What is Cognitive Psychology? Focuses on processes going on in
the mind. The mind is a black box, often inaccessible Examines how
these processes work Examines how these processes help structure
our understanding of reality Examines what effect these processes
have on human behavior Examines the role of mental processes in
abnormal behavior
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Principles defining Cognitive level of analysis Principle 1:
Human beings are information processors and mental processes guide
human behavior. Principle 2: The mind can be studied scientifically
Principle 3 Cognitive processes are influenced by social and
cultural factors
Slide 4
State the principles of the CLA Human beings are information
processors and that mental representations guide behaviour Mental
processes can and should be studied scientifically by developing
theories and by using a variety of research methods Social and
cultural factors affect cognitive processes
Slide 5
More about the principles Purpose of the principles These
principles are the main ideas that have driven focused research on
specific areas of behaviour and cognition. They also allow us to
understand how behaviour can be influenced by cognitive processes
Define cognition Refers to a process that is based on one's mental
representations of the world, such as images, words and concepts
People likewise have different experiences and therefore each
individual will have different mental representations of the
world.
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Principle 1 Cognitive psychologists believe that mental
processes and stored representations of the world determine
behaviour and are central to human experience.
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Description Psychologists see the mind as a complex machine
where they believe that it is useful to model mental processes
using an information-processing approach whereby: Information is
examined from the outside world is received and encoded Storage and
representation of this information to ourselves Ways in which this
information is manipulated and used by the individual And how we
output information back into the world to be received by others.
Computer Analogy Brain hardware Thoughts and representations
software
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Computer Analogy Attempted to understand what occurs between
input and output. They have addressed how the mind selects and
codes incoming information and represents knowledge to itself while
processing it and combining it with previously stored information
(organisation), and then how inferences are made based upon this
information and therefore how these cognitions affect behaviour.
(OR) Both people and computers store information and retrieve it
when applicable to current tasks. People, like computers acquire
information from the environment (input). Both transform
information, produce new information and then both return the
information back to the environment in the form of behaviour
(output).
Slide 9
Top Down/Bottom up processing According to this approach,
information input to the mind comes via bottom-up processing that
is, from the sensory system. This information is processed in the
mind by top-down processing via pre-stored information (schemas) in
the memory. Finally, when the information is processed there is
some output in the form of behaviour.
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Seen via This information processing approach/principle can be
seen in: Schema theory assumed to operate through top-down
processing; the role of schema (organized sets of associated
information) shape perception and can increase efficiency of
processing, but can also lead to distortions. They allow us to take
short-cuts in interpreting vast amounts of information.
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Principle 2: Mind Studied Scientifically A second principle the
CLA states that the mind can be studied scientifically by
developing theories and by using a number of scientific research
methods. Mental processes/representations can be studied
empirically even if they cannot be directly observed in the same
way as behaviour. Describe the principle Testable theories can be
developed and derived from unobservable cognitive
structures/processes, and inferences made. These theories can be
tested using a scientific and appropriate research method of
experimentation. Thus, the mind (cognitive functions, structures
and processes) can be studied scientifically.
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Application of Principle 2 This information processing
approach/principle can be seen: Through memory processes such as
the models of memory demonstrated by Atkinson & Shiffrin
(1968). Connection of study to principle Atkinson & Shiffrin
demonstrating how cognitive processes such as memory, can be
scientifically studied. Atkinson & Shiffrin developed a theory
of memory, known as the multistore model. And this theory enabled
them to study memory being a cognitive process. Thus, the mind
(cognitive functions, structures and processes) can be studied
scientifically and therefore making these cognitive theories and
models be applied to real-life scenarios. Many other studies
(coming)
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Principle 3 Cognitive processes are influenced by social and
cultural factors. An example of a cognitive process is schemas
Schemas are organised mental representations of knowledge of
people, objects, events and actions The schema theory is the
cognitive theory of processing information The information that a
person is exposed to can be determined by the society and the
culture that they are in. Likewise, because people are in different
societies and cultures, different people are exposed to different
information. Therefore individuals will have different schemas
Social and cultural factors are factors that is dependent on/varies
depending on culture Examples include Religion Cultural tradition
Beliefs Morals Whereby these examples are acquired from important
persons such as parents, peers, teachers etc
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I.E Bartlett This principle is demonstrated in a study
conducted by Bartlett (1932) Bartlett's study supports the
principle that social and cultural factors affect cognitive
processes as: The difference in participants and the stimuli used
in terms of culture affected mental representations (schemas)/ This
is demonstrated by the changing of unfamiliar words to familiar
terms For example: 'Hunting seals' changed to 'fishing' 'Canoes'
changed to 'boats'
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Cognitive Schema IMPORTANT SO DO NOT EVER FORGET THIS!!!
Cognitive Schema: A mental representation of knowledge stored in
the brain A network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about
particular aspects in the world. In 5 minutes find examples of
these
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More about Schemas Knowledge that is stored in our memory is
organized as a set of schemas (or knowledge structures), which
represent the general knowledge about the world, people, events,
objects, actions and situations that has been acquired from past
experiences. Types of schemas: Scripts provide information about
the sequence of events that occur in particular contexts (e.g.
going to a restaurant, visiting the dentist, attending class).s
Self-schemas organise information we have about ourselves
(information stored in our memory about our strengths and
weaknesses and how we feel about them). Social schemas (e.g.
stereotypes) represent information about groups of people (e.g.
Americans, Egyptians, women, accountants, etc.).
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What is Schema Theory?? Crucial!!! Cognitive theory of
processing and organizing information. Schema theory states that as
active processors of information, humans integrate new information
with existing, stored information.
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The effects of Schema Theory on our understanding of reality
Existing knowledge stored in our memory (what we already know) and
organized in the form of schemas will affect information processing
and behaviour in specific settings. E.g. Information we already
know affects the way we interpret new information and events and
how we store it in our memory. It is not possible to see how
knowledge is processed and stored in the brain, but the concept of
schema theory helps psychologists understand and discuss what
cannot be seen. Schema theory can describe how specific knowledge
is organised and stored in memory so that it can be retrieved.
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Evaluating Schema Theory Schema theory will be evaluated,
making an appraisal by weighing up strengths and limitations with
some reference to studies on the effect of schema on memory. Schema
theory provides the theoretical basis for the studies reported
below.
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Supporting Studies Bartlett War of the Ghosts (1932) Anderson
& Pichert (1978) Brewer & Treyens picnic basket (1981)
French & Richards (1933)
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Supporting Study 1: Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghost Aim:
Bartlett aimed to determine how social and cultural factors
influence schemas and hence can lead to memory distortions.
Methods: Participants used were of an English background. Were
asked to read The War of the Ghosts a Native American folk tale.
Tested their memory of the story using serial reproduction and
repeated reproduction, where they were asked to recall it six or
seven times over various retention intervals. Serial reproduction:
the first participant reading the story reproduces it on paper,
which is then read by a second participant who reproduces the first
participants reproduction, and so on until it is reproduced by six
or seven different participants. Repeated reproduction: the same
participant reproduces the story six or seven times from their own
previous reproductions. Their reproductions occur between time
intervals from 15 minutes to as long as several years.
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Results Both methods lead to similar results. As the number of
reproductions increased, the story became shorter and there were
more changes to the story. For example, hunting seals changed into
fishing and canoes became boats. These changes show the alteration
of culturally unfamiliar things into what the English participants
were culturally familiar with, This makes the story more
understandable according to the participants experiences and
cultural background (schemas). He found that recalled stories were
distorted and altered in various ways making it more conventional
and acceptable to their own cultural perspective
(rationalization).
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Bartlett 1932 A War of Ghosts Participants read a story Later
asked to recall the story Results: Distortion: Participants changed
the story as they tried to remember it. This happened in 3 main
ways. Assimilation: The story became more consistent with the
participants own cultural expectations - that is, details were
unconsciously changed to fit the norms of British culture Leveling:
The story also became shorter with each retelling as participants
omitted information which was seen as not important. Sharpening:
Participants also tended to change the order of the story in order
to make sense of it using terms more familiar to the culture of the
participants. They also added detail and/or emotions
Slide 24
Conclusion: Memory is very inaccurate It is always subject to
reconstruction based on pre-existing schemas Bartletts study helped
to explain through the understanding of schemas when people
remember stories, they typically omit (leave out) some details, and
introduce rationalisations and distortions, because they
reconstruct the story so as to make more sense in terms of their
knowledge, the culture in which they were brought up in and
experiences in the form of schemas.
Slide 25
Evaluation: Limitations: Bartlett did not explicitly ask
participants to be as accurate as possible in their reproduction
Experiment was not very controlled instructions were not
standardised (specific) disregard for environmental setting of
experiment
Slide 26
Connection of study to question Bartlett's study shows how
schema theory is useful for understand how people categorise
information, interpret stories, and make inferences. It also
contributes to understanding of cognitive distortions in
memory.
Slide 27
Supporting Study 2: Anderson and Pichert (1978) Further support
for the influence of schemas of memory on cognition memory at
encoding point was reported by Anderson and Pichert (1978). Aim: To
investigate if schema processing influences encoding and
retrieval.
Slide 28
Method: Half the participants were given the schema of a
burglar and the other half was given the schema of a potential
house-buyer. Participants then heard a story which was based on 72
points, previously rated by a group of people based on their
importance to a potential house-buyer (leaky roof, damp basement)
or a burglar (10speed bike, colour TV). Participants performed a
distraction task for 12 minutes, before recall was tested. After
another 5 minute delay, half of the participants were given the
switched schema. Participants with burglar schema were given
house-buyer schema and vice versa. The other half of the
participants kept the same schema. All participants recalls were
tested again. Shorter Method: Participants read a story from the
perspective of either a burglar or potential home buyer. After they
had recalled as much as they could of the story from the
perspective they had been given, they were shifted to the
alternative perspective (schema) and were asked to recall the story
again.
Slide 29
Results: Participants who changed schema recalled 7% more
points on the second recall test than the first. There was also a
10% increase in the recall of points directly linked to the new
schema. The group who kept the same schema did not recall as many
ideas in the second testing. Research also showed that people
encoded different information which was irrelevant to their
prevailing schema (those who had buyer schema at encoding were able
to recall burglar information when the schema was changed, and vice
versa). This shows that our schemas of knowledge, etc. are not
always correct, because of external influences. Summary: On the
second recall, participants recalled more information that was
important only to the second perspective or schema than they had
done on the first recall.
Slide 30
Conclusion: Schema processing has an influence at the encoding
and retrieval stage, as new schema influenced recall at the
retrieval stage.
Slide 31
Evaluation: Strengths Controlled laboratory experiment allowed
researchers to determine a cause-effect relationship on how schemas
affect different memory processes. Limitations Lacks ecological
validity Laboratory setting Unrealistic task, which does not
reflect something that the general population would do Connection
of study to question This study provides evidence to support schema
theory affecting the cognitive process of memory. Strength of
schema theory there is research evidence to support it.
Slide 32
Supporting Study 3: Brewer and Treyens (1981) picnic basket
Introduce Study/Signpost:
Slide 33
The study Aim: To see whether a stereotypical schema of an
office would affect memory (recall) of an office. Methods:
Participants were taken into a university student office and left
for 35 seconds before being taken to another room. They were asked
to write down as much as they could remember from the office.
Slide 34
The Study Results: Participants recalled things of a typical
office according to their schema. They did not recall the wine and
picnic basket that were in the office. Conclusions: Participants'
schema of an office influenced their memory of it. They did not
recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their
typical office schema.
Slide 35
Evaluation: Strengths: Strict control over variables --> to
determine cause & effect relationship Limitation: Lacks
ecological validity Laboratory setting artificial environment Task
does not reflect daily activity
Slide 36
Connection of study to question This study provides evidence to
support how our schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive
processes, in particular memory. Our schemas influence what we
recall in our memory. Strength of schema theory there is many types
of research evidence to support it.
Slide 37
Draw Me..
Slide 38
Slide 39
Supporting Study 4: French and Richards (1933) Aim: To
investigate the schemata influence on memory retrieval. Methods: In
the study there were three conditions: Condition 1: Participants
were shown a clock with roman numerals and asked to draw from
memory. Condition 2: The same procedure, except the participants
were told beforehand that they would be required to draw the clock
from memory. Condition 3: The clock was left in full view of the
participants and just had to draw it. The clock used represented
the number four with IIII, not the conventional IV.
Slide 40
The study Results: In the first two conditions, the
participants reverted to the conventional IV notation, whereas in
the third condition, the IIII notation, because of the direct copy.
They found that subjects asked to draw from memory a clock that had
Roman numerals on its face typically represented the number four on
the clock face as IV rather than the correct IIII, whereas those
merely asked to copy it typically drew IIII. Conclusions: French
and Richards explained this result in terms of schematic knowledge
of roman numerals affecting memory retrieval. The findings
supported the idea that subjects in the copy condition were more
likely than subjects in other conditions to draw the clock without
invoking schematic knowledge of Roman numerals.
Slide 41
Evaluation: Strengths: Strict control over variables to
determine cause & effect relationship Limitation: Lacks
ecological validity Laboratory setting artificial environment Task
does not reflect daily activity
Slide 42
Connection of study to question This study provides evidence to
support how our schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive
processes, in particular memory. Our schemas influence what we
recall in our memory. Strength of schema theory there is many types
of research evidence to support it.
Slide 43
Summary of evaluation of schema theory: Define strengths of
schema theory: Supported by lots of research to suggest schemas
affect memory processes knowledge, both in a positive and negative
sense. Through supporting studies, schema theory was demonstrated
in its usefulness for understanding how memory is categorized, how
inferences are made, how stories are interpreted, memory
distortions and social cognition.
Slide 44
Strengths and weaknesses continued Define weaknesses of schema
theory: Not many studies/research evidence that evaluate and find
limitations of schema theory Lacks explanation It is not clear
exactly how schemas are initially acquired how they influence
cognitive processes how people choose between relevant schemas when
categorising people Cohen (1993) argued that: The concept of a
schema is too vague to be useful. Schema theory does not show how
schemas are required. It is not clear which develops first, the
schema to interpret the experiences or vice versa.
Slide 45
Weaknesses continued Schema theory explains how new information
is categorised according to existing knowledge. But it does not
account for completely new information that cannot link with
existing knowledge. Therefore, it does not explain how new
information is organised in early life E.g. language
acquisition
Slide 46
Concluding Points Thus schemas affect our cognitive processes
and are used to organize our knowledge, assist recall, guide our
behaviour, predict likely happenings and help make sense of current
experiences helps us understand how we organize our knowledge. In
conclusion, strengths of schema theory: Provides an explanation for
how knowledge is stored in the mind something that is unobservable
and remains unknown in psychology There is much research that
supports schema theory But its limitations are that, It is unclear
exactly how schemas are acquired and how people choose between
schemas It does not account for new information without a link to
existing schemas Overall, with the amount of evidence, schema
theory should be considered an important theory that provides
insight into information processing and behaviour. It has
contributed largely to our understanding of mental processes. But
the theory requires further research and refinements to overcome
its limitations and uncover its unclear aspects
Evaluate: two models or theories of one cognitive process with
reference to research studies
Slide 49
Memory Memory is defined to be the mental process of encoding,
storing and retrieving information Outline Memory Process Memory
undergoes a series of stages in order to store its information.
Encoding process: incoming information is organized and transformed
so it can be entered into memory Storage process: involves entering
and maintaining information in memory for a period of time
Retrieval process: involves recovering stored information from
memory so it can be used
Slide 50
State the different models/theories of memory There are three
main types of models of memory that demonstrate how our memory
processes work including the: Multistore Model (MSM) Working Memory
Model (WM) Levels of Processing Model (LOP)
Slide 51
Multi-Store Memory Model
Slide 52
Describe the MSM Proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) The
multi-store model (MSM) consists of three memory stores: Sensory
memory (SM) Short-term memory (STM) Long term memory (LTM)... that
is used for different tasks.
Slide 53
Sensory Memory SM is... A storage system that holds information
in a relatively unprocessed form for fractions of a second after
the physical stimulus is no longer available stores sensory
characteristics of a stimulus. Plays a vital role in filtering out
useless information, enabling us to focus our attention on
important details. Duration: decays rapidly Capacity: unlimited
Coding: information is picked up by our senses and stored in this
form Iconic: visual information enters the visual store Echoic:
auditory information is handled by the auditory sensory store
Haptic: information picked up via sense of touch
Slide 54
Short Term Memory A limited-capacity memory system for storing
information for brief periods of time. A & S (1968) see STM as
a temporary storage depot for incoming information after it
receives and encodes information from the sensory memory Short Term
Memory (Store) (STM/S): Duration: 15-30 seconds (Atkinson &
Shiffrin, 1971) Capacity: limited; 7 2units (Miller, 1956) Coding:
Acoustically (Baddeley, 1966) Information is lost unless it is
rehearsed (via repetition)
Slide 55
LTM LTM is...: Holds a vast quantity of information, which can
be stored for long periods of time. Information kept here is
diverse and wide-ranging, including all our personal memories,
general knowledge and beliefs about the world, plans for the
future, and where our knowledge about skills and expertise is
deposited.
Slide 56
LTM Continued Long Term Memory (Store) (LTM/S): Duration:
Long-lasting (perhaps for a lifetime), proposed that it could last
for 48 years (Bahrick et al, 1975) Capacity: Unlimited Coding:
Primarily semantic (Baddeley, 1966); but also acoustic and visual
Information in the LTS can also be recalled via retrieval, bringing
the information back to the STS
Slide 57
Studies: Supporting Study 1 Studying properties of STM Baddeley
A key researcher who investigated encoding, (which is the first and
crucial process of creating memories, which allows the perceived
item of interest to be converted into a construct/concept that can
stored within the brain, and then recalled later from the STM or
LTM) is by Baddeley (1966).
Slide 58
The study Aim: To investigate encoding in the short term memory
store Methods: Participants were given lists of words that were:
acoustically similar (e.g. cat, mat...) acoustically different
(e.g. pen, cow...) semantically similar (e.g. boat, ship...)
semantically different (e.g. book, tree...) Their recall of the
words was tested. Results: In STM, better recall of acoustically
different than acoustically similar words more errors with
similarly sounding words than distinctly sounding words Slightly
better recall of semantically different words than semantically
similar words Conclusions: In the STS, information is encoded
acoustically because recall is affected by the sound of words
Slide 59
Study 2 LTM Encoding (same guy) Aim: To investigate encoding in
LTM Method: Participants were given the same lists of words in the
previous experiment for STM Their recall of the words was tested
Results: In LTM, no difference in recall of acoustically different
and acoustically similar words Much better recall of semantically
different words than semantically similar words Conclusion: In LTM,
there is semantic encoding because recall is affected by meaning of
words
Slide 60
Evaluation: Strengths Laboratory experiment strict control over
variables able to determine a cause-effect relationship between
Weaknesses Laboratory experiment Lacks ecological validity Task is
unrealistic; does not reflect daily activity participants would
do
Slide 61
How relevant?? Connection of study to question This study
supports the Multi-store model of memory as it shows that: STM and
LTM have different encoding processes: STM: acoustic encoding LTM:
semantic encoding Thus STM & LTM are separate stores.
Slide 62
Supporting Study 3 (Case Study) A study demonstrating memory
processes between the STM and LTM in regards to the MSM is by Sacks
on Clive Wearing (2007). History: Clive Wearing was a musician who
got a viral infection encephalitis. This left him with serious
brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused him memory
impairment. He suffers from: anterograde amnesia impairment in
ability to remember after a particular incident retrograde amnesia
impairment in ability to remember before a particular incident
Slide 63
Findings: Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and
sight-read music (procedural knowledge) He could not transfer
information from STM to LTM. His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he
was unable to form new memories. Conclusion: STM & LTM are
separate stores STM has limited duration Evaluation: Strengths Case
study Realistic In-depth information Limitations Cannot be
generalised to the whole population
Slide 64
Relevance This study supports the multi-store model because it
shows that: STM and LTM are separate stores Wearing has STM intact
but could not access LTM STM has a limited duration Wearing could
only use STM and he experienced time elapses of around 30 seconds.
It also provides support for anterograde amnesia. Does not support
the multistore Model of memory because: Wearing had significant
damage to his declarative memory, but his procedural memory was
fully intact This suggests that LTM is separated into declarative
and procedural, rather than a single, unitary store as the MSM
assumes.
Slide 65
Study 4 (Case Study) Another demonstrating memory processes
between the STM and LTM in regards to the MSM is by Shallice and
Warrington on KF (1974). History: KF was in a motorcycle accident
which impaired his memory
Slide 66
Study 4 contd Findings: He could transfer information from STM
tLTM He suffered problems with STM of different types of
information digit span was severely impaired visual and auditory
information (e.g. telephone ring) was unaffected Conclusion:
Findings suggest that: STM & LTM are separate STM is not
required for LTM There may be more than one STM store --> it is
possible to suffer impairment of verbal information without
affecting auditory information
Slide 67
Evaluation: Strengths Case study Realistic In-depth information
Limitations Cannot be generalised to the whole population
Relevance?? This study supports the idea that memory stores are not
unitary. KF suffered impairment of some types of STM (verbal) but
had others fully intact (auditory) STM store is not unitary
Slide 68
Experiment time
Slide 69
Evaluation of the MSM Model STRENGTHS (+) Influential; early
model that stimulated further research into memory processes Still
accepted by most psychologists and is still widely used
Considerable evidence for demonstrating the existence of STM and
LTM as separate memory stores Differing via duration, capacity and
coding Provides support for anterograde amnesia Based on
considerable evidence and evidence for the model is gained from a
variety of sources e.g. studies of brain damaged individuals
Whereby these studies support the distinction between STS and LTS
Some patients with amnesia suffer damage tLTM but not STM, and vice
versa As demonstrated by Shallice & Warrington (1970); Milner
(1966); Baddeley (1997)
Slide 70
Strengths contd Demonstrates insight into different memory
processes, such as: Demonstrates differences in encoding, i.e. STM
= STM = acoustic, LTM = semantic Demonstrates differences in
capacity, i.e. STM = 72, LTM has no limits Demonstrates differences
in duration i.e. STM = approx. 20 seconds (Peterson & Peterson,
1959), LTM = 48 years (Bahrick et al.,1975). Demonstrates in
ability to form declarative or procedural memories by patients with
brain damage, amnesia.
Slide 71
Limitations of MSM There is emphasis on the amount of
information taken into memory Focuses too much on the structure of
memory systems rather than providing an explanation on how it works
(functioning/ processing) Reductionist*, oversimplifying memory
processes (Eysneck & Keane, 1995) too simple Mechanical in
transfer from one store to another Memory processes are more
complex and flexible *a form of explanation or approach to
understanding complex things by simplifying (or reducing) them to
their most basic parts. Assumes that stores are single and
unitary
Slide 72
More Limitations Unlikely that the diverse information in LTM
is contained in one, simple, unitary store in same form Tulving
(1972) suggests that LTM can be divided into episodic, semantic and
procedural components, stored separately Cohen & Squire (1980)
suggest LTM is divided into 2: Declarative memory: involves
recollection of facts and events, includes episodic and semantic
memory. Procedural memory: memories for how to do things. Evidence
from amnesia patients who have poor declarative knowledge with no
damage to procedural knowledge Spiers et al. (2001) Clive Wearing
Baddeley, 1997
Slide 73
And more Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) focused almost
exclusively on declarative knowledge and did not account for
procedural knowledge in their model. Model suggests that rote
rehearsal is the only way information transfers from STM tLTM Too
simple Ignores any other factors such as effort and strategies
people employ to remember things Studies have questioned whether
the more information is rehearsed, the more likely it is to be
transferred tLTM Rehearsal may be what occurs in laboratory
experiments but this lacks ecological validity Most people rarely
actively rehearse information in daily life, yet information is
constantly transferred into LTM (Eysenck and Keane, 1995) Rehearsal
is not as important as the MSM suggests Increased rehearsal is no
guarantee that information will be stored in LTM
Slide 74
And Finally MSM under-emphasises interaction between stores
transfer of information is strictly sequential information stays in
LTM until retrieved Does not consider the possibility that LTM
interacts and even directs other memory stores Sensory what is
important to pay attention STM helps rehearsal or meaningful
chunking
Slide 75
Memory Model 2: The Levels of Processing Model
Slide 76
Another visual
Slide 77
LOP Model Proposed by Craik & Lockhart (1972) LOP predicts
that how deeply people process information determines how well it
is stored in memory Deeper, meaningful processing creates stronger,
longer-lasting memory traces. Shallow processing leads to weaker
memory traces It states that memory is a by-product of processing
information: Maintenance rehearsal (repetition to hold information
in STM) is shallow processing and leads to short-term retention of
information. As opposed to argument of MSM Elaboration rehearsal
(meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of
information) leads to better recall.
Slide 78
LOP Contd The three levels of processing Structural (shallow)
encode the physical qualities/appearance Phonological
(intermediate) encode sound/auditory Semantic (deep) encode meaning
and associate it with existing knowledge
Slide 79
Supporting Study 1: Hyde and Jenkins (1973)
Aim:...investigating whether people could remember without
intentionally trying to, and whether deeper processing leads to
better recall Method: Participants were presented with auditory
lists of 24 words Different groups of participants were asked to
perform one of the following tasks requiring different levels of
processing rating words for pleasantness estimate frequency with
which each word is used in the English language detect occurrence
of letters e' and 'g' in any of the words decide part of speech
appropriate to each word (e.g. noun, adjective) decide whether
words fitted into a particular sentence frame Half participants
were told in advance that they would be asked to recall words
(intentional learning group) Other half were not (incidental
learning group)
Slide 80
contd Results: Minimal differences in the number of words
correctly recalled between the intentional and incidental learning
groups. Recall was significantly better for words analysed
semantically (e.g. rated for pleasantness) than words which had
been rated more superficially (e.g. detecting 'e' and 'g')
Conclusion: Maintenance rehearsal is not necessary for
learning.
Slide 81
Evaluation of the study Strengths Laboratory experiment strict
control over variables able to determine a cause-effect
relationship between Weaknesses Laboratory experiment Lacks
ecological validity Task is unrealistic; does not reflect daily
activity participants would do
Slide 82
Relevance This study supports the LOP theory because it shows
that: semantic processing is deeper than structural and leads to
better memory intention is unnecessary for retention supports Craik
and Lockhart's belief that retention is a by-product of
processing
Slide 83
Supporting Study 2: Craik and Tulving, 1975 A further study
investigating the effects of deep and shallow processing on memory
recall is by Craik & Tulving (1975). Aim: To investigate how
deep and shallow processing affects memory recall Method:
Participants presented with a series of 60 words about which they
had to answer one of three questions, requiring different depths of
processing. Participants were then given a long list of 180 words
into which the original words had been mixed. They were asked to
pick out the original words.
Slide 84
contd Results: Participants recalled more words that were
semantically processed compared to phonemically and visually
processed. Conclusion: Semantically processed words involve deep
processing which results in more accurate recall. Evaluation:
Strengths Laboratory experiment strict control over variables able
to determine a cause-effect relationship between Weaknesses
Laboratory experiment Lacks ecological validity Task is
unrealistic; does not reflect daily activity participants would
do
Slide 85
EVALUATION OF THE LOP MODEL: STRENGTHS (+) Overcomes criticisms
of the Multistore Model as being too simple methods of remembering.
LOP was very influential when first proposed. Much research and
evidence supporting the LOP theory's idea that deep processing aids
memory.
Slide 86
Strengths contd It changed the direction of research and
stimulated further research into memory Accounts for why some
things are remembered better and for longer than others. LOP theory
is useful in daily life as it shows how elaboration, which requires
deeper processing, leads to better memory. It helps to understand
processes at learning stage. Improvements on Multi-store model of
memory: Does not make strict distinction between STM & LTM Does
not regard LTM as simple storage unit, rather a complex processing
system Encoding is not simple and straightforward improvement on
the MSM's account of transfer from STM to LTM Focuses on mental
processes rather than structures
Slide 87
Weaknesses of LOP Lacks ecological validity all the evidence
based on laboratory experiments LOP theory focuses on the processes
rather than structures of memory. Evidence (e.g. Clive Wearing, KF)
supports memory structures of STM and LTM stores proposed by
MSM.
Slide 88
Problems with Deep Processing Major limitation difficult to
define deep processing It is vague and cannot be observed, making
it hard to measure objectively Circular definition deeply processed
information will be remembered better, but the measure of depth is
how well information is remembered. LOP theory is descriptive
rather than explanatory. Though later research has attempted to
explain how and why deep processing is effective in aiding memory,
the original theory did not provide a detailed explanation of this
(Eysenck and Keane, 1995). Ordering of memory of LOP (semantic
better than phonological better than structural) is not always
supported by research.
Slide 89
More limitations Several studies have shown that deeper
processing does not guarantee better memory. Participants usually
spend more time and effort on the tasks requiring deeper
processing. Type of processing, amount of effort and length of
processing time are often confounding It is difficult to know that
depth of processing alone influences memory Better memory may be
due to more time or effort spent on processing; not deeper
processing. Like the MSM, LOP theory is too simplistic; research
indicates that memory is more complex and varied than depth and
elaboration.
Slide 90
Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive
process. Focus: Alzheimers disease.
Slide 91
If you were to get this question you need to: State what you
are doing in the essay I.e This essay will attempt to give a
detailed account including reasons or causes of how biological
factors may affect the cognitive process of memory in Alzheimer's
disease (AD) State interaction between cognition and biological
factors Human cognitive processes have a biological basis. Define
memory Memory is the cognitive process whereby information is
retained and recalled from past experiences, in which memory
processes are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve
information from past information and knowledge. Define Alzheimer's
disease AD is a serious and progressive degenerative brain disease,
which leads to the loss of neurons and often leading to
dementia.
Slide 92
And Outline AD The onset of symptoms is gradual but its
progression is irreversible. AD impairs the creation of new
memories but procedural memory (how to die a bike or play a musical
instrument) is largely unaffected. Episodic memory (memory of
events and personal experiences) is the most severely affected.
Episodic memory problems are the earliest symptoms of AD AD also
causes a steady decline in the semantic memory general knowledge
about the world, concepts and language. State biological factors
affecting AD Medial temporal lobe Deterioration of neurons involved
in the production of acetylcholine Amyloid plaques Neurofibrillary
tangles Genetic predisposition Signpost Therefore, to answer this
question, the link between the biological causes and effects of
Alzheimers Disease (AD) will be investigated in regards to the
effect it has on a persons cognition of memory processing.
Slide 93
What to talk about in the discussion (how Alzheimers affects
the brain and the cognitive processes) Medial Temporal Lobe (MTL)
is crucial.
Slide 94
MTL Biological Factor 1: Medial temporal lobe Introduce the
Medial temporal lobe (MTL) One biological factor that may cause AD
and then affect memory is the medial temporal lobe (MTL). The MTL
has been investigated because it is known to play a role in
episodic memory and it is the first area to show pathological
changes in the brain.
Slide 95
Supporting Study 1: Schwindt and Black (2009) Aim: To test the
effect of episodic memory on AD. Method: They conducted a
meta-analysis of fMRI studies on episodic memory in AD patients,
compared to normal & AD patients. Results: There was greater
brain activity in the MTL and frontal lobe in the control group.
Compared to controls, the AD patients showed decreased activation
in the MTL and increased activation in the prefrontal cortex. There
were a number of consistent findings across the previous studies.
Conclusion: It was well-established that AD patients show decreased
activation in the MTL.
Slide 96
Connection of study to question Connection of study to question
Schwindt and Blacks study supports the biological factor of the MTL
in causing AD and thus, impairment in memory. Outline the series of
stages that AD develops in so you could link it with the next
biological factor: AD develops through a series of stages. First,
the MTLs are affected, in particular the hippocampus, then the
parietal lobes and other brain regions. The symptoms of AD seem to
be caused by the loss of brain cells and the deterioration of
neurons
Slide 97
Biological Factor 2: Deterioration of neurons involved in the
production of acetylcholine hippocampus This is particularly
prevalent in the hippocampi area of the brain. The hippocampus has
been found to affect memory from cases of amnesia patients such as
HM (Milner and Scoville, 1957) and Clive Wearing (Baddeley,
1997).
Slide 98
Supporting Study 2: Mosconi (2005) Study that shows how
biological factors occurring in the hippocampi play a role in AD
therefore affecting memory is by Mosconi (2005). Aim: To test how
the hippocampi region interacts with AD/To investigate metabolism
in the hippocampus, which is when the neurons in the brain activate
responses in the body and dies. Method: Followed a sample of 52
normal participants for a period of 9 24 years (longitudinal). They
used a brain scan based computer program that measures metabolic
activity in the hippocampus. Results: Reduced metabolism in the
hippocampus was associated with later AD.
Slide 99
Connection of study to question Mosconis study supports the
role of the hippocampus in AD. This can be explained by the fact
that the hippocampus of normal people contains high concentration
of acetylcholine (Squire, 1987). Low concentrations are found in
people with AD. This results from severe brain tissue loss in areas
of the forebrain, known to secrete acetylcholine. Outline the
series of stages that AD develops in so you could link it with the
next biological factor: Autopsies reveal two characteristic
abnormalities in these acetylcholine-producing neurons. These
neurons in AD patients also show abnormal levels of amyloid plaques
and neurofibrillary tangles.
Slide 100
Biological Factor 3: Amyloid plaques AD is caused by deposits
of amyloid-B protein which accumulates in spaces between neurons
and damages the membranes of axons and dendrites (Lorenzo et al.,
2000) The amyloid plaques are formed from the degenerating axons
and dendrites and contain a dense core of amyloid- protein, in
which the plaques accumulate in the spaces between neurons. Most AD
patients accumulate amyloid plaques before onset of AD (Selkoe,
1990).
Slide 101
Supporting Study 3: Murphy and Levine (2010) To investigate
whether is a relationship between default activity patterns in
cortical regions in early adulthood and amyloid deposition in
elderly AD patients. Method: Eighteen older participants were
enrolled from the longitudinal sample of the Washington University
Alzheimers Disease Research Centre and screened to exclude
neurological illness, psychoactive medications and medical
conditions that may produce cognitive impairment. Results: Presence
of amyloid-B protein 42 in early AD starts a chain of events that
leads to AD. Connection of study to question Therefore, the results
of this study support the biological factor of amyloid-B protein in
AD.
Slide 102
Biological Factor 4: Neurofibrillary tangles As well as amyloid
plaques, another factor which plays a role in the degrading of
neurons that is significant for the onset of AD is neurofibrillary
tangles. The tangles are microtubules found in the cell body and
dendrites of neurons, which forms abnormally and causes the
microtubules to tangle (neurofibrillary tangles). When they tangle,
the neuron loses its structure and no long has support, thus
shrivels up and dies. The inhibition of the movement of
neurotransmitters across the synapse prevents electrical messages
to be passed from one neuron to the other; therefore, certain
actions in the body are unable to be activated. It is caused by the
accumulation of an abnormal form of tau protein around the support
structure of neurons that causes them to collapse.
Slide 103
Biological Factor 5: Genetic predisposition Another important
biological factor in causing AD is our genetic predisposition to
diseases such as AD. Research has found that genes play a role in
producing amyloid-B protein. Research by... Lott (1982):
Demonstrate and early onset Alzheimers linked to chromosome 21
(downs syndrome) Levy-Lahad eta al (1995): Early onset Alzheimers
gene found on chromosome 1 Schellenberg et al (1992): Early onset
Alzheimers gene found on chromosome 14 Ertekin-Taner et al (2000):
Gene for later onset Alzheimers found on chromosome 10
Slide 104
But genes do not provide a full explanation of AD, Which is
demonstrated by: St George-Hislop (2000): Half of all Alzheimers
patients have no relatives with the illness Hendrie (2001): Yoruba
people have Alzheimers genes, but much lower rates of the
illness.
Slide 105
Conclusion Medial temporal lobe(Schwindt and Black, 2009)
Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of
acetylcholine (Mosconi, 2005) Amyloid plaques (Murphy and Levine,
2010) Neurofibrillary tangles Genetic predisposition... all play a
role in the development of Alzheimers Disease, affecting memory
processing, which is a significant part of our cognition. Therefore
it can be assumed that biological factors affect memory in AD.
Slide 106
and State its physiological basis It can be seen that AD
interacts directly with physiology because it is caused by
biological factors such as a genetic predisposition to the disease;
damage in brain; and the formation of amyloid plaques and
neurofibrillary tangles; occurring mainly in the hippocampi region
of the brain, which contributes to the degradation of the neurons
developing the onset of AD. State its cognitive basis Therefore,
the physiological effects of amnesia are what influences/affects
cognition, in regards to memory processing.
Slide 107
Cognition and Emotion
Slide 108
The topic: To what extent do cognitive and biological factors
interact in emotion? Introduce topic by explaining the cognitive
level of analysis The cognitive level of analysis aims to study the
inner processes of the mind and how cognitive processes guide
behaviour. As such, within this level of analysis, emotion has been
investigated in terms of the biological and cognitive
influences.
Slide 109
Emotion What is emotion? Emotion can be defined as the bodys
adaptive response to a particular situation. Examples Ekman et al.
(1972) identified/discovered 6 fundamental emotions that were
consistent across cultures. This includes (FASSHD): Fear Anger
Surprise Sadness Happiness Disgust These primary set of emotions
are viewed as universal that is, they are expressed facially in the
same way, and are recognized, by all members of diverse cultures
Suggests that emotion is genetic (biological) rather than
cognitive.
Slide 110
Emotion and its relation to cognition Emotions are sometimes
dependent or are initiated through physiological and or cognitive
factors. Define cognition Cognition can be defined as the mental
processes of acquiring and processing knowledge and understanding
through though, experiences and the senses occurring within the
mind The mind cannot exist nor function independently without these
processes. Define physiology Whereas physiology is the internal,
biological mechanisms (hormones, neurotransmitters, localization of
brain function) of living organisms which is the way the organism
functions. State purpose of your essay As such, this essay response
will aim to consider the argument or concept of how both cognitive
and biological factors interact in emotion and influence how humans
experience emotion. A conclusion will then be made regarding the
extent in which these factors influence emotion.
Slide 111
Important theories of Emotion Le Doux Theory James-Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory Schachter & Singer's cognitive labelling
theory (Two- Factor Theory) Darwin's evolutionary theory Lazarus'
appraisal theory of emotion
Slide 112
Biological Factors of emotion Biological psychologists view
emotion as a primarily somatic (bodily) process. These somatic
processes may be: body arousal hormones facial expressions,
associated to be with pleasant or unpleasant mental states of mind
physiological changes, such as the arousal of the autonomic nervous
system and the endocrine system brain activity neurochemical
processes
Slide 113
Cognitive factors of emotion Cognitive psychologists assume
that conscious and unconscious mental processes can influence
emotions. Focus more on mental aspects of emotions and how
unconscious and conscious mental processes influence emotional
experiences and actions. This guides cognitive and rational emotive
therapies, which assume that cognitions and emotions are
interrelated, and that negative cognitions will lead to negative
emotions. Those negative emotions may come out of peoples faulty
interpretations of experiences, and that is by raising awareness
of, challenging and changing those beliefs that may alter our
mood.
Slide 114
The interaction between cognitive and biological factors in
emotion Emotions can be initiated through physiological and
cognitive factors. It is assumed that emotions consist of three
components: Physiological changes (biological reactions) Subjective
feeling of the emotion (cognitions)...which then leads to an
associated behaviour and thus emotion is expressed. Thus, cognitive
and biological factors interact to produce an emotional response to
an event. Therefore a bidirectional relationship exists between
cognitive and biological factors in emotion
Slide 115
Theory 1: Le Douxs Model of Emotion A researcher, which
demonstrates a biological and cognitive interaction in emotion Le
Doux based his research on animals, and investigated the brains
emotional circuit.
Slide 116
Le Doux continued Le Doux discovered that for fear responses,
there are two neurological pathways: The short route: that goes
from the sensory store in the thalamus to the amygdala The long
route: traverses the neo-cortex and the hippocampus before it
results in a fear response. Le Doux argues that there is an
evolutionary advantage of having two separate pathways for fear
responses.
Slide 117
Le Doux continued During times of danger: The short route is
effective, as it will lead to a quick, but often inaccurate
response. The long route however, is slower, but will allow for a
more thorough evaluation of a situation, and a more appropriate
response. Therefore, the amygdala receives input from the sensory
processing areas in the neo-cortex and thalamus and projects to
areas in the brainstem controlling the fight or flight response.
Diagram:
Slide 118
Diagram
Slide 119
Key Experiment 1: Le Doux Rat Experiment (1996) Study link to
question: A further study conducted by Le Doux to find out where
the brain stores emotional memory, which pairs the tone and shock
in memory demonstrating his theory...
Slide 120
The Study Aim: To investigate the brains emotional circuit
effects of lesions on fear conditioning Method: Made lesions in
specific neural pathways in rats to determine the functions of the
damaged pathways and disrupt the conditioning response. The lesions
were first made in the auditory context where the brain processes
sound. And the auditory thalamus which provides most auditory
inputs to the cortex.
Slide 121
The study showed Findings: Found that the brain structures of
the thalamus and the amygdala play different roles in the
generation of emotion. Lesion in the auditory cortex rats still
learned to fear tone. Lesion in the auditory thalamus eliminated
the rats susceptibility (vulnerability) to fear conditioning. Most
of the cells in the thalamus transmit to the cortex BUT some also
transmit to the amygdala, a region of the brain already implicated
in various emotional behaviours. Thus indicating that the pathways
with lesions led to the thalamus or amygdala, affected emotional
responses
Slide 122
Implications Conclusion: It can be concluded that the
biological factor of brain damage to either of these areas would
result in issues in generating emotions. Connection of study to
question This supports that biological factors DO interact in
emotion to a great extent.
http://www.columbia.edu/~lep1/rry/w3410/LeDoux/N YT.Nov.96.html
http://www.columbia.edu/~lep1/rry/w3410/LeDoux/N
YT.Nov.96.html
Slide 123
Evaluating the study
Slide 124
How Le Douxs theory supports interaction between biological and
cognitive factors in emotion This suggests that the amygdala plays
a central part/role in determining and controlling emotional
responses in the brain. Thus the connections between these
structures allow the amygdala to transform sensory information into
emotional signals and therefore control emotional responses. Le
Douxs theory (of emotional circuits in the brain) supports
biological factors in emotion as it identifies that the amygdala
and surrounding brain processes play a central role in determining
and controlling emotional responses in the brain. The theory also
supports cognitive factors in emotion because the situation is
appraised though the long route. Thus it cannot be said that
biological factors alone interact with emotion, but cognition also
plays a role in creating and controlling these emotional
responses.
Slide 125
Theory 2: Schacter and Singers Two-factor Theory (1962) Two
factors interact to determine specific emotions Physiological
arousal Emotion interpretation and labelling of the physiological
arousal Strength of the physiological arousal determines the
intensity of emotion Interpretation of physiological arousal
determines which particular emotion is experienced
Slide 126
Relevance How the two-factor theory supports interaction
between biological and cognitive factors in emotion Perception of
stimulus may lead to bodily physiological arousal Physiological
arousal is necessary for emotional experience, but needs to be
labelled or interpreted by cognitive appraisal of the situation If
a state of unexplained bodily arousal is induced, people will look
around and try to explain the arousal in terms of their environment
This cognitive appraisal results in labelling of the arousal as an
emotional experience.
Slide 127
Key Study 2: Schacter and Singer (1962) Aims: To test the two
factor theory of emotion (that emotion arises from a combination of
cognition and arousal), using the hormone, adrenaline
Slide 128
Methods 184 college males Divided into 4 groups All groups were
told that they were going to be given an injection of Suproxin in
order to test its effects on vision Even though men were really
receiving adrenaline and: Informed of the correct effects of
adrenaline (under the impression that it was suproxin) Given no
information on effects Given false effects Last group was given a
placebo 4 Groups divided into 2 subgroups Condition 1 euphoria
Confederate encouraged participant to play with games inside the
waiting room (with office equipment) Condition 2 anger Confederate
completed a questionnaire at the same pace as the participant but
became more and more angry as the questions became more personal
Participants were observed for changes in emotion Participants were
then asked to fill out a questionnaire detailing their state of
emotion
Slide 129
Results: Showed that participants that were given information
on the effects of adrenaline showed minimal changes in emotion
because they had an accurate explanation of their emotion But those
who had been told no effect showed much higher changes in emotion
because they had no explanation for their state of arousal, so they
used cues of the confederate's behaviour and labelled their
emotions These participants changed their behaviour according to
cognitive appraisal of their emotions, rather than specific
physiological arousal, indicating that only general arousal is
required.
Slide 130
Conclusion Researchers concluded that emotion occurs by a
process of cognitive labelling: the interpretation of physiological
cues is combined with contextual cues to construct a person's
subjective experience of emotion
Slide 131
Connection of study to question This study supports that a
combination of physiological change (adrenaline) and cognitive
labelling (appraisal of the situation) can contribute to changes in
emotion Introduce importance of first theory Lazarus Theory of
Appraisal: Cognitive researchers on emotion usually emphasize the
importance of cognitive appraisal.
Slide 132
Theory 3: Lazarus Theory of Appraisal (1982; 1991) The
appraisal theory of emotion is based on the evaluation of
situations according to the significance they have for us,
therefore it has more of a cognitive basis Suggests that cognition
is essential. This theory states that emotion is experienced when,
in our interaction with the environment, we assess our surroundings
as to whether it is beneficial or harmful for our well-being.
Appraisals are interpretations of situations and how they will
affect ones well-being. Appraisals are both conscious and
unconscious; contribute to the quality and intensity of an
emotion.
Slide 133
The appraisal theory is based on two concepts: Primary
appraisal where the organism assesses the significance or meaning
of the event. Three components: Motivational relevance relevance to
goals? (If positive, then there is emotion) Motivational congruence
favourable to goals? (Positive emotion when yes, negative emotion
when no) Accountability who is responsible for what is happening?
Secondary appraisal when the organism appraises the consequence of
the event and decides on how to act. It also has three components:
Problem-focused coping cope with a situation by changing it to make
it less threatening for an individual to cope Emotion-focused
coping change the situation by how I feel about it (e.g.
reinterpreting). Future expectancy To what extent can I expect the
situation will change?
Slide 134
Supporting Experiment 2: Speisman et al. (1964) A supporting
experiment which demonstrates how cognitive appraisals are affected
by bodily responses (emotions) to stressful situations, which is
illustrated by Speisman et al. (1964). Aim: To demonstrate the
influence of appraisal on emotional experiences.
Slide 135
Method Participants were shown a stressful film about
unpleasant genital surgery depicting Aboriginal boys have
circumcision in the context of puberty. Accompanied by soundtrack,
in which investigators manipulated the appraisal of the surgery by
showing the film with 3 conditions + 1 control: Trauma condition
pain experienced by boys and use of knife were emphasized Denial
boys anticipation of entering manhood pointed out thus de-
emphasizing the pain (presented the ps as happy and deliberate)
Intellectualization soundtrack ignored emotional aspects of
situation and emphasized traditions of aboriginal culture Silent
nothing Arousal state measured by galvanic skin response (GSR)
measure of electrical conductivity of skin and indicator of
autonomic arousal and heart rate.
Slide 136
Findings Observations and self-reports showed that participants
reacted more emotionally to the soundtrack that was more traumatic.
Lowest in intellectualization and silent conditions. The way
participants appraised (act of assessing someone or something) what
they were seeing in the film affected their physiological
experience in terms of emotion.
Slide 137
Evaluation of this study Controlled lab setting Rigorously
controlled results Methodological problems It is possible that the
participants reactions were primarily affected by the music, not
that the music affected the appraisal of the situation.
Slide 138
Conclusion of the study Thus, according to appraisal theory, it
can be concluded that the music affected the appraisal of the
situation, which in turn affected the emotional reaction to
it....the cognitive factor of how we appraise certain situations
influences our emotional responses
Slide 139
Connection to the topic This supports that cognitive factors DO
interact in emotion to a great extent. State connection to
cognitive interactions within emotion: Thus, Lazarus theory of
appraisal states that we experience emotions when interacting with
our environment and appraise good and bad to our well-being.
Lazarus suggests that the specific emotions experienced are
determined by the pattern of answers the individual gives
throughout the components of the primary and second appraisal.
Slide 140
Conclusion of the section The theories discussed above suggest
that cognitive and biological factors contribute and interact in
emotion. According to the information processing view of the brain
(supported by Le Doux), emotion is produced as cognitive and
perceptual processing occurs in brain regions such as the thalamus,
hippocampus, amygdala and the pre-frontal lobe (biological factors)
According to the TFT, emotion results from physiological arousal
and cognitive labelling According to Lazarus theory of appraisal,
evaluation of situations (cognition) determines emotion These
theories have been supported through much research, and although
there were a few limitations within the studies, there have been no
other theories or research that opposes the idea that biological
and cognitive factors influence emotion. Therefore, all of these
theories suggest that both cognitive and biological factors
interact in emotion to a LARGE extent
Slide 141
Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive
process. One theory of how emotion may affect the cognitive process
of memory is Flashbulb Memory (FBM) suggested by Brown & Kulik
(1977). Theory of FBM involves how emotion affects memory by
enhancing it. According tLe Doux, the arousal of emotion can
facilitate the memory of events that occur during the aroused
state; however, even though these emotional memories are emotions
evoked by a particular event, the memories may not always be
correct. (MOVE TO EVALUATION)
Slide 142
Flashbulb Memory (FB) Flashbulb Memories is a special kind of
emotional memory, which refers to vivid and detailed
(photographic-like) memories of highly emotional events that appear
to be recorded in the brain as though with the help of a cameras
flash. I.E. 9/11 What you were doing when you heard about the death
of a loved one Car Accidents
Slide 143
FBM explained Brown & Kulik (1977) also argued that the
special biological memory mechanism of FBM is triggered when an
individual usually encounters significant, often unexpected and
emotional events or experiences. Events that have excessive levels
of surprise and emotion Therefore creating a FBM of the immediate
experiences surrounding the highly emotional (happy) experience or
traumatic event
Slide 144
FBM Explained FB memories also have unique features that
distinguish them from other memories they are more: vivid,
detailed, accurate, long-lasting, consistent and easy to remember
This is in contrast to normal memories, which most researchers are
believed to be selective, unreliable and malleable (easily changed
or distorted). Examples?
Slide 145
Main Study: Brown and Kulik (1977) Aims: To investigate FBM and
how it works (to support their theory). Methods: Interviewed 80
Americans 40 African Americans 40 Caucasian Americans Had to answer
questions about 10 events 9 of these events were mostly on
assassinations or attempted assassinations of well-known American
personalities The last event was self-selected of personal events
that included self-shock They were asked how much they rehearsed
these events (overtly or covertly) Overly: rehearsal by discussing
with other people Covertly: private rehearsing or ruminating
Slide 146
Brown and Kulik Contd. Results: They found that J.F. Kennedy's
assassination in 1963 led to the most flashbulb memories of all
participants (90% of participants recalled this in context and with
vivid detail) African Americans recalled more FBM's of civil right
leaders; e.g. the assassination of Martin Luther King more than the
Caucasians recalled it (as a FBM) For the tenth event (which was
self-selected) most participants recalled shocking events like the
death of a parent Conclusions This study carried out by Brown and
Kulik (1977) supported the theories of flashbulb memories whereby
they : Form in situations where we encounter surprising and highly
emotional information Are maintained by means of overt rehearsal
(discussion with others) and covert rehearsal (private) Differ from
other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer and are
more consistent and accurate Require for their creation the
involvement of a specialized neural mechanism which stores
information permanently in a unique memory system
Slide 147
Evaluation of Brown and Kulik
Slide 148
Relevance to the topic? FBM can be explained in how emotion can
affect/influence memory by either enhancing it or impairing it.
Enhanced memory leads to more vivid memories of the event (FBM)
Impairing memory leads to Repression due to traumatic events
Repression is used to describe a certain type of memory, usually of
a traumatic type, when information cannot be retrieved as a result
of being locked out of our consciousness. Mood dependent memory,
emotion dependent
Slide 149
Study 2: Conway et al (1994) UK and non- UK on Flashbulb Memory
Aim: To test the theory of Flashbulb Memory Methods: Participants
were either UK or non-UK undergraduates Was based on the
resignation of Margaret Thatcher (British Prime Minister,1990)
Participants were asked and interviewed about the event a few days
after the event They were asked again 11 months after the event
Results: They found that 86% of UK participants still had FBM of
the resignation of Margaret Thatcher While there were fewer non-UK
participants (29%) had flashbulb memories of the event
Slide 150
Contd. Conclusions: Thus, Conway claimed that this event met
the criteria for FBM for British people as it was an unexpected and
highly significant event pertaining to their culture, therefore
arousing deep emotions, influencing the special neural mechanisms
and therefore creating FBM of the event. Evaluation: Strengths :
Ecologically Valid: real event Interview: in depth qualitative data
Not focused (don't have specific questions Questionnaire)
Limitations Distress in having to remember a tragic event and some
methodology was not controlled Connection of study to question
Suggests that flashbulb memories exist and are different from
normal memories However, they may only exist for events with
personal significance
Slide 151
Evidence arguing against Flashbulb Memory: Neisser and Harsch
(1992) One of the most significant research arguing the validity
and accuracy of FBM is by Neisser (1982), and later on by Neisser
and Harsch (1992). Neisser questioned the idea of FBMs, in which he
suggested that the memories are so vivid because the event itself
is rehearsed and reconsidered after the event. According to
Neisser, FBM may simply be a narrative convention, governed by
conventions of a storytelling schema Neisser also argued that FBMs
are subject to the same types of inaccuracy and forgetting as any
other memories.
Slide 152
Neisser and Harsh Aim: To investigate the accuracy of flashbulb
memory Methods: Participants were asked to report on the
circumstances of their learning about the challenger space disaster
on 1986. Neisser and Harsch investigated peoples memory accuracy of
the incident 24 hours after the accident and then again two years
later.
Slide 153
Neisser and Harsh Results: 1 day after the disaster, 215 of the
participants reported that they heard about the disaster on
television Those that recalled 2 and a half years later, 45% said
they heard it on T.V Clearly, their memories of how they learned
the news about the challenger disaster changed over time Assuming
that participants' memories were more accurate one day after the
disaster, it can be concluded that their memories about how they
had heard about the news had deteriorated significantly during the
subsequent two and a half years. Conclusions: Connection of study
to question This thus suggests that FBM are not reliable (as
influenced by post-event information). Neisser and Harsch claimed
that such findings suggest that FBM's may just be ordinary
memories
Slide 154
Arguing Study 2: Wright (1993) Hillsborough Disaster and (5
months) recall Aim: To investigate the accuracy of FBM Methods:
Interviewed people about the Hillsborough disaster After 5 month he
asked participants to recall what had happened at this
event/disaster Results: After five months, memories were vague, and
subject to systematic biases. Found that memories were a blend of
their own real experiences, and information that had come after the
event. Conclusions: Thus concluding that flashbulb memory is no
different to any other type of memory Shows that the memory that is
flashbulb can decay over time, unlike as assumed Connection of
study to question This study shows that FBM is no different than
any other type of memory.
Slide 155
Arguing Study 3: McCloskey et al (1988) Challenger Disaster
after 9 months recall Aim: To test the accuracy of flashbulb memory
Methods: Participants were interviewed and asked questions about
the explosion of the challenger a few days after 9 months Also
asked on personal memories Results: It was found that there were
discrepancies over time between what was recalled shortly after the
accident and what was remembered nine months later. There were
inaccuracies in the memories. Conclusions: FBM can be forgotten and
thus cannot be considered as a special memory, but are products of
ordinary memory mechanisms.
Slide 156
Evaluation of these studies Strengths: The type of methodology
used was interview thus questions asked in the experiment were not
focused thus could vary from participant to participant Weaknesses:
Ethics (forced to remember tragic events) Not ecologically valid
because the these events are deemed not personal/emotional
therefore not meeting the criterion of FBMs.
Slide 157
Connection Does not support this theory of flashbulb memory
Differ from other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer
and are more consistent and accurate This study showed that
flashbulb memories are not different as they don't last as long as
assumed by Neisser.
Slide 158
Concluding thoughts on FB Memory In conclusion, FBM (affected
by emotion) can influence the recall of memories. However, it is
hard to test accuracy of memories as the evidence is very
retrospective Overall Strengths: The majority of research into
flashbulb memories is naturalistic. It all involves peoples
reactions and memories formed from real life events. Therefore
there is high in ecological validity. Overall Weaknesses: However,
the studies can lack reliability as they cannot really be
replicated. Therefore, we cannot test to see how consistent the
results are. Also, much of the research is retrospective, and there
is the issue that we cannot reliably measure how accurate peoples
initial memories are.
Slide 159
Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive
process How to approach this question: Define schemas Expand on
schema (explain what they are and how relevant) Explain briefly how
schemas and memory interact Define Memory Relationship between
cultural influences and memory Discuss Studies
Slide 160
Relevant Studies Bartlett: War of the ghosts Brewer and
Treyens: Picnic Basket Supporting Study 3: Allport & Postman
(1947) Schemas and constructive memory Supporting Study 4: Rogoff
and Wadell (1982) Supporting Study 5: Cole and Scribner (1974)
Slide 161
Supporting Study 3: Allport & Postman (1947) Schemas and
constructive memory Aim: To see if schemas affect recall. Method:
White and Black Americans participated in the study. Firstly the
White Participants were shown a picture of an argument between a
well-dressed black man, and a poorly dressed, unshaven white man
holding a cut throat razor. Serial reproduction: Participant asked
to describe picture to another white participant who in turn
described it to someone else (similar to Chinese whispers). This
method was repeated and the picture was shown to the Black
Participants
Slide 162
Slide 163
Contd. Results: White participants: After a few retellings, the
story had changed so that the black man was the aggressor, holding
the knife. Black Participants: Results were not the same as what
the white participants had recalled. There were more correct
observations from the black participants in relation to the picture
showed to them. Conclusions: This study is an example of how
through the social environment, what we expect (based on
stereotypical schemas) can distort what we actually hear and
process into our memory. White people were heavily influenced by
the history of racism from the acts of the olden-days America, whom
discriminated against and placed heavy prejudices on Black African
American people. Thus, the history of how black men were portrayed
as aggressive and dangerous may have also influenced how they
interpreted the story, affecting their schemas.
Slide 164
contd Evaluation: Limitations: Lacks ecological validity
Artificial stimulus picture rather than real life experience Ethics
Experiment demonstrates a racist schema When the participants found
out they had a schema of a black person being aggressive they might
have been distressed because they might not have considered
themselves racist. They would have felt bad afterwards - didn't
come out the same as when they went in Connection of study to
question This study relates to how schemas affect memory.
Reproduction of the description of the picture was affected by
participants' stereotypical schemas. However in terms of a cultural
aspect/viewpoint, the participants backgrounds may have affected
how they recalled and interpreted the story, due to their knowledge
of and history of their culture towards black people and hence
influencing their schemas.
Slide 165
Supporting Study 4: Rogoff and Wadell (1982) Aim: The aim was
to determine whether non-western children would show a memory
defect for contextually organized spatial material. Mayan children
had previously been shown to have poor spatial memory Methods: They
gave Guatemalan children a memory task that was meaningful in local
terms; constructed a diorama of a Mayan village located near a
mountain and a lake, similar to the locale in which the children
lived. Each child watched as a local experimenter selected 20
miniature objects from a set of 80 and placed them in the diorama.
Objects included (the kind of things that would be found in a real
town): Cars Animals People Furniture Then the 20 objects were
returned to the group of 60 others remaining on the table. After a
few minutes, the children were asked to reconstruct the full scene
they had been shown. This methodology was then repeated to children
from the united states (to their counterparts)
Slide 166
contd Results: Under these conditions, the memory performance
of the Mayan children was slightly superior to that of their United
States counterparts. Connection of study to question This study
supports that culture affects memory. Guatemalan children could
remember better than their US counterparts when the task was
meaningful in local terms. Culture heavily impacts schema, thus
memory recall. Through this study, it shows that people can
remember better or perform tasks which are recognized as part of
their culture, due to cultural influences and experiences stored in
their schemas. People learn to remember in ways that are more
relevant for their every day life, thus social situations affect
cognition
Slide 167
Supporting Study 5: Cole and Scribner (1974) A further study
demonstrating cultural influence on schematic knowledge (in terms
of memory strategies in different cultures USA & Liberia) is by
Cole and Scribner (1974). They observed the effects of formal
schooling/education (in relation to culture) had on memory.
Methods: Tested the memory ability of non-schooled children in the
Kpelle tribe in Liberia and compared them with US school children.
Children were expected to remember items on word lists that were
organized into different categories. Test was repeated with the
children several times.
Slide 168
contd Results: The Kpelle children did not improve their
performance in free recall memory tests after the age of 10 in the
same way as US children; after 15 trials they only remembered 2
more items. Kpelle children who attended school had similar
performance to US school children. School children in US and
Liberia used categorical recall; they appeared to have chunked the
items in to linked categories as they recalled them in groups such
as utensils, clothes, vegetables, tools. When items were presented
as part of a story the Kpelle children (non-schooled) had equally
good performance as the US children. Children with formal schooling
in America and Liberia used this mnemonic which improved their
memory of the items. Children without formal schooling however, did
not use the categories to aid their recall and subsequently did not
remember as much as children who had attended school.
Slide 169
Connection of study to question: This study supports that
culture affects memory. The Kpelle children performed just as well
as their US counterparts in a culturally-familiar memory task, but
not on a free recall task. This is because the free-recall task
that Cole and his colleagues originally used to assess memory among
Liberian tribal people has no precise analogy in traditional
Liberian cultures, so it is not surprising that the corresponding
way of remembering would not be acquired. Cognitive skills (memory)
are dependent on the environment which is made up of education,
social interaction, technology and in this case, culture. Therefore
culture influences schemas, and thus our memory ability/ability to
recall and have advantageous effects if asked to do a task
associated with your culture.
Slide 170
Conclusion As demonstrated in these five studies, cultural
factors stored in our schemas affect memory, Therefore, human
cognition is culturally dependent in the way that cognitive
abilities are influenced by the social and cultural context in
which people live. The implication of these studies is that
although the ability to remember is a universal intellectual
requirement, specific forms of remembering are not universal, as
factors such as cultural aspects are different, in that not
cultures have the same memory strategies. As demonstrated by the
studies, people learn to remember in ways that are relevant for
their everyday lives. The studies established, in particular
Bartletts work, showed that memory is, to a significant extent, a
construction; moreover, one that relies heavily on the schemas we
develop in our cultural settings. And that the schemas we develop
from our cultural backgrounds can influence the cognitive process
of memory.
Slide 171
Ethical Considerations in Cognitive Psychology In psychology,
ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and
animals) are not harmed and that research conducted is ethically
valid Researchers should always conduct research in an ethical
manner and studies should always be critically evaluated for
ethical issues. Ethical standards made by the American Psychology
Association (APA) that all research done in psychology must abide
by.
Slide 172
These Ethics Are: Protection of participants Participants
should be protected from physical and mental harm and distress This
includes humiliation, stress, injury, etc. Participants should not
be forced to reveal personal information. Consent Participants must
be informed of the true aims and nature of research before giving
consent Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about
research. Participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may
affect participants' behaviour and thus the results of a study It
is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if no
harm is expected
Slide 173
Ethics contd. A guardian or family member should also give
consent to the study if the participants are Children under 18
years of age Adults incompetent of understanding the true nature
and aims of the study Right to withdraw Participants should be
informed of their right to withdraw their participation and data at
any time in the study (even at the end) without penalty.
Confidentiality Data collected in a study should remain
confidential and anonymous to protect participants from possible
consequences that may result from their data
Slide 174
And more ethics Deception Deception should be avoided But
slight deception is considered acceptable if: Participant bias
would result from participants knowing the true aims of the study
The research has potential significant contribution It is
unavoidable The deception does not cause any distress to the
participant, including upon being informed of the deception If
deception is involved, informed consent is not obtained Any
deception must be revealed at the earliest opportunity Debriefing
Any deception must be revealed and justified Participants should
leave the study without undue stress Findings of the research
should be made available to participants as soon as possible
Slide 175
Cases with questionable ethics Genie Curtiss Background: Genie
was a girl who had been deprived of normal exposure to language
early in life She had no apparent language skills when she was
discovered at age 13. Aim: To investigate the sensitive period
hypothesis there is a sensitive learning period (before puberty)
during which language must be acquired to develop normally.
Slide 176
More about Genie and Ethics Method: Researchers encouraged her
to verbalise and socialise. They communicated with her, taught her
sign language, and provided a caring environment for Genie. Ethical
issues of this study: There were a set of ethical issues in this
study, which include: Participant Protection Genie was protected
from harm during the study But when researchers concluded the
study, Genie was left to live in an adult foster home Genie may
have experienced mental distress from the dramatic change in
environment and carers and the leaving of the researchers
Slide 177
And more,,, Consent Genie could not be fully informed or give
consent to the study due to language restrictions and mental state
But Genie was not in a healthy state of mind to understand the
nature and aims of the study Therefore, it may not be possible to
gain informed consent Withdrawal Genie would not be able to express
any desires to withdraw from the study due to language
restrictions