What is ‘good practice’ in teaching an

additional language?

Richard JohnstoneMilan, March 2011

Overview

Introduction Teaching an additional language at primary school Three models of Languages Education Factors and Outcomes

What is ‘good practice’ in teaching? How might we recognize ‘good practice’? Some examples

Conclusions

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Three models of Languages Education at primary school

MLPS Limited amount of time / Variety of starting ages Main aims are to teach initial aspects of the additional

language and associated cultures By far, the dominant model across the world

CLIL Teaching one or two subjects (or aspects of subjects) througth

the medium of the additional language More time (e.g. 20-25% of time overall) Strongly endorsed by European Commission

BILINGUAL/ IMMERSION EDUCATION Considerably more time (Minimally 40% of time overall) A range of underlying deep societal aims

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Factors and OutcomesSOCIETAL PROVISION PROCESS INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES

Exposure to TL

Business Need

Time

Intensity

Teaching

Instruction

Age

Literacies

Plurilingual proficiency

Dominance of English

Information

Innovation

Learning

Acquisition

Ethnicity

Prior languages

Proficiency in a particular language

Treatment by the media

Place of Ls in the curriculum

Problem-solving

Networking

Gender

Prior attainments

Examination

Attainments

Internet

Globalisation / Localisation

Supply, Training and CPD of teachers

Communication

Interaction

Socio-economic background

Identity

Sense of self

Transferable skills

Political will

Parental Demand

Teacher clusters and networks

Assessment

Evaluation

Attitudes and Motivation

Citizenship

Mobility

Attitudes to particular languages and communities

Policies and support (transnational / national / local)

Planning

Management

Administration

Personality

Cognitive style

Learning strategy

Autonomy

Intercultural competence

EU citizenship (e.g. basic right to mobility)

Infrastructure for continuity across sectors

Innovation

Development

Research

Confidence

Anxiety

Self-esteem

Teachers

Job satisfaction

Career prospects

Fast capitalism / elite bilingualism

Evaluation

Research

Fund-raising

Profile-raising

Values

Beliefs

Schools

Ethos&Reputation

Performance

BEP (SPAIN) KEY POSITIVE FACTORS

SOCIETAL PROVISION PROCESS

•Political will•Parental interest & demand for EBEiE•But pupils had very limited contact with English outside school

•An early start (in some cases from age 3)•Substantial time for English (40%)•Leadership at national level from Ministry & British Council together•Supernumerary teachers fluent in English•Agreed continuity across primary and secondary education•Supportive national Guidelines on BEP curriculum•In-service courses for teachers•Highly reputable external international examination for students at age 16

•General teaching strategies•Language-focused strategies•Activities which offer students cognitive challenge, integrating their knowledge•Creation of community atmosphere in class•Use of assessment in support of learning•Management approach based on consultation and collaboration

What is ‘good practice’ in teaching a ML?

Doing things which are considered to be ‘good’ ‘As a teacher, I am implementing a communicative approach’ ‘I am using the Council of Europe Portfolio’ ‘I am developing a learner-centred approach’ ‘I am developing intercultural competence’ ‘I am introducing CLIL ......’

BUT ........ Although these things are probably ‘good’, and I have observed some

excellent teaching based on them I have also observed some unimpressive teaching based on them

So ‘good practice’ should also minimally imply ...

... Doing these things well!

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Recognizing ‘good practice’

Doing these things well ..... Yes, we can look at how well the teacher performs

certain activities But we should also make judgements about

good practice in teaching by observing closely its actual effects on pupils/students What were pupils doing really well? What teacher behaviours seemed associated with

this? (BEP Evaluation, Spain)

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Three components of ‘good practice’

.

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1. Implementing activities

which are desirable

2. Doing them

well / skilfully / smoothly

/coherently / responsively

......

3. Taking careful

account of effects on

pupils / students

In the BEP evaluation, we worked from 3. to 2. to 1.

BEP STUDY 1: Primary 5 & 6 pupils’ performance and attainments in classrooms

Fluent and confident command of English, including technical vocabulary

Production of extended utterances General ease of comprehension and of interaction

with the teacher A range of language functions to express the

discourse of science and English language & literacy lessons.

Some errors but these seemed developmental and not to detract from pupils’ generally promising performance.

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BEP STUDY 3: Secondary 2 students’ performance and attainments in class

Fluent and confident use of language reflecting students’ maturing cognitive capacities.

Specialized vocabulary to cope with particular content areas: e.g. ‘fertilisation’, ‘characteristics of predators’, ‘acids &

alkalis’ Range of language functions, related to

English (language & literacy) and Science: e.g. providing explanations; coping in an interview;

improvising; making a presentation; elaborating the consequences of particular processes; constructing their own arguments

Range of social and task-related purposes: e.g. banter; peer-support; conducting experiments

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BEP STUDY 5: Infants and early primary

The lessons observed show substantial progression from age 3 to age 7 in pupils’ learning and language development: Initially, their activity was based on actions, songs,

chants, games, objects and visuals By Year 2 of primary school they had moved into the

use of English for doing science in the form of studying the environment: Generated longer utterances in response to technical

questions Some degree of verbal reasoning Pronunciation generally very good High speed of comprehension and an ability to

demonstrate this quickly through actions and mimes The teachers were generally pleasant, calm, organized

and encouraging. Their English was good, as was their planning and organization. They had high expectations of their pupils.

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BEP Primary 5/6 performance in class

T: ‘What happens when you have a cold?’

P: ‘Mucus goes through the Eustachian tube into the middle ear.’

T: ‘How does the doctor know this if he cannot see into the middle ear?’

P: ‘He sees a change in the position of the eardrum.’

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BEP Primary 5/6 performance in class

‘If a liquid is not in a container, it will spill (spread) out.’ (boy)

‘If we pour a liquid from one container to another, it changes shape’(boy)

‘If you put the water from the jar into the beaker, it will take the shape of the new container. The shape of the water change’ (sic).

‘We can see that solids can be different. They have different volume and matter’ (girl)

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BEP Primary 5/6 performance in class

‘We know that light travels in straight lines because ……… behind the opaque object, you cannot see the light, only the shadow. When you put a bottle or glass in front of a source of light, the light travels through it’.

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BEP Good Practice: General Teaching

Keeps all pupils involved in the lesson

Checks pupils’ outputs Is willing to collaborate

with colleagues Is firm but pleasant Uses visual aids Gives clear explanations

of what pupils are to do Reviews pupil outputs

with the whole class Gives clear guidelines

for use of ICT in class

Keeps pupils’ attention focused

Avoids spoon-feeding Presents tasks in a clear

and interesting way Keeps a log of mistakes

for subsequent comment

Chooses websites which are appropriate and comprehensible

Helps pupils work out their own solutions

Exudes ‘presence’

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BEP Good Practice: More language-focused

Helps pupils focus on linguistic form as well as function and meaning

 Pays due attention to accuracy, especially where meaning would otherwise be compromised

Introduces deliberate mistakes for pupils to identify and correct

Helps pupils focus on key words

Helps pupils develop clear definitions 

Helps them describe the properties of things

Helps them make contrasts, e.g. …. whereas ….. 

Helps them develop robust classifications

Helps them develop use of the passive voice, essential for science

Pupils have to extend their utterances by using additional vocabulary

Colour-codes in order to highlight particular types of word, e.g. verbs

Allows judicious use of Spanish

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CHILDREN’S MOTIVATION: ACTIVITIES

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Wu (2003) studied children aged 5 learning English primary school in Hong Kong, monolingual

Cantonese classroom activities which fostered intrinsic

motivation These included

a predictable learning environment, moderately challenging tasks, necessary instructional support, evaluation that emphasises self-improvement attribution of success or failure to variables that the

learner can do something about.

L1 / L2 within one overall system

Primary Year 1& 2 Introduction of some 30 language concepts in the national

language

Primary Year 3 & 4 These same concepts systematically transferred into the

learning of a foreign language Initially for recognition / comprehension, then for

production Pupils used these concepts in order to monitor their own

spontaneous oral production and to plan and then monitor their own spontaneous and planned written production

Outcomes Spoken and written output that was fluent, creative and

accurate

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EARLY READING19

Mertens (2003) found that children in Grade 1 learning French benefited from being introduced to written French

immediately showed results superior to those in purely oral approaches

Vickov (2007) claims that children at Grade 1 in Croatia were not disadvantaged in their writing in Croatian by being

introduced to writing in English. Dlugosz (2000) found that the introduction of reading in

the foreign language at kindergarten even when reading in the first language was also only just

starting helped speed the process of understanding and speaking the

foreign language.

PROGRESSION: UPS & DOWNS20

Mitchell (2003) claims that second language learning is not like climbing a ladder; but is a complex and recursive process with multiple

interconnections and backslidings, and complex trade-offs between advances in fluency, accuracy and

complexity.

Pelzer-Karpf & Zangl (1997) found that children’s utterances seemed impressive in Years 1&2 but then in Year 3 went through a phase of ‘Systemturbulenz’

in which their grammar control seemed to fall apart when the cognitive demands of their tasks were raised to the

point that temporarily their grammar-systems could not fully cope

But by Year 4 it sorted itself out.

CREATIVITY AND ACCURACY21

Lyster (2004) studied ‘form-focused instruction’ (FFI) and ‘corrective feedback’ (CF) with Grade 5 children.

FFI and CF were found to be more successful than an approach based on no-FFI and no-CF Recasts: an example of no-FFI & no CF

What did you do yesterday evening? I watch television Oh, you watched television? Yes

He also found it useful to encourage pupils in ‘noticing’ particular formal features of the target language

This helped them develop an awareness of language and to refine their internalised language systems as they progressed

Thinking of introducing CLIL or EBE Not to be undertaken lightly Think carefully about it and analyze your own

situation What are the key societal / provision / process factors I must

take into account in my context, in order to make a good start? In particular, think of teacher supply, teacher CPD and provision

of appropriate materials

Consult staff, parents and relevant authorities Inform yourselves + staff + parents about what CLIL

and EBE are and require Plan for sustainability Seek to develop ICT and other contacts

Joint projects / intercultural learning / exposure to wider range of L2 models

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CONCLUSION: SUCCESSFUL LEARNER

Plans, practices, revises Reviews, Self-assesses Processes input, e.g.

notices, guesses, infers, predicts

Seeks opportunities to use the additional language ‘for real’

Seeks feedback: negative as well as positive

Relates learning & use of the additional language to the learning of other things

Uses reference material appropriately

Interacts and negotiates meaning, e.g. probes, seeks clarification

Offers help, seeks help Takes personal

responsibility

Is aware of and manages different types of discourse

Produces spontaneous as well as non-spontaneous output

Focuses on form as well as on meaning, at different times

Controls anxiety and uses this productively

Feels confident, self-efficacious

Seeks underlying pattern Pays attention, focuses

attention, sustains attention

Develops strategies, uses these and reflects on / revises them

Self-motivates, self-rewards, is curious and seeks challenges

…… Other?

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REFERENCES

Chesterton, P., Steigler-Peters, S., Moran, W. & Piccioli, M. T. (2004). Developing sustainable language learning pathways: an Australian initiative. Language, Culture & Curriculum, 17, 1, 48-57 balance. Windsor: NFER Publishing.

Dlugosz, D.W. (2000). Rethinking the role of reading in teaching a foreign language to young learners. ELT Journal, 54 3, 284 - 290.

Edelenbos, P., Johnstone R. M. & Kubanek, A. (2006). The main pedagogical principles underlying the teaching of languages to very young learners. Languages for the children of Europe: Published Research, Good Practice & Main Principles. Brussels, European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/doc/young_en.pdf

European Commission. (2003). Promoting language learning and linguistic diversity: an Action Plan 2004-2006. Brussels: European Commission

Johnstone, R. M. (2001. Addressing 'the age factor': some implications for languages policy. Guide for the development of Language Education Policies in Europe - From Linguistic Diversity to Plurilingual Education. Strasbourg, Council of Europe Reference Study http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/JohnstoneEN.pdf

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REFERENCES (continued)

Lyster, R. (2004a). Differential effects of prompts and recasts in form-focused instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 399-432.

Lyster, R. (2004b). Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: implications for theory and practice. Journal of French Language Studies, 14, 3, 321-41.

Mertens, J. (2003). Rhythm, rhymes and rules. Vom Nutzen der Schrift (nicht nur) beim frühen Englischlernen. Fremdsprachenunterricht, 47 (56) 3, 168 - 173.

Mitchell, R. (2003). Rethinking the concept of progression in the national curriculum for modern foreign languages: a research perspective. Language Learning Journal, Winter 2003.

Peltzer-Karpf, A. & Zangl, R. (1997). Vier Jahre Vienna Bilingual Schooling: Eine angzeitstudie. Vienna; Bundesministerium für Unterricht und kulturelle Angelegenheiten., Abteilung 1/1.

Vrhovac, Y. (Ed.) (2010. Introducing the European Language Portfolio in the Croatian and French foreign language classroom: teachers’ experiences and classroom activities with 8 to 14 year-olds. University of Zagreb: Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences.

Vickov, G. (2007) Pisanje na engleskom u prvom razredu osnovne skole (Writing skills in English in the first Grade of primary school), Stranijezici.

Wu, X. (2003). Intrinsic motivation and young language learners: the impact of the classroom environment. System, 31 4, 501 - 517.

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SUCCESSFUL ELL TEACHING: 1

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Planning: Seeking to develop not only AL proficiency but also broader

aims, e.g. citizenship, intercultural learning, social skills Collaborating and joint planning with other colleagues in the

school, with parents and with teachers in secondary schools Planning long-term for sustainability, as well as short-term for

success Adopting an inclusive approach, bringing encouragement,

emotional warmth appropriate support to all pupils Understanding that true progression in a language is not based

on the ‘ladder’ model but is a more complex and recursive process.

Building on children’s first language, whatever that may be, helping them to develop explicit conceptual knowledge of this which is then transferred systematically to the additional language they are learning.

SUCCESSFUL ELL TEACHING: 2

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Providing: a clear example to pupils of oneself as an enthusiastic,

though by no means perfect, AL learner and user encouragement, sustained and varied input, interaction,

feedback, a supportive learning environment and guidance

a challenge which stimulates pupils’ interest and �curiosity

corrective as well as positive feedback, while ensuring �that this does not undermine confidence or self-esteem

open-ended questions and stimuli, encouraging children �to be free and creative.

SUCCESSFUL ELL TEACHING: 3

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Encouraging learners: to be strategic &reflective, to engage in self-assessment &

self-monitoring to begin reading, writing from an early stage to draw holistically on their range of capacities and senses,

e.g. physical movement, sense of shape, colour, gesture ….. to derive motivation from feelings of pleasure and success in

what they are attempting to do �to focus on the structure of different kinds of discourse, e.g.

conversations, stories, reports, essays, letters … to develop skills of predicting, guessing and making

inferences to reflect on and explore the rich diversity of human

language and the immense linguistic potential that each of us possesses

KEEPING A PORTFOLIO 29

Short statements of what learners think they can do I can explain … a game, a recipe, how to make something I can narrate/tell … an experience, a story, a film I can say … what I like/dislike, and explain why I can speak/talk about … my friends, family I can read … an illustrated children’s book I can find … in a text what I am looking for

Personal diary of occasions outside school when the learner used the target language

Brief discussion of language-learning problems encountered, and of solutions which the learner has found

….. Other?

Portfolio: impact on pupils

The Portfolio offers an opportunity for the teacher to continuously follow and assess the pupils’ achievements; it motivates pupils to use the foreign language, and develops their awareness of the need to take responsibility for their learning and performance.

It helps pupils to consciously follow the development of their overall language and communication competence.

Teachers see that pupils, with their help, can independently and with full responsibility do the tasks, prepare their language production, think about it, and decide what they have done well, and what could be improved, and finally, assess their own performance.

Vrhovac et al (2010)

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CHILDREN’S INTRINSIC MOTIVATION: DEVELOPMENT

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Nikolov (1999) followed three cohorts of children for eight years, taught by the same teacher

It was found that learners’ motivation could be maintained by

intrinsically interesting and cognitively challenging tasks

Intrinsic motivation Initially associated with ‘fun’ activity Then becomes linked to ‘curiosity’ and ‘challenge’ Then becomes associated with perception of self

as successful language learner

PROCESSES: PEER-TUTORING32

Xu, Gelper & Perkins (2005) studied class-wide peer-tutoring (CWPT) Children at elementary school Grade 2 in the United

States Regular instances of:

cooperative play reciprocal initiation & response.

The researchers concluded that: CWPT had significantly helped the children in their social

behaviour.

Reference: Xu, Y., J. Gelfer & P. Perkins. (2005). Using peer-tutoring to increase social interactions

in early schooling. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 1, 83-106

PROCESSES: COMPUTER-MEDIATED

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Nutta et al (2002) compared a conventional text-based approach with a computer-enhanced

multimedia approach, pupils Grades 2-5 in a USA elementary school. The computer-enhanced group:

more interactive greater access to immediate feedback more precise in pronunciation smoother flow of reading produced larger chunks of language.

Concluded that: ICT can help younger learners in integrating their languages skills and

in developing important strategies of monitoring.

Reference: Nutta, J. et. al. (2002). Exploring new frontiers: What do computers contribute to

teaching foreign languages in elementary school? Foreign Language Annals, 35 , 3, 293 - 306.

KEY MLPS FACTOR: CONTINUITY 34

It works well when across the two sectors (Primary-Secondary) there is the following: exchange of information and support reciprocal visits collaborative planning mutual esteem

Large-scale project in New South Wales,Australia: Chesterton et al (2004) Joint planning by teachers covering 3 years at

Primary School and 2 years at Secondary School