Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion listing advice - Page - 1 of 23

Proposed description of Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion 1 Ecological Community 2

DRAFT 3

1. Name of the ecological community 4

This advice follows the assessment of a public nomination to list ‘Mount Gibraltar 5 Forest/Robertson Basalt Tall Open Forest/Southern Highlands Shale Woodlands’ as a 6 threatened ecological community under the EPBC Act. ‘Mount Gibraltar Forest’ and 7 ‘Robertson Basalt Tall Open Forest’ are sufficiently different from the ‘Southern Highlands 8 Shale Woodlands’ to warrant separate consideration. ‘Mt Gibraltar Forest’ and ‘Robertson 9 Basalt Tall Open Forest’ are grouped by Tozer et al., (2010) as a single community under the 10 name ‘Southern Highlands Basalt Forest’. This was the name of the ecological community 11 that the Committee recommended for priority assessment. 12

Further research indicated that it was appropriate to group ‘Southern Highlands Basalt Forest’ with 13 ‘Blue Mountains Basalt Forest’, which shares similar characteristics (notably vegetation type, 14 substrate, elevation and rainfall), and had suffered similar impacts. Tozer et al., (2010) aligns these 15 two communities under the broader ‘Cool Temperate Grassy Wet Sclerophyll Forests’ grouping. 16

The ecological community has been re-named ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the 17 Sydney Basin Bioregion’. The name reflects that the definition of the ecological community 18 has been expanded to include components in the Blue Mountains, and that is associated with a 19 type of wet sclerophyll forest on basalts or basalt-like substrates in the Sydney Basin 20 Bioregion. 21

‘Robertson Basalt Tall Open Forest in the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ and ‘Mount Gibraltar 22 Forest in the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ are both listed as endangered ecological communities 23 in New South Wales (NSW Scientific Committee, 2001, 2004). 24

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2. Description 26

Physical environment 27

The ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ are generally tall 28 open eucalypt forests found on igneous rock (predominately Tertiary basalt and 29 microseyenite) in, or adjacent to, the Sydney Basin Bioregion. The ecological community 30 typically occurs at elevations between 650 and 1050 m ASL (Keith & Benson, 1988, 1990; 31 Fisher et al., 1995; Tozer et al., 2006), although may occur at elevations as low as 350 m in 32 some instances. The ecological community occurs in areas of high rainfall, generally ranging 33 from 950 to 1800 mm/year (NSW Scientific Committee, 2004; Tozer et al., 2010). 34

In the eastern and southern parts of the Southern Highlands (e.g. Robertson, Moss Vale, 35 Bundanoon and Wingello NSW), the ecological community is found on fertile soils derived 36 from basalts (predominately Robertson basalt, Sutton Forest basalt, and Kangaroo Valley 37 basanite) (NSW Scientific Committee, 2001; Bowie, 2006). In the central-north parts of the 38 Southern Highlands, the ecological community occurs on clay soils derived from 39 microsyenite intrusions (Fisher et al., 1995; NSW Scientific Committee, 2004). In the Blue 40 Mountains, the ecological community occurs as small, disjunct patches scattered across the 41 upper mountains on caps of post-Triassic basalt, or on basalt-like volcanics, such as on 42 amphibolite found on the Boyd Plateau (Black, 1982; Benson & Keith, 1990; Tozer et al., 43 2010). 44

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Vegetation 47

Typically, the ecological community occurs as a tall open forest with a sparse to dense layer 48 of shrubs and vines, and a diverse understorey of native grasses, forbs, twiners and ferns 49 (Keith 2004, p. 68). However, the structure of the ecological community may vary from tall 50 open forest with trees up to and above 30 m tall with a projected foliage cover of 30–70% 51 (e.g. E fastigata forest on basalt near Sassafras in and around Morton National Park) to 52 woodland with trees 10–30 m tall, with a projected foliage cover of 10–30% (e.g. exposed 53 woodland on rocky microsyenite at Mt Jellore) depending on aspect, slope, soil conditions, 54 soil depth, and previous clearing and disturbance (Fisher et al., 1995; NPWS & SCA 2003; 55 Eco Logical, 2003; NSW Scientific Committee, 2004).With increasing distance from the 56 coast (and a corresponding decrease in rainfall), the understorey tends to grade from relatively 57 mesic (significant component of rainforest species), to relatively scleric (more drought and 58 fire tolerant shrubs and a more prominent grass layer) (Benson & Howell, 1994; Fisher et al., 59 1995). Rainforest elements are also present in less coastal remnants with sheltered aspects and 60 topography, and along watercourses (Benson & Keith, 1990). The ecological community may 61 also be affected by cold air drainage and ponding resulting in a more open, grassy forest. 62

These factors result in an ecological community that may be: 63

Structurally intact old growth forest with mature trees and native ground layer (mature 64 tall open forest; such occurrences are now rare); 65

Structurally intact regrowth stands with native ground layer (stands that may have 66 been thinned or clear felled in the past that have regrown e.g. patches in Meryla State 67 Forest; Wollemi National Park; Blue Mountains National Park, Morton National 68 Park); 69

Tree canopy over compromised understorey resulting from under-scrubbing, clearing, 70 and/or long term grazing; 71

Scattered paddock trees with relictual groundcover (e.g. derived grassland or scattered 72 patches of shrubs such as bracken fern); and 73

Scattered paddock trees with an understorey dominated by exotic pasture species 74 understorey (though this is unlikely to still constitute the listed ecological 75 community). 76

Note: the minimum structure and condition of the ecological community that should be 77 protected under this listing by the referral, assessment and compliance provisions of the 78 EPBC Act are detailed in the Key Diagnostic Characteristics and Condition Thresholds 79 section below. 80

A list of native plant species typical of the ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney 81 Basin Bioregion’ is given in Appendix A. The species composition of the site will be 82 influenced by the size of the site, aspect and slope, recent rainfall or drought conditions, and 83 by its disturbance history. The number of species and above ground relative abundance of 84 species will change with time since disturbance. 85

Canopy Layer 86

A number of different eucalypt species may be present in the canopy layer. Eucalypt canopy 87 trees may occur locally as pure or almost pure stands (Fisher et al., 1995). Dominant canopy 88 species are most often Eucalyptus fastigata (brown barrel), E. viminalis (ribbon gum) and E. 89 radiata subsp. radiata (narrow-leaved peppermint). In the Southern Highlands, E. obliqua 90

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(messmate stringybark), E. elata (river peppermint) and E. quadrangulata (white-topped 91 box) are also common components (NSW NPWS & SCA, 2002; Tozer et al., 2010). E. 92 oreades (Blue Mountains ash) and E. blaxlandii (Blaxland’s stringybark) are prevalent in the 93 Blue Mountains forms, particularly on the rocky edges of basalt (Fairley & Moore, 2000). E. 94 cypellocarpa (mountain grey gum) is widespread in drier sites throughout the range of the 95 ecological community (Benson & Keith 1990; Kodela 1990), while E. piperita (Sydney 96 peppermint) and E. smithii (ironbark peppermint) may also occur. Acacia melanoxylon 97 (blackwood) is a common subcanopy tree and occasional rainforest trees such as Doryphora 98 sassafras (sassafras) and Hedycarya angustifolia (native mulberry) may also occur (NSW 99 Scientific Committee 2001, 2004; Tozer et al., 2010). 100

Shrub Layer 101

The under storey of the ecological community varies from dense and mesic with rainforest 102 elements, to grassy and relatively dry. Common shrub species include Polyscias sambucifolia 103 (elderberry panax), Coprosma quadrifida (prickly current bush), Senecio linearifolius 104 (fireweed groundsel), Daviesia ulicifolia (gorse bitter pea) and Leucopogon lanceolatus. 105

Vines 106

Vines and scramblers can be a common component of the ecological community (Fairley & 107 Moore, 2000). Species throughout the range of the ecological community include Tylophora 108 barbarta (bearded Tylophora), Eustrephus latifolius (wombat berry) and Clematis spp. Other 109 vines that may occur include Rubus parvifolius (native raspberry), Rubus rosifolius (rose-leaf 110 bramble), Smilax australis (lawyer vine), and the scramblers Glycine spp., and Hardenbergia 111 violacea (native sarsparilla). Hibbertia scandens (climbing guinea flower) may also occur in 112 the wetter parts of the ecological community. 113

Ground layer 114

The ground layer of Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion is 115 generally a diverse mix of grasses, forbs1 and ferns. It is typically dense however may vary to 116 more open/sparse on sites that are drier or less fertile e.g. exposed aspects, sites further 117 inland, and those subject to particular historic and ongoing disturbances. Common species 118 include Dichondra repens (kidney weed), Viola spp, Geranium spp, Lomandra longifolia 119 (spiny-headed mat-rush), Stellaria spp., and Dianella spp. (flax-lily). Ferns are a common 120 feature and include Pteridium esculentum (bracken fern), Blechnum cartilagineum (gristle 121 fern), Pellaea falcata (sickle fern), while common grasses include Poa labillardierei (tussock 122 grass) and Echinopogon ovatus (forest hedgehog grass). 123

Fauna 124

‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ exists largely as scattered 125 remnants, many of which are small in size and isolated from other areas of bushland. This 126 ecological community provides a number of important habitat features for fauna including: 127

A diversity of tall eucalypt species with a range of bark types and foliage foraging 128 resources, that may contain small or large hollows; 129

A complexity of vegetation layers that approaches rainforest (particularly in wetter or 130 more sheltered sites); 131

A diverse understorey which includes grassy or shrubby herb and fern components; 132 and 133

1 A forb is a non-woody plant other than a grass, sedge, rush etc. (Australian Biological Resources Study, 2007).

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Scattered fallen logs, especially in remnants that are fenced or managed for 134 conservation. 135

No studies have examined the fauna across the entire range of ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt 136 Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ ecological community. Specific data on fauna were 137 available for the Mount Gibraltar Reserve. This is a large remnant (90+ ha) of Wet 138 Sclerophyll Basalt Forest that contains a range of habitats including both grassy and more 139 mesic areas. Mount Gibraltar Reserve adjoins the township of Bowral and is isolated from 140 other bushland (NSW Scientific Committee, 2004). Further data were sourced from the online 141 EPBC Act Protected Matters Search Tool and the NSW NPWS Wildlife Atlas. 142

The ecological community is not known to support any endemic fauna species however wet 143 sclerophyll forests often support a diverse range of fauna because of the rich combination of 144 resources provided by a mixture of rainforest understorey species and a eucalypt canopy 145 (Keith 2004, p. 60). These plant communities can support high numbers of arboreal fauna 146 such as possums and gliders, as well as their main predators Ninox strenua (powerful owl) 147 and Tyto tenebricosa (sooty owl) (Bell, 1998; Keith, 2004, p. 60; BES, 2008). Ground-148 dwelling mammals will differ between shrubby and grassy sub-formations (Keith, 2004, p.60) 149 and the ecological community may support species such as wallabies, pademelons, Rattus spp 150 (native rats), Antechinus spp, Tachyglossus aculeatus (short-beaked echidna), Vombatus 151 ursinus (wombat), and Macropus giganteus (eastern grey kangaroo) (MacMaster, 2007; 152 NPWS Wildlife Atlas 2010). The ecological community is likely to provide important habitat 153 for a range of bats, especially in otherwise cleared or developed landscapes, including 154 threatened species such as Pteropus poliocephalus (grey-headed flying-fox), and a range of 155 microchiropteran bat species listed at the state level (MacMaster, 2007). For a more complete 156 list of threatened species see Table 2. 157

Sixty-five species of native butterfly and 169 species of moth have been recorded at Mount 158 Gibraltar Reserve (Brown, 2007; Edwards, 2007). The reserve also supports a diverse range 159 of ants, some of which form a symbiotic relationship with specific butterfly species (Brown, 160 2007), and play an important role in ecological functioning. Remnant bushland also provides 161 important habitat for native bees, beetles and spiders (Keith, 2004, p. 60; Harrison, 2007; 162 Faulkner 2007; Jupp, 2007a). 163

Fifty-three species of bird have been recorded at Mount Gibraltar Reserve including two 164 federally listed migratory species, Monarcha melanopsis (black-faced monarch) and 165 Rhipidura rufifrons (rufous fantail) (BES, 2008), and the ecological community is likely to 166 provide habitat for a range of other threatened birds (Table 2). 167

Patches including rainforest elements may provide additional habitat for birds such as 168 Leucosarcia melanoleuca (wonga pigeon), Lopholaimus antarcticus (topknot pigeon), 169 Chalcophaps indica (emerald dove) and Macropygia amboinensis (brown cuckoo-dove) 170 which are typically restricted to rainforest vegetation (Mills & Jakeman, 1995, p. 95). 171

The ecological community may provide habitat for a number of different frog species 172 including tree frogs and toadlets (NSW Wildlife Atlas, 2010). Common reptile species are 173 also likely to occur including monitors, dragons, snakes and skinks (Jupp, 2007; NSW 174 Wildlife Atlas, 2010). The ecological community may support a number of threatened frogs 175 (see Table 2), while large remnants may support the state listed Varanus rosenbergi 176 (Rosenberg’s goanna). 177

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3. Key diagnostic Characteristics and Condition Thresholds 180

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Much of the ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ have been 181 cleared and what remains is often in a variously disturbed or degraded state. In many cases 182 the loss and degradation is irreversible, or the potential for rehabilitation is impractical (for 183 instance, in areas permanently converted to improved pasture). 184

National listing focuses legal protection on the remaining patches of the ecological 185 community that are in relatively good condition. Condition thresholds help identify when the 186 EPBC Act is likely to apply to the ecological community. They provide guidance for when a 187 patch of a threatened ecological community retains sufficient conservation values to be 188 considered a ‘Matter of National Environmental Significance’, as defined under the EPBC 189 Act. This means that the referral, assessment and compliance provisions of the EPBC Act are 190 focussed on the more valuable elements of Australia’s natural environment. Very degraded 191 patches which do not meet the condition thresholds will be largely excluded from protection. 192

Although very degraded/modified patches are not part of the national ecological community 193 listed under the EPBC Act, it is recognised that patches that do not meet the condition 194 thresholds may still retain important natural values. Therefore, these patches should not be 195 excluded from recovery and other management actions (see Surrounding environmental and 196 landscape context below). 197

The listed ecological community is limited to patches that meet the following key 198 diagnostic characteristics and condition thresholds. 199 200

Key Diagnostic Characteristics 201

The key diagnostic characteristics of this ecological community are: 202

Generally confined to the Sydney Basin IBRA Bioregion although parts of the 203 southern extent of the ecological community at Sassafras east of Nerriga NSW may 204 occur just outside the Sydney Basin Bioregion boundary. Similarly, patches on the 205 Boyd Plateau and Mt Werong, which are included in the description of the ecological 206 community, occur immediately west of the Sydney Basin Bioregion boundary; 207

Confined to soils derived from basalt and basalt-like substrates; 208

Typically occurs at elevations of between 650–1200 m ASL, although may occur at 209 elevations as low as 350 m in some circumstances; 210

Typically occurs in areas with a mean rainfall of 950–1800 mm per year; 211

The tree canopy layer is present and is dominated by eucalypt trees (a list of 212 appropriate trees is provided in Appendix A), and has a minimum canopy cover of 213 30%; 214

A shrub layer is usually present but varies from sparse and dry, to dense and mesic; 215 and 216

Generally, a diverse ground layer of grasses, forbs, ferns and climbers is present. 217

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Condition Thresholds 219

The listed ecological community is limited to patches that meet the key diagnostic 220 characteristics above, and the following condition thresholds. Core thresholds (A) refer to 221 patches that are high quality examples of the ecological community. Variations to the core 222 thresholds will still constitute the ecological community if they meet the additional condition 223 thresholds (B) outlined below. 224

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A. Core Thresholds 225

Best quality examples of the ecological community will meet the following condition 226 thresholds: 227

A minimum patch size at least 0.5 ha AND 228

A total foliage cover2 of native trees greater than 50% in the patch (not including 229 saplings and smaller regenerating trees to 5 m in height) AND 230

At least 20 native species are present in the understorey (shrub and ground layer) of 231 the patch AND 232

Non-native perennial weeds account for no more than 40% of the foliage cover of the 233 understorey (shrub and ground layer) in the patch. 234

B. Variations to Core Thresholds 235

A lower tree canopy cover (percent foliage cover of native trees in the patch is 30% or more) 236 and a lower native species richness (of 10 native species in the understorey of the patch) is 237 acceptable if: 238

B1 The patch of the ecological community is larger (2 ha or more) OR 239

B2 The patch of the ecological community is 0.5 ha or more but is connected to a 240 native vegetation remnant3, and the total area of that remnant is 2 ha or more. 241

Impacts to patches that meet the condition thresholds may constitute a “significant” action 242 under the EBPC Act and should be referred to the Minister before any activity within or 243 adjacent to the ecological community takes place. 244

Additional Considerations 245

The following information should also be taken into consideration when applying condition 246 thresholds: 247

A patch is defined as a discrete and continuous area of the ecological community that 248 differs from its surroundings. 249

However, a patch may include small scale disturbances, such as tracks or breaks or 250 small scale variations in vegetation that do not significantly alter its overall 251 functionality (for instance the movement of wildlife or dispersal of plant propagules). 252 Minimum patch size for the ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin 253 Bioregion’ has been determined based on an analysis of patch sizes across the 254 ecological community (using Bell, 1998 & Tozer et al., 2010) which indicates that 255 93.5% of patches are less than 10 ha in size. Removal of even small patches of the 256 ecological community may be significant due to its localised and fragmented nature. 257

The patch includes a buffer zone that extends for 30 m beyond the trunks of the 258 outermost trees of the area that meets the condition thresholds, to assist in the 259 preservation of the patch. In areas where the ecological community grades into an 260 adjacent vegetation type, it may be difficult to determine the “edge” of the 261

2 Foliage cover is defined as the percentage of the sample site occupied by the vertical projection of foliage (leaves) and woody branches (Hnatiuk, Thackway & Walker, 2009). 3 A remnant is defined as a patch of native vegetation remaining after an area has been cleared or modified (Malcolm et al., 2010).

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community. In such cases, the proponent should use their best judgement to 262 determine where the ecological community ceases and an adjacent ecological 263 community begins and establish the 30 m buffer from there. 264

The sampling protocol involves developing a quick/simple map of the vegetation, 265 landscape qualities and management history (where possible) of the site. The area with 266 the highest level of structural and species richness of native species (i.e. the number of 267 different species in a given area) should be adequately sampled to determine estimates 268 of native species richness. 269

For patches ≤2 ha measure the entire site for canopy cover and species richness. 270

For patches >2 ha use sample plots of 50 x 20 m in topographically uniform areas. 271 Larger patches will require multiple sample plots (one 50 x 20 m plot in each 272 topographical position e.g. riparian, lower slope, mid slope, upper slope and ridge to 273 obtain a representative of the full extent of the area, or 2 or more plots per 5 ha for the 274 largest areas until a representative sample has been achieved. ‘Representative’ 275 indicating floristic diversity and assemblage level variation). 276

Surveys are best conducted in November-December as many species within the 277 community will be flowering or fruiting, aiding identification. However, timing of 278 surveys should also consider recovery after recent disturbances (natural or human 279 induced) to the ecological community. Assessments should occur more than two 280 months after any recent disturbance. 281

Surrounding environmental and landscape context 282

The condition thresholds outlined above are the minimum level at which patches are to be 283 considered under the EPBC Act. These thresholds do not represent the ideal state of the 284 ecological community. Patches that are larger, more species rich and less disturbed are likely 285 to provide greater biodiversity value. Additionally patches that are linked, whether 286 ecologically or by proximity, are particularly important as wildlife habitat and to the viability 287 of patches of the ecological community into the future. 288

Therefore, in the context of actions that may have a significant impact and require approval 289 under the EPBC Act, it is important to consider the environment surrounding patches that 290 meet the condition thresholds. Some patches that meet the condition thresholds occur in 291 isolation and require protection, as well as priority actions, to link them with other patches. 292 Other patches have additional conservation value through being interconnected to other 293 similar native vegetation associations that may not, in their current state, meet the description 294 or condition thresholds. In these instances, the following indicators should be considered 295 when assessing the impacts of actions or proposed actions under the EPBC Act, or when 296 considering recovery, management and funding priorities for a particular patch: 297

Large size and/or large area to boundary ratio – larger area/boundary ratios are less 298 exposed and more resilient to edge effects such as weed invasion and other human 299 impacts; 300

Evidence of recruitment of key native species or the presence of a range of age cohorts 301 For instance, tree canopy are present as saplings through to large hollow bearing trees; 302

Good faunal habitat as indicated by patches containing mature trees (especially those 303 with hollows), logs, natural rock outcrops, watercourses, diversity of landscape, 304 contribution to movement corridors etc; 305

High species richness as shown by the variety of native flora and fauna species that 306 are present; 307

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Areas where weed/exotic species invasion and feral animal activities are minimal and 308 can be easily managed; 309

Presence of listed threatened species; 310

Connectivity to other native vegetation remnants or restoration works. In particular, a 311 patch in an important position between (or linking) other patches in the landscape; 312 and/or 313

Patches that occur in those areas in which the ecological community has been most 314 heavily cleared and degraded or that are on the natural edge of its range. 315

5 National Context 316

Distribution 317

The ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ are generally 318 confined to the Sydney Basin IBRA Bioregion in NSW. The ecological community 319 predominantly occurs in the Moss Vale, Ettrema, Burragorang, Wollemi and Kanangra IBRA 320 Sub-regions. 321

Small disjunct patches are scattered across the upper Blue Mountains on residual caps of 322 basalt (or basalt-like substrates), including Mt Wilson, Mt Tomah, Mt Bell, Mt Banks, Mt 323 Caley, Mt Hay, Boyd Plateau (Black, 1982; Keith & Benson, 1998; Tozer et al., 2010), Mt 324 Werong, (Fisher et al., 1995), Mt Irvine, Mt Cameron, Green Hill, Gospers Mountain (Benson 325 & Keith, 1990), Buffers Mountain, Mt Budgery and Mt Coricudgy (Bell, 1998). These areas 326 occur within or adjacent to the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area (a Matter of 327 National Environment Significance under the EPBC Act). 328

A small number of pockets survive on microsyenite intrusions mainly on Mount Gibraltar near 329 Bowral and Mittagong in the Southern Highlands, with minor occurrences of the ecological 330 community known from Mount Misery, Mount Flora, Cockatoo Hill and Mount Jellore (Fisher et 331 al., 1995; NSW Scientific Committee, 2004). Other patches of the ecological community are 332 scattered throughout the Southern Highlands on Tertiary basalts (mainly Robertson basalt, 333 Kangaroo Valley basanite and Sutton Forest basalt) on the Robertson Plateau and 334 Cambewarra Range (Fisher et al., 1995; NSW Scientific Committee, 2001; Bowie, 2006). 335

At its southern limit, the ecological community occurs on Tertiary basalt at Sassafras, south 336 west of Nowra NSW. 337

The association of the ecological community with the Sydney Basin IBRA Bioregion is based 338 on similarities in geology, elevation and rainfall and the associated floristic composition. 339

The ecological community occurs within the Hawkesbury-Nepean and Southern Rivers 340 Natural Resource Management Regions (Catchment Management Authorities) of NSW. 341

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Relationships to National vegetation classifications 342

Under the National Vegetation Information System (NVIS), ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests 343 of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ can generally be classified as: 344

Major Vegetation Group (MVG) 2 – Eucalypt Tall Open Forests and/or 3 – Eucalypt 345 Open Forests. 346

Relationships to State vegetation classifications 347

Table 1 identifies relevant NSW vegetation classification units that form part of, or align 348 with, the listed ecological community ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin 349 Bioregion’. 350

Table 1 Vegetation Classification Units which form part of Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney 351 Basin Bioregion 352

Source Vegetation Unit Mapping Unit (where applicable)

Tozer et al. (2010) Southern Highlands Basalt Forest

Blue Mountains Basalt Forest

Variants of High Range Sheltered Forest where it grades into Southern Highlands Basalt Forest

WSF p266

WSF p72

WSF p66

NSW DEC (2006) Jenolan brown barrel – mountain gum – narrow-leaved peppermint – blackwood montane grassy forest where this community occurs on basalt

MU 5

Keith (2004) Southern Escarpment Wet Sclerophyll Forests

Eco Logical Australia (2003)

Robertson Basalt Tall Open Forest

Mount Gibraltar Forest

Map Unit 16

Map Unit 20

NSW NPWS & Sydney Catchment Authority (2003)

Robertson Basalt Brown Barrel Forest MU10

Bell (1998) Montane Basalt Cap Forest F15

Fisher, Ryan & Lembit (1995)

Robertson Basalt Tall Forest

Mount Gibraltar Forest

Map Unit 9i

Map Unit 9y

Keith & Benson (1988, 1990)

Moist Basalt Cap Forest Map Unit 6g

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Relationships to State-listed ecological communities 354

‘Robertson Basalt Tall Open Forest in the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ and ‘Mt Gibraltar Forest 355 in the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ are both listed as endangered ecological communities in New 356 South Wales (NSW Scientific Committee, 2001; 2004). Robertson Basalt Tall Open Forest 357

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and Mt Gibraltar Forest are grouped by Tozer et al. (2010) under the name Southern 358 Highlands Basalt Forest. 359

The national ecological community differs from these two state listed communities through 360 the use of condition thresholds and the addition of occurrences of basalt cap forests in the 361 Blue Mountains. The Blue Mountains occurrences of the ecological community (at the time 362 of listing) were not listed under NSW legislation. 363

Similar ecological communities 364

‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ may intergrade with 365 mesophyll closed forests such as Robertson Rainforest in the Southern Highlands or 366 Intermediate Temperate Rainforest / Sandstone Scarp Warm Temperate Rainforest in the Blue 367 Mountains (Tozer et al., 2010). ‘Robertson Rainforest in the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ is 368 listed as an endangered ecological community in NSW (NSW Scientific Committee, 2001). 369 ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ differ most notably from 370 these rainforest communities by containing a dominant canopy layer of eucalypts. 371

Similarly, the ecological community may intergrade with Shale-Basalt Sheltered Forest 372 (Tozer et al., 2010). Shale-Basalt Sheltered Forest occurs along moist elevated ridgetops and 373 peaks in both the Blue Mountains and Southern Highlands along the shale-basalt boundary 374 between 400-900m ASL, usually where annual rainfall exceeds 1200mm. On basalt peaks, 375 Shale-Basalt Sheltered Forest is replaced by ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney 376 Basin Bioregion’ (Tozer et al., 2010). The ecological community may also intergrade with 377 Southern Highlands Shale Woodlands of the Sydney Basin Bioregion (S. Douglas pers 378 comm., 2010). Southern Highlands Shale Woodlands is restricted to clay soils derived from 379 Wianamatta Shale at elevations of between 600 to 800 m, and is listed as an endangered 380 ecological community in NSW (NSW Scientific Committee, 2001a). At lower rainfall (<1000 381 mm / year) the ecological community may grade into Tablelands Basalt Forest. Tablelands 382 Basalt Forest is a eucalypt dominated forest, that contains a sparse shrub layer and an 383 understorey of herbs and grass (Tozer et al., 2010) and is listed as an endangered ecological 384 community in NSW. In the Wollemi region, Montane Basalt Diatreme Forest is similar to 385 ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’, but occurs in broad gully 386 or sideslope positions generally at lower rainfall and elevation, and thus is associated with a 387 number of different tree and shrub species (Bell, 1998). 388

‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forest of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ may also intergrade with 389 the nationally listed ecological community Shale/Sandstone Transition Forest where basalt 390 capping has protected the underlying Wianamatta shale. The shale may occur as a narrow 391 band below the basalt and above the sandstone resulting in an ecological community that may 392 be identifiable as part of Shale/Sandstone Transition Forest (S Douglas pers comm., 2010). 393

Other wet sclerophyll forests occur within the Southern Highlands and Blue Mountains but do 394 not constitute the ecological community due to their occurrences on substrates other than 395 basalt or microsyenite. For example Highland Range Sheltered Forest is a tall eucalypt forest 396 at elevations of 500–110 m and higher rainfall (750–1200 mm). This community occurs on a 397 range of substrates, however is separated out from ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the 398 Sydney Basin Bioregion’ by not occurring on basalt derived soils (Tozer et al., 2010). Other 399 forest and woodland ecological communities occur on basalt on the tablelands and slopes of 400 NSW and Victoria. These are also excluded from the national ecological community on the 401 basis that they occur at lower elevations and/or rainfall; or different bioregions often some 402 distance from the ecological community and are, consequently associated with different 403 landscapes, climate and species composition. 404

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7. Relevant Biology and Ecology 406

Vegetation dynamics 407

The ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ developed on fertile 408 soils in areas of high altitude and high rainfall. The tall open canopy of these forests allowed 409 for the development of a diversity of soft leaved shrubs, ferns and herbs to grow. (Keith 2004, 410 p.58). These basalt forests would typically have occurred as scattered patches of tall open 411 forest surrounded by a matrix of forest or woodland on sandstone or shale. In warm sheltered 412 sites the ecological community is likely to have formed a mosaic with rainforest (Benson & 413 Howell, 1994) and the ecological community may contain a rainforest understorey. 414

In the Sydney Basin Bioregion, both shrubby and mesic, and drier and grassy forms, of the 415 ecological community occur depending on rainfall, aspect, soil conditions, and distance from 416 the coast. Fire is also likely to have played a key role in the development of these forests, with 417 fire intensity and interval particularly affecting understorey species composition (Ashton & 418 Attiwill, 1994). 419

Faunal roles and interactions 420

Wet sclerophyll forests support a diverse array of invertebrate and vertebrate fauna due to the 421 rich combination of resources provided by a rainforest understorey and eucalypt canopy, and 422 the mosaic of habitats created by wet gullies and drier ridgetops (Keith, 2004, p. 60). 423

These forests result in an environment that is particularly favourable to invertebrates by 424 supporting diverse flora, and a range of habitat niches (Brown 2007; Harrison 2007; Williams 425 1993; cited in Keith 2004, p. 60). These in turn support a range of insectivorous birds such as 426 robins, fantails, thornbills and whistlers (Keith 2004, p. 60). Wet sclerophyll forests also 427 provide important habitat for pollen and nectar loving birds, however, support fewer seed 428 eating birds to other vegetation types (Keith, 2004, p. 60). In the Sydney Basin, Wet 429 Sclerophyll Basalt Forests may also provide some additional habitat for rainforest dependent 430 species (Mills & Jakeman, 1990, p. 98), due to the limited occurrences of rainforest in the 431 region, and the fact that rainforest has also been extensively cleared (Mills & Jakeman 1990; 432 Benson & Howell, 1994). 433

These forest types typically contain high numbers of possums and gliders as well as 434 associated predators due to their tall trees, tree hollows, and abundance of food resources 435 (Keith, 2004, p. 60; Gibbons & Lindenmayer, 2002). The ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests 436 of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ may be critical for arboreal fauna in areas such as Wollemi 437 National Park, where this habitat type is rare (Bell, 1998). The ecological community may 438 provide seasonal resources, or irregular events such as mass flowerings of eucalypts, 439 providing important regular and stochastic opportunities for both resident and migratory fauna 440 (Driscoll, 1977; MacNally, 1997). 441

Many remnants would no longer support a range of fauna due to a loss of large old hollow 442 bearing trees, modifications to the understorey, and isolation and fragmentation of remaining 443 stands (Lindenmayer & Fischer 2006; p. 42). However, such remnants may still be of value to 444 disturbance-tolerant or highly mobile species, particularly as stepping-stone habitat in 445 otherwise cleared or developed landscapes (Doerr et al., 2010). 446

Listed threatened species 447

The following threatened species have been recorded within, or are considered likely to 448 occur, in ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’. 449

12

Table 2 Threatened species listed under national and state legislation (EPBC Act; NSW Threatened Species 450 Conservation Act 1995) that are known or likely to occur in the ecological community (DEWHA 2010; 451 NSW NPWS 2010; Bell, 2008; Mt Gibraltar Landcare & Bushcare, 2007) V=Vulnerable; E=Endangered 452 (as at September 2010). 453

Common Name Scientific Name National NSW

FAUNA

Birds

barking owl Ninox connivens V

flame robin Petroica phoenicea V

gang-gang cockatoo Callocephalon fimbriatum V

masked owl Tyto novaeholladiae V

olive whistler Pachycephala olivacea V

powerful owl Ninox strenua V

scarlet robin Petroica boodang V

sooty owl Tyto tenebricosa V

Mammals

brush-tailed rock wallaby Petrogale penicillata V E

eastern bentwing-bat Miniopterus schreibersii oceanensis V

eastern false pipistrelle Fasistrellus tasmaniensis V

eastern pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus V

large-footed myotis Myotis macropus V

greater broadnosed bat Scoteanax rueppellii V

grey-headed flying-fox Pteropus poliocephalus V V

koala Phascolarctos cinereus V

long-nosed potoroo Ixobrychus flavicollus V V

parma wallaby Macropus parma V

smoky mouse Pseudomys fumeus E E

spotted-tail quoll Dasyurus maculatus V E

squirrel glider Petaurus norfolkensis V

yellow-bellied glider Petaurus australis V

yellow-bellied sheathtail Bat Saccolaimus flaviventris V

Reptiles and Frogs

Littlejohn’s tree frog Littoria littlejohni V V

giant burrowing frog Heleoioporus australisiacus V V

giant barred frog Mixophyes iteratus E E

stuttering barred frog Mixophyes iteratus V E

Rosenberg’s goanna Varanus rosenbergi V

FLORA

black gum Eucalyptus aggregata V

buttercup doubletail Diuris aequalis V E

cotoneaster pomaderris Pomaderris cotoneaster E E

Daphandra johnsonii E

13

Common Name Scientific Name National NSW

eastern underground orchid Rhizanthella slateri V E

Illawarra Irene Irenepharsus trypherus E E

Illawarra zieria Zieria granulata E E

Prostanthera stricta V V

454

The role of connectivity and broad landscape context 455

Connectivity between remnants of the ecological community and with other native vegetation 456 remnants is an important determinant of habitat quality at the landscape scale for native flora and 457 fauna, as well as to the overall condition of the ecological community. 458

In a comprehensive study of the native vegetation of southeast New South Wales, Tozer et al. 459 (2010) identified Blue Mountains Basalt Forest (included in the nationally listed ecological 460 community) as a highly spatially restricted ecological vegetation type due to its limitation to rare 461 substrates and land forms (i.e. basalt caps). The Southern Highlands communities occur on similar 462 substrates. Many patches of the ecological community are now isolated from one another. The 463 loss of even small patches of the ecological community may be significant considering the small 464 average patch size (93.5% <10ha; Table 3) and the highly fragmented nature of the community’s 465 distribution. 466

467

8. Description of Threats 468

NB. The study area examined by Tozer et al., (2010) does not include occurrences of the 469 ecological community north of Lithgow. Mapping data from Bell (1998) of Wollemi National 470 Park and surrounds is used in this assessment of threats for occurrences north of the Tozer et 471 al. (2010) study area. 472

Clearing and fragmentation 473

The fertile soils typical of basalt and microsyenite were eagerly sought by the early settlers 474 for timber-getting, grazing, and farming, and many were totally or partially cleared (Benson 475 & Keith 1990). Settlement in the Illawarra began around 1815, and the area underwent 476 widespread clearing throughout the rest of the 19th century (Mills & Jakeman, 1995, p. 25). In 477 the Blue Mountains, even remote areas of vegetation on basalt were logged and grazed, 478 removing vegetation, and introducing weeds and feral animals (Keith, 2004, p. 68; Bell, 479 1998). Today only small, heavily disturbed patches of the forests found on these soils remain 480 (NPWS & SCA, 2003), and in many cases, the ground layer has been replaced with 481 introduced pasture species (Fisher et al., 1995). 482

Table 3 indicates that the majority of patches (93.5%) of ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of 483 the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ are less than 10 ha in size (Tozer et al., 2010; Bell, 1998). 484 Impacts from clearing continue to threaten this ecological community via ongoing suburban 485 and rural residential development, managing and upgrading roadside verges, and small scale 486 clearing (NSW Scientific Committee, 2001, 2004; Tozer et al., 2010). 487 488 It is likely that the estimates in Table 3 include low quality remnants and areas of scattered 489 trees, so that the current extent of the ecological community remaining in good condition 490 would be less than that identified. For example, of the 505 ha of Robertson Basalt Brown 491 Barrel Forest (included in the listed ecological community) in the Sydney Catchment Area, 492 224 ha (or 44%) was identified as scattered trees only (NPWS & SCA, 2003; Eco Logical, 493 2003, p. 9). 494

14

Table 3 Estimated patch size distribution for remnants of Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of Sydney Basin 495 Bioregion (Tozer et al., 2010; Bell 1998) 496

Patch Size Range (ha)

Southern Highlands Basalt Forest (No.)

Blue Mountains Basalt Forest (No.)

Montane Basalt Cap Forest (No.)

Total Number of Patches (No.)

% total patches

Area (ha) occupied by each patch size range

% area occupied by each patch size range

0.05 - <0.5 343 52 158 553 50 823 2

0.5 - <5 267 40 123 430 39 710 17

5 - <10 21 7 22 50 4.5 381 9

10 - 100 29 14 22 65 6 1785 43

100 - 500 3 0 2 5 0.5 1215 29

TOTAL 662 114 327 1103 100 4175 100

497

Impacts from farming & grazing 498

Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests have been particularly affected by clearing and grazing for 499 agriculture (Tozer et al., 2010). Many remnants on private land are still unfenced and subject 500 to grazing by stock (Tozer et al., 2010) and many areas that once constituted the nationally-501 listed ecological community now contain only paddock trees with a modified (i.e. mostly non-502 native) grassy understorey (Fisher et al., 1995). Stock grazing can simplify vegetation by 503 suppressing regeneration and impacting on floristic diversity, also by spreading weeds, 504 causing erosion and changes to soil (such as increased nutrients and compaction), and 505 removing palatable species from the ecological community (NSW Scientific Committee, 506 2001). This can then impact on the suitability of the habitat for native fauna (Tozer et al., 507 2010). Grazing impacts are further exacerbated as a result of additional grazing by feral 508 species such as goats, rabbits, deer and pigs (Tozer et al., 2010). In patches reaching 509 senescence, a lack of regeneration due to grazing is likely to lead to localised extinctions of 510 the ecological community. 511

Other impacts from farming include firewood collection and “tidying up” of fallen dead 512 timber (NSW Scientific Committee, 2007), as well as fertiliser and herbicide use and drift. 513

Impacts from adjacent residential development 514

A number of remnants are surrounded by or abut existing residential areas. Urbanisation and 515 the conversion of broad acre farm land to rural residential blocks results in impacts such as 516 the invasion, or increased invasion of bushland by domestic dogs and cats, rubbish dumping, 517 trampling, garden escapes and impacts from vehicles (NSW Scientific Committee, 2004), as 518 well as arson, firewood collection, and the creation of informal trails. In some basalt remnants 519 in or adjoining residential areas in the Southern Highlands residents introduce exotic species 520 as an extension of their gardens, and remove native vegetation, due to fear of fire or native 521 animals such as snakes (Greg Bray pers comm., 2010). Urbanisation also increases pressure 522 to reduce bushfire fuel loads that may be detrimental to the ecological community (see 523 Inappropriate Fires Regimes below). 524

In many cases urbanisation has further isolated already fragmented patches of the ecological 525 community by removing natural corridors linking remnants. 526

Inappropriate fire regimes 527

The wet sclerophyll forests of southern Australia are particularly vulnerable to fire (Gill, 528 1981, p.360). These forests are known for their fierce fire events, called “stand-replacing 529

15

events”, resulting in the majority of eucalypts being killed, with regeneration relying on seed 530 fall that occurs after fire (Keith, 2004, p. 68). Wet sclerophyll forests burn infrequently, with 531 fire intervals of several decades, and possibility up to a few hundred years (Ashton, 1981, 532 p.363; Benson, 1999; Gill & Catling, 2002). Longer fire intervals are likely to result in wet 533 sclerophyll forest converting to rainforest (Ashton, 1981, p. 345). Too frequent fires risk a 534 loss of species diversity and reduced soil fertility (Ashton, 1981, p. 352; Jackson, 1968, cited 535 in Ashton, 1981, p. 347). If fires occur at intervals shorter than the age of seeding, and if the 536 soil seed bank is also exhausted, then these species will be eliminated. Repeated burning of 537 coppiced stumps will also eventually kill plants (Ashton, 1981, p. 352). Impacts on vegetation 538 from altered fire regimes will result in impacts on associated fauna species by causing 539 changes in the availability of food, shelter and breeding sites (Whelan et al., 2002; cited in 540 Tozer et al., 2010). While it is difficult to identify an appropriate fire regime to maintain all 541 species in a given area (Benson, 1999, p. 32), repeated low intensity burns (e.g. hazard 542 reduction burns) or too-frequent unintentional fires, may run contrary to natural fire regimes 543 for this ecological community, impacting on the ecology of the community and reducing 544 species composition. 545

Invasion by weeds and feral animals 546

The invasion and spread of weeds is the most serious biological threat to native vegetation in 547 southeast New South Wales (Tozer et al., 2010). Remnants of ‘Wet Sclerophyll Basalt 548 Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’ are subject to ongoing weed invasion from species 549 such as English ivy (Hedera helix), Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), English holly 550 (Ilex aquifolium), barberry (Berberis vulgaris), firethorn (Pyracantha spp), and broom 551 (Genista spp) (NSW Scientific Committee 2001; 2004). Dumping of garden waste and 552 invasion by garden plants are common in areas near suburbia (J. Lemann pers comm., 2010). 553 The high fertility and rainfall of the ecological community makes it more susceptible to weed 554 invasion. Species such as English ivy and Japanese honeysuckle can smother native 555 vegetation killing plants and suppressing regeneration. English holly, barberry and firethorn 556 all produce berries that are spread by birds, bats and foxes. These plants can continually re-557 invade native bushland and may outcompete natives if left unmanaged. 558

The ecological community may also be affected by the following Weeds of National 559 Significance: 560

Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus aggregate) 561 Chilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana) 562 Serrated tussock (Nassella trichotoma) 563 Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides) 564 565

A range of feral animals have been identified in the Southern Highlands and Blue Mountains 566 regions, notably rabbits, pigs, goats cats, dogs and foxes (Eco Logical 2009). Rabbits, pigs 567 and goats graze and degrade vegetation that provides food and shelter for them and other 568 native species. They can disturb the soil promoting weed invasion and reducing regeneration. 569 Feral animals such as dogs, foxes and cats impact on native species by predation, competition 570 for food and shelter, destroying habitat, and by spreading diseases (DEWHA, 2010). 571

On-going stone extraction 572

Mount Gibraltar was quarried for almost 100 years from 1886-1986 (Lemann, 2007). Small 573 amounts of rock are still removed from the site and used to maintain buildings that were 574 originally built with the stone (Lemann, 2007). It is possible that more extensive quarrying 575 could be undertaken in the future which may impact on vegetation at the site (J Lemman pers 576 comm.). 577

16

Level of protection in reserves 578

Within the Southern Highlands, approximately 690 ha of the ecological community occurs as 579 fragmented patches within Morton National Park (Tozer et al., 2010). The centre of this area 580 of basalt occurs on private land and has been extensively cleared, leaving the edges of the 581 patch within the national park. In the Blue Mountains, patches of the ecological community 582 are secured within Blue Mountains, Kanangra-Boyd and Wollemi National Parks 583 (approximately 684 ha), including a number of areas originally cleared by early settlers that 584 have been allowed to regrow (Benson & Keith, 1990; Bell, 1998; Tozer et al., 2010). 585

Thus, the extent of the ecological community in formal NPWS reserves accounts for 586 approximately 33% of the total extant community. This equates to approximately 11.5–17.5% 587 of the known original pre-European estimate (NB pre-European data was not available for the 588 Wollemi region – see Table 4). 589

Although 33% of the extant community is in the reserve system, these patches are still 590 impacted by ongoing threats such as weed invasion and feral animals (Bell, 1998). 591

Table 4 Extant areas, pre-European estimate and area in reserve for the Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of 592 the Sydney Basin Bioregion (Tozer et al., 2010; Bell, 1998) 593

Community Pre-European estimate (ha)

Extant

(ha)

Estimated % remaining

Area in reserves (ha)

% of reserved area to extant vegetation

% of reserved area to pre-European veg

Blue Mountains Basalt Forest (Tozer et al., 20010)

685-960

480 50-70% 160 33% 16-23%

Montane Basalt Cap Forest (Bell, 1998)

Unknown - at least 1718 ha

1718 Unknown 524 30.5 Unknown

Southern Highlands Basalt Forest (Tozer et al., 20010)

5700-10000

2000 20-35% 690 35% 6.9-12%

TOTAL 8103-12678

4198 35-52.5% 1374 33% 11.5 -17.5%

594

Climate Change 595

Eco Logical Australia (2010) identified ‘Robertson Basalt Tall Open Forest’ (NSW listed and 596 included in the national listing) as having a high vulnerability to climate change, particularly 597 as a consequence of potential increase in bushfires and possible decrease in orographic 598 rainfall (Eco Logical Australia, 2010). It is possible that this risk is inherent to the ecological 599 community due to its restriction to areas of high elevation and its vulnerability to too frequent 600 fires (see Inappropriate fire regimes above). 601

Key Threatening Processes 602

The following EPBC Act listed Key Threatening Processes are considered relevant to ‘Wet 603 Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion’: 604 Land clearance; 605 Competition and land degradation by unmanaged goats; 606 Predation by European red fox; 607 Competition and degradation by rabbits; 608 Predation, habitat degradation, competition and disease transmission by feral pigs; 609 Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by invasion of escaped garden 610

plants, including aquatic plants; and 611

17

Loss of terrestrial climatic habitat caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse 612 gases. 613

614 11. Publications used to assess the nomination 615

Ashton, DH (1981). Fire in tall open-forests (wet sclerophyll forests), Chapter 14 in Fire and 616 the Australian Biota, pp 339-366. Australian Academy of Science, Griffin Press, South 617 Australia. 618

Ashton DH & Attiwill PM (1994) Tall open-forest, Chapter 5 in Australian Vegetation (Ed 619 RH Groves), pp 157-186, Cambridge University Press, Canberra ACT. 620

Australian Biological Resources Study (2007). Flora of Australia Glossary. (Compiled by 621 A McCusker). 622 Viewed: 6 May 2009 Available on the Internet at: 623 http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/onlineresources/glossaries/vascular/index.html 624

Bell, SAJ (1998), Wollemi National Park, Vegetation Survey: A Fire Management Document 625 (Volume 2), Report to NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service Upper Hunter District. 626

Benson DH & Keith DA (1990). The natural vegetation of the Wallerawang 1:100 000 map 627 sheet. Cunninghamia 2(2): 337-342. 628

Benson J (1999). Setting the Scene – the Native Vegetation of New South Wales. A 629 background paper of the Native Vegetation Advisory Council of New South Wales, Royal 630 Botanic Gardens, Sydney. 631

BES (2008). Summary of Mt. Gibraltar Fauna Survey. Fauna Survey Summary, Mt. Gibraltar 632 Reserve. 633

Black D (1982) The vegetation of the Boyd Plateau NSW, in Vegetation, Vol 50(2), pp. 93-634 111. 635

Bowie I (2006) Wingecarribee, Our Home: A geographical interpretation of the Southern 636 Highlands of NSW, U3A. 637

Brown S (2003). Butterfly Fauna of Mount Gibraltar, Chapter 20 in The Gib: Mt Gibraltar: 638 Southern Highlands, Eds. C Wright, J Moffat, J Lemann, M Elphick, E Smith, J Simons. 639 Mt Gibraltar Landcare and Bushcare under the auspices of Wingecarribee Shire Council. 640

DEWHA (2010) EBPC Act Protected Matters Search Tool. 50 km radius from Bell NSW and 641 50 km radius from Berrima NSW. 642 Viewed: 9 August 2010. 643 Available on the internet at: 644 http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/erin/ert/epbc/epbc_report.pl 645

DEWHA (2010a) Feral Animals in Australia. Department of Environment, Water, Heritage 646 and Arts. 647 Viewed: 25 August 2010. 648 Available on the internet at: 649 http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/ferals/index.html 650

DEWHA (2008) Why are weeds a problem? Department of Environment, Water, Heritage 651 and Arts. 652 Viewed: 26 August 2010. 653 Available on the internet at: 654 http://www.weeds.gov.au/weeds/why/index.html 655

18

Doerr VAJ, Doerr ED, & Davies MJ (2010). Does structural connectivity facilitate dispersal 656 of native species in Australia’s fragmented terrestrial landscapes? Systematic Review No. 657 44, Collaboration for Environmental Evidence. 658

Douglas SM & bell SAJ (2002). Native vegetation mapping in the Blue Mountains 1999-2002, 659 Unpublished report prepared by Ecological Surveys and Planning Pty Ltd for Blue Mountains 660 City Council, Katoomba. 661

Eco Logical (2010). Hawkesbury Nepean Catchment Management Authority - Climate 662 Change Vulnerability Assessment, Sutherland. Draft Unpublished Report. 663

Eco Logical (2009). Prioritisation of high conservation status mainland islands (Bowral & 664 Great Blue Mountains Area), Department of Environment, Water Heritage and the Arts, 665 Canberra. 666

Eco Logical (2002). Wingecarribee Biodiversity Strategy – Phase 1, Sutherland. 667

Edwards T (2007). Moths of Mount Gibraltar, Chapter 19 in The Gib: Mt Gibraltar: Southern 668 Highlands, Eds. C Wright, J Moffat, J Lemann, M Elphick, E Smith, J Simons. Mt 669 Gibraltar Landcare and Bushcare under the auspices of Wingecarribee Shire Council. 670

Fisher M, Ryan K & Lembit R (1995). The natural vegetation of the Burragorang 1:100 000 671 map sheet. Cunninghamia 4(2):143-215. 672

Gibbons P & Lindenmayer D (2002). Tree Hollows and Wildlife Conservation in Australia, 673 CSIRO Publishing, Canberra. 674

Gill AM & Catling PC (2002). Fire regimes and biodiversity of forested landscapes of 675 southern Australia, In Flammable Australia: Fires Regimes and Biodiversity of a 676 Continent, Eds Bradstock B, Williams JE & Gill AM, pp 351-369. Cambridge University 677 Press. 678

Hnatiuk RJ, Thackway R & Walker J (2009). Vegetation, In Australian Soil and Land Survey 679 Field Handbook, 3rd Edition, pp 73-125, The National Committee on Soil and Terrain, 680 CSIRO Canberra. 681

James N & Gellie H (2005). Native Vegetation of the Southern Forests: South-east Highlands, 682 Australian Alps, South-west Slopes and SE Corner Bioregions, Cunninghamia 9(2):219-254. 683

Jordan R (2007). Birds of Mount Gibraltar, Chapter 16 in The Gib: Mt Gibraltar: Southern 684 Highlands, Eds. C Wright, J Moffat, J Lemann, M Elphick, E Smith, J Simons. Mt 685 Gibraltar Landcare and Bushcare under the auspices of Wingecarribee Shire Council. 686

Jupp M (2007). Spiders of Mount Gibraltar, Chapter 23 in The Gib: Mt Gibraltar: Southern 687 Highlands, Eds. C Wright, J Moffat, J Lemann, M Elphick, E Smith, J Simons. Mt 688 Gibraltar Landcare and Bushcare under the auspices of Wingecarribee Shire Council. 689

Jupp M (2007a). Reptiles of Mount Gibraltar, Chapter 17 in The Gib: Mt Gibraltar: Southern 690 Highlands, Eds. C Wright, J Moffat, J Lemann, M Elphick, E Smith, J Simons. Mt 691 Gibraltar Landcare and Bushcare under the auspices of Wingecarribee Shire Council. 692

Keith D (2004). Ocean shores to desert dunes: the native vegetation of New South Wales and 693 the ACT. Department of Environment and Conservation. Hurstville. 694

Keith DA & Benson DH (1988). The natural vegetation of the Katoomba 1:100 000 map sheet. 695 Cunninghamia 2(1):1-146. 696

Kodela, PG (1990). Modern pollen rain from forest communities on the Robertson Plateau. 697 Australian Journal of Botany 38:1-24. 698

19

Lemann J (2007). Quarries, Chapter 6 in The Gib: Mt Gibraltar: Southern Highlands, Eds. C 699 Wright, J Moffat, J Lemann, M Elphick, E Smith, J Simons. Mt Gibraltar Landcare and 700 Bushcare under the auspices of Wingecarribee Shire Council. 701

Lindenmayer D & Fischer J (2006). Habitat fragmentation and landscape change: An 702 ecological and conservation synthesis. CSIRO Publishing, Vic. 703

MacMaster J (2007). Mammals of Mount Gibraltar, Chapter 15 in The Gib: Mt Gibraltar: 704 Southern Highlands, Eds. C Wright, J Moffat, J Lemann, M Elphick, E Smith, J Simons. 705 Mt Gibraltar Landcare and Bushcare under the auspices of Wingecarribee Shire Council. 706

MacNally (1997). Population densities in a bird community of a wet sclerophyllous Victorian 707 Forest, Emu 97:253-258. 708

Malcolm D, Clugston B, Harris I, Munro I, Worrall A (2010). Remnant Native Vegetation 709 Investigation Discussion Paper, Victorian Environmental Assessment Council, East 710 Melbourne, Vic. p 143. 711

Mills K & Jakeman J (1995). Rainforests of the Illawarra District, Coachwood Publishing, 712 Jamberoo. 713

Mt Gibraltar Landcare and Bushcare (2007). The Gib: Mt Gibraltar: Southern Highlands, Eds. 714 C Wright, J Moffat, J Lemann, M Elphick, E Smith, J Simons. Mt Gibraltar Landcare and 715 Bushcare under the auspices of Wingecarribee Shire Council. 716

NSW NPWS & Sydney Catchment Authority (2003) The Native vegetation of the Woronora, 717 O’Hares and Metropolitan Catchments, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. 718

NSW NPWS (2010). NSW Wildlife Atlas Internet Search Tool – 50 km radius from Mt 719 Wilson NSW. 720 Accessed 12 August 2010. 721 Available on the internet at: 722 http://wildlifeatlas.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/wildlifeatlas/watlas.jsp 723

NSW Scientific Committee (New South Wales Scientific Committee) (2001). Robertson 724 Basalt Tall Open Forest in the Sydney Basin Bioregion - endangered ecological 725 community listing final determination, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife 726 Service. 727 Viewed: 6 August 2010. Available on the Internet at: 728 http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/RobertsonBasaltTallOpenForestSydneyE729 ndComListing.htm 730

NSW Scientific Committee (New South Wales Scientific Committee) (2001a). Southern 731 Highlands Shale Woodlands in the Sydney Basin Bioregion - endangered ecological 732 community listing final determination, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife 733 Service. 734 Viewed: 13 August 2010. 735 Available on the Internet at: 736 http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/SouthernHighlandsShaleWoodlandsSydn737 eyEndComListing.htm 738

NSW Scientific Committee (New South Wales Scientific Committee) (2002). Robertson 739 Rainforest in the Sydney Basin Bioregion - endangered ecological community listing 740 final determination, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service. 741 Viewed: 6 August 2010. 742 Available on the Internet at: 743 http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/RobertsonRainforestSydneyEndComListi744 ng.htm 745

20

NSW Scientific Committee (New South Wales Scientific Committee) (2002). Tablelands 746 Basalt - endangered ecological community listing final determination, New South Wales 747 National Parks and Wildlife Service. 748 Viewed: 6 August 2010. 749 Available on the Internet at: 750

http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/TablelandBasaltForestSydneySthHighlan751 dsEndComListing.htm 752

NSW Scientific Committee (New South Wales Scientific Committee) (2004). Mt Gibraltar 753 Forest in the Sydney Basin Bioregion - endangered ecological community listing final 754 determination, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service. 755 Viewed: 6 August 2010. 756 Available on the Internet at: 757 http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/MountGibraltarForestSydneyEndComLis758 ting.htm 759

Sydney Catchment Authority (2007). Special Areas Strategic Plan of Management, Prepared for 760 Sydney Catchment Authority (SCA) and Department of Environment and Conservation 761 (DEC), Sydney. 762

Tozer MG, Turner K, Keith DA, Tindall D, Pennay C, Simpson C, MacKenzie B, Beukers P and 763 Cox S (2010). Native vegetation of southeast NSW: a revised classification and map for the 764 coast and eastern tablelands. Cunninghamia 11(3) pp. 359-406. 765

Wingecarribee Shire Council (undated). Wingecarribee Shire Threatened and Endangered Flora, 766 Viewed: 6 August 2010. 767 Available on the Internet at: 768 http://www.wsc.nsw.gov.au/files/13232/File/WingecarribeeShireThreatenedandEndangeredFl769 ora.pdf 770 771

Wingecarribee Shire Council (undated). Wingecarribee Shire Threatened and Endangered Fauna, 772 Viewed: 6 August 2010. 773 Available on the Internet at: 774 http://www.wsc.nsw.gov.au/files/13233/File/faunalist.pdf 775

Wood KA (1996) Bird assemblages in a small public reserve and adjacent residential area at 776 Wollongong, New South Wales, Wildlife Research 23: 605-620. 777

778

21

Appendix A 779

List of vascular plants known to occur in the Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney 780 Basin Bioregion ecological community. 781

This is an indicative rather than a comprehensive list of plant species present in the ecological 782 community. Patches may not include all species on the list or may include other species not 783 listed (Keith & Benson, 1988; Benson & Keith 1990; Fisher et al., 1995; NSW Scientific 784 Committee 2001, 2004; Tozer et al, 2010). 785

Scientific Name Common Name Blue Mountains Southern Highlands

CANOPY

Acacia melanoxylon blackwood x x

Doryphora sassafras sassafras x

Eucalyptus blaxlandii Blaxland’s stringybark x x

Eucalyptus cypellocarpa mountain grey gum x x

Eucalyptus elata river peppermint x

Eucalyptus fastigata brown barrel x x

Eucalyptus obliqua messmate stringybark x

Eucalyptus oreades Blue Mountains ash x

Eucalyptus piperita Sydney peppermint x

Eucalyptus quadrangulata yellow-topped box x

Eucalyptus radiata subsp radiata narrow-leaved peppermint x x

Eucalyptus smithii ironbark peppermint x

Eucalyptus viminalis ribbon gum x x

SHRUBS

Acacia elata cedar wattle x

Bursaria longisepala x

Coprosma quadrifida prickly currant bush x

Cyathea australis rough tree fern x x

Cyathea leichhardtiana prickly tree fern x

Daviesia ulicifolia gorse bitter pea x x

Hedycarya angustifolia native mulberry x x

Leucopogon lanceolatus x x

Melicytus dentatus tree violet x x

Indigofera australis austral indigo x x

Myrsine howittiana brush muttonwood x x

Polyscias sambuccifolia elderberry panax x x

Prostanthera lasianthos Victorian christmas bush x x

VINES

Clematis aristata old man’s beard x x

22

Scientific Name Common Name Blue Mountains Southern Highlands

Eustrephus latifolius wombat berry x x

Marsdenia flavescens hairy milk vine x

Rubus parvifolius native raspberry x

Smilax australis lawyer vine x x

Tylophora barbarta bearded Tylophora x x

GROUND LAYER

Grasses and Grass-like Plants (Graminoids)

Austrostipa rudis x

Carex appressa tall sedge x

Carex breviculmis x

Dianella spp flax-lily x x

Dichelachne inaequiglumis x

Echinopogon ovatus hedgehog grass x x

Lomandra longifolia spiny-headed mat-rush x x

Luzula flaccida x

Microlaena stipoides weeping meadow grass x

Oplismenus imbecillus x x

Poa affinis x

Poa labillardierei var labillardierei tussock grass x

Herbs4 & Forbs

Acaena novae-zelandiae bidgee-widgee x x

Ajuga australis austral bugle x x

Asperula conferta common woodruff x

Austrocynoglossum latifolium x

Centella asiatica Indian pennywort x x

Coronidium scorpioides button everlasting x

Desmodium varians slender tick-trefoil x

Dichondra spp kidney weed x x

Galium propinquum maori bedstraw x

Geranium spp native geranium x x

Glycine spp x x

Hardenbergia violacea native sarsparilla x

Hibbertia scandens climbing guinea flower x

Hydrocotyle peduncularis x

4 A herb is a plant that does not produce a woody stem, although it may be woody at the base (NSW PlantNET Flora Online Glossary).

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Scientific Name Common Name Blue Mountains Southern Highlands

Plantago debilis x x

Poranthera microphylla x

Senecio linearifolius fireweed groundsel x x

Schelhammera undulata x

Sigesbeckia orientalis subsp orientalis

x

Stellaria flaccida x x

Stellaria pungens x x

Urtica incisa stinging nettle x

Veronica plebeia trailing speedwell x

Viola spp. x x

Ferns

Adiantum aethiopicum common maidenhair fern x x

Blechnum nudum fishbone water fern x

Blechnum cartilagineum gristle fern; soft water fern x x

Doodia aspera prickly rasp fern x x

Pellaea falcata sickle fern x x

Polystichum proliferum mother shield fern x x

Pteridium esculentum bracken fern x x

Pyrrosia rupestris rock felt fern x x

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