Western Civilization IHIS-101

Unit 8 – Early Middle Ages, 750-1000

End of Late Antiquity Byzantium – Greek

Greek-speaking Combined Roman imperial and bureaucratic

traditions with intense pursuit of Christian faith Islam – Arabic

The Roman ideal of expansion and cultural and religious assimilation

Hellenistic philosophical and scientific interests Persian literary and artistic culture

Western Europe – Latin Latin – Speaking Germanic, Celtic, and Latin cultural influences Roman ideals of empire

Byzantium in the 7th Century With Justinian’s death, the empire faced

numerous issues Empty treasury due to wars Too much territory to protect Smaller population from the plague Renewed threats along the frontier

Creation of the theme A new administrative unit which placed control of

both the military and civilian populations in one person

Led to increased militarization of the empire Helped strengthen the empire from new threats

Byzantium in the 7th Century Threat of Islam

Most serious challenge to the empire Unified Arab tribes attempted to take control of the

empire including Constantinople City was able to defend itself through the use of

Greek Fire Still remained struggles between the two in

southern Asia Minor The Bulgars

Asiatic people who settled in the Balkans In 679, defeated imperial forces and created a new

Bulgarian kingdom in the lower Danube River valley

Byzantium in the 8th Century By the 8th century, Byzantium only controlled

the eastern Balkans and Asia Minor By this point, it had developed a unique character,

separating it more clearly from the west Development as a Greek state

Latin fell into disuse after Justinian’s reign His Body of Civil Law was the last thing published

in Latin Greek became the official language

Development of a Christian state Tied in with the government was a strong

foundation in Christianity Almost all of its citizens were devoutly Christian

Byzantium in the 8th Century Permanent war economy

State retained control through regulation of economy

Necessary due to the need for a large army Pushed agricultural and industrial production for

the necessary funds State took control of trade of grain and silk

Role of the Emperor Believed to have been chosen by God Were absolute rulers As they appointed the patriarch, they also exuded

control over the church

Mosaic inside the Hagia Sophia

Byzantine Religion The Byzantine Empire was characterized by

religious orthodoxy There were numerous disputes over proper wording

of religious creeds Emperor played an active role in doctrinal disputes

First Iconoclastic Controversy (730-787) Iconoclasts wanted to prohibit the veneration of

icons To them, it resembled idolatry and paganism Also believed that because Christ was divine, he

should not be portrayed in art Traditionalist argued it was not the images that

were worshipped by the what they represented

Byzantine Religion Emperor Leo III (717–741)

Supported Iconoclasm and made it official policy of the church

Ordered the removal and destruction of all images When the Patriarch refused to comply, Leo replaced

him Constantine IV (741-775)

Also a strong supporter of Iconoclasm Heavily persecuted those who did not follow his

rulings, including monks Seventh Ecumenical Council at Nicaea (787)

Instigated by Irene, regent to her son Leo IV Brought a temporary end to Iconoclasm

Byzantine Religion Second Iconoclastic Controversy (814-842)

Instituted by Emperor Leo V Did not end until Theodora, regent to Michael III,

reinstated images in 842 Consequences

Much religious art destroyed as a result of the Controversy

Opened a serious breach between East and West as the popes were against Iconoclasm

Defeat of Iconoclasm led to renewed emphasis on Orthodox faith as key to political unity

Focusing on tradition led to fewer religious conflicts and a stronger fear of heresy

“Triumph of Orthodoxy” Theodora and

Michael celebrating the end to Iconoclasm

Rise of Islam Born in the desert of Arabia

Early Arabian religions were polytheistic There was the belief in one supreme God (Allah)

who ruled over the other gods Ka’bah

Allah was symbolized by the Black Stone which was enshrined in the Ka’bah in Mecca

Quraish tribe Dominant tribe of Mecca Controlled the Ka’bah and the economic life of

Mecca It was also the tribe Muhammad was born into

Muhammad (c. 570-632) Muhammad (c. 570-632)

Born at Mecca to a merchant family but was orphaned at the age of 5

Became a caravan manager Married his employer at the age of 25

Religious experience In 610, the angel Gabriel appeared to him Told him that there was no god but Allah Muhammad becomes an uncompromising

monotheist Believed that Allah had already revealed himself

to both Moses and Jesus “Called” to be the “Prophet”

Muhammad (c. 570-632) Muhammad wanted to convince people that his

revelations were true Some thought he was insane Others thought he would upset the social and political

order The Quraish may have been fearful of how this would

affect the Ka’bah and the commerce of the city Hijrah of 622

Muhammad and his followers were invited to Yathrib Organized the first Muslim community there Believed there was no separation between religious

and political authority City was remained Medina (“city of the Prophet”) Marks the beginning of the Islamic era (year 1)

Muhammad (c. 570-632) Conquering of Mecca

Muhammad put together a sizable military force Started raids on Quraish caravans Finally captures Mecca in 630 and the Quraish submit to

Islam Farewell Pilgrimage (632)

Muhammad’s final pilgrimage to Mecca Accompanied by tens of thousands of followers Laid the foundation for the Hajj

Muhammad died on June 8, 632 Did not stop the spread of his teachings Spread throughout the Arab world in a short period of time Helped to united Arab society both politically and

religiously

Religious Teachings of Islam Term islam means “submission to the will of

Allah” Allah – the Creator God Almighty Muhammad as the last and greatest prophet Men and women must surrender themselves to

Allah Qur'an

Book containing God’s revelations to Muhammad Basic message: there is no God but Allah and

Muhammad is his Prophet 114 chapters Serves as Muslim code of ethics and law

Religious Teachings of Islam “Five Pillars” of Islam

Belief in Allah and Muhammad as his Prophet Standard prayer five times a day and public

prayer on Friday Observance of the holy month of Ramadan with

fasting from dawn to sunset Making a pilgrimage to Mecca in one’s lifetime Giving alms to the poor

Islam, Christianity and Judaism Jesus was a prophet but was not the son of God Strict monotheism Old and New Testament as divinely inspired Islam as a way of life – no sacraments or clergy

Islamic Conquests Abu-Bakr (c. 573-634)

Was Muhammad’s father-in-law who succeeded him The caliph (“deputy of the Prophet”) Led a military campaign against those who followed

Muhammad but would not follow Abu-Bakr Successors continued on to expand throughout

the Middle East and into north Africa and Spain Explanations

Search for territory and booty Weakness of their neighbors Did not demand conversions Muslims preferred to old rulers

Expansion of Islam After Muhammad

The Shiite-Sunni Schism Caliph Uthman replaces Umar in 644

A weak ruler Belonged to the wealthy Umayyad family who

initially rejected Muhammad Murdered in 656 by mutineers

Opponents rally around Ali Was Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law Murdered and Uthman’s party emerged triumphant

The Sunnis Accepted religious customs set forth by Abu-Bakr

and Umar as binding (sunna) Also accepted Uthman as the legitimate heir to

Muhammad

The Shiite-Sunni Schism The Shiites

Insisted that only descendants of Ali and Fatimah (his wife) could rule the Muslim community (the umma)

Did not accept binding religious customs Minority religious party

Great Umayyad Mosque at Damascus

Umayyads and Abbasids Umayyad Dynasty (661-750)

Were looking towards the west for expansion Capital at Damascus Sort of a Byzantine successor state Goal was to conquer Constantinople

Failed attack in 717 weakened the rulers After 750, Umayyad dynasty rules only in Spain

Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258) More eastern focused Rule stressed Persian elements rather than

Byzantine New capital was built at Baghdad

Islam in the 9th and 10th Centuries Faced numerous problems

Impoverishment of economic base Due to ecological crises in the Tigris-Euphrates basin

Because of this, tax revenues declined Unable to support civil service or mercenary army Religious division between Sunnis and Shiites, and

between the different Shiite factions Umayyad Spain succumbs to Christian

pressure by the 9th and 10th centuries Christian conquest of Spain complete by the mid-

13th century

Europe c. 650

Instability in the Early Middle Ages Prior to 650, the economy of the west was

strong Gold coinage was still being used Trade was strong, including luxury goods

By 650, economic stability broke down Causes in Byzantium

Justinian's effort to reconquer the West Excessive Byzantine taxation of agricultural lands

This hurt the peasantry the most Islamic piracy

Instability in the Early Middle Ages Causes in western Europe

Urban life declined as more people moved out to the countryside

Land passed out of cultivation Coinage system broke down Two-tier economy (wealthy using coins, poor

bartering) Political instability

Incessant wars between kings and lords Inability to regulate royal succession Rivalries

Coronation of Charlemagne (800)

The Carolingians Rise of the Carolingians

Worked to depose the Merovingian dynasty from Frankish lands in the 8th century

Pepin the Short (751-768) Son of Charles Martel Was appointed king by Frankish nobility Also was anointed by Pope Stephen II First king to be anointed, setting a new precedent Went to war against the Lombards Donated the land gained to the pope, helping to

further develop the Papal States

Charlemagne (768-814) Charlemagne (768-814)

Charles the Great – Carolus magnus Son of Pepin the Short Was a warrior king who was also well educated

Expansion of the Empire United the Frankish Kingdom through armed

expeditions Went on a total of 54 military campaigns throughout

Spain, Italy, and Germany In 773, took control of Italy from the Lombards In 788, defeated the Bavarians Wiped the Avars in the Danube River Valley from

existence

Charlemagne (768-814) Turned his attention south towards Spain

Began fighting in northern Spain in 778 Was defeated by the Basques In 795, established the Spanish March just south of

the Pyrenees as a defensive border against the Muslims

Campaigns into German Fought against the Saxons between the Elbe River

and North Sea in northern Germany In 804, defeated them after 18 campaigns

At its peak, the empire covered most of western and central Europe Europe will not see another empire of this size until

Napoleon

Charlemagne’s Empire

Charlemagne (768-814) Governing the Empire

There was no system of public taxation Depended upon the royal estates to provide

necessary resources (food and goods) Gave loyal nobles lifetime holdings

Count These were king’s chief representatives in local areas Descended from the similar position under

Merovingians Included margraves (mark graf) in the border regions Were a threat to Charlemagne as they had

extraordinary power in their local districts

Charlemagne (768-814) Charlemagne wanted to limit the powers of the

counts Moved them to serve outside their own family lands Periodically rotated them to new regions Made the offices appointive rather than hereditary

Missi dominci – “Messengers of the King” One lay nobility and one church official Travel to local districts to keep an eye on the counts

Difficulties of governing Large distances made it difficult to exercise supervision

over local affairs Depended upon a loyal and powerful local lord Meant that the king had to be more powerful than the

lords

Charlemagne (768-814) Other reforms

Military reforms included the use of new siege technology and new military tactics

Continued the use of the “cavalry revolution” started by Charles Martel

New coinage system using livre, sous, and deniers (1 livre = 20 sous; 1 sous = 12 deniers)

Carolingian Renaissance with advancements in art, literature, and scholarship

Development of the Carolingian minuscule as a writing standard

Example of Carolingian minuscule (c. 1125-

1130)

Charlemagne and the Catholic Church Hierarchy of the Catholic Church disintegrated

over the course of the 7th century Many positions were unfilled Others were filled with unqualified relatives of the

royal families Charlemagne took up the cause of church

reform Appointed qualified officials to church positions

and created new ones Made sure clergy followed their superior and

executed their duties Gained support from the church for his efforts

Charlemagne and the Catholic Church Pope Leo III (795-816)

Had been strongly disliked by Roman nobility Faction led by the nephew of the previous pope

charged him with misconduct, perjury, and adultery In April 799, was attacked by a gang who attempted

to gouge his eyes out and cut off his tongue Fled to the safety of Charlemagne’s court Charlemagne provided an armed escort for Leo’s

return The assailants were arrested and charged However, Charlemagne had to come down with

troops in Fall 800 to secure the pope’s position

Charlemagne and the Catholic Church Charlemagne as Emperor

Was crowned as “Emperor of the Romans” by Pope Leo III after mass on December 25, 800

Historians are unsure if he knew in advance that this was going to happen

Accepted the title as it put him on equal standing with the Byzantine emperor

Title may have been given as a result of the rise of Iconoclasm in the east

Significance: Germanic king crowed emperor by the spiritual leader of western Christendom

Louis the Pious (814–840)

Collapse of the Carolingian Empire Charlemagne died on January 28, 814

Died shortly after developing pleurisy None of his descendants had the personality or

strength to hold the empire together Louis the Pious (814–840)

Was the only surviving legitimate son of Charlemagne

Endured numerous wars along the frontier Also struggled with both the Frankish nobility and

his own four sons in a number of civil wars After his death, sons continued to struggle for

control of the empire

Collapse of the Carolingian Empire Treaty of Verdun (843)

Divided the empire amongst Louis’ three surviving sons

Charles the Bald (843-877) received the western Frankish kingdom (develop into modern France)

Louis the German (843-876) received the eastern lands (develop into modern Germany)

Lothair (840-855) received both the title of Emperor and the “Middle Kingdom” which included the Netherlands, the Rhineland, and northern Italy

Continued collapse Descendants continued to struggle for power Exacerbated by external attacks

Frankish kingdoms after the Treaty of Verdun (843)

Invasions of the 9th and 10th Centuries Europe faced invasions from three entities

over the course of the 9th and 10th centuries Included Muslims, Magyars, and the Vikings The latter two would be assimilated into Christian

European civilization Muslims

Expansion into southern Mediterranean began in the 9th century

Raided southern coasts Took the island of Sicily in 827 and threatened

Rome Destroyed Carolingian defenses in northern Spain Led raids into southern France

Invasions of the 9th and 10th Centuries Magyars

Originally hailed from western Asia Moved into the Carpathian Basin c. 895 The Árpád dynasty led raids into Germany, France,

and Italy between 898-920 Expansion was checked by Otto I of the Germans

at the Battle of Lechfeld (955) By the 10th century they were converted to

Christianity Created the kingdom of Hungary (c. 1000) First king, Stephen I (c. 1000-1038), was later

canonized by the Church

St. Stephen I (c. 1000-

1038)

The Vikings Vikings

Germanic people based in Scandinavia They mark the final wave of Germanic migration Was a warrior class society known for its superior

ship building Viking raids

Began in the 790s as sporadic, small-scale raids Became more regular and devastating in the 9th

century Sacked towns and villages, defeating small armies Brought sense of fear to northern Europe Local priests would encourage populations to

change their behavior as God was angry with them

The Vikings Expansion

Began establishing winter settlements throughout Europe Norwegian Vikings moved into Ireland and western

England Danish Vikings moved into eastern England and the

Rhineland In 911, Frankish king Charles the Simple gave one of

the Viking rulers, Rollo, the Duchy of Normandy This was in return for Rollo converting to Christianity Set a precedence as more kings allowed the Vikings to

settle Became protectors against other Viking attacks

Ruled principalities in Scotland, Ireland, Normandy and Russia

The Vikings Explorers

The Vikings were know for their explorations throughout the north including Russia to the east

In 860, they began exploring the north Atlantic Discovered Iceland in 874

Eric the Red (950 - c. 1003) Born in Norway Parents were exiled to Iceland on charges of

manslaughter Eric was banished from Iceland for murder in 982 Decided to travel west to Greenland By this point, a number of Vikings had already been

to Greenland Created the first permanent settlement there in 985

The Vikings Leif Eriksson (c.970 – c.1020)

Son of Erik the Red According to the Saga of the Greenlanders, traveled

west of Greenland in 1000 Helluland (“Land of the Flat Stones”) - Baffin Island

This was the first land he came to in his exploration Markland (“Tree-land”) - Labrador

Eriksson’s crew cut down many trees to bring back to Greenland

Vinland (“Land of the Grapevines”) - Newfoundland His crew spent the winter here Viking settlement at L’Anse Aux Meadows (c. 11th

century)

Viking Expansion

The Vikings Norman Conquest of England (1066)

With the death of King Edward the Confessor (1042-1066), there was no clear succession for the throne of England

Some believe it was to be William, Duke of Normandy, while others say it was Harold Godwinson

Harold took the throne as Harold II William responded by invading England

Battle of Hastings (October 14, 1066) Harold II died in battle, supposedly shot through the

eye with an arrow Decisive Norman victory William took the throne as William I, better known as

William the Conqueror

The Vikings Norman Conquest marks the end of the Viking Era

Expansion came to a close in the 10th century Combination of greater monarchical control in the

northern countries and the expansion of Christianity Vikings were assimilated into European culture and

religion Conversion to Christianity was forced through the use

of brutal tactics, especially in Norway Impact

As monarchs were not able to stop the Viking invasions, people turned to their local nobility for help

In turn, nobility took greater control over local governments, creating anew political and military order

William the Conqueror (1066-1087) From the Bayeux

Tapestry (1476)

Legacy of the Carolingians The legacy of the Carolingians

Had created a sense of a united, Christian Europe Collapsed due to invasions in the 9th and 10th

centuries Emergence of new political divisions

England Had not be under control of the Carolingians Had been a mass of small kingdoms Changed with unification that began under Alfred

the Great Strong state was created through the effective use

of government administration and trade

England Alfred the Great (871-899)

Originally was the king of Wessex Unified local governments and codified the laws Built up the army to protect England from Viking

invaders Set up government based on the Carolingian model

King Edgar (959-975) Kingship was elective but it was chosen through

Alfred’s line England by this point was a powerful centralized

monarchy with a strong administration By 1000, England had the most advanced

administrative government in western Europe

East Francia Saxon kings of Germany (East Francia)

They also built their kingdom on the Carolingian model

Royal power based on conquest rather than trade and administration

Conrad I (911-918) First non-Carolingian ruler Had been Duke of Franconia and was elected king Struggled to keep power away from other dukes

Henry the Fowler (919-936) Had been Duke of Saxony when he was elected king First to use high church officials as administrators Created a unified eastern German kingdom

East Francia Otto I (936-973)

Most famous of the Saxon kings Successfully invaded northern Italy in 951 Defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of Lechfeld

(955) Otto as Holy Roman Emperor (962-973)

Otto was crowned by Pope John XII after securing the latter’s position in the Papal States

First guarantor for the protection of the Papal States since the Carolingians

His crowning traditionally marks the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire

East Francia Otto focused on strengthening control of the

church In 963, Pope John organized an alliance against Otto Otto marched on Rome and deposed of the pope Forced the election of Poe Leo VIII John returned to Rome and deposed of Leo When John died, Benedict V was elected as the new

pope Done without Otto’s consent Otto returned to Rome in 964 to overthrew Benedict Leo VIII was returned to the papacy

Holy Roman Empire (c. 1000)

West Francia During the 9th and 10th centuries, the

Carolingian kings struggled with the nobility for power Counts very often ignored the demands of the kings When the last Carolingian king died, Louis V (“the

Lazy”), the counts elected a new king Hugh Capet (987-996)

Family controlled the Ile-de-France around Paris When elected, the counts planned to control him Counts figured that he would live off of his personal

lands and not bother them Made Paris the center point of French civilization The Capetian dynasty lasted until 1792 in France

Hugh Capet (987-996)

Manorial System Expansion of the manorial system

Manor was an agricultural estate operated by a lord It was worked on by peasants Lord provided protection In return, peasants gave up their freedom, became tied

to the land, and provided labor services Transformation of slaves

This was the basic agricultural unit of the early Middle Ages

Slavery was no longer an option for land owners as it was now looked down upon

Helped slaves out by establishing them on small parcels of land

In return, they were to work the land and provide food for the lord

Manorial System Transformation of free peasants

Small farmers needed protection and food in case of bad harvests

Were willing to give up their freedom to get both Status of serf

Could not be bought and sold Were subject to their lords in numerous ways Required to provide labor, pay rents, and were

subject to the lord’s jurisdiction By the 9th century, 60% of the population had

become serfs