 2 3.0 2 3.0 2 2.7 2
PFB 8.0 8 8.0 7 9.0 8 8.3 8
PFC 4.0 5 7.0 4 6.0 5 5.7 5
PFD 6.0 7 7.0 4 6.0 5 6.3 7
WWA 1.0 1 1.0 1 1.0 1 1.0 1
WWB 2.0 2 7.0 4 7.0 7 5.3 4
WWC 5.0 6 8.0 7 5.0 4 6.0 6
WWD 3.0 4 6.0 3 4.5 3 4.5 3
Mann-Whitney test
PF WW PF WW PF WW PF WW
Sum of ranks 22 13 17 15 20 15 22 14
U values 12 3 7 5 10 5 12 4
U (lower) 3 5 5 4
Critical value (p<0.05) 0 0 0 0
Significance No No No No
T tests
t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances
Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2
Mean 5.0000 2.7500 6.2500 5.5000 6.0000 4.3750 5.7500 4.2083
Variance 6.6667 2.9167 4.9167 9.6667 6.0000 6.2292 5.5093 4.9514
Observations 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 0 0 0
df 5 5 6 6
t Stat 1.4536 0.3928 0.9294 0.9533
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.1029 0.3553 0.1943 0.1886
t Critical one-tail 2.0150 2.0150 1.9432 1.9432
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.2058 0.7107 0.3886 0.3772
t Critical two-tail 2.5706 2.5706 2.4469 2.4469
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 Overall
112
9 (4): “Beneficial” Responses
SECTION 4
BENEFICIAL
PF WW PF WW PF WW PF WW
A 3.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 1.0
B 8.0 4.0 8.0 7.0 9.0 8.0 8.3 6.3
C 6.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 7.0
D 7.0 2.0 6.0 5.5 7.0 5.0 6.7 4.2
Scores Ranks Scores Ranks Scores Ranks Scores Ranks
PFA 3.0 3 3.0 2 3.0 2 3.0 2
PFB 8.0 8 8.0 7 9.0 7 8.3 8
PFC 6.0 6 6.0 4 9.0 7 7.0 6
PFD 7.0 7 6.0 4 7.0 4 6.7 5
WWA 1.0 1 1.0 1 1.0 1 1.0 1
WWB 4.0 4 7.0 6 8.0 5 6.3 4
WWC 5.0 5 8.0 7 8.0 5 7.0 6
WWD 2.0 2 5.5 3 5.0 3 4.2 3
Mann-Whitney test
PF WW PF WW PF WW PF WW
Sum of ranks 24 12 17 17 20 14 21 14
U values 14 2 7 7 10 4 11 4
U (lower) 2 7 4 4
Critical value (p<0.05) 0 0 0 0
Significance No No No No
T tests
t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances
Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 1 Variable 2
Mean 6.0000 3.0000 5.7500 5.3750 7.0000 5.5000 6.2500 4.6250
Variance 4.6667 3.3333 4.2500 9.5625 8.0000 11.0000 5.2130 7.3032
Observations 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 0 0 0
df 6 5 6 6
t Stat 2.1213 0.2018 0.6882 0.9186
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.0391 0.4240 0.2585 0.1969
t Critical one-tail 1.9432 2.0150 1.9432 1.9432
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.0781 0.8480 0.5170 0.3937
t Critical two-tail 2.4469 2.5706 2.4469 2.4469
Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 Overall
113
APPENDIX 10:
CASE STUDY RESULTS
QUALITATIVE RESULTS
STAGE 1: WATER AND WAVES INITIAL CODING FOR THEMATIC
ANALYSIS
VOLUNTEER A
Not as relaxing as would have
thought
Session1
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 3
Question 1
Question 2
Question 3
Intimidating Session 1
Session 1
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 3
Diary sheet 5/2/15
Question 1
Question 2
Frightening Session 1
Comparison feedback
Question 3
Question 1
Overpowering Comparison feedback Question 1
Annoying Comparison feedback Question 2
Like flushing a toilet Session 1 Question 3
Like machines in a launderette Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 3
Question 14
Question 14
Not as enjoyable as anticipated Session 1
Session 2
Question 4
Question 4
Not beneficial Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 6
Question 6
Question 6
Not helpful Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 8
Question 8
Question 8
Would not recommend it Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 16
Question 16
Question 16
Thirsty Session 1 Diary sheet 5/2/15
Urge to go to the toilet Session 1 Diary sheet 5/2/15
Artificial Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Diary sheet 5/2/15
Question 14
Question 14
Question 1
Not soothing Session 1 Diary sheet 5/2/15
Time passed quickly Session 2
Session 3
Question 3
Diary sheet 19/2/15
No changes in emotions Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Session 3
Question 11
Question 11
Question 10
Question 11
No bodily changes Session 1
Session 2
Question 13
Question 13
114
Session 3 Question 13
Not as intimidating as
previous session
Session 2 Question 14
More relaxing as sessions
went on
Session 3
Session 3
Session 3
Session 3
Question 3
Question 4
Question 14
Diary sheet 19/2/15
Found myself drifting off Session 3 Question 3
Chilled Session 3 Diary sheet 19/2/15
Dark mood Comparison feedback Artistic representation
VOLUNTEER B
Not as relaxing as would
have thought
Session 1
Comparison feedback
Question 2
Question 1
Relaxed breathing Session 2 Question 13
Relaxing Session 3 Question 11
Made me think of
Frightening things
Session 1 Diary sheet 4/2.15 (10th
Feb)
Rather angry noise of the
wind
Comparison feedback
Session 2
Question 1
Question 15
Unpleasant Session 1 Diary sheet 4/2/15 (10th
Feb)
Unsafe Session 1 Question 14
Unnerving Comparison feedback Question 1
Barely tolerable Session 1 Diary sheet 4/2/15 (10th
Feb)
Made me think of the triton
(the most dissonant
interval)
Session 1 Diary sheet 4/2/15 (10th
Feb)
1/3rd enjoyable Session 1
Session 1
Question 4
Diary sheet 4/2/15 (10th
Feb)
2/3rds enjoyable Session 2
Session 2
Question 4
Question 10
Partially enjoyable Session 3 Question 4
Not beneficial Session 1 Question 6
Beneficial Session 3 Question 6
Not helpful Session 1
Session 1
Question 8
Question 9
Helpful Session 3 Question 8
Calm Session 3 Question 12
Allowed me to ‘turn off’
from real life for a while
Session 3 Question 8
Allowed me to ‘think
through’ things
Session 3 Question 10
Sorting things out in my
mind
Comparison feedback Question 2
Pleasant to lie still for 15
minutes
Session 1 Question 9
115
Therapy room is calming,
everything quiet and slow
Session 2 Diary sheet 11/2 15
Sound will not allow me to
sleep
Session 3 Question 4
Not beneficial compared to
perfect fifth
Session 1
Comparison feedback
Question 10
Question 2
Interesting/fascinating Session 2 Question 3
No changes in emotions Session 1 Question 11
No mood change Session 1
Session 2
Question 12
Question 12
No bodily changes Session 1
Session 3
Question 13
Question 13
Liked the ‘continuity’ of
rhythm of water in first
1/3rd.
Session 1 Question 14
Up and down emotional
responses
Session 2 Question 11
Up and down concentration
responses
Session 2 Question 14
Reflective on new ideas
emerging from study
Session 2
Session 2
Diary sheet 11/2/15 (13th
Feb)
Diary sheet 11/2/15
Reflective on sound healing Session 2 Diary sheet 11/2/15
Reflective on tuning forks Session 2 Diary sheet 11/2/15
Generally reflective Session 3 Question 3
Active mind -Made me
think about things on my
mind
Session 3 Question 6
Like bathwater running
away
Session 1 Question 14
Would have switched it off
at home
Session 1 Question 14
‘I wish this would end’ Session 2 Question 11
Much less relaxing than
perfect fifth
Session 1 Question 14
Unnatural (different from
everyday life)
Session 3 Question 3
Would not recommend it Session 1 Question 16
Not sure if I would
recommend it
Session 2 Question 16
Would recommend it Session 3 Question 16
Jagged red lines (up and
down)
Comparison feedback Artistic representation
VOLUNTEER C
Triggered memories/
reminiscing
Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 3
Diary sheet 13/12/14
Question 3
116
Surprise that I preferred
the perfect fifth to water
and waves
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 1
Question 2
Question 3
Dreaming more vividly at
night
Session 2 Diary sheet 13/12/14
Relaxing Session 1
Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 3
Question 10
Question 10
Question 10
Question 2
Question 4
Moderately Enjoyable Session 1 Question 4
Strangely therapeutic Session 2 Diary sheet 13/12/14
Enjoyable Session 2
Session 3
Question 4
Question 4
Not beneficial Session 1 Question 6
Beneficial Session 2
Session 3
Question 6
Question 6
Not helpful Session 1 Question 8
Helpful Session 2 Question 8
Yes and no helpful Session 3 Question 8
No changes in emotions Session 1
Session 3
Question 11
Question 11
Calming Session 1
Session 2
Session 2
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 12
Question 10
Question 12
Question 12
Question 2
Reflective Session 1
Session 2
Question 4
Thoughtful Session 2 Question 10
Encourages thoughts to
wander
Session 2 Diary sheet 13/12/14
No bodily changes Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 13
Question 13
Question 13
Value to simply ‘lying’
and not doing anything
Session 3 Question 10
Would pass on the details
of this experience
Session 2
Session 3
Question 16
Question 16
Would not recommend it Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 16
Question 16
Question 16
Reflected on the rhythm of
frequency/rate of waves on
a beach
Session 1
Session 2
Diary sheet 6/12/14
Diary sheet 13/12/14
Mind/thoughts active Session 2 Question 4
Like water going down a
sink plughole
Session 2 Diary sheet 13/12/14
Gurgle like Comparison feedback Question 1
Less soothing/relaxing Session 2 Diary sheet 13/12/14
117
Session 3 Question 3
Like a strong wind as the
sea
Session 2
Session 3
Diary sheet 13/12/14
Question 3
Difficult to think of
anything which may be
relevant to this diary
Session 2 Diary sheet 13/12/14
Rippled water with 5 blue
crests, sand hill in
background
Comparison feedback Artistic representation
VOLUNTEER D
Not enjoyable Session 1
Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 3
Question 4
Question 3
Question 4
Quite loud Session 1
Session 1
Question 3
Diary sheet 02/11/14
Quite intrusive Session 1 Question 3
Enveloping Session 1 Question 3
Felt ‘too close to the
water’.
Session 2 Question 11
Tranquil/peaceful Session 2 Question 10
Stressful Session 1
Session 1
Session 1
Session 1
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 3
Question 6
Question 10
Question 12
Question 3
Question 1
Question 2
Felt tired Session 2
Session 2
Question 10
Question 12
Physical tightness in chest Session 1
Session 1
Session 1
Question 3
Question 10
Question 13
Uncomfortable stomach Session 1 Diary sheet 02/11/14
Negative physical changes
noted
Session 1
Session 1
Session 1
Session 1
Question 3
Question 10
Question 13
Diary sheet 02/11/14
Not beneficial Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 6
Question 6
Question 6
Not helpful Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 8
Question 8
Question 8
Not relaxing Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Session 3
Question 10
Question 11
Question 3
Question 12
118
Comparison feedback Question 1
Slightly relaxed Session 2 Question 10
Enveloping Comparison feedback Question 1
Not restful/unrested Session 1
Session 3
Question 10
Question 10
Felt less calm than before
experience
Session 1
Comparison feedback
Question 11
Question 1
Surging sound of water
draining
Session 3 Question 3
More comfortable lying
down
Comparison feedback Question 1
Need to lower the volume Session 1 Diary sheet 02/11/14
Would not recommend it Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 16
Question 16
Question 16
Surrounded by enveloping
water and waves, which
are bigger and more
powerful than me.
Comparison feedback Artistic representation
119
APPENDIX 11
STAGE 1: PERFECT FIFTH INITIAL CODING FOR THEMATIC ANALYSIS
VOLUNTER A
Code Session/Questionnaire Question Number
More relaxing than
anticipated
Session 1
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 3
Question 1
Question 2
Enjoyable sounds from
tuning forks
Session 1 Question 3
Enjoyable Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Session 3
Session 3
Question 4
Question 4
Question 3
Question 4
Question 14
Not initially beneficial-
time will tell
Session 1
Session 2
Question 6
Question 6
Not initially helpful –
time will tell
Session 1
Session 2
Question 8
Question 8
Need time to feel benefit Session 1 Question 6
Need time to see if helpful Session 1
Session 3
Question 8
Question 8
Relaxing Session 1
Session 2
Session 2
Session 2
Session 2
Session 3
Session 3
Session 3
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 10
Question 3
Question 6
Question 10
Question 11
Question 6
Question 10
Question 12
Question 14
Question 2
Calming Session 3
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 6
Question 1
Question 4
Artistic representation
Chilled Session 3
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 10
Question 12
Question 2
Pleasant atmosphere Comparison feedback Question 2
Put me at a sense of ease Comparison feedback Question 2
No mood changes noticed Session 1
Session 2
Question 12
Question 12
No bodily changes
noticed
Session 1
Session 2
Question 13
Question 13
Improved mood due to
pain relief
Session 3 Question 12
Would not recommend it Session 1
Session 2
Question 16
Question 16
Drifting away/off Session 2 Question 3
120
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 14
Question 2
Sounds floated around me Session 2 Question 3
Sounds lingered in the air Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 1
Question 2
Forgot aches and pains Session 2 Question 3
Sounds were comforting Session 2 Question 3
Sounds lingered in the air Session 2 Question 3
Peace Session 2
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 3
Question 1
Question 4
Relieved tension Session 2 Question 10
Felt vibrations from
tuning forks
Session 2 Diary sheet 5/3/15
Physical changes noted -
improvement of shoulder
joint and wrist pain and
flexibility.
Session 2
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Diary sheet 5/3/15
Question 13
Question 1
Short term physical
improvement of aching
joints (for one day)
Session 2
Comparison feedback
Diary sheet 5/2/15
Question 1
Pleasant warming
sensation around left knee
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 11
Question 4
Would like to experience
the procedure for more
sessions to get full benefit
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 6
Question 4
Would recommend it if it
proved beneficial
Session 3 Question 16
Like a bell Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 4
Artistic representation
Reminded me of a
monastery
Comparison feedback Question 4
Sunshine Comparison feedback Artistic representation
VOLUNTEER B
Interesting/fascinating Session 1
Session 2
Comparison feedback
Question 3
Question 3
Question 4
Relaxing Session 2 Question 10
Evoked an interest in
researching the subject
through experts
Session 1 (composer
contacted)
Session 1 (Robin
Sturgess contacted)
Session 1 (composer sent
her information on
Fibonacci)
Diary sheet 14/1/15
Diary sheet 14/1/15
Diary sheet 14/1/15
Listening for/hearing
overtones
Session 1
Comparison feedback
Question 4
Question 3
Enjoyable Session 1 Question 4
121
Session 2
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 4
Question 4
Question 2
Beneficial Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 6
Question 6
Question 6
Anticipation that it will be
more beneficial later
Session 2 Question 7
Need time to see if helpful
or not
Session 1 Question 8
Helpful Session 2
Session 3
Question 8
Question 8
Calming Session 1
Session 1
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 10
Diary sheet 14/1/15
Question 10
Question 2
Question 3
At peace Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 2
Question 3
Reflecting on musical
harmony
Session 3 Diary sheet 28/1/15 (4th
Feb)
Well-ordered state of mind Session 1 Diary sheet 14/1/15
Induced a trance like state Session 1 Question 10
It was very magical Comparison feedback Question 1
Purity of the sound Comparison feedback Question 5
The sound ‘touched’ the
body/ touch of tuning fork
Comparison feedback Question 3
Refreshing to hear so many
overtones
Comparison feedback Question 1
Wanted to cling to the dying
away sound
Session 1 Question 10
Wanted it to go on for
longer
Comparison feedback Question 2
It was as if it was leading
me into silence
Session 1
Comparison feedback
Question 10
Question 1
Perfect fifth dying away into
silence
Session 3 Diary sheet 28/1/15 (4th
Feb)
No immediate changes in
emotions
Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 11
Question 11
Question 11
Produced good mood Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 12
Question 12
Question 12
Tingling in left hand Session 1 Question 13
Pleasant tingling sensation
in left knee
Session 3 Question 10
Bodily sensations noted Session 1
Session 3
Session 3
Question 13
Question 10
Question 13
Would recommend it Session 1
Session 2
Question 16
Question 16
122
Session 3 Question 16
Elicited reflective response Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Diary sheet 14/1/15
Diary sheet 21/1/15 (28th)
Diary sheet 28/1/15 (4th
Feb)
Reflecting on sound and
intervals
Comparison feedback Question 4
Sparked mind off onto
different paths
Session 3 Diary sheet 28/1/15 (4th
Feb)
Searching for/wanting
further information
/knowledge/research/internet
on the subject
Session 1
Session 1
Session 2
Session 2
Diary sheet 14/1/15
Question 3
Question 10
Question 14
Looking forward to session Session 2 Question 2
Vibrations are beneficial Session 2 Question 3
Physically beneficial (knee) Session 2
Session 2
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 3
Diary sheet 21/1/16 (28th)
Diary sheet 28/1/15 (4th
Feb)
Question 3
Mentioned it to osteopath Session 2 Diary sheet 21/1/15 (28th)
Cumulatively very
beneficial
Session 3 Question 3
Preferred the perfect fifth Comparison feedback Question 1
The sun Comparison feedback Artistic representation
Would like to know results
of this study
Comparison feedback Question 4
VOLUNTEER C
Sceptical about this
experience (a traditional
scientist)
Session 1 Question 3
‘Surprised himself’ that he
liked/preferred perfect fifth
Comparison feedback
Comparison feedback
Question 1
Question 3
Relaxing Session 1
Session 1
Session 1
Session 2
Session 2
Session 3
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 4
Question 10
Question 12
Question 8
Question 10
Question 10
Question 12
Question 2
Enjoyable Session 2
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 4
Question 4
Question 1
Possibly/moderately
beneficial
Session 1
Session 2
Question 6
Question 6
Beneficial Session 3 Question 6
Helpful Session 2 Question 8
Calming Session 1 Question 12
123
Session 2
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 12
Question 10
Question 2
Soothing Comparison feedback Question 1
Peaceful Session 3 Question 3
Like praying Session 1 Question 4
Like bells on cymbals used
in some religions
Session 1 Question 4
Slightly sleepy Session 2
Session 3
Question 10
Question 10
Felt strangely ‘all-together’ Session 1 Question 10
Mind was quieter Session 1 Question 11
Induced an almost
meditation like state.
Session 3 Question 3
Induced a trance-like state. Comparison feedback Question 1
Felt slightly ‘light headed’
from standing /then sitting
Session 1 Question 13
Looking forward to next
session
Session 1 Question 15
Getting on better with
separated wife
Session 1 Diary sheet 4/1/15
Would not recommend it
(does not recommend).
Session 1
Question 16
Probably would not
recommend it
Session 2 Question 16
No emotional changes Session 2 Question 11
Induced positive emotional
changes
Session 3 Question 11
Mood calming Session 1
Session 2
Question 12
Question 12
No bodily changes Session 2
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 13
Question 13
Question 2
No obvious long term
effects
Comparison feedback Question 2
Short term relaxing effects Comparison feedback Question 4
Sound is like an acute
peak, gradually fading
away.
Session 2 Question 14
Frequency of the perfect
fifth similar to the rhythm
of waves, and breathing.
Session 2 Question 14
Repetitive Comparison feedback Question 1
Reflective Session 2 Question 14
Soothing rhythmic even
sounds, around a human
face/figure
Comparison feedback Artistic representation
VOLUNTEER D
Non-intrusive Session 1 Question 3
124
A bit shrill Session 1
Session 2
Question 3
Question 3
Enjoyable Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 4
Question 4
Question 4
Beneficial Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Question 6
Question 6
Question 6
Helpful Session 2
Session 3
Question 8
Question 8
Relaxing Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 10
Diary sheet 19/10/14
Question 3
Question 12
Question 2
Rested Session 2 Diary sheet 19/10/14
Calming Session 1
Session 1
Session 1
Session 2
Session 2
Session 2
Session 2
Session 3
Session 3
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 10
Question 11
Question 12
Question 10
Question 11
Question 12
Diary sheet 19/10/14
Question 10
Question 12
Diary sheet 26/10/14
Question 2
More therapeutic Comparison feedback Question 2
Serene Session 2 Question 10
Peaceful Session 3 Question 10
Level mood Session 2 Question 12
Emotional improvement Session 2 Question 11
Physical relief from sore
hip pain/lower back
pain/gut.
Session 1
Session 1
Session 1
Session 2
Session 3
Comparison feedback
Question 10
Question 13
Diary sheet 12/10/14
Diary sheet 19/10/14
Question 10
Question 2
Bodily changes Session 1
Session 1
Session 3
Question 13
Diary sheet 12/10/14
Question 10
Felt bodily ‘peace’ in
lower back
Session 3
Session 3
Question 10
Question 13
Would probably
recommend this
experience
Session 2
Session 3
Question 16
Question 16
Preferred perfect fifth Comparison feedback Question 1
Experience ‘had some
effect on me’
Comparison feedback Question 1
Sharp sounds slightly
invasive
Comparison feedback Question 1
125
Uncomfortable to stand Comparison feedback Question 1
Sound vibrating in biofield
area around the body on a
chair
Comparison feedback Artistic representation
126
APPENDIX 12:
STAGE 2: WATER AND WAVES
STAGE 2 INITIAL THEMES FROM CODES
VOLUNTEER A
THEME EXTRACTS REFERENCE
SURPRISE
UNEXPECTED
Not as relaxing as would
have thought
Not as enjoyable as
anticipated
No changes in emotions
No bodily changes
Not as intimidating as
previous session
More relaxing as sessions
went on
Session 1 Question 3
Compare Question 1
Compare Question 2
Compare Question 3
Session 1 Question 4
Session 2 Question 4
Session 1 Question 11
Session 2 Question 11
Session 3 Question 10
Session 3 Question 11
Session 1 Question 13
Session 2 Question 13
Session 3 Question 13
Session 2 Question 14
Session 3 Question 3
Session 3 Question 4
Session 3 Question 14
Session 3 D S 19/2/15
FRIGHTENING Frightening
Intimidating
Overpowering
Annoying
Session 1 Question 3
Compare Question 1
Session 1 Question 3
Session 1 D S 5/2/15
Compare Question 1
Compare Question 2
Compare Question 1
Compare Question 2
MOVEMENT/ACTIVITY
OF WATER AND MIND
Like flushing a toilet
Like machines in a
launderette
Thirsty
Urge to go to the toilet
Time passed quickly
Thinking of other things
Babbling brook
Session 1 Question 3
Session 1 Question 3
Session 2 Question 14
Session 3 Question 14
Session 1 D S 5/2/15
Session 1 D S 5/2/15
Session 2 Question 3
Session 3 D S 19/2/15
Session 3 Question 3
Session 1 Question 3
CONFUSION
Found myself drifting off
Chilled
Session 3 Question 3
Session 3 D S 19/2/15
STRESSFUL/
NEGATIVE
Not beneficial
Session 1 Question 6
Session 2 Question 6
127
Not helpful
Would not recommend it
Artificial
Not soothing
Dark mood
Session 3 Question 6
Session 1 Question 8
Session 2 Question 8
Session 3 Question 8
Session 1 Question 16
Session 2 Question 16
Session 3 Question 16
Session 1 D S 5/2/15
Session 2 Question 14
Session 3 Question 14
Compare Question 1
Session 1 D S 5/2/15
Compare Artistic R
VOLUNTEER B
THEMES EXTRACTS REFERENCES
SURPRISE/UNEXPECTED Not as relaxing as would
have thought
Sound will not allow me to
sleep
No changes in emotions
No bodily changes
Session 1 Question 2
Compare Question 1
Session 3 Question 4
Session 1 Question 11
Session 1 Question 13
Session 3 Question 13
FRIGHTENING Made me think of
frightening things
Rather angry noise of the
wind
Unsafe
Unnerving
Session 1 D S 4/2/15
Compare Question 1
Session 2 Question 15
Session 1 Question 14
Compare Question 1
MOVEMENT/ACIVITY
OF WATER AND MIND
Allowed me to think things
through
Sorting things out in my
mind
Interesting/fascinating
Like the continuity of
rhythm of water in first
1/3rd.
Reflective of new ideas
emerging from study
Reflective on sound
healing
Reflective on tuning forks
Generally reflective
Active mind – made me
think about things on my
mind
Like bathwater running
away
Session 3 Question 10
Compare Question 2
Session 2 Question 3
Session 1 Question 14
Session 2 D S 11/2/15
Session 2 D S 11/2/15
Session 2 D S 11/2/15
Session 2 D S 11/2/15
Session 3 Question 3
Session 3 Question 6
Session 1 Question 14
CONFUSION 1/3 rd enjoyable Session 1 Question 4
128
2/3rds enjoyable
Partially enjoyable
Not beneficial
Beneficial
Not Helpful
Helpful
Pleasant to lie still for 15
minutes
Up and down emotional
responses
Up and down
concentration responses
Not sure if I would
recommend it
Would recommend it
Jagged red lines (up and
down)
Session 1 D S 4/2/15
Session 2 Question 4
Session 2 Question 10
Session 3 Question 4
Session 1 Question 6
Session 3 Question 6
Session 1 Question 8
Session 1 Question 9
Session 3 Question 8
Session 1 Question 9
Session 2 Question 11
Session 2 Question 14
Session 2 Question 16
Session 3 Question 16
Compare Artistic R
STRESSFUL/NEGATIVE Unpleasant
Barely tolerable
Made me think of the
triton
Not beneficial compared
to perfect fifth
Would have switched it off
at home
‘I wish this would end’
Much less relaxing than
perfect fifth
Unnatural-different from
everyday life
Would not recommend it
Session 1 D S 4/2/15
Session 1 D S 4/2/15
Session 1 D S 4/2/15
Session 1 Question 10
Compare Question 2
Session 1 Question 14
Session 2 Question 11
Session 1 Question 14
Session 3 Question 3
Session 1 Question 16
VOLUNTEER C
THEME EXTRACT REFERENCE
SURPRISE/UNEXPECTED Surprise that I preferred
the perfect fifth to water
and waves
Strangely therapeutic
Value to simply ‘lying’
and not doing anything
Compare Question 1
Session 2 D S 13/12/14
Session 3 Question 3
Session 2 D S 13/12/14
Session 3 Question 10
FRIGHTENING Like a strong wind at the
sea
Session 2 D S 13/12/14
Session 3 Question 3
MOVEMENT/ACTIVITY
OF WATER AND MIND
Triggered
memories/reminiscing
Dreaming more vividly at
night
Session 1 Question 3
Session 2 D S 13/12/14
Session 3 Question 3
Session 2 D S 13/12/14
129
Reflective
Thoughtful
Sound of running water is
supposed to be beneficial
Encourages thoughts to
wander
Reflected on the rhythm of
frequency /rate of waves
on a beach
Mind and thoughts active
Difficult to think of
anything which may be
relevant to this diary
Like water going down a
sink plughole
Gurgle like
Rippled water with 5 blue
crests, sand hill in
background
I spend little time when I
am not doing something
active
Session 1 Question 4
Session 2 Question 4
Session 2 Question 10
Session 2 Question 4
Session 2 D S 13/12/14
Session 1 D S 6/12/14
Session 2 D S 13/12/14
Session 2 Question 4
Session 2 D S 13/12/14
Session 2 D S 13/12/
Compare Question 1
Compare Artistic R
Session 3 Question 3
CONFUSION
Beneficial
Not beneficial
Helpful
Not helpful
Yes and No helpful
Moderately enjoyable
Would mention it in a
positive way-not used to
relaxing
Session 2 Question 6
Session 3 Question 6
Session 1 Question 6
Session 2 Question 8
Session 2 Question 8
Session 3 Question 8
Session 1 Question 4
Session 3 Question 16
STRESSFUL/NEGATIVE Less soothing/relaxing Session 2 D S 13/12/14
Session 3 Question 3
VOLUNTEER D
THEME EXTRACT REFERENCES
SURPRISE/UNEXPECTED Quite intrusive
Felt tired
Not beneficial
Not helpful
Session 1 Question 3
Session 2 Question 10
Session 2 Question 12
Session 1 Question 6
Session 2 Question 6
Session 3 Question 6
Session 1 Question 8
Session 2 Question 8
Session 3 Question 8
Session 1 D S 2/11/14
130
Need to lower the
volume
Felt less calm than
before the experience
Would not recommend it
Session 1 Question 11
Compare Question 1
Session 1 Question 16
Session 2 Question 16
Session 3 Question 16
FRIGHTENING Quite loud
Enveloping
Felt ‘too close to the
water’
Surrounded by
enveloping water and
waves which are bigger
and more powerful than
me
Session 1 Question 3
Session 1 D S 2/11/14
Session 1 Question 3
Compare Question 1
Session 2 Question 11
Compare Artistic R
MOVEMENT/ACTIVITY
OF WATER AND MIND
Surging sound of water
draining
Session 3 Question 3
CONFUSION
Tranquil/ peaceful
Slightly relaxed
More comfortable lying
down
Session 2 Question 10
Session 2 Question 10
Compare Question 1
STRESSFUL/NEGATIVE Not enjoyable
Stressful
Physical tightness in
chest
Uncomfortable stomach
Negative physical
changes noted
Not relaxing
Not rested/unrested
Session 1 Question 3
Session 1 Question 4
Session 2 Question 3
Session 3 Question 4
Session 1 Question 3
Session 1 Question 6
Session 1 Question 10
Session 1 Question 12
Session 3 Question 3
Compare Question 1
Compare Question 2
Session 1 Question 3
Session 1 Question 10
Session 1 Question 13
Session 1 D S 2/11/14
Session 1 Question 3
Session 1 Question 10
Session 1 Question 13
Session 1 D S 2/11/14
Session 1 Question 10
Session 2 Question 11
Session 3 Question 3
Session 3 Question 12
Compare Question 1
Session 1 Question 10
Session 3 Question 10
131
More comfortable lying
down, but less relaxing
Compare Question 1
132
APPENDIX 13:
STAGE 2: PERFECT FIFTH
STAGE 2 INITIAL THEMES FROM CODES
VOLUNTEER A
THEME RELEVANT
EXTRACTS
REFERENCE
ENJOYABLE Enjoyable sounds from
tuning forks
Enjoyable
Sounds lingered in the air
Sunshine
Sounds floated around me
Drifting away/off
Session 1 Question 3
Session 1 Question 4
Session 2 Question 4
Session 3 Question 3
Session 3 Question 4
Session 3 Question
14
Compare Question 1
Compare Question 2
Session 2 Question 3
Compare Artistic R
Session 2 Question 3
Session 2 Question 3
Session 3 Question
14
Compare Question 2
RELAXING More relaxing than
expected
Relaxing
Calming
Chilled
Helped me drift away
Sounds were floating
Session 1 Question 3
Compare Question1
Compare Question 2
Session 1 Question
10
Session 2 Question 3
Session 2 Question 6
Session 2 Question
10
Session 2 Question
11
Session 3 Question 6
Session 3 Question
10
Session 3 Question
12
Session 3 Question
14
Compare Question 2
Session 3 Question 6
Compare Question 1
Compare Question 4
Compare Artistic R
133
Session 3 Question
10
Session 3 Question
12
Compare Question 2
Session 2 Question 3
Session 2 Question 3
PSYCHOLOGICALLY
BENEFICIAL
Sounds were comforting
Relieved tension
Pleasant atmosphere
Put me at a sense of ease
Improved mood due to
pain relief
Need time to get full
benefit
Need time to see if helpful
Would like to experience
procedure for more
sessions to get full benefit
Session 2 Question 3
Session 2 Question
10
Compare Question 2
Compare Question 2
Session 3 Question
12
Session 1 Question 6
Session 1 Question 6
Session 2 Question 6
Session 1 Question 6
Session 2 Question 6
Session 1 Question 8
Session 3 Question 8
Session 3 Question 6
Compare Question 4
PHYSICAL CHANGES Forgot aches and pains
Felt vibrations from
tuning forks
Improvement of shoulder
joint and wrist pain and
flexibility.
Short term physical
improvement of aching
joints for one day.
Pleasant warming
sensation around left knee
Session 2 Question 3
Session 2 D S 5/3/15
Session 2 D S 5/3/15
Session 3 Question
13
Compare Question 1
Session 2 D S 5/2/15
Compare Question 1
Session 3 Question
11
Compare Question 4
RELIGIOUS/
TRANSPERSONAL
Like a bell
Reminded me of a
monastery
Peace
Compare Question 4
Compare Question 4
Session 2 Question 3
Compare Question 1
Compare Question 4
COGNITIVE/ ANALYTICAL
134
VOLUNTEER B
THEME RELEVANT
EXTRACTS
REFERENCE
ENJOYABLE Enjoyable
Would recommend it
Looking forward to
session
The sun
Session 1 Question 4
Session 2 Question 4
Session 3 Question 4
Compare Question 2
Session 1 Question 16
Session 2 Question 16
Session 3 Question 16
Session 2 Question 2
Compare artistic R
RELAXING Relaxing
Calming
Session 2 Question 10
Session 1 Question 10
Session 1 D S 14/1/15
Session 3 Question 10
Compare Question 2
Compare Question 3
PSYCHOLOGICALLY
BENEFICIAL
Beneficial
May be more beneficial
later
Need time to see if helpful
Helpful
Well-ordered state of
mind
Wanted to cling to the
dying away sound
Wanted it to go on for
longer
Produced good mood
Vibrations are beneficial
Cumulatively very
beneficial
Session 1 Question 6
Session 2 Question 6
Session 3 Question 6
Session 2 Question 7
Session 1 Question 8
Session 2 Question 8
Session 3 Question 8
Session 1 D S 14/1/15
Session 1 Question 10
Compare Question 2
Session 1 Question 12
Session 2 Question 12
Session 3 Question 12
Session 2 Question 3
Session 3 Question 3
PHYSICAL CHANGES Tingling in left hand
Pleasant tingling
sensation in left knee
Bodily sensations noted
Physically beneficial
(knee)
Mentioned it to osteopath
Session 1 Question 13
Session 3 Question 10
Session 1 Question 13
Session 2 Question 3
Session 2 D S 21/1/15
Session 3 D S 28/1/15
Compare Question 3
Session 2 D S 21/1/15
RELIGIOUS/
TRANSPERSONAL
At peace
Compare Question 2
Compare Question 3
135
Induced a trance like
state
It was very magical
Purity of the sound
The sound ‘touched’ the
body
It was as if it was leading
me into silence
Perfect fifth was dying
away into silence
Session 1 Question 10
Compare Question 1
Compare Question 5
Compare Question 3
Session 1 Question 10
Compare Question 1
Session 3 D S 28/1/15
COGNITIVE/ANALYTICAL Interesting/fascinating
Evoked interest in
researching the subject
through experts
Listening for overtones
Reflecting on musical
harmony
Refreshing to hear so
many overtones
Elicited reflective
response
Reflecting on sound and
intervals
Sparked mind off into
different paths
Wanting further
information/knowledge on
the subject
Would like to know
results of this study
Session 1 Question 3
Session 2 Question 3
Compare Question 4
Session 1 (composer
contacted) D S 14/1/15
Session 1 (Robin
Sturgess contacted) D
S 14/1/15
Session 1 ( composer
sent her information
on Fibonacci) 14/1/15
Session 1 Question 4
Compare Question 3
Session 3 D S 28/1/15
Compare Question 1
Session 1 D S 14/1/15
Session 2 D S 21/1/15
Session 3 D S 21/1/15
Compare Question 4
Session 3 D S 28/1/15
Session 1 D S 14/1/15
Session 1 Question 3
Session 2 Question 10
Session 2 Question 14
Compare Question 4
VOLUNTEER C
THEME EXTRACTS REFERENCE
ENJOYABLE Enjoyable
Looking forward to
next session
Session 2 Question 4
Session 3 Question 4
Compare Question 1
Session 1 Question 15
Compare Question 1
136
Surprised himself
that he preferred the
perfect fifth
Compare Question 3
RELAXING Relaxing
Calming
Soothing
Short term relaxing
effects
Repetitive
Session 1 Question 4
Session 1 Question 10
Session 1 Question 12
Session 2 Question 8
Session 2 Question 10
Session 3 Question 10
Session 3 Question 12
Compare Question 2
Session 1 Question 12
Session 2 Question 12
Session 3 Question 10
Compare Question 2
Compare Question 1
Compare Question 4
Compare Question 1
PSYCHOLOGICALLY
BENEFICIAL
Possibly moderately
beneficial
Beneficial
Helpful
No emotional
changes
Induced positive
emotional changes
Mood Calming
Soothing rhythmic
sounds around a
human face
(therapeutic)
Felt less emotions
altogether
Session 1 Question 6
Session 2 Question 6
Session 3 Question 6
Session 2 Question 8
Session 2 Question 11
Session 3 Question 11
Session 1 Question 12
Session 2 Question 12
Compare Artistic R
Session 1 Question 11
PHYSICAL CHANGES Felt slightly ‘light
headed’ from
standing then sitting.
No bodily changes
Session 1 Question 13
Session 2 Question 13
Session 3 Question 13
Compare Question 2
RELIGIOUS/TRANSPERSONAL Peaceful
Like praying
Like bells on cymbals
used in some
religions
Slightly sleepy
Felt strangely
reinforced or ‘all-
together’.
Session 3 Question 3
Session 1 Question 4
Session 1 Question 4
Session 2 Question 10
Session 3 Question 10
Session 1 Question 10
Session 1 Question 11
Session 3 Question 3
137
Mind was quieter
Induced an almost
meditation like state
Induced a trance like
state
Felt slightly ‘light
headed’
Compare Question 1
Session 1 Question 13
COGNITIVE/ANALYICAL Sceptical about this
experience being a
traditional scientist
Getting on better
with separated wife
Sound is like an acute
peak gradually
fading away.
Frequency of the
perfect fifth similar to
the rhythm of waves,
and breathing.
Reflective on the
sound
Session 1 Question 3
Session 1 D S 4/1/15
Session 2 Question 14
Session 2 Question 14
Session 2 Question 14
VOLUNTEER D
THEME EXTRACTS REFERENCE
ENJOYABLE Enjoyable
Non-intrusive
Session 1 Question 4
Session 2 Question 4
Session 3 Question 4
Session 1 Question 3
RELAXING Relaxing
Rested
Calming
Session 1 Question 10
Session 2 D S
19/10/14
Session 3 Question 3
Session 3 Question 12
Compare Question 2
Session 2 D S
19/10/14
Session 1 Question 10
Session 1 Question 11
Session 1 Question 12
Session 2 Question 10
Session 2 Question 11
Session 2 Question 12
Session 2 D S
19/10/14
Session 3 Question 10
Session 3 Question 12
Session 3 D S
26/10/14
Compare Question 2
138
PSYCHOLOGICALLY
BENEFICIAL
More therapeutic
Level mood
Emotional
improvement
Beneficial
Helpful
Experience ‘had
some effect on me’
Sound vibrating in
the biofield area
around the body
seated on a chair
Compare Question 2
Session 2 Question 12
Session 2 Question 11
Session 1 Question 6
Session 2 Question 6
Session 3 Question 6
Session 2 Question 8
Session 3 Question 8
Compare Question 1
Compare Artistic R
PHYSICAL CHANGES Bodily changes
Physical relief from
sore hip pain, lower
back pain, gut
discomfort.
Felt bodily ‘peace’ in
lower back
Session 1 Question 13
Session 1 D S
12/10/14
Session 3 Question 10
Session 1 Question 10
Session 1 Question 13
Session 1 D S
12/10/14
Session 2 D S
19/10/14
Session 3 Question 10
Compare Question 2
Session 3 Question 10
Session 3 Question 13
RELIGIOUS/TRANSPERSONAL Serene
Peaceful
Felt bodily ‘peace’ in
lower back
Session 2 Question 10
Session 2 Question 10
Session 3 Question 10
Session 3 Question 13
COGNITIVE/ANALYTICAL A bit shrill
Sharp sounds slightly
invasive
Session 1 Question 3
Session 2 Question 3
Compare Question 1
139
APPENDIX 14:
WATER AND WAVES INITIAL THEMATIC MAP
Frightening Surprise
Stressful /
negative
Changing
mind
Jagged red
lines
No changes in
emotions
No bodily changes
Intimidating
Frightening
thoughts
Not used to
relaxing
“I wish it
would end”
Unpleasant
Dreaming
more at night
Overpowering
Up and down
emotional
responses Confusion
Movement / activity of
water and mind
Preferred
Perfect
Fifth
Not as
relaxing as
anticipated
Felt
less
calm
Dark
mood
Unsafe
Too loud,
need to
lower the
volume
Angry
noise of
the wind
Not helpful
Urge to go
to toilet
Annoying
Flushing
a toilet
Barely
tolerable
Artificial
Reminiscing
Did not
know how
to react
Up and down
concentration
Active
thinking
Gurgle
like
Noise like a
launderette
The water
running away
down a
plughole
Unnerving
Not as
enjoyable as
anticipated
Not
beneficial
Time passed
quickly
Physical
reactions,
tightness in
chest
uncomfortable
stomach
Miscellaneous
Would
mention it in a
positive way
More
comfortable
lying down
140
APPENDIX 15:
WATER AND WAVES DEVELOPED THEMATIC MAP
Stressful /
negative
Surprise
Movement /
activity
Too loud
Frightening
Up and down
emotional
responses
Dark mood
Unpleasant
Changing mind
Active thinking
Fast noises
Up and down
concentration
Not as
enjoyable as
anticipated
Artificial
Not
beneficial
IntimidatingTime passed
quickly
Reminiscing
Toilet
Not as
relaxing as
anticipated
Unsafe
Overpowering
141
APPENDIX 16:
PERFECT FIFTH INITIAL THEMATIC MAP
Enjoyable
Religious
transpersonal
Psychologically
beneficial
Like a monastery
All together
Non-
intrusive
Bells
Purity of the sound
Leading into silence
Quiet room
experience
Rested
Level state of
mind
Therapeutic
Light
headed
Sleepy
Like praying
Relaxing
Physical changes
Cognitive / Analytical
Peace
TranceMeditation
Sounds
from
tuning
forks
Surprise
Yellow
sunshine
Chilled
Calming
Relieved
tension
Relieved
emotions
Soothing
Pain relief
Needed more
sessions
Well ordered
state of mind
Vibrations
very
beneficial
Short-term
physical
improvement
Improved
joint flexibility
Tingling
Warming
sensations
Relief from aching
joints and skeletal
pain
Good mood
Wanted to
research subject
Interesting /
fascinating
Reflecting on
music
Reflecting on the
properties of the
Perfect Fifth
142
APPENDIX 17:
PERFECT FIFTH DEVELOPED THEMATIC MAP
Psychologically
beneficial
Spiritual /
transpersonal
Physical
changes
Need more
sessionsSleepy
Trance and
meditationRelieved
tension and
emotions
Pain relief
Improved
mood
Therapeutic
Relaxing
Relief from
aching joints
and skeletal pain
Sound
vibrations
beneficial and
interesting
Warming
sensations
Improved
joint
flexibility
Similarities
to church
Cognitive /
analytical
Enjoyable
Level
mind
Peace
Short-term
physical
improvement
Light headed
Wanted to
research
subject
Tingling
Reflecting on properties
of music and perfect fifth
143
REFERENCES:
ADDIS, D, R, WONG, A, T, SCHACTER, D, L. (2007). Remembering the past and
imagining the future: common and distinct neural substrates during event construction
and elaboration. Neurophysologia. 45 (7), 1363-1377.
ADEBOWALE, V, BAILEY, S, BURSTOW, P, FARMER, P, GREATLEY, A,
JENKINS, P, ROSE-QUIRIE, A. (2014). The pursuit of happiness: A new ambition for
our mental health. Centre Forum Commission. www.centreforum.org/assets/pubs/the-
pursuit-of-happiness.
ATMAN ACADEMY UK AND EUROPE. (2010). Vibrational Medicine: The Healing
Power of Sound. Tunbridge Wells, Kent. Atman Academy.
BARUSS, I. (2012). What can we Learn about Consciousness From Altered States of
Consciousness? Journal of Consciousness Exploration and Research. 3 (7), 805-819.
BEAULIEU, J. (2010). Human Tuning. New York. Biosonic Enterprises Ltd. High
Falls, New York 12440.
BEELI, G, ESSLEN, M, JANCKE, L. (2005). When coloured sounds taste sweet.
Nature. 434, 38.
BIDELMAN, G M, HEINZ, M G. (2011). Auditory-nerve responses predict attributes
related to musical consonance – dissonance for normal and impaired hearing. J.
Accoust. Soc. Am. 130 (3), 1488-1502.
BIDLEMAN, G M, KRISHNAN, A. (2009). Neural Correlates of Consonance,
Dissonance, and the Hierarchy of Musical Pitch in the Human Brainstem. Journal of
Neuroscience. 29 (42), 13165-13171.
144
BLOOD, A J, ZATORRE, R J, BERMUDEZ, P, EVANS, A C (1999). Emotional
responses to pleasant and unpleasant music correlate with activity in paralimbic brain
regions. Nat Neuroscience. 2, 382-387.
BOERSMA, P. (2001). Praat, a system for doing phonetics by computer. Glot
International. 5, 341-345.
BOERSMA, P, WEENINK, D. (2012). PRAAT: Doing Phonetics by computer. Version
5.1.43). www.praat.org.
BONES, O, HOPKINS, K, KRISHNAN, A, PLACK, C, J, P. (2014). Phase-locked
neural activity in the human brainstem predicts preference for musical consonance.
Neuropsychologia. 58, 23-32.
BOONE, B. (2003). Pitch synchrony in live with Regis and Kathie Lee dialogue. In
2003 Hawaii International Conference on Arts and Humanities.
BOONE, B, BASELETTI, S, BISSEL, A, OLSON, N, PETERS, L, SHERRIL, L,
LACHS, L. (2007). An exploratory acoustic analysis of musical patterns of pitch
variation in dyadic conversation.28th Annual Central California Research Symposium.
BOULTON, A, J, GARROW, A, P. (2006). Vibration perception threshold – valuable
assessment of neural dysfunction in people with diabetes. Diabetes Metabolism
Research and Review. 22, 411-419.
BOWLING, A. (2009). Research Methods in Health. Maidenhead, Berkshire, England.
The McGraw Hill Companies.
BOWLING, D, L, GILL, K, CHOI, J, D, PRINZ, J, PURVES, D. (2009). Major and
minor music compared to excited and subdued speech. Journal of Accoust. Soc. Am.
127 (1), 491-503.
145
BROOKE – SUMNER, C, PETERSEN, I, ASHER, L, MALL, S, EGBE, C, O, LUND,
C. (2015). Systematic Review of feasibility and acceptability of psychosocial
interventions for schizophrenia in low and middle income countries. BMC Psychiatry.
15 (19), 1-12.
BROWN, D. (2009). The energy field and its functions: immunosurveillance, longevity,
and regeneration. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Science. 1172, 312-337.
BRUSCIA, K. (1989). Defining Music Therapy. Spring House Books. Spring City, P A.
BRUSHMANN, K, EVANS, A, T. (2013). Abstract mind-sets and social comparison:
When global comparisons matter. Social Psychological and Personality Science.4, 424-
433.
BURNS, E M. (1999). Intervals, scales, and tuning. In: The psychology of music. Ed 2,
215-264. Academic. San Diego.
BUTTELL, P. (2014). Global Markets Review – Issue 0414. MTS Research Limited.
0414, 1-9.
BUTTERWORTH, B. (2007). Why Frequencies are Natural: The Brain is endowed
with a specialised mechanism for representing and manipulating frequencies.
Behavioural and Brain Science. 30 (3), 259-269.
CAMPBELL, S B. (1995). Behaviour problems in preschool children: A review of
recent research. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry. 36 (1), 115-119.
CARIANI, P, A, DELGUTTE, B. (1996b). Neural correlates of the pitch of complex
tones. J Neurophysiology. 76, 1717-1734.
CEDOLIN, L, DELGUTTE, B. (2005). Pitch of complex tones: rate place and inter-
spike representations in the auditory nerve. J Neurophysiology. 94, 347-362.
146
CHAILLEY, J. (1985). Elements de philologie musicale. Paris. Ludec.
CHANDA, M L, LEVITIN, D J. (2013). The neurochemistry of music. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences. 17 (4), 179-193.
CHEN, A C, OATHES, D J, CHANG, C, BRADLEY, T, ZHOU, Z W, WILLIAMS, L
M, GLOVER, G H, DEISSEROTH, K, ETKIN, A. (2013). Casual interactions between
fronto-parietal central executive and default- mode networks in humans. PNAS. 110
(49), 19944-19949.
CHEUNG, K C, WELLS, N M. (2004). The Natural Environment and Human Well-
Being: Insights from Fractal Composition Analysis? Harmonic and Fractal Image
Analysis. 2004, 76-82.
CLAIR, A A. (1990). A Preliminary Study of Music Therapy Programming for
Severely Regressed Persons with Alzheimer’s type Dementia. Journal of Applied
Gerontology. 9 (3), 299-311.
CLAIR, A A, HANSER, S. (1995). Music Therapy: Retrieving the losses of Dementia
of the Alzheimer’s type for Patient and caregiver. In T Wigram and B Saperton (Eds),
The Art and Science of Music Therapy: A Handbook, P 342-360. Chur, Switzerland,
Harwood Academic Press.
CLARKE, V, BRAUN, V. (2006). Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology.
COAKLEY, A, BARRON, A. (2012). Energy Therapies in Oncology Nursing.
Seminars in Oncology Nursing. 28 (1), 55-63.
COJAN, Y, WABER, I, SCHWARTZ, S, ROSSIER, I, FORSTER, A. (2009). The
brain under self -control: modulation of inhibitory and monitoring cortical networks
during hypnotic paralysis. Neuron 62, 862-75.
147
COLLINS, P, DAAR, A, S, INSEL, T, R, JOESTI, S, S, MARCH, D, PATEL, V.
(2011). Grand Challenges in global mental health. Nature. 475 (7354), 27-30.
COOKE, D. (1959). The language of music. New York. Oxford University Press.
COOPER, H. (2010). Research synthesis and meta-analysis: A step by step approach.
Thousand Oaks, C A. Sage Publications.
COSTA, M, BITTI, P, E, R, BONFIGLIOLI, L. (2000). Psychological Connotations of
Musical Intervals. Psychology of Music. 28, 4-22.
CREATH, K, SCHWARTZ, G E. (2005). What Biophoton Images of Plants Can Tell
Us about Biofields and Healing. Journal of Scientific Exploration. 19 (4), 531-550.
CROWE, B J, SCOVEL M. (1996). An overview of sound healing Practices:
Implications for the Profession of Music Therapy. Music Therapy Perspectives. 14, 21-
29
CRYSTAL, H, GROBER, E, MASUR, D. (1989). Preservation of Musical Memory in
Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neurology, and Psychiatry. 52 (12), 1415-1416.
CURTIS, M, C, BHARUCHA, J, J. (2010). The minor third communicates sadness in
speech, mirroring its use in music. Emotion. 10 (3), 335-348.
DANIELOU, A. (1968). The Raga’s of northern India music. London. Barrie and
Rockliff.
DEEKS, J J, DINES, J, D’AMICO, R, SOWDEN, A J, SAKAROVITCH, C, SONG, F,
PETTICREW, P, ALTMAN, D G. (2003). Evaluating non-randomised intervention
studies. Health Technology Assessment 2003: 7 (27).
148
DEELEY, Q, OAKLEY, D A, TOONE, B, GIAMPIETRO, V, BRAMMER, M J,
WILLIAMS, SCR, et al. (2012). Modulating the default code network using hypnosis.
International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 60 (2), 206-228.
DELIO, BRANDT. (2007). Music therapy: Application to stress, management. In:
Lehrer P: Woolfolk R editors. Principles and Practice of Stress Management. 3rd
Edition. New York. Guildford Press.
DELLACHERIE, D, PFEUTY, M, HASBOUN, D, LEFEVRE, J, HUGUEVILLE, L,
SCHWARTZ, D, BAULAC, M, ADAM, C, SAMSON, S. (2009). The Birth of Musical
Emotion. A Depth Electrode Case Study in a Human Subject with Epilepsy. The
Neurosciences and Music 111: Disorders and Plasticity. N Y Academy of Sciences.
1169, 336-341.
DENZIN, N K, LINCOLN, Y S. (2003). Strategies of qualitative enquiry. Thousand
Oaks, California, USA. Sage Publications Inc.
DI STEFANO, N, BERTOLASO, M. (2014). Understanding musical Consonance and
Dissonance: Epistemological consideration from a Systematic Perspective. Systems. 2,
566-575.
DINOS, S, KHOSHABA, B, ASHBY, D, WHITE, P D, NAZROO, J, WESSELY, S,
BHUI, K S. (2009). A systematic review of chronic fatigue, its syndromes and ethnicity:
prevalence, severity, co-morbidity and coping. International Journal of Epidemiology.
38, 1554-1570.
DI STEFANO, N, BERTOLASO, M. (2014). Understanding Musical Consonance and
Dissonance: Epistemological Considerations from a Systematic Perspective. Systems. 2
(4), 566-575.
149
DOCZI, G. (2005). The Power of limits. Proportional Harmonies in Nature, Art, and
Architecture. Boston, Massachusetts. USA. Shambhala Publications.
DOOLITTLE, E, L, GINGRAS, B, ENDRAS, D, M, FITCH, W, T. (2014). Overtone-
based pitch selection in hermit thrush song: Unexpected convergence with scale
construction in human music. PNAS. 111. (46), 166616-16621.
EDWARDS, J. (2005). Possibilities and problems for evidence based practice in music
therapy. The Arts in Psychotherapy. 32, 293-301.
EDWARDS, S. (1992). Signature Sound Technologies. Athens, Greece. O H: Signature
Sound Works.
EKMAN, P, LEVENSON, R, W, FRIESEN, W, V. (1983). Automatic nervous system
activity distinguishes among emotions. Science. 221, 1208-1210.
ELDERHOSTEL ADVENTURES IN LIFELONG LEARNING. (2007). Mental
stimulation and lifelong learning activities in the 55+ population.
www.peopleandstories.net
ELSISY, H, KRISHNAN, A. (2008). Comparison of the acoustic and neural distortion
product at 2 ft-f2 in normal hearing adults. Int. J Audiol. 47, 431-438.
FARNSWORTH, P, R. (1954). A study of the Hevner adjective list. J Aesthet. Art Crit.
13, 97-103.
FELDMAN, J B. (2004). The Neurobiology of Pain, Affect and Hypnosis. America
Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. 46 (5),
FISHMAN, Y I, VOLKOV, I O, NOH, M D, GARELL, P C, BAKKEN, H, AREZZO,
J C, HOWARD, M A, STEINSCHNEIDER, M. (2001). Consonance and Dissonance of
Musical Chords: Neural Correlates in Auditory Cortex of Monkeys and Humans.
Journal of Neurophysiology. 86, 2761-2788.
150
FORSTER, J. (2011). Local and global cross-modal influences between vision and
hearing, tasting, smelling or touching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
140, 364-389.
FOSS, A H, ALTSHULER, E L, JAMES, K H. (2007). Neural correlates of the
Pythagorean ratio rules. Neuroreport. 18, 1521-1525.
FRANZEL, B, SCHWEIGERSHAUSEN, M, HEUSSER, P, BERGER, B. (2013).
Individualised Medicine from the perspectives of patients using complementary
therapies: a meta-ethnography approach. BMC Complementary and Alternative
Medicine. 13 (124), 1-17.
FREIDMAN, R, S, FISHBACH, A, FORSTER, J, WERTH, L. (2003). Attentional
priming effects on creativity. Creativity Research Journal. 15, 277-286.
GABRIELSSON, A, LINDSTROM, E. (2001). The influence of musical structure on
emotional expression. In: JUSLIN, P, N, SLOBODA, J, A. (eds). Music and Emotion:
theory and research. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
GASER, C, SCHLAUG, G. (2003). Brain Structures Differ between Musicians and
Non-Musicians. The Journal of Neuroscience. 23 (27), 9240-9345.
GASPER, K, CLORE, G, L. (2002). Attending to the big picture: Mood and global
versus local processing of visual information. Psychological Science. 13, 34-40.
GERBER, R. (1988). Vibrational Medicine. Santa Fe, N M. Bear and Company.
GILEAD, M, LIBERMAN, N, MARIL, A. (2014). From mind to matter: neural
correlates of abstract and concrete mindsets. SCAN. 9, 638-645.
GILL, K, Z, PURVES, D. (2009). A Biological Rationale for Musical Scales. PLOS
One. 4 (12), 1-8.
151
GOBLICK, T, J, PFEIFFER, R, R. (1969). Time-domain measurements of cochlear
nonlinearities using combination click stimuli. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America.113, 924-938.
GOLDMAN, J. (1992). Healing Sounds: The Power of Harmonics. Rockport, M A.
Element.
GOMEZ, P, DANUSER, B. (2007). Relationships between Musical Structure and
Psychological Measures of Emotion. Emotion. 7 (2), 377-387.
GRAY, P M, KRAUSE, B, ATEMA, J, PAYNE, R, KRUMHANSL, C, BAPTISTA, L.
(2001). The music of nature and the nature of music. Science. 291 (5501), 52-54.
GREICIUS, M D, KRASNOW, B, REISS, A L, MENON, V. (2003). Functional
connectivity in the resting brain: A network analysis of the default-mode hypothesis.
PNAS. 100 (1), 253-258.
GREGORY, S, W, DAGAN, K, WEBSTER, S. (1997). Evaluating the relation of vocal
accommodation in conversation patterns’ fundamental frequencies to perceptions of
communication quality. J. Nonverbal Behaviour. 21 (1), 23-43.
GRIGAS, A. (2013). The Fibonacci Sequence. It’s History, Significance and
Manifestations in Nature. Senior thesis submitted for graduation in Honours Program,
Liberty University, Lynchburg, Virginia, USA. Spring 2013.
GRIMES, D, A, SCHULZ, K, F. (2002). Bias and casual associations in observational
research. The lancet. 359, 248-252.
GRUZELIER, J (1998). A working model of the neurophysiology of hypnosis: A
review of the evidence. Contemporary Hypnosis. 51 (1), 3-21.
GRUZELIER, J H (2000). Redefining hypnosis: Theory, methods and integration.
Contemporary Hypnosis. 17 (2), 51-70.
152
HADEN, G, P. (2011). Probing perceptual abilities underlying music perception. PhD
thesis from Budapest University of Technology and Economics, School of Psychology.
HAMMERSCHLAG, R, JAIN, S. (2012). Biofield Research: A Roundtable Discussion
of Scientific and Methodological Issues. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary
Medicine. 8 (12), 1081-1086.
HANSEN, J, MELZNER, J. (2014). What you hear shapes how you think: Sound
patterns change level of construal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 54, 131-
138.
HANSER, S. (1990). Music Therapy for Depressed Older Adults in the Community.
Journal of Applied Gerontology. 9 (3), 283-298.
HANSON-ABROMEIT, D, MOORE, K S. (2014). The systematic review as a
Research Process in Music Therapy. Journal of Music Therapy. 51 (1), 4-38.
HAYS, T, BRIGHT, R, MINICHIELLO, V. (2002). The contribution of Music to
Positive Aging: A review. Journal of Aging and Identity. 7 (3), 165-175.
HELMHOLTZ, H, L, F. (1885). On the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for
the theory of music (Translation Alexander Ellis 1954 (1885). New York. Dover
Publications.
HEVNER, K. (1936). Experimental studies of the elements of expression in music. Am.
J Psychol. 48, 246-268.
HIGGINS, J, P, T, GREEN, S. (2011). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of
Interventions. West Sussex. UK. John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
HILGARD, E R. (1987). Psychology in America: A Historical Survey. New York.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
153
HOLROYD, J. (2003). The science of meditation and the state of hypnosis. Journal of
Clinical Hypnosis. October 2003. 2, 109-123.
HORVARTH, A, O, LUBORSKY, L. (1993). The Role of the Therapeutic Alliance in
Psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 61 (4), 561-573.
HOUTSMA, A, J, (1979). Musical pitch of two tone complexes and predictions by
modern pitch theories. J Accoust. Soc. Am. 66, 87-99.
HOUTSMA, A, J, GOLDSTEIN, J, L. (1972). The central origin of the pitch complex
tones: evidence from musical interval recognition. J Accoust. Soc. Am. 51, 520-529.
HUGHS, J R. (2001). The Mozart Effect. Epilepsy and Behaviour. 2, 396-417.
ITOH, K, SUWAZANO, S, NAKADA, T. (2010). Central Auditory Processing of Non-
Contextual Consonance in Music: An evoked Pilot Study. Journal of Acoustical Society
of America. 128 (6), 3781-3787.
IZUMI, A. (2000). Japanese monkeys perceive sensory consonance of chords. Journal
of Accoust. Soc. Am. 108 (6), 3073-3078.
JACOBS, R L. (1969). Understanding Harmony. London W 1. Oxford University
Press.
JADED, A R, McQUAY, H J. (1993). Searching the literature. Be systematic in your
searching. BMJ. 306, 66.
JAIN, S, MILLS, P, J. (2010). Biofield therapies: helpful or full of hype? A best
evidence synthesis. Int. J. Behav. Med. 17, 1-16.
JAMES, W. (1978). The Varieties of Religious Experience. New York. Double -day
Dolphin Books.
154
JHAVERI, A, WALSH, S, J, WANG, Y, McCARTHY, M, GRONOWICZ, G. (2008).
Therapeutic touch affects DNA synthesis and mineralisation of human osteoblasts in
culture. J. Orthop. Res. 26, 1541-1240.
JUSLIN, P, N, LAUKKER, P. (2003). Communication of emotions in vocal expression
and music performance: Different channels, same code? Psychological Bulletin. 129,
770-814.
JUSLIN, P N, LAUKKER, P. (2004). Expression, perception and induction of musical
emotions: a review and a questionnaire study of everyday listening. Journal of New
Music Research. 33, 217-238.
KAMEOKA, A, KURIYAGAWA, M. (1969b). Consonance theory part 11:
Consonance of complex tones and its calculation method. J Accoust. Soc. Am. 45, 1460-
1469.
KENNEDY, MICHAEL. (2006). The Oxford Dictionary of Music. New York. Oxford
University Press.
KIHLSTROM, J F. (2005). Is hypnosis an altered state of consciousness or what?
Contemporary Hypnosis. 22 (1), 34-38.
KIMCHI, R, PALMER, S, E. (1982). Form and texture in hierarchically constructed
patterns. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 8,
521-535.
KOELSCH, S. (2012). Brain and Music. Chichester. UK. John Wiley and sons.
KOELSCH, S, FRITZ, T, SCHULZE, K, ALSOP, D, SCHLAUG, G. Adults and
children processing music: an MRI study. Neuroimage. 25, 1068-1076.
155
KOMEILIPOOR, N, RODGER, M, W, M, CRAIG, C, M, CESARI, P. (2015). (Dis-)
Harmony in Movement: effects of musical dissonance on movement timing and form.
Exp. Brain Res. 233, 1585-1595.
KNIGHT, W E J, RICHARD, N S. (2001). Relaxing music prevents stress induced
increases in subjective anxiety, systolic blood pressure, and heart rate in healthy males
and females. Journal of Music Therapy. 38 (1), 254-272.
KRANTZ, G, BONGARD, S, ROHRMANN, S, GREBDE, D, BASTIAN, H G,
HODAPP, V. (2004). Effects of choir singing or listening on secretory immoglobin A,
cortisol, and emotional state. Journal of Behavioural Medicine. 27 (6), 623-635.
KRANTZ, G, MERKER, B, MADISON, G. (2004). Subjective reactions to musical
intervals assessed by rating scales. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on
Music Perception and Cognition, Evanston, 279-282.
KRISHNAN, A, BIDELMAN, G M, GANDOUR J T. (2010). Neural representation of
pitch salience in the human brainstem revealed by psychophysical and electrophysical
indices. Hearing Research. 268, 60-66.
KRISHNAN, A, PLACK, C, J. (2011). Neural encoding in the human brainstem
relevant to the pitch of complex tones. Hearing Research. 275, 110-119.
KRUMHANSL, C, L. (1990). Cognitive foundations of musical pitch. New York.
Oxford UP.
KRUMHANSL, C, L. (1997). An exploratory study of musical emotions and
psychophysiology. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 51, 336-352.
KUNG, C, C, HSIEH, T, H, LIOU, J, Y, LIN, K, J, SHAW, F, Z, LIANG, S, F. (2014).
Musicians and non-musicians’ different reliance of features in consonance perception:
A behavioural and ERP study. Clinical Neurophysiology. 125, 971-978.
156
LANGNER, G. (1983). Evidence for neuronal periodicity detection in the auditory
system of the guinea fowl: implications for pitch analysis in the time domaine. Exp.
Brain Res. 52, 333-355.
LANCASTER, G A, DODD, S, WILLIAMSON, P R. (2004). Design and Analysis of
Pilot Studies: recommendations for good practice. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical
Practice. 10 (2), 307-312.
LARSEN, F, CEDOLIN, L, DELGUTTE, B. (2008). Pitch representations in the
auditory nerve: two concurrent complex tones. J Neurophysiology. 100, 1301-1319.
LEE, K C, YIIN, J J, DAI, W J. (2012). Evidence that Music Listening Reduces
Preoperative Patient’s Anxiety. Biological Research for Nursing. 14 (1), 78-84.
LEGERWOOD, A, WAKSLAK, C, J, WANG, M, A. (2010). Differential Information
use for near and distant decisions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 46, 638-
642.
LEVELT, W J M, VAN DE GEER, J P, PLOMP, R. (1966). Triadic comparison of
musical intervals. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology. 19 (2),
163-179.
LI, C, ZHANG, X, CAO, Z. (2005). Triangular and Fibonacci Number Patterns Driven
by Stress on Core/Shell Microstructures. Science. 309, 909-911.
LIBERMAN, N, SAGRISTANO, M, D, TROPE, Y. (2002). The effect of temporal
distance on level of mental construal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 38,
523-534.
LINDQUIST BONNY, H. (1997). The state of the art Music Therapy. The Arts in
Psychotherapy. 24 (1), 65-73.
157
LIPPI, D, DI SARSINA, P R, D’ELIOS, J P. (2010). Music and Medicine. Journal of
Multidisciplinary Healthcare. 3, 137-141.
LORENZI, E A. (1999). Complementary/Alternative Therapies: So Many Choices.
Geriatric Nursing. 20 (3), 125-133.
LUBAR, K. (2004). Colour Intervals: Applying Concepts of Musical Consonance and
Dissonance to Colour. Leonardo. 37 (2), 127-132.
MARSS, B, KOELSCH, S, GUNTER, T, C, FRIEDERICI, A, D. (2001). Musical
syntax is processed in Broca’s area: an MEG study. Nat. Neuroscience. 4, 540-545.
MAHA, N, SHAW, A. (2007). Academic doctors’ views of complementary and
alternative medicine (CAM) and its role within the NHS: an exploratory qualitative
study. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 7 (17), 1-11.
MAHER, T. (1980). A rigorous test of the proposition that musical intervals have
different psychological effects. American Journal of Psychology. 93 (2), 309-327.
MAHER, T, BERLYNE, D. (1982). Verbal and exploratory responses to melodic
musical intervals. Psychology of Music. 10 (1), 11-27.
MARANTO, C. (1993). Applications of Music in Medicine. In Margaret Heal and
Tony Wigram (Eds), Music Therapy in Health Education, 153-174. London. Jessica
Kingsley Publishers.
MARIN, M M, BHATTACHARYA, J. (2013). Getting into the musical zone: trait
emotional intelligence and amount of practice predict flow in pianists. Frontiers in
Psychology. 4 (853), 1-14.
MARR, A J. (2001). In the zone: A bio behavioural theory of the Flow experience.
Athletic Insight: The online journal of sport psychology. 2001.
158
MARS, R B, NEUBERT, F X, NOONAN, M P, SALLET, J, TONI, I, RUSHWORTH,
M F S. (2012). On the relationship between the ‘default mode network’ and the ‘social
brain’. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 6 (189), 1-9.
MASATAKA, N, PERLOVSKY, L. (2013). Cognitive interference can be mitigated by
consonant music and facilitated by dissonant music. Scientific Reports. 3 (2028), 1-6.
MASLOW, A, H. (1970). Religions, Values, and Peak Experience. New York. Viking
Compass.
MAZZONI, G, VENNERI, A, McGEOWN, W J, KIRSCH, I. (2012). Neuroimaging
resolution of the altered state hypothesis. SciVerse Science Direct. 49, 400-410.
McCELLAN, R. (1991). The Healing Forces of Music. Rockport, M A. USA. Element.
McCLOSKY, L. (1995). Music and the Frail Elderly. Activities, Adaptation and Aging.
7, 73-75.
McDERMOTT, J, HAUSER, M. (2004). Are consonant intervals music to their ears?
Spontaneous acoustic preferences in a non-human primate. Cognition. 94, B11-B21.
McDERMOTT, J H, OXENHAM, A J. (2008). Music Perception, pitch and auditory
system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 18, 452-463.
McDERMOTT, J, H, LEHR, A, J, OXENHAM, A, J. (2010). Individual differences
reveal the basis of consonance. Current Biology. 20, 1035-1041.
McGEOWN, W J, MAZZONI, G, VENNERI, A, KIRSCH, I. (2009). Hypnotic
Induction decreases anterior default mode activity. Conscious Cognition. 18, 848-855.
McHUGH, R. (2015). Something Big is Coming to Markets. Gold-Eagle. March 15,
2015, 1-6.
159
McKINNEY, M F, TRAMO, M J, DELGUTTE, B. (2001). Neural correlates of the
dissonance of musical intervals in the inferior colliculus. In: Psychological and
psychophysical bases of auditory function. 83-89. Maastricht, The Netherlands. Shaker.
McMANUS, R J, WILSON, S, DELANEY, B C, FITZMAURICE, D A, HYDE, C J,
TOBIAS, R S, JOWETT, S, HOBBS, F D R. (1998). Review of the usefulness of
contacting other experts when conducting a literature search for systematic reviews.
BMJ. 317, 1562-3.
MERTENS, P. (2004). The Prosogram: Semi-automatic transcription of prosody based
on a tonal perception model. Speech Prosody 2004: International Conference. Japan.
METZ, S, PICK, A, D, UNZE, M, G. (1981). A psychophysical study of the perception
of consonance and dissonance. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society. 17 (2), 89-92.
MEYER, L. (1973). Explaining Music. Berkeley-Los Angeles. University of California
Press.
MEYER, S, GORTNER, L, LARSEN, A, KUTSCHKE, G, GOTTSCHLING, S,
GRABER, S, SCHROEDER, N. (2013). Complementary and Alternative Medicine in
Paediatrics: A systematic overview/synthesis of Cochrane Collaboration reviews. Swiss
Medical Weekly, 2013. 143, 1-14.
MICHELY, C, OXENHAM, A J. (2009). Pitch Harmonicity and Concurrent
Segregation: Psychoacoustical and Neurophysiological Findings. Hearing Research.
266, 26-51.
MILLS, P, J, JAIN, S. (2010). Biofield therapies and psychoneuroimmunology. Brain,
Behaviour and Immunity. 24, 1229-1230.
MITCHELL, M. (2003). Patient anxiety and modern elective surgery: A literature
review. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 12 (6), 806-815.
160
MITHEN, S. (2006). The singing Neanderthals: the origins of music, language, mind
and body. Cambridge. Harvard University Press.
MOHER, D, TELZLAFF, J, ALTMAN, D, J, THE PRISMA GROUP (2009). Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta – Analyses. The Prisma Statement.
Plos Medicine. 6 (7), 106.
MOORE, B. (2008). An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing. 5th Ed. Bingley,
UK. Emerald.
MOVAFFAGHI, Z, FARSI, M. (2009). Biofield Therapies: Biophysical Basis and
Biological Regulations? Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice. 15, 35-37.
NILSSON, U. (2008). The Anxiety and Pain Reducing effects of music interventions: A
systematic Review. AORN Journal. 87 (4), 780-807.
OAKLEY, D A, HALLIGAN, P W. (2013). Hypnotic Suggestion: opportunities for
cognitive neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 14, 565-576.
ODELL-MILLER, H. (1988). An investigation into the Effects of Music Therapy with
Elderly Mentally Ill People. Master’s Thesis, City University, London.
ODELL-MILLER, H. (2006). An investigation into the effectiveness of the arts
therapies for adults with continuing mental health problems. Psychotherapy Research.
16 (1), 122-139.
OELMANN, H, LAENG, B. (2009). The emotional meaning of harmonic intervals.
Cognitive Processing. 10, 113-131.
OGUAMANAM, C. (2009). Personalized Medicine and Complementary and
Alternative Medicine: In Search of Common Grounds. The Journal of Alternative and
Complementary Medicine. 15 (8). 943-949.
161
OKADA, B, M, LACHS, L, BOONE, B. (2012). Interpreting tone of voice: Musical
pitch relationships convey agreement in dyadic conversation. J. Accoust. Soc. Am. 132
(3), 208-214.
OOHASHI, T, NISHINA, E, HONDA, M, YOSHIHARU, Y, FUWAMOTO, Y,
KAWAI, N, MAEKAWA, T, NAKAMURA, S, FUKUYAMA, H, SHIBASAKI, H.
(2000). Inaudible High- frequency Sounds Affect Brain Activity: Hypersonic Effect.
The American Psychological Society. March 2000, 3548-3558.
ORBACH, I. (1994). Dissociation, Physical Pain and Suicide: A hypothesis. Suicide
and Life Threatening Behaviour. 24 (1), 68-79.
OSCHMAN, J L. (2000). Energy Medicine: The Scientific Basis. Edinburgh. Churchill
Livingston.
PARDO, J, S. (2006). On phonetic convergence during conversational interaction, J.
Acoust. Soc. Am. 119, 2382-2393.
PATEL, A, D. (2005). The relationship of music to the melody of speech and to
syntactic processing disorders in aphasia. Annals of the N Y Academy of Sciences. 1060,
59-70.
PATEL, A, D, IVERSON, J, R, ROSENBERG, J, D. (2006). Comparing the rhythm
and melody of speech and music: The case of British English and French. Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America. 119, 3034-3047.
PEARCE, J M S. (1998). Early days of the tuning fork. Journal of Neurology,
Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 65, 728.
PEARSON, A, WIECHELA, R, COURT, A, LOCKWOOD, C. (2005). The JBL model
of evidence based healthcare. International Journal of Evidence Based Healthcare. 2
(8), 207-215.
162
PERES, J F, MOREIRA-ALMEIDA, A, CAIXETA, L, LEAO, F, NEWBERG, A.
(2012). Neuroimaging during Trance State: A contribution to the study of Dissociation.
Plos One. 7 (11), 1-9.
PHILLIP, R. (1994). Towards an Evaluation of the Effectiveness of the Arts in Primary
Health Care. Environmental Epidemiology. 183. Bristol: Department of Epidemiology
and Public Health, Bristol University.
PLOMP, R, LEVELT, W, J. (1965). Tonal consonance and critical bandwidth. J.
Acoust. Soc. Am. 38, 548-560.
POPAY, J. ROBERTS, H, SOWDEN, A, PETTICREW, M, ARAI, L, RODGERS, M,
DUFFY, S. (2006). Guidance on the conduct of Narrative Synthesis in Systematic
Reviews. A product from the ESRC Methods Program. Version 1.
POPP, F A. (1994). Biophoton Emissions: Experimental Background and Theoretical
Approaches. Modern Physics Letters. 8, 1269.
POPP, F A. (2004). Quantum phenomena of biological systems as documented by
biophotonics. Quo vadis quantrum mechnics? New York. Springer.
POPP, F A. (2008). Principles of Complementary Medicine in terms of a suggested
scientific basis. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology. 46, 378-383.
PRESSNITZER, D, PATTERSON, R, D, KRUMBHOLZ, K. (2001). The lower limit of
melodic pitch. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 38, 548-560.
RADOCY, R, BOYLE, J, D. (1979). Psychological Foundations of Musical Behaviour.
Springfield, I L. Charles C Thomas.
RAO, A, SHAKEEL, M, TRINIDADE, A, RAO, G, PEARCE, A, WONG, A S. (2012).
The importance of Complementary and Alternative Medicine Education in Medical
163
School. Journal of Evidence Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 17 (3),
191-198.
RASH, R. (2000). The Unification of Tonal Systems, or About the Circle of Fifths.
Journal of New Music Research. 29 (4), 319-334.
RAY, W. (1997). EEG concomitants of hypnotic susceptibility. International Journal of
Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 45 (3), 301-313.
RAY, W, DEPASCALIS, V. (2003). Temporal aspects of hypnotic processes.
International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 51 (2), 147-165.
ROBSON, C. (1993). Real World Research. A resource for social scientists and
practitioner researchers. Oxford. Blackwell publishers.
ROGERS, S. (2009). Dissertation on Consonance and Dissonance. McGill University,
Montreal, Department of Psychology.
ROGERS, S E, LEVITIN, D J. (2007). Memory for musical Intervals: Cognitive
Differences for Consonance and Dissonance. Canadian Acoustics. 35 (3), 56-57.
RUBIK, B. (2002).The Biofield Hypothesis: Its Biophysical Basis and Role in
Medicine. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 8 (6), 703-717.
SACKS, O. (2006). The Power of Music. Brain. 129, 2528-2532.
SANDERSON, S, TATT, I D, HIGGINS, J P T. (2007). Tools for assessing quality and
susceptibility to bias on observational studies in epidemiology: a systematic review and
annotated bibliography. International Journal of Epidemiology. 36, 666-676.
SARRIS, J, GLICK, R, HOENDERS, R, DUFFY, J, LAKE, J. (2013). Integrative
mental healthcare Whit Paper: Establishing a new paradigm through research education,
and clinical guidelines. Advances in Integrative Medicine (2013), 1-8.
164
SCHELLENBERG, E G, TREHUB, S. (1994). Frequency ratios and the perception of
tone patterns. Psychonomics Bulletin. 1 (2), 191-201.
SCHELLENBERG, E G, TREHUB, S E. (1996). Natural Musical Intervals: Evidence
from Infant Listeners. Psychological Science. 7 (5), 272-277.
SCHLOSSER, R, W. (2007). Appraising the quality of Systematic Reviews. Focus.
(Publication of National Centre for the Dissemination of Disability Research). 17, 1-7.
SCHON, D, REGNAULT, P, YSTAD, S, BESSON, M. (2004). Sensory Consonance:
An ERP study. Music Perception. 23 (2), 105-117.
SCHREUDER, M, VAN EERTEN, L, GILBERS, D. (2005). Speaking in major and
minor keys. PhD dissertation, University of Groningen, Netherlands.
SCHULTZ, K F, GRIMES, D A. (2002). Case-Control Studies: research in reverse. The
Lancet. 359, 431-434.
SCHWARTZ, D, A, HOWE, C, Q, PURVES, D. (2003). The Statistical Structure of
Human Speech Sounds Predicts Musical Intervals. The Journal of Neuroscience. 23
(18), 7160-7168.
SETHARES, W, A. (1993). Local consonance and the relationship between timbre and
scale. J Accoust Soc Am. 94, 1218-1228.
SHAH, S. (2010). An exploration of the relationship between mathematics and music.
Thesis from University of Manchester.
SHAPIRA, O, LIBERMAN, N, TROPE, N, RIM, S. (2012). Levels of mental construal:
Separating the primary from the secondary. In Fiske & Macrae (eds), Sage handbook of
social cognitions, (229-250). New York. Sage.
SIMONS, H. (2013). Case Study Research in Practice. London. Sage Publications Ltd.
165
SKINNER, S. (2006). Sacred Geometry. New York, U S A. Sterling Publishing Co.
SLONIMSKY, NICHOLAS. (1975). Thesaurus scales and melodic patterns. New
York. Schirmer Books.
SMITH, L, D, WILLIAMS, R, N. (1999). Children’s artistic responses to Musical
Intervals. Am. J. of Psychology. 112 (3), 383-410.
STOLZENBURG, F. (2009). A Periodicity –based theory for harmony perception and
scales. 10th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference. (ISMIR
2009), 87-92.
TERHARDT, E. (1984). The concept of musical consonance: a link between Music and
Psychoacoustics. Music Perception. 1 (3), 276-295.
THABANE, L, JINHUI, M, CHU, R, CHENG, J, ISMAILA, A, RIOS, L P, ROBSON,
R, THABANE, M, GIANGREGORIO, L, GOLDSMITH, C H. (2010). A tutorial on
pilot studies: the what, why and how. BMC Medical Research Methodology. 10 (1), 1-
10.
TRAINOR, L, J. (1997). Effect of frequency ratio on infant and adults discrimination of
simultaneous intervals. Journal of Exp. Psychology. 23 (5), 1427- 1439.
TRAINOR, L, J, HEINMILLER, B, M. (1998). The Development of Evaluative
Responses to Music: Infants Prefer to listen to Consonance over Dissonance. Infant
Behaviour and Development. 21 (1), 77-88.
TRAINOR, L, J, TREHUB, S. (1993). What mediates infants and adults superior
processing of the major over the augmented triad? Music Perception. 11 (2), 185-196.
TRAINOR, L, J, McDONALD, K, L, ALAIN, C. (2002). Automatic and Controlled
Processing of Melodic Contour and Interval Information Measured by Electrical Brain
Activity. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 14 (3), 430-442.
166
TRAINOR, L J, TSANG, C D, CHEUNG, V H W. (2002). Preference for sensory
consonance in 2 and 4 month old infants. Music Perception. 20, 187-194.
TRAMO, M J, CARIANI, P A, DELGUTTE, B, BRAIDA, L D. (2001).
Neurobiological foundations for the theory of harmony in western tonal music. Ann N Y
Acad Sci 930, 92-116.
TROPE, Y, LIBERMAN, N. (2000). Temporal construal and time –dependent changes
in preference. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 79, 876-889.
VARGA, K, KEKECS, Z. (2014). Oxytocin and Cortisol in the hypnotic interaction.
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 62 (1). 111-128.
VESSEL, E A, STARR, G G, RUBIN, N. (2013). Art reaches within: aesthetic
experience, the self and the default mode network. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 7 (258),
1-7.
VON ELM, E, ALTMAN, D G, EGGER, M, POCOCK, S J, GOSCHE, P C,
VANDENBROUCKE, J P. (2007). The strengthening the Reporting of Observational
Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement: Guidelines for reporting observational
studies. Preventative Medicine. 45, 247-251.
VURMA, A, ROSS, J. (2006). Production and Perception of Musical Intervals. Music
Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 23 (4), 331-344.
WAGSTAFF, G, F. (1998). The semantics and physiology of hypnosis as an altered
state. Contemporary Hypnosis. 15, 149-164.
WEED, M. (2005). ‘Meta Interpretation’: A method for the Interpretative Synthesis of
Quality Research. Forum: Qualitative Social Research. 6 (1), 1-12.
WONG, P C, PERRACHIONE, T K. (2007). Learning pitch patterns in lexical
identification by native English speaking adults. Appl. Psycholinguist. 28, 565-585.
167
WOODS, A. (1976). The physics of music. London. Chapman and Hall.
WOODY, E Z, BOWERS, K S (1994). A frontal assault on dissociated control. In
LYNN S J, RHUE KE (Eds); Dissociation: Clinical and Theoretical Perspectives. New
York. The Guildford Press. 52-79.
WOODY, E Z, McCONKEY K M (2003). What we don’t know about the brain and
hypnosis, but need to know. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental
Hypnosis. 51 (3), 309-337.
WOODY, E Z, SZECHTMAN, H (2003). How can brain activity and hypnosis inform
each other? International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 51 (3), 232-
255.
YAN, X, SHEN, H, JIANG, H, ZHUNG, C, HU, D, WANG, J, WU, X. (2008).
External Qi of Yan Xin Qigong induces G2/M arrest and apoptosis of androgen-
independent prostate cancer cells by inhibiting Akt and NF kappa B pathways. Mol.
Cell. Biocem. 310, 227-234.
YIN, R K. (2003). Case study research design and methods. Third Edition. Thousand
Oaks, California, USA. Sage Publications.
YIN, R K. (2009). Case study research design and methods. London, UK. Sage
Publications.
ZATORRE, R, J, PERRY, D, W, BECKETT, C, A, WESTBURY, C, F, EVANS, A, C.
(1998). Functional anatomy of musical processing inn listeners with absolute pitch and
relative pitch. Proc. Nat. Acad. USA. 95, 3172-3177.
ZENTNER, M R, KAGAN, J. (1998). Infant’s perception of consonance and
dissonance in music. Infant Behaviour and Development. 21 (3), 483-492.
![Control of Synthesized Vibrato during Portamento Musical ...€¦ · the second musical pitch by passing to the opposite ex-treme [6]. Specifically, Seashore found that the majority](https://img.dokumen.tips/doc/110x75/5fc570fee3a2f508dd13b5c1/control-of-synthesized-vibrato-during-portamento-musical-the-second-musical.jpg)
