What is skill?

Characteristics of a skilful performance:

Classifying skills can help sports coaches to plan and prepare their coaching sessions.

Skills are classified on a sliding scale called a skills continuum

Remember: the same skill can be classified differently in different contexts/situations!

Label the 6 different continuums with a title, characteristics and sporting examples.

Learned skills can be transferred from one sporting situation to another

The theory of transfer is defined as ‘the effect of the learning and performance of one skill

on the learning and performance of another’

Explain the 4 types of transfer using sporting examples

1.

2.

3.

4.

How can a coach

encourage

positive transfer?

What is it? When to use? Advantages Disadvantages Example

Mas

sed

Dis

trib

ute

d

Var

ied

Men

tal

What is it? When to use? Advantages Disadvantages Example

Wh

ole

W

ho

le-p

art-

wh

ole

Pro

gres

sive

par

t

Complete each box with what the method of guidance is, how it can

be used in sport and advantages/disadvantages.

Feedback – ‘information to aid error correction’

Explain the 6 different types of feedback, focusing on what they are effective for/to

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

To benefit the performer, skills need to be learned.

Learning is defined as a permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice.

Learners go through 3 stages as their skills develop from a beginner to an expert.

1. Cognitive

2. Associative

3. Autonomous

How does feedback differ between the cognitive, associative and autonomous stage of learning?

Learning plateau Is a period during performance when there are no signs of

improvement

The performer does not appear to be getting any better at doing the task

This lack of improvement can be seen by a graph called a learning curve

The 4 stages on a graph that a beginner passes through when repeatedly performing

a closed skill over a period of time.

Label the graph with characteristics from each stage:

What is drive reduction?

Causes of the plateau 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Solutions to avoid the plateau

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Many

Bees

Can

Look

Towards

Flowers

Insight learning (Gestalt)

Definition:

The performer uses existing knowledge to form an idea of how to deal with problematic

sporting situations because they might have an idea from their general sporting knowledge

which they can put into practice.

When a player is presented with a problem, sporting knowledge is used to work out a

solution to the problem and is then tried.

Concentrates on the ____________ task

Good for use in realistic situations that are closely linked to the game/event

May provide self-satisfaction and give intrinsic motivation to the performer

The approach poses _______________ to the performer but is not trial and error

Encourages the performer to think for themselves and develops the cognitive process

Generates more understanding of the actions required to perform the skill in different situations (rather than just being told by a coach)

The approach may also generate a specific __________ for the performer

In the 3000m race, the role of the athlete was to be a front runner as the cognitive process generated this idea

SO….By working out problems, the athlete learns to use the cognitive process, thinking is

encouraged and the performer may begin to think about the use of their skills in competitive

situations in the future.

Definition:

Reinforced actions are strengthened and incorrect actions can be weakened

Success = satisfier to strength correct actions

During trial and error learning, if the successful responses are rewarded, they are likely to be

repeated.

If unsuccessful responses are ignored or given an annoyer = criticism, they may avoid

Stimulus-response bond:

Operant conditioning works by strengthening the SR bond

In sport we learn by associating the correct response with a stimulus. For example, in

badminton if an opponent hits the shuttlecock high and mid-court, the appropriate

response is a smash shot.

It is an advantage to the badminton player to learn to recognise when the smash is

the best course of action

As a coach, you can link the stimulus to the response using the principle of OC involving;

1. positive reinforcement

Satisfier =

Annoyer =

2. negative reinforcement

3. punishment

Strategies that can be

used to strengthen the S-R

bond and promote

adoption of the correct

response

Definition:

In sport, coaches can use this ability to copy behaviour and use role models to get skills

copied successfully.

BANDURA – behaviour and demonstrations are more likely to be copied if they follow the 4

principles below…

Vygotsky looked at the development of children and decided that interaction with others

plays a vital role in learning.

In sport, skills can be learned from others e.g. coaches and teachers who are ‘more

knowledgeable others’ (MKO)

Inter-psychological learning:

Intra-psychological learning:

Constructivism

Definition:

Zone of proximal development

Definition:

The process of taking account of the sporting environment and then making decisions prior

to execution is referred to information processing.

During the initial input stage, the performer uses the senses to pick up information from the

environment. The sporting environment can be called the ______________.

Information is picked up from the display using the senses and there are 5 senses that are

very important in sport. These senses used to collect information are collectively known as

the ____________________________.

During the second stage of decision making, the performer must make a decision based on

all the information collected by the senses.

In order to make such decisions, the process of _____________________________ is really

important.

Definition:

The difficult thing is the performer can receive a host of information from the 5 senses and

needs to make a decision. The ball and position of opponents in a game might be

information that is vital but the crowd might be something that the performer wishes to

ignore.

How do we

develop selective

attention?

Benefits of

selective

attention

Whiting’s Information Processing Model

Annotate the model: state each and explain what each part does with a sporting example

• The memory system by Baddeley and Hitch contains a series of memory stores and

some methods by which information is transferred and help in these stores.

• The working memory consists of a ________________________________, known as

the central executive. It has overall control over all the info entering and leaving the

working memory. It quickly identifies which info should be sent to one of its sub-

memory systems. These sub-divisions of the working memory are known as ‘sub-

systems’ and they perform different functions.

Explain the 3 sub-systems below:

Working memory and long-term memory

• LTM definition:

• The first job of the working memory is to pick up the relevant information from the sporting environment and once this information is received, the memory goes to work.

• The working memory has links with long-term memory, sending coded information for future storage and use.

• Having collected the relevant information, the working memory produces a memory trace, a mental snapshot of the skill being used, and it then works with its partner; the long-term memory (LTM) by sending this memory trace to it so that the trace can be compared to information already contained in the storage area of the LTM. The LTM can then send information back to the working memory for use in the current sporting situation.

• The memories work together in a 2-way process to help the sports performer compare information and make decisions.

• For example, in tennis the working memory would send an image or trace of the position of the opponent and the flight of the ball to the LTM so that the scenario can be immediately compared to the information already stored there and an appropriate return shot can then be decided upon.

Features and functions of the memory system

The characteristics and actions of the memory system are:

• The working memory initiates the action by sending the memory trace

• However, the working memory has a limited capacity – it can only deal with around

______ items of info at any 1 time and too much info/info overload could mean that

important info is lost or disregarded.

• The working memory also has a limited time scale – lasts for around ____________

until the info within it is lost or used

• Important information can be stored in the LTM in the form of a motor programme,

a more permanent trace of a skill consisting of all the components that make up that

skill

• The LTM has a large capacity and it can store info for a lifetime if needed. E.g. you

may not swim or ride a bike all the time but you don’t forget how to do it!

To ensure items are

stored in the LTM, the

coach and player could

use a number of

strategies…

• Schema theory suggests that the same/similar skills can be used in different sports

because the performer has developed a general set of concepts that allows skills to

be adapted to suit the situation

• Schmidt suggested that rather than use a structured set of movements to develop

skills, the core principles can be taken from an existing motor programme and then

adapted, using some information from the environment and by using feedback from

the senses.

• For example, a motor programme that has been developed for a well-learned

goalkeeper throw in football could be adapted (grip and arm action needs adjusting)

so that a similar throwing technique could be used in javelin = similar principles to

execute in both skills

A schema has 4 parameters – essentially 4 processes that must be used to adapt an existing

motor programme. Can you explain all 4 parameters using a sporting example?

1.

2.

3.

4.

Explain both parts of schema…

Recall schema:

Recognition schema:

How to make

sure the schema

is used

successfully?

The faster we respond to information, the more time sports players have to execute

their skills.

Reaction Time =

Movement Time =

Response Time =

What is their relationship?

Label the example below.

Two forms of reaction time

Factors that influence response time:

1. Number of choices - Hick’s Law

Reaction

Time

Choices

2. The single-channel hypothesis

3. The psychological refractory period

How can you use the PRP to your advantage as a player?

4. Anticipation

How can players and

coaches can improve

response time?