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What is Intelligence?
Chapter 8
Intelligence and Individual Differences
SO, what did you get on your SATs? Jane said she got a
1350…that means she’s really smart, right?
Does it?
Module Objectives:What is intelligence?
How do we measure intelligence?Who are the children whose intelligence sets
them apart from their peers?
Think on Your Own…
How do YOU define Intelligence?
Is it the ability to use reason and logic?
Is it the ability to write and speak clearly?
Is it limited to one’s performance in school?
Is it behavior in social situations?How about knowing when you’re
wrong?Not that simple, right?
There are many psychological theories about intelligence that we
will examine in this module
How do we know intelligence even exists?
Psychometricians specialize in measuring psychological characteristics for
intelligence and personality. By using patterns of test scores, they have found evidence for general intelligence as well
as for specific abilities
What is Intelligence?
Intelligence is an inferred process that humans use to explain the different degrees of adaptive success in people’s behavior
‐ The mental abilities that enable one to adapt to, shape, or select one’s environment
‐ The ability to judge, comprehend, and reason‐ The ability to understand and deal with
people, objects, and symbols‐ The ability to act purposefully, think
rationally, and deal effectively with the environment
Spearman’s Psychometric Approach - Intelligence as a
Single TraitPsychometric Approach‐ The measurement (metric) of individual
differences in behaviors and abilities
George Spearman reported findings supporting the idea that performance on any test of mental ability was based on a single general ability factor that he termed “g”
Spearman also believed that performance on any test of mental ability required the use of a specific ability factor that he termed “s”
g
LogicalLogical
MechanicalMechanical
ArithmeticalArithmetical
SpatialSpatial
s
s s
s
Conflicting theories have led many psychometric
theorists to propose hierarchical theories of intelligence that include both general and specific
components
Cattell’s View of Intelligence - Intelligence as a Few Basic
AbilitiesFluid Intelligence‐ The ability to think on the spot and solve
novel problems‐ The ability to perceive relationships‐ The ability to gain new types of knowledge
Crystallized Intelligence‐ Factual knowledge about the world
‐ The skills already learned and practiced‐ Examples
‐ Arithmetic facts‐ Knowledge of the meaning of words‐ State capitals
Intelligence Tests and Basic Abilities
Fluid intelligence on tests is measured by:‐ The ability to assemble novel puzzles‐ The ability to determine the next entry in a
series of numbers‐ The ability to identify which one of four objects
is related to the others
Children who do well on one test of fluid intelligence usually do well on other tests of fluid intelligence‐ They may no necessarily perform well on tests
of crystallized intelligence
Three-Stratum Theoryof Intelligence - John Carroll
Carroll’s hierarchal theory is essentially a compromise
between general and distinct abilities view of intelligence
Some critics still find it unsatisfactory because it ignored
the research and theory on cognitive development
Broader Theory of Intelligence
Howard Gardener proposed a theory of multiple intelligences, in which he identified 9 distinct types of intelligence.
The first three intelligences are included in psychometric theories of intelligence:
‐ Linguistic intelligence‐ Logical-Mathematical Intelligence‐ Spatial Intelligence
What Do These Intelligences Examine?
Linguistics - sensitivity to the meanings and sounds of words, mastery of syntax, appreciation of the ways language can be used
Logical-Mathematical - Understanding of objects and symbols and of actions that be performed on them and of the relations between these actions, ability to identify problems and seek explanations
Spatial - capacity to perceive the visual world accurately, to perform transformations upon perceptions and to re-create aspects of visual experience in the absence of physical stimuli
Gardener’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence
Gardener’s remaining 6 distinct intelligences are unique to Gardner’s theory:
‐ Musical‐ Bodily-kinesthetic‐ Interpersonal‐ Intrapersonal‐ Naturalistic‐ Existential intelligence
What are these Intelligences?Musical - Sensitivity to individual tones and phrases of music, an understanding of ways to combine tones and phrases into larger musical rhythms and structures, awareness of emotional aspects of music
Bodily-Kinesthetic - Use of one’s body in highly skilled ways for expressive or goal-directed purposes, capacity to handle objects skillfully
Interpersonal - Ability to notice and make distinctions among the moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of other people and potentially to act on this knowledge
Intrapersonal - access to one’s own feelings, ability to draw on one’s emotions to guide and understand one’s behavior, recognition of personal strengths and weaknesses
Naturalistic -- sensitivity and understanding of plants, animals, and other aspects of nature
Existential - sensitivity to issues related to the meaning of life, death, and other aspects of the human condition
The question arises… should we use the word intelligence to
describe all valuable skills like doing calculus, speaking 6 different languages, being able to make the
throw from home to second?
If we do… then Gardner is correct… people do have many unrelated kinds of intelligence. Now we have changed
the definition and meaning of intelligence
Gardener’s theory has prompted researchers to begin examining other
nontraditional aspects of intelligence
The best known is emotional intelligence
How is Intelligence Measured?
The first Intelligence test was created by Binet and Simon
using simple tasks to distinguish children who
would do well in school from those who wouldn’t
Binet and Simon used Mental age to distinguish “bright”
from “dull” children
What is IQ?
Lewis Terman revised Simon and Binet’s test and published a version known as the Stanford-Binet Test in 1916.
Performance was described as an intelligence quotient (IQ) which was imply the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100:
‐ IQ=MA/CA x 100
Stanford-Binet IQ TestThis test measures things that are necessary for school success ‐ Understanding and using language, memory, the
ability to follow instructions, and computational skills
Binet’s test is a set of age-graded items‐ Binet assumed that children’s abilities increase with
age‐ These items measure the person’s “mental level”
or “mental age”
Adaptive Testing‐ Determine the age level of the most advanced
items that a child could consistently answer correctly
‐ Children whose mental age equal their actual or chronological age were considered to be of “regular” intelligence
Sample Stanford-Binet Test Items
4Name objects from memory; complete analogies (fire is hot; ice is ______); identify objects of similar shape; Answer simple questions (Why do we have schools?)
6Define simple words; Explain differences (between a fish and a horse); identify missing parts of a picture; count out objects
8Answer questions about a simple story; explain similarities and differences among objects; tell how to handle certain situations (finding a stray puppy)
10Define more difficult words; Give explanations (about why people should be quiet in a library); List as many words as possible; repeat 6-digit numbers
12Identify more difficult verbal and picture absurdities; repeat 5-digit numbers in reverse order; define abstract words (sorrow); fill in a missing word in a sentence
AdultSupply several missing words for incomplete sentences; Repeat 6-digit numbers in reverse order; Create a sentence using several unrelated words; Describe similarities between concepts
Measuring Intelligence
At any age, children who are average will have an IQ of 100 because their mental age equals their chronological age.
‐ Roughly two-thirds of children will have an IQ score between 85 and 115
‐ Approximately 95% will have scores between 70 and 130
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
This summary is used to indicate a child’s intelligence relative to others of the same age
IQ tests measure an individual’s probable performance in school and similar settings
An IQ test measures performance… but an IQ test does not explain performance
A Five-Minute IQ Test1. Water lilies double in area every 24 hours. At the
beginning of the summer, there is one water lily on a lake. It takes 60 days for the lake to become covered with water lilies. On what day is the lake half-covered?
2. A farmer has 17 sheep. All but 9 break through a hole in the fence and wander away. How many are left?
3. If you have black socks and brown socks in your drawer, mixed in a ratio of 4 to 5. How many socks will you have to take out in order to have a pair of the same color?
4. With a 7-minute hourglass, and an 11-minute hourglass, how can you time the boiling of an egg for 15-minutes?
5. Washington is to one as Lincoln is to:Five --or-- Ten --or-- Fifteen --or-- Fifty
How did you do?1. On day 59. Remember, it doubles every day.
2. Nine sheep. It is just a matter of careful reading.
3. Three socks. The ratio information is irrelevant.
4. Allow both glasses to drain simultaneously. As soon as the 7-minute glass empties, flip it over (7 minutes have expired). Then, flip it over again after the 11-minute glass empties (11 minutes have expired). Fifteen minutes will have passed when the 7-minute glass empties.
5. The answer is five. The task here is to realize that the relation is no the sequence of their presidency but which denomination of bill upon which each face appears.
Another test used frequently are the Wechsler Intelligence
ScaleWechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III)‐ Used with children 6 to 16
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III)‐ Used with people 17 and older
WISC-IIIProvides a profile of someone’s strengths and weaknesses
Each test is made of 12 parts‐ Each part begins with the simplest
questions and progresses to increasingly difficult ones
‐ Performance Scale (6 parts)‐ Spatial and perceptual abilities‐ Measures fluid intelligence
‐ Verbal Scale (6 parts)‐ General knowledge of the world and skill
in using language‐ Measures crystallized intelligence
Verbal IQ is based on:‐ Information
‐ Measures a child's range of factual information‐ Example: What day of the year is Independence Day?
‐ Similarities‐ Measures a child's ability to categorize
‐ Example: In what way are wool and cotton alike?‐ Arithmetic
‐ Measures the ability to solve computational math problems
‐ Example: If I buy 6 cents worth of candy and give the clerk 25 cents, I would get _________ back in change?
‐ Vocabulary ‐ Measures the ability to define words
‐ Example: What does “telephone” mean?‐ Comprehension
‐ Measures the ability to answer common sense questions‐ Example: Why do people buy fire insurance?
‐ Digit Span ‐ Measures short-term auditory memory
Performance IQ is based on:‐ Coding
‐ Copying marks from a code; visual rote learning
‐ Picture Completion ‐ Telling what's missing in various pictures
‐ Example: Children are shown a picture, such as a car with no wheels, and are asked: What part of the picture is missing?
‐ Picture Arrangement ‐ Arranging pictures to tell a story
‐ Block Design ‐ Arranging multi-colored blocks to match printed
design ‐ Example: Using the four blocks, make one just like
this
‐ Object Assembly‐ Putting puzzles together - measures nonverbal fluid
reasoning‐ Example: If these pieces are put together correctly,
they will make something. Go ahead and put them together as quickly as you can.
The Stanford-Binet and the WISC-III cannot be used to assess infant intelligence
The Bayley Scales of Infant Development are often used for
infant assessment
Do Intelligence tests work?
To answer this question we must examine Reliability and Validity
How Stable is IQ?
Research suggests that intelligence is relatively stable from early childhood on
IQ scores tend to be fairly stable
‐ IQ test at 4 and a second at 17 - 13 points up or down‐ IQ test at 8 and a second at 17 - 9 points up or down‐ IQ test at 12 and a second at 12 - 7 points up or down
The closer together in time that IQ tests are given… the more consistent (stable) the scores.
Do tests scores really measure intelligence?
This is a question of validity. Does the test measure what it claims to
measure?Most test developers argue that their
tests are valid measures of intelligence by showing that test scores are related to children’s
grades in school
Factors that Influence Intelligence
Factors Influencing Intelligence
The Child’s Influence‐ Genetics‐ Genotype–Environment Interaction‐ Gender
The Immediate Environment’s Influence‐ Family Environment‐ School Environment
The Society’s Influence‐ Poverty‐ Race/Ethnicity
GenderBoys and girls tend to be equivalent in most aspects of intelligence‐ The average IQ scores of boys and girls is
virtually identical‐ The extremes (both low and high ends) are
over- represented by boys
Girls as a group:‐ Tend to be stronger in verbal fluency, in
writing, in perceptual speed (starting as early as the toddler years)
Boys as a group:‐ Tend to be stronger in visual-spatial
processing, in science, and in mathematical problem solving (starting as early as age 3)
SchoolingAttending school makes children smarter
‐ Children from families of low SES and those from families of high SES make comparable gains in school achievement during the school year
What about during summer break?
‐ Children from families of low SES have a drop in achievement scores
‐ Children from families of high SES have achievement scores that stay constant or rise slightly
PovertyThe more years children spend in poverty, the lower their IQs tend to be
‐ Children from lower- and working-class homes average 10-15 points below their middle-class age mates on IQ tests
In many countries, children from wealthier homes score better on IQ test than children from poorer homes
‐ The greater the gap in wealth in a country the greater the difference in IQ scores
Poverty Continued…
Chronic inadequate diet can disrupt brain development
‐ Chronic or short-term inadequate diet at any point in life can impair immediate intellectual functioning
Reduced access to health service, poor parenting, and insufficient stimulation and emotional support can impair intellectual growth
Race and Ethnicity
The average IQ score of Euro-American children is 10-15 points higher than that of African-American children
The average IQ score of Latino and American-Indian children fall somewhere in between those of Euro-American and African-American children
The average IQ score of Asian-American children tend to be higher than any other group in the US
Race and Ethnicity Continued…
American-Indian children:‐ Better on the performance part than the
verbal part of an IQ testLatino children:‐ Better on the performance part than the
verbal part of an IQ testAsian-American children:‐ Better on the performance part than the
verbal part of an IQ testAfrican-American children:‐ Better on the verbal part than the
performance part of an IQ test
Overall - differences in IQ scores of children from different racial and ethnic groups describes children’s performance ONLY in the environments in which the children live
Culture-Fair Intelligence Tests
Raven’s Progressive Matrices‐ A “culture-fair” or culture-reduced test that
would make minimal use of language and not ask for any specific facts
‐ These matrices progress from easy to difficult items -- measures abstract reasoning
Even on culture-fair tests, Euro-American and African-American children still differ
‐ One reason - culture can influence a child’s familiarity with the entire testing situation