Western Asia and Egypt - Weeblymrbaileyapworldhistory.weebly.com/.../7/37176849/_chap02.pdf34 Western Asia and Egypt 3500–500 B.C. Key Events As you read, look for the key events

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Western Asia and Egypt

3500–500 B.C.

Key EventsAs you read, look for the key events in the history of Southwest Asia and Egypt.

• The Sumerians in Mesopotamia were among the first groups to build a civilization,and they were the first to develop a system of writing.

• Due in large part to the Nile, early Egyptian civilization was stable and prosperous.Massive monuments, the pyramids, were built to honor the deaths of the pharaohs.

• The Israelites emerged as a distinct people.• Of the other empires that came into being in Southwest Asia, the longest lasting and

most powerful were the Assyrian and the Persian Empires.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• The peoples of Mesopotamia and Egypt built cities and struggled with the problems oforganized government.

• The Israelites developed a major world religion, which influenced the development ofChristianity and Islam, and has a continuing effect on Western civilization.

World History Video The Chapter 2 video, “Egypt,” chronicles the rise of Egyptian civilization.

3000 B.C.Sumeriancities emergein southernMesopotamia

3000 B.C.Cuneiformwritinginvented

2700 B.C.Old Kingdombegins

2540 B.C.GreatPyramid ofKing Khufufinished

1792 B.C.Hammurabicomes topower

1652 B.C.MiddleKingdomends

1567 B.C.NewKingdombegins

3000 B.C. 2700 B.C. 2400 B.C. 2100 B.C. 1800 B.C. 1500 B.C.

Sumerian cuneiform script

Hammurabi establisheda code of law.

970 B.C.First templebuilt inJerusalem

539 B.C.Babyloniafalls

521 B.C.Darius beginsto expandPersianEmpire

1200 B.C. 900 B.C. 600 B.C. 300 B.C. 100 B.C. 50 B.C.

Death mask of KingTutankhamen of Egypt

King Solomon’s temple in Jerusalem

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

and click on Chapter 2–ChapterOverview to preview chapter information.

wh.glencoe.com

The Great Sphinx and the Great Pyramids at Giza, Egypt, symbolize the power and longevity of Egyptian kingdoms.

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http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/gwh2003/content.php4/431/1

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n the winter of 1849, a daring young Englishman made adifficult journey into the deserts and swamps of southern

Iraq. He moved south down the banks of the river Euphrateswhile braving high winds and temperatures that reached 120degrees Fahrenheit (48.9° C). The man, William Loftus, led asmall expedition in search of the roots of civilization. As hesaid, “From our childhood we have been led to regard thisplace as the cradle of the human race.”

Guided by native Arabs into the southernmost reaches ofIraq, Loftus and his small group of explorers were soon over-whelmed by what they saw. He wrote, “I know of nothingmore exciting or impressive than the first sight of one of thesegreat piles, looming in solitary grandeur from the surround-ing plains and marshes.”

One of these “piles” was known to the natives as themound of Warka. The mound contained the ruins of theancient city of Uruk, one of the first real cities in the worldand part of one of the world’s first civilizations. SouthernIraq, known to ancient peoples as Mesopotamia, was one of four areas in the world where civilization began.

IThe Cradle of the Human Race

Sumerian ruins at Uruk

Why It MattersIn the fertile river valleys of Meso-potamia, Egypt, India, and China,intensive farming made it possibleto support large groups of people.The people in these regions wereable to develop the organized soci-eties that we associate with civiliza-tion. The beginnings of Westerncivilization lie in the early civiliza-tions of Southwest Asia and Egypt.

History and You As you readthis chapter, analyze the climaticconditions in Mesopotamia thatfavored certain crops. CompareMesopotamia’s climate and crops to the climate and crops that weregrown in the Nile Valley of Egypt.What conclusions can you drawfrom this information?

CHAPTER # Chapter Title 37

3000 B.C.Sumerians establishindependent cities

2340 B.C.Akkadians set upthe first empire

2100 B.C.AkkadianEmpire falls

1792 B.C.Hammurabicomes to power

Guide to Reading

Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia

Preview of Events✦3000 B.C. ✦2750 B.C. ✦2500 B.C. ✦2250 B.C. ✦2000 B.C. ✦1750 B.C. ✦1500 B.C.

The following poem reflects the deep despair of the people of Ur after the burningand sacking of their city:

“Ur is destroyed, bitter is its lament. The country’s blood now fills its holes like hotbronze in a mould. Bodies dissolve like fat in the sun. Our temple is destroyed, thegods have abandoned us, like migrating birds. Smoke lies on our city like a shroud.”

—Legacy: The Search for Ancient Cultures, Michael Wood, 1995

Constant conflict marked early civilization in Mesopotamia. Invaders flowed into theflat land of the region, and city fought city for land and water.

The Impact of GeographyThe ancient Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates

Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land “between the rivers.” Mesopotamia was at theeastern end of an area known as the Fertile Crescent, an arc of land from theMediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Because this land had rich soil and abun-dant crops, it was able to sustain an early civilization.

Mesopotamia was a region with little rain, but its soil had been enriched overthe years by layers of silt—material deposited by the two rivers. In late spring, theTigris and Euphrates often overflowed their banks and deposited their fertile silt. This flooding, however, depended on the melting of snows in the upland

Voices from the Past

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt

Reconstructed temple at Ur

Main Ideas• Mesopotamia, one of the first civiliza-

tions, began between the Tigris andEuphrates Rivers.

• The Sumerians formed city-states andcreated forms of communication thataffect our lives today.

Key Termscity-state, ziggurat, theocracy, empire,patriarchal, polytheistic, cuneiform

People to IdentifySumerians, Akkadians, Sargon,Hammurabi

Places to LocateTigris River, Euphrates River,Mesopotamia, Fertile Crescent, Uruk,Babylon

Preview Questions1. How did geography affect the civiliza-

tions in Mesopotamia?2. How did the Akkadian Empire begin?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information As you readthis section, complete a chart like the oneshown below to explain the Sumerians’various contributions to civilization.

Political Life Cultural Life Inventions

AncientShoreline

500 kilometers0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

500 miles0

N

S

EW

40°N

30°E 40°E 50°E 60°E20°E

Black Sea

Red

Sea

Euphrates R.

Mediterranean Sea

Persian Gulf

Gulf of Aden

ArabianSea

DeadSea

AralSea

Tig ris

R.

Nile

R.

Ca

spia

nSea

Jordan R.

EUROPE

ASIA MINOR

SyrianDesert

NileDelta

Ca u c a s u s Mounta ins

A r a b i a n

D e s e r t

KUSH

UPPER EGYPT

LOWER EGYPT

Mesopotamia

ASIA

AFRICA

First Cataract

Second Cataract

Third Cataract

FourthCataract Fifth

Cataract

Nineveh

Babylon

Ur

Persepolis

Susa

Sardis

Eridu

Uruk

Jerusalem

Tyre

Giza

ByblosSidon

mountains where the rivers began. People in the val-ley could not tell exactly when the floods wouldcome or how large they would be.

Because of these circumstances, farming in ancientMesopotamia could be done only when people controlled the flow of the rivers. Irrigation and drainage ditches—part of a large-scale system ofwater control—made it possible to grow crops on aregular basis. The resulting abundance of foodenabled large numbers of people to live together incities and made possible the emergence of civiliza-tion in Mesopotamia.

When we speak of Mesopotamian civilization, weare referring to the achievements of several peoples.Ancient Mesopotamia includes three general areas:

Assyria, Akkad, and Sumer. We focus first on theSumerians, the creators of the first Mesopotamiancivilization.

Explaining What role did geographyplay in the development of Mesopotamian civilization?

The City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia

The origins of the Sumerian people remain a mys-tery. By 3000 B.C., they had established a number ofindependent cities in southern Mesopotamia, includ-ing Eridu, Ur, and Uruk. As the cities expanded, theycame to have political and economic control over the

Reading Check

38 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt

Ancient Mesopotamia

Ancient shoreline

N

S

EW


200 miles0

50°E40°E

30°N

TigrisR.

EuphratesR

.

PersianGulf

CaspianSea

ASSYRIA

AKKAD

Syrian Desert

SUMERBabylon

Uruk

EriduUr

Za

gr

os

M

ou

n t a i n s

Fertile Crescent

Direction of flow

Several important cultures and civiliza-tions developed in Mesopotamia.

1. Interpreting Maps Identify themountain range closest to where theTigris and Euphrates Rivers originate.

2. Applying Geography Skills Inwhich direction do the Tigris andEuphrates Rivers flow? In which direc-tion does the Nile flow?

goddesses owned the cities. The people devotedmuch of their wealth to building temples, as well aselaborate houses for the priests and priestesses whoserved the gods. The temples and related buildingsserved as the center of the city physically, economi-cally, and even politically.

Priests and priestesses, who supervised the tem-ples and their property, had a great deal of power. Infact, historians believe that in the early stages of thecity-states, priests and priestesses played an impor-tant role in ruling. The Sumerians believed that thegods ruled the cities, making the state a theocracy—a government by divine authority. Eventually, how-ever, ruling power passed into the hands of worldlyfigures, or kings.

Sumerians viewed kingship as divine in origin.Kings, they believed, derived their power from thegods and were the agents of the gods. As one personsaid in a petition to his king: “You in your judgement,you are the son of Anu [god of the sky]. Your com-mands, like the work of a god, cannot be reversed.Your words, like rain pouring down from heaven, arewithout number.”

Regardless of their origins, kings had power. Theyled armies, supervised the building of public works,

surrounding countryside. They formed city-states,the basic units of Sumerian civilization.

Sumerian Cities Sumerian cities were surroundedby walls. Uruk, for example, was encircled by a wallsix miles (10 km) long with defense towers locatedalong the wall every 30 to 35 feet (9 to 10 m). Citydwellings, built of sun-dried bricks, included boththe small houses of peasants and the larger buildingsof the city officials, priests, and priestesses.

Although Mesopotamia had little stone or woodfor building purposes, it did have plenty of mud.Mud bricks, easily shaped by hand, were left to bakein the hot sun until they were hard enough to use forbuilding. People in Mesopotamia were remarkablycreative with mud bricks. They invented the arch andthe dome, and they built some of the largest brickbuildings in the world. Mud bricks are still used inrural areas of Southwest Asia today.

Gods, Goddesses, and Rulers The most prominentbuilding in a Sumerian city was the temple dedicatedto the chief god or goddess of the city. This templewas often built atop a massive stepped tower called a ziggurat. The Sumerians believed that gods and

39CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt

History through Architecture

Restored ziggurat at Ur, c. 1200 B.C.At the top of a ziggurat was a shrine, which onlythe priests and priestesses could enter. Describethe technology and resources needed to builda ziggurat.

and organized workers for the irrigation projects onwhich Mesopotamian farming depended. The army,the government, and the priests and priestesses allaided the kings in their rule. As befitted their power,Sumerian kings, their wives, and their children livedin large palaces.

Economy and Society Although the economy ofthe Sumerian city-states was based chiefly on farm-ing, trade and industry became important as well.The peoples of Mesopotamia were well known fortheir metalwork, but they also made woolen textilesand pottery. The Sumerians imported copper, tin,and timber in exchange for dried fish, wool, barley,wheat, and metal goods. Traders traveled by land tothe eastern Mediter-ranean in the westand by sea to India inthe east. The inven-tion of the wheel,around 3000 B.C., ledto wheeled carts,which made the trans-port of goods easier.

Sumerian city-states contained three major socialgroups: nobles, commoners, and slaves. Noblesincluded royal and priestly officials and their fami-lies. Commoners worked for palace and temple

estates and as farmers, merchants, fishers, and crafts-people. Probably 90 percent or more of the peoplewere farmers. Slaves belonged to palace officials,who used them mostly in building projects. Templeofficials most often used female slaves to weave clothand grind grain. Rich landowners also used slaves tofarm their lands.

Explaining Why were the city-statesconsidered to be theocracies?

Empires in Ancient MesopotamiaAs the number of Sumerian city-states grew and

the city-states expanded, new conflicts arose. City-state fought city-state for control of land and water.Located on the flat land of Mesopotamia, the Sumer-ian city-states were also open to invasion by othergroups.

To the north of the Sumerian city-states were theAkkadians (uh•KAY•dee•uhnz). We call them aSemitic people because they spoke a Semitic lan-guage. Around 2340 B.C., Sargon, leader of the Akka-dians, overran the Sumerian city-states and set up thefirst empire in world history. An empire is a largepolitical unit or state, usually under a single leader,that controls many peoples or territories. Empires areoften easy to create but difficult to maintain. The riseand fall of empires is an important part of history.

Reading Check


Trade route

INDIA

Mediterranean Sea

ArabianSea

Persian GulfEuphratesR.

Tig ris R.

The Royal Standard of Ur is a box, createdabout 2700 B.C., thatdepicts different Sumer-ian scenes. This panelshows a royal celebration following a military victory.


HammurabiRuled 1792–1750 B.C.Babylonian king

Hammurabi was justly proud of hisfamous code of laws. As he stated:“When Marduk [a Babylonian god]sent me to rule the people . . . I estab-lished law and justice in the land, andpromoted the welfare of the people.” Hammurabi builttemples and irrigation canals, encouraged trade, andbrought an economic revival. Hammurabi was also aman of war. He had a well-disciplined army of foot sol-diers who carried axes, spears, and copper or bronzedaggers. Hammurabi divided his opponents anddefeated them one by one. After his conquests, he calledhimself “the sun of Babylon, the king who has made thefour quarters of the world subservient.”

they had to be replaced and the house rebuilt at thebuilder’s expense.

The largest category of laws in the Code of Ham-murabi focused on marriage and the family. Parentsarranged marriages for their children. After mar-riage, the two parties signed a marriage contract.Without a contract, no one was considered legallymarried.

Society in ancient Mesopotamia was patriarchal—that is, Mesopotamian society was dominated bymen. Hammurabi’s code makes it clear that womenhad far fewer privileges and rights in marriage thandid men.

A woman’s place was definitely in the home. If shefailed to fulfill her duties, her husband had legalgrounds for divorce. In addition, if a wife was notable to bear children or tried to leave home to engagein business, her husband could divorce her. Evenmore harsh, a wife who was a “gadabout . . . neglect-ing her house [and] humiliating her husband,” couldbe drowned.

Fathers ruled their children as well as their wives.Obedience was expected: “If a son has struck hisfather, he shall cut off his hand.” If a son committeda serious enough offense, his father could disinherithim. Obviously, Hammurabi’s law code coveredalmost every aspect of people’s lives.

Identifying Identify at least fiveaspects of Mesopotamian society as revealed by the Code ofHammurabi.

Reading Check

Attacks from neighboring hill peoples eventuallycaused the Akkadian Empire to fall. Its end by 2100B.C. brought a return to the system of warring city-states. It was not until 1792 B.C. that a new empirecame to control much of Mesopotamia. Leadershipcame from Babylon, a city-state south of Akkad,where Hammurabi (HA•muh•RAH•bee) came topower. He gained control of Sumer and Akkad, thuscreating a new Mesopotamian kingdom. After hisdeath in 1750 B.C., however, a series of weak kingswas unable to keep Hammurabi’s empire united, andit finally fell to new invaders.

Evaluating Why was it so easy forSargon and his army to invade the Sumerian city-states?

The Code of HammurabiHammurabi is remembered for his

law code, a collection of 282 laws. Many of its ideaslater would find their way into Hebrew civilization. For centuries, laws had regulated people’s rela-

tionships with one another in the lands ofMesopotamia. Hammurabi’s collection of laws pro-vides considerable insight into social conditions inMesopotamia.

The Code of Hammurabi was based on a systemof strict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses weresevere, and they varied according to the social classof the victim. A crime against a member of the upperclass (a noble) by a member of the lower class (a com-moner) was punished more severely than the sameoffense against a member of the lower class. More-over, the principle of retaliation (“an eye for an eye,tooth for a tooth”) was a fundamental part of this sys-tem of justice.

Hammurabi’s code took seriously the duties ofpublic officials. Officials were expected to catch bur-glars. If they failed to do so, the officials in the districtwhere the crime was committed had to replace thelost property. If murderers were not found, the offi-cials had to pay a fine to the relatives of the murderedperson. Judges could be fined or lose their positionsfor ruling incorrectly on a case.

The law code also included what we would callconsumer protection laws. Builders were heldresponsible for the buildings they constructed. If ahouse collapsed and caused the death of the owner,the builder was put to death. If the collapse causedthe death of the son of the owner, the son of thebuilder was put to death. If goods were destroyed,

Reading Check

They have been a valuable source of information formodern scholars.

Mesopotamian peoples used writing primarily forrecord keeping. Cuneiform texts, however, were alsoused in schools to train scribes, members of thelearned class who served as copyists, teachers, andjurists.

For boys of the upper class in Mesopotamia,becoming a scribe was the key to a successful career.Men who began their careers as scribes became theleaders of their cities, temples, and armies. Scribescame to hold the most important positions in Sumer-ian society.

To become scribes, boys from wealthy families,many of them the sons of scribes, attended the newschools that were in operation by 2500 B.C. Youngboys seeking to become scribes began school whenthey were small children and trained until they wereyoung men. School days began at sunrise and endedat sunset. Discipline was harsh. The following essay,written by a teacher as a copying exercise for pupils,shows that punishments—being caned or beatenwith a stick—were frequent:


The people of Mesopotamia associated gods withdifferent aspects of nature and the universe. Whataspect of nature do you think this goddessrepresents? Explain.

History

The Importance of ReligionThe physical environment strongly affected the

way Mesopotamians viewed the world. Ferociousfloods, heavy downpours, scorching winds, andoppressive humidity were all part of theMesopotamian climate. These conditions, as well asfamines, convinced Mesopotamians that this worldwas controlled by supernatural forces, which oftenwere not kind or reliable. In the presence of nature,Mesopotamians could easily feel helpless, as thispoem relates:

“The rampant flood which no man can oppose,Which shakes the heavens and causes earth to

tremble,In an appalling blanket folds mother and child,And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.”

To the Mesopotamians, powerful spiritualbeings—gods and goddesses—permeated all aspectsof the universe. The Mesopotamians identified almostthree thousand gods and goddesses. Mesopotamianreligion was polytheistic because of this belief inmany gods. Human beings were supposed to obeyand serve the gods. According to Sumerian beliefs,human beings were created to do the manual laborthe gods were unwilling to do for themselves. By theirvery nature, humans were inferior to the gods andcould never be sure what the gods might do to help orhurt them.

Describing What role did the physi-cal environment play in the way Mesopotamians viewed theworld?

The Creativity of the SumeriansThe Sumerians are credited with

inventing the oldest writing system, cuneiform, whichdates from about 3000 B.C. The Sumerians created many inventions that still

affect our lives today. Probably their greatest inven-tion was their writing. In addition, historians creditthem with many technological innovations.

Writing and Literature Around 3000 B.C., theSumerians created a cuneiform (“wedge-shaped”)system of writing. Using a reed stylus (a tool for writ-ing), they made wedge-shaped impressions on claytablets, which were then baked or dried in the sun.Once dried, these tablets lasted a very long time. Sev-eral hundred thousand tablets have been found.

Reading Check

“In the tablet-house, the monitor said to me:“Why are you late?” I was afraid, my heart beat fast. I entered before my teacher, took my place.

My “school-father” read my tablet to me, said,“The word is cut off,” caned me.

He who was in charge of drawing said “Whywhen I was not here did you go out?”caned me.

He who was in charge of the gate said “Why when I was not here did you go out?” caned me.

My teacher said “Your hand is not good,” caned me.”

Scribal students spent most of their school days fol-lowing the same routine. They were taught by copy-ing and recopying standard works on clay tablets andreciting from them. Although boring, this was proba-bly the scribe’s only way of learning how to form thecuneiform writing signs neatly and correctly.

Writing was important because it allowed a soci-ety to keep records and to pass along knowledgefrom person to person and generation to generation.Writing also made it possible for people to communi-cate ideas in new ways. This is especially evident inThe Epic of Gilgamesh.

Gilgamesh is a Mesopotamian epic poem thatrecords the exploits of a legendary king named


Checking for Understanding1. Define city-state, ziggurat, theocracy,

empire, patriarchal, polytheistic,cuneiform.

2. Identify Sumerians, Akkadians, Sar-gon, Hammurabi, Code of Hammurabi,The Epic of Gilgamesh.

3. Locate Tigris River, Euphrates River,Mesopotamia, Fertile Crescent, Uruk,Babylon.

4. Explain what the Mesopotamiansbelieved was the relationship betweengods and mortals.

5. List the three general areas of ancientMesopotamia.

Critical Thinking6. Explain Which type of government—

separate city-states or an empire—would have been most advantageousto the people living in Mesopotamia?

7. Organizing Information Create achart showing the achievements madeby the Sumerians and list the effects ofthese achievements on our lives today.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph of the Royal

Standard of Ur on page 40 of your text.What facts about Mesopotamian lifecan you identify by studying the pic-ture? How does this box reflect the val-ues of the Sumerian civilization?

9. Expository Writing Explain whyHammurabi’s code was a significantdevelopment. Develop a set of lawsbased on the Code of Hammurabithat would apply to your communitytoday. Explain why your code differsfrom that developed by Hammurabi,or why it is similar.

Achievements Effects on our lives today

Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is wise, strong, and perfect inbody. He is part man and part god. Gilgameshbefriends a hairy beast named Enkidu. Together, theyset off to do great deeds. When Enkidu dies, Gil-gamesh feels the pain of death and begins a search forthe secret of immortality. His efforts fail, and Gil-gamesh remains mortal. This Mesopotamian epicmakes clear that “everlasting life” is only for the gods.

Sumerian Technology The Sumerians inventedseveral tools and devices that made daily life easierand more productive. They developed the wagonwheel, for example, to help transport people andgoods from place to place. The potter’s wheel toshape containers, the sundial to keep time, and thearch used in construction are other examples ofSumerian technology. The Sumerians were the first tomake bronze out of copper and tin, creating finelycrafted metalwork. The Sumerians also made out-standing achievements in mathematics and astron-omy. In math, they devised a number system basedon 60. Geometry was used to measure fields anderect buildings. In astronomy, the Sumerians chartedthe heavenly constellations. A quick glance at yourwatch and its division into 60 minutes in an hourshould remind you of our debt to the Sumerians.

Identifying Name two major inven-tions of the Sumerians, and tell how those inventions affect ourlives today.

Reading Check

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Hammurabi’s CodeALTHOUGH THERE WERE EARLIERMesopotamian law codes, the Code of Hammurabi is the most complete. The law code emphasizes the principle of retribution (“an eye for an eye”) and punishments that vary according to social status. Punishmentscould be severe, as these examples show.

22: If a man has committed highway robbery and hasbeen caught, that manshould be put to death.

23: If the highwayman hasnot been caught, theman that has beenrobbed shall state onoath what he has lostand the city or districtgovernor in whoseterritory or district therobbery took placeshall restore to himwhat he has lost.

25: If fire broke out in afree man’s house anda free man, who wentto extinguish it, casthis eye on the goodsof the owner of thehouse and has appro-priated the goods ofthe owner of thehouse, that free manshall be thrown intothat fire.

196: If a free man hasdestroyed the eye of a member of the aristocracy, theyshall destroy his eye.

198: If he has destroyed the eye of a commoneror broken the bone of a commoner, heshall pay one mina of silver.

199: If he has destroyed the eye of a free man’sslave or broken the bone of a free man’sslave, he shall pay one-half his value.

229: If a builder constructed a house for a nobleman but did not make his workstrong, with the result that the house which he built collapsed and so has caused the death of the owner of thehouse, that builder shall be put to death.

232: If it has destroyed goods, he shallmake good whatever it destroyed;also, because he did not make thehouse strong that he built and itcollapsed, he shall reconstruct thehouse that collapsed at his ownexpense.

—The Code of Hammurabi

Hammurabi’s code was written on astone monument, approximately sevenfeet tall, called a stele. The upper sec-tion of the stele shows Hammurabistanding in front of the seated sun god.

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. Explain the principle of retribution.2. According to the Code of Hammurabi, what was

most highly valued in Mesopotamian society? What was the least valued? Explain youranswers.

3. What is the guiding principle in theAmerican criminal justice system? Howdoes this compare with Hammurabi’sjustice?


Egyptian Civilization:“The Gift of the Nile”

Preview of Events

The Nile was crucial to the development of Egyptian civilization.

“The Egyptian Nile,” wrote one Arab traveler,” surpasses all the rivers of the worldin sweetness of taste, in length of course and usefulness. No other river in the worldcan show such a continuous series of towns and villages along its banks.” In their“Hymn to the Nile,” Egyptians wrote of their reliance on the river: “The bringer offood, rich in provisions, creator of all good, lord of majesty, sweet of fragrance. . . .[The Nile] makes the granaries wide, and gives things to the poor. He who makesevery beloved tree to grow.”

—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, James B. Pritchard, 1969

Egypt, like Mesopotamia, was one of the first river valley civilizations. Like the peo-ple of Mesopotamia, the Egyptians left records of their developing civilization.

The Impact of GeographyThe Nile is a unique river, beginning in the heart of Africa and coursing north-

ward for more than 4,000 miles (6,436 km). It is the longest river in the world.Before it empties into the Mediterranean, the Nile splits into two major branches.This split forms a triangular territory, the delta. The Nile Delta is called LowerEgypt; the land upstream, to the south, is called Upper Egypt. Egypt’s importantcities developed at the tip of the delta, the point at which the Nile divides.


Guide to Reading


3100 B.C.King Menes unites villagesof Upper and Lower Egypt

2540 B.C.Great Pyramid built

1652 B.C.The Hyksosinvade Egypt

1085 B.C.The New Kingdomcollapses

✦3500 B.C. ✦3000 B.C. ✦2500 B.C. ✦2000 B.C. ✦1500 B.C. ✦1000 B.C. ✦500 B.C.

Shepherd and his sheep on the banks of the Nile River

Main Ideas• The Nile was crucial to the development

of Egyptian civilization.• Egyptian history is divided into three

major periods.

Key Termsdynasty, pharaoh, bureaucracy, vizier,mummification, hieroglyphics, hieraticscript

People to IdentifyMenes, Hyksos, Hatshepsut, Akhenaton,Tutankhamen, Ramses II, Cleopatra VII

Places to LocateNile River, Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, Giza

Preview Questions1. What was the “Black Land”? 2. Why were the pyramids built and how

were they used?

Reading StrategyIdentifying As you read this section,complete a chart like the one below iden-tifying the characteristics of the threemajor periods of Egyptian history.

The Old The Middle The NewKingdom Kingdom Kingdom

To the ancient Egyptians, the most important fea-ture of the river was its yearly flooding—the “mira-cle” of the Nile. The river rose in the summer fromheavy rains in central Africa, reached its highestpoint in Egypt in September and October, and left adeposit of mud that created an area of rich soil sev-eral miles wide on both sides of the river. The Egyp-tians called this fertile land, which was dark in color,the “Black Land.” Beyond these narrow strips of fer-tile fields lay the deserts, the “Red Land.”

The surpluses of food that the Egyptian farmersgrew in the fertile Nile Valley made Egypt prosper-ous. The river also served as a unifying factor in


100 kilometers0Azimuthal Equidistant projection

100 miles0N

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30°E

30°N

25°N

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TROPIC OFCANCER

Mediterranean Sea

Red Sea

DeadSea

Nile R.

Great Pyramidand Sphinx

First Cataract

Second Cataract

ArabianDesert

WesternDesert

EasternDesert

Nile DeltaLOWER EGYPT

UPPER EGYPT

NUBIA

CairoGiza

Saqqˆara

Thebes

Ancient Egypt

Nile Valley

Rural villages developed along the Nile River.

1. Interpreting Maps Use the map scale to estimatehow wide the Nile Valley is at its widest point.

2. Applying Geography Skills What do the namesUpper Egypt and Lower Egypt reveal about the topography of Egypt?

Egyptian history. In ancient times, the Nile was thefastest way to travel through the land, making bothtransportation and communication easier. Windsfrom the north pushed sailboats south, and the cur-rent of the Nile carried them north.

Unlike Mesopotamia, which was subject to con-stant invasion, Egypt was blessed by natural barriersthat gave it protection from invasion and a sense ofsecurity. These barriers included the deserts to thewest and east; the Red Sea to the east; the cataracts(rapids) on the southern part of the Nile, which madedefense relatively easy; and the Mediterranean Sea tothe north.

The regularity of the Nile floods and the relativeisolation of the Egyptians created a feeling of securityand changelessness. To the ancient Egyptians, whenthe Nile flooded each year, “the fields laugh and peo-ple’s faces light up.” Unlike people in Mesopotamia,Egyptians faced life with a spirit of confidence in thestability of things. Ancient Egyptian civilization wasmarked by a remarkable degree of continuity overthousands of years.

Contrasting Explain how floodingpatterns of rivers in Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the twocivilizations to develop differently.

The Importance of ReligionReligion, too, provided a sense of security and

timelessness for the Egyptians. Actually, they had noword for religion. For them, religious ideas were aninseparable part of the entire world order. The Egyp-tians were polytheistic. They had a remarkable num-ber of gods associated with heavenly bodies andnatural forces. Two groups, sun gods and land gods,came to have special importance. Is that surprising inview of the importance to Egypt’s well-being of thesun and the fertile land along the banks of the Nile?

The sun, the source of life, was of course worthy ofworship. The sun god took on different forms andnames, depending on his specific role. He was wor-shiped as Atum in human form and also as Re, whohad a human body but the head of a falcon. TheEgyptian ruler took the title Son of Re, because hewas seen as an earthly form of Re.

River and land gods included Osiris and Isis. Afamous Egyptian myth told of the struggle betweenOsiris, who brought civilization to Egypt, and his evilbrother Seth, who killed him, cut his body into 14parts, and tossed the parts into the Nile. The pieceswere found by Osiris’s wife, Isis. With help fromother gods, Isis brought Osiris back to life.

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Osiris took on an important role for theEgyptians as a symbol of resurrection. Byidentifying with Osiris, people could hopeto gain new life, just as Osiris had done.The dead were placed in tombs (in thecase of kings, in pyramid tombs); weregiven the name Osiris; and by a processof magical identification, became Osiris.Like Osiris, they would then be reborn.The flooding of the Nile and the newlife it brought to Egypt were symbol-ized by Isis’s bringing all of Osiris’sparts together each spring in the fes-tival of the new land.

ExaminingWhat is the significance of the famousEgyptian myth of the struggle betweenOsiris and his evil brother Seth? Why didOsiris take on an important role for theEgyptians?

The Course of Egyptian History

Modern historians have divided Egyptian historyinto three major periods, known as the Old Kingdom,Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. These wereperiods of long-term stability marked by strong lead-ership, freedom from invasion, the building of tem-ples and pyramids, and considerable intellectual andcultural activity. Between the periods of stabilitywere ages of political chaos and invasion, known asthe Intermediate periods.

The history of Egypt begins around 3100 B.C., whenMenes (MEE•NEEZ) the king united the villages ofUpper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt into asingle kingdom and created the first Egyptian royaldynasty. A dynasty is a family of rulers whose right torule is passed on within the family.

From then on, the Egyptian ruler would be called“King of Upper and Lower Egypt.” The royal crownwould be a double crown, indicating the unity of allEgypt. Just as the Nile served to unite Upper Egyptand Lower Egypt physically, kingship united the twoareas politically.

The Old Kingdom The Old Kingdom, which lastedfrom around 2700 to 2200 B.C., was an age of pros-perity and splendor. Like the kings of the Sumeriancity-states, the monarchs of the Old Kingdom werepowerful rulers over a unified state. Among the

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various titles of Egyptian monarchs, that of pharaoh(originally meaning “great house” or “palace”) even-tually became the most common.

Kingship was a divine institution in ancient Egyptand formed part of a universal cosmic order: “Whatis the king of Upper and Lower Egypt? He is a god bywhose dealings one lives, the father and mother of allmen, alone by himself, without an equal.” In obeyingtheir pharaoh, subjects believed that they were help-ing to maintain a stable world order. A breakdown inroyal power could only mean that citizens wereoffending the gods and weakening that order.

Egyptian pharaohs possessed absolute power—that is, they had complete, unlimited power to ruletheir people. Nevertheless, they had help in ruling.


Osiris (above) ruled the realm of the deadand was associated with rebirth. Horus(above left), the son of Osiris and Isis, wasthe sky god. What do these depictionsreveal about Egyptian belief?

History

At first, members of the pharaoh’s family aided inrunning the country. During the Old Kingdom, how-ever, a government bureaucracy—an administrativeorganization with officials and regular procedures—developed. Especially important was the office ofvizier, the “steward of the whole land.” Directlyresponsible to the pharaoh, the vizier was in chargeof the government bureaucracy. In time, Egypt wasdivided into 42 provinces, which were run by gover-nors appointed by the pharaoh. Each governor wasresponsible to the pharaoh and vizier.

The Pyramids One of the great achievements ofEgyptian civilization, the building of pyramids,occurred in the time of the Old Kingdom. Pyramidswere built as part of a larger complex of buildings ded-icated to the dead—in effect, a city of the dead. The areaincluded several structures: a large pyramid for thepharaoh’s burial; smaller pyramids for his family; andseveral mastabas, rectangular structures with flat roofsused as tombs for the pharaoh’sofficials.

The tombs were well pre-pared for their residents. Theycontained rooms stocked with

Pyramid

MediterraneanSea

Red Sea

Giza

Nile

River

LOWEREGYPT

supplies, including chairs, boats, chests, weapons,games, dishes, and a variety of foods. The Egyptiansbelieved that human beings had two bodies—a phys-ical one and a spiritual one, which they called the ka.If the physical body was properly preserved and thetomb furnished with all the various objects of regularlife, the ka could return. Surrounded by earthly com-forts, the ka could then continue its life despite thedeath of the physical body.

To preserve the physical body after death, theEgyptians practiced mummification, a process ofslowly drying a dead body to prevent it from rotting.This process took place in workshops run by priests,primarily for the wealthy families who could affordit. Workers first removed the liver, lungs, stomach,and intestines and placed them in four special jarsthat were put in the tomb with the mummy. Thepriests also removed the brain by extracting itthrough the nose. They then covered the corpse witha natural salt that absorbed the body’s water. Later,they filled the body with spices and wrapped it withlayers of linen soaked in resin. At the end of theprocess, which had taken about 70 days, a lifelikemask was placed over the head and shoulders of themummy. The mummy was then sealed in a case andplaced in its tomb.

History through Architecture

The mastaba (above) was the forerunnerto the pyramid (left) and a simpler burial alter-native for people who were not part of the royalcourt. How would the artifacts and paintingswithin a mastaba differ from those in apyramid?

Pyramids were tombs for the mummified bodies ofpharaohs. The largest and most magnificent of all thepyramids was built under King Khufu (KOO•FOO).Constructed at Giza around 2540 B.C., the famousGreat Pyramid of King Khufu covers 13 acres (5.3 ha),measures 756 feet (230 m) at each side of its base, andstands 481 feet (147 m) high.

The building of the Great Pyramid was an enor-mous construction project. The Greek historianHerodotus reported the traditional story that it took100,000 Egyptians 20 years to build the Great Pyra-mid. Herodotus wrote two thousand years after theevent, however, and much speculation still surroundsthe building of the Great Pyramid. Especially puz-zling is how the builders achieved their amazing levelof precision. The stone slabs on the outside of theGreat Pyramid, for example, fit so closely side by sidethat even a hair cannot be pushed into the jointsbetween them.

Guarding the Great Pyramid at Giza is a hugestatue carved from rock, known as the Great Sphinx.This colossal statue is 240 feet (73 m) long and 66 feet(20 m) high. It has the body of a lion and a humanhead. The head is believed by many to be a likeness ofKhufu’s son Khafre, who ordered the statue’s con-struction. Historians do not agree on the purpose ofthe Great Sphinx. Many Egyptians, however, believedthat the mythical sphinx was an important guardianof sacred sites.

The Great Pyramid still stands as a visible symbolof the power of the Egyptian pharaohs of the OldKingdom. No pyramid built later matched its size orsplendor. The pyramid was not only the pharaoh’stomb but also an important symbol of royal power. It


could be seen for miles and served to remind peopleof the glory, might, and wealth of the ruler who wasa living god on Earth.

The Middle Kingdom The Old Kingdom eventu-ally collapsed, followed by a period of chaos thatlasted about 150 years. Finally, a new royal dynastygained control of all Egypt and began the MiddleKingdom, a period of stability lasting from about2050 to 1652 B.C. Egyptians later portrayed the Mid-dle Kingdom as a golden age—an age of stability.

As evidence of its newfound strength, Egyptbegan a period of expansion. Nubia, which waslocated south of Egypt, was conquered. Fortresseswere built to protect the new southern frontier. Thegovernment sent armies into Palestine and Syria,although they did not remain there. Pharaohs alsosent traders to Kush, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Crete.

One feature of the Middle Kingdom was a newconcern of the pharaohs for the people. In the OldKingdom, the pharaoh had been seen as a god-kingfar removed from his people. Now he was portrayedas the shepherd of his people and expected to buildpublic works and provide for the public welfare.Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom undertook a num-ber of helpful projects. The draining of swampland inthe Nile Delta provided thousands of acres of newfarmland. The digging of a canal to connect the Nileto the Red Sea aided trade and transportation.

The New Kingdom The Middle Kingdom came toan end around 1652 B.C. with the invasion of Egypt

History

The mummy of Ramses II (the Great)has remained intact for 3,000 years. Ramses was nearly 90 when he died. What might medical investigators discoverabout Egyptian life from thismummy?

new temples. Hatshepsut—the first woman tobecome pharaoh—built a great temple at Deir elBahri, near Thebes. Hatshepsut was succeeded byher nephew, Thutmose (thoot•MOH•suh) III. He led17 military campaigns into Syria and Palestine andeven reached the Euphrates River. His forces occu-pied Palestine and Syria and moved westward intoLibya. Magnificent new buildings and temples wereconstructed to show the greatness of the empire.

The New Kingdom was not without troubles,however. The pharaoh Amenhotep IV introduced theworship of Aton, god of the sun disk, as the sole god.Amenhotep changed his own name to Akhenaton(“It is well with Aton”) and closed the temples ofother gods. In a society that had always been tolerantof many gods, Akhenaton’s actions in destroying the

by a group of people from western Asia known to theEgyptians as the Hyksos (HIK•SAHS). The Hyksosused horse-drawn war chariots and overwhelmedthe Egyptian soldiers, who fought from donkey carts.

For almost a hundred years, the Hyksos ruledmuch of Egypt. The conquered Egyptians learned agreat deal, however, from their conquerors. Fromthe Hyksos, the Egyptians learned to use bronze inthe making of their farming tools and theirweapons. The Egyptians also mastered many of themilitary skills of the Hyksos, especially the use ofhorse-drawn war chariots.

Eventually, a new dynasty of pharaohs used thenew weapons to drive out the Hyksos and reuniteEgypt. The New Kingdom was established and lastedapproximately from 1567 to 1085 B.C. This reuni-

fication launched theEgyptians along a newmilitaristic path. Duringthe period of the NewKingdom, Egypt createdan empire and becamethe most powerful state inSouthwest Asia.

Massive wealth boostedthe power of the NewKingdom pharaohs. TheEgyptian rulers showedtheir wealth by building

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt50

HISTORY

Web Activity Visit the Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

and click on Chapter 2– Student Web Activity to learn more aboutEgypt.

wh.glencoe.com

30°N

40°N

20°N

30°E 40°E

20°E

Red Sea

Mediterranean SeaE

up

hr ate s R.

TigrisR

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R.

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CyprusCrete

KUSH

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LIBYA EGYPT

SYRIAPALESTINE

Mesopotamia

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EW

250 kilometers0Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

250 miles0

Egyptian Expansion, 2000–1100 B.C.

ArmiesTraders

The Great Sphinx was built more than 4,500 years ago. Today it is crumbling due to wind, humidity, and smog from Cairo.

Egypt began a period of commercial and military expansionduring the Middle Kingdom that would bring the countrystability and wealth until the New Kingdom collapsed in1085 B.C.

1. Interpreting Maps Analyze the patterns of movementfor the armies and traders. Explain why they diverge atthe Mediterranean Sea.

2. Applying Geography Skills Explain how Egypt’s loca-tion would have been an asset to its expansion, as wellas a liability contributing to its downfall.

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe34.php?&st=431&pt=2&bk=17

HatshepsutRuled 1503–1482 B.C.Egyptian pharaoh

Hatshepsut was the daughter of thepharaoh Thutmose I. She married her half-brother, who became the pharaoh ThutmoseII. When he died, Hatshepsut assumed the fullpower of pharaoh. Statues show Hatshepsutclothed and bearded as a king would be. Shewas addressed as “His Majesty.”

Hatshepsut’s reign was a prosperous one. She is bestknown for the temple dedicated to herself at Deir elBahri on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes. One of theinscriptions she had placed there reads: “Now my heartturns to and fro, in thinking what will the people say,they who shall see my monument in later years, andshall speak of what I have done.”

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 51

The Egyptians learned much, including the use of war chariots, from the Hyksos.

old gods meant to many the destruction of Egyptitself. Akhenaton’s changes were soon undone afterhis death by the boy-pharaoh Tutankhamen, whorestored the old gods.

The upheavals associated with Amenhotep’s reli-gious revolution led to a loss of Egypt’s empire.Under Ramses II, who reigned from 1279 to 1213B.C., the Egyptians went back on the offensive. Theyregained control of Palestine but were unable toreestablish the borders of their earlier empire. Newinvasions in the thirteenth century B.C. by the “SeaPeoples,” as Egyptians called them, drove the Egyp-tians back within their old frontiers and ended theEgyptian Empire. The New Kingdom itself collapsedin 1085 B.C.

For the next thousand years, Egypt was domi-nated by Libyans, Nubians, Persians, and finallyMacedonians after the conquest of Alexander theGreat (see Chapter 4). In the first century B.C., thepharaoh Cleopatra VII tried to reestablish Egypt’sindependence. However, her involvement withRome led to her suicide and defeat, and Egyptbecame a province in Rome’s mighty empire.

Contrasting What were the majordifferences among the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom?

Society in Ancient EgyptOver a period of thousands of years, Egyptian

society maintained a simple structure. It was organ-ized like a pyramid, with the god-king at the top. Thepharaoh was surrounded by an upper class of noblesand priests, who joined in the elaborate rituals of thepharaoh’s life. The members of this ruling class ran

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the government and managed their own landedestates, which provided much of their wealth.

Below the upper class were merchants, artisans,scribes, and tax collectors. Middle-class homes,mostly in the city, were comfortable but not elegant.Merchants carried on an active trade up and downthe Nile, as well as in town and village markets.Some merchants also engaged in international trade.They were sent by the pharaoh to Crete and Syria,where they obtained wood and other products.Egyptian artisans made an incredible variety of well-built, beautiful goods: stone dishes; painted boxes;wooden furniture; gold, silver, and copper tools andcontainers; paper and rope made of papyrus; andlinen clothes.

By far, the largest number of people in Egypt sim-ply worked the land. In theory, the pharaoh ownedall the land but granted portions of it to the subjects.Large sections of land were held by nobles and by thepriests who supervised the numerous temples. Mostof the lower classes were peasants who farmed theland of these estates. They paid taxes in the form ofcrops to the pharaoh, nobles, and priests; lived insmall villages or towns; and provided military serv-ice and forced labor for building projects.

Summarizing List the social classesof ancient Egypt and identify the contributions of each toEgyptian society.

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Architects’ tools, amphora (a two-handled jar), and wooden chair belonging to King Tutankhamen

Daily Life in Ancient EgyptAncient Egyptians had a very positive attitude

toward daily life on Earth. They married young (girlsat 12 and boys at 14) and established homes and fam-ilies. Monogamy (marriage to one person) was thegeneral rule, although a husband was allowed tokeep additional wives if his first wife was childless.

The husband was master in the house, but wiveswere very well respected. Wives were in charge of thehousehold and the education of the children. From abook of wise sayings (which the Egyptians called“instructions”) came this advice: “If you are a man ofstanding, you should love your wife at home as is fit-ting. Fill her belly; clothe her back. . . . Make her heartglad as long as you live.” ; (See page 990 to read excerptsfrom Vizier Ptah-hotep’s An Egyptian Father’s Advice to His Son inthe Primary Sources Library.)

Women’s property and inheritance stayed in theirhands, even in marriage. Although most careers andpublic offices were closed to women, some womendid operate businesses. Peasant women, of course,worked long hours in the fields and at numeroustasks in the home. Upper-class women could becomepriestesses, and four queens became pharaohs.

Parents arranged marriages for their children.Their chief concerns were family and property. Thechief purpose of marriage was to produce children,

especially sons. Only sons could carry on the familyname. Daughters were not ignored, however, andnumerous tomb paintings show the close and affec-tionate relationship parents had with both sons anddaughters. Although marriages were arranged, thesurviving love poems from ancient Egypt suggestthat some marriages included an element of romance.

Egyptian marriages could and did end in divorce.It included compensation for the wife.

Identifying What were the primaryresponsibilities of a wife in an Egyptian home?

Writing and EducationWriting in Egypt emerged around 3000 B.C. The

Greeks later called this earliest Egyptian writinghieroglyphics, meaning “priest-carvings” or “sacredwritings.” The hieroglyphic system of writing, whichused both pictures and more abstract forms, wascomplex. Learning and practicing it took much timeand skill. Hieroglyphic script was used for writing ontemple walls and in tombs. A highly simplified ver-sion of hieroglyphics, known as hieratic script, cameinto being. It used the same principles as hiero-glyphic writing, but the drawings were simplified byusing dashes, strokes, and curves to represent them.Hieratic script was used for business transactions,record keeping, and the general needs of daily life.

Egyptian hieroglyphs were at first carved in stone.Later, hieratic script was written on papyrus, a papermade from the papyrus reed that grew along theNile. Most of the ancient Egyptian literature that hascome down to us was written on rolls of papyrus.

The Egyptian scribes were masters of the art ofwriting and also its teachers. At the age of 10, boys ofthe upper classes went to schools run by scribes.Training to be a scribe took many years. Studentslearned to read and write by copying texts. Disciplinewas strict, as is evident from the following Egyptiansaying: “A boy’s ears are on his back. He listens onlywhen he is beaten.” Girls remained at home andlearned housekeeping skills from their mothers.

Contrasting What are the differ-ences between hieroglyphics and hieratic script?

Achievements in Art and SciencePyramids, temples, and other monuments bear

witness to the architectural and artistic achievementsof the Egyptians. Artists and sculptors were expectedto follow particular formulas in style. This gave

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Geography

Rivers

Natural Barriers

Religion

Government

Social Structure

Economy

Written Language

Mesopotamia

Fertile Crescent (Southwest Asia)

Tigris and Euphrates

Flat plains

Polytheistic

City-states; theocracy; largebureaucracy; kings ruled

Nobles, commoners, slaves

Farming and trade

Cuneiform

Egypt

Africa

Nile

Deserts, seas, cataracts

Polytheistic

Rural villages; dynasties;divine kings ruled

Upper classes, merchants,artisans, peasants

Farming and trade

Hieroglyphics

Comparing Life in Mesopotamia and Egypt

Egyptian art a distinctive look for thousands of years.For example, the human body was often portrayed asa combination of profile, semiprofile, and frontalview to accurately represent each part.

Egyptians also made advances in mathematics.Mathematics helped them in building their massivemonuments. Egyptians were able to calculate areaand volume and used geometry to survey floodedland.

The Egyptians developed an accurate 365-day cal-endar by basing their year not only on the move-ments of the moon, but also the bright star Sirius.

Sirius rises in the sky just before the annual floodingof the Nile River.

The practice of embalming (preserving a deadbody to protect it from decay) led to medical exper-tise in human anatomy. Archeologists have recovereddirections from doctors for using splints, bandages,and compresses for treating fractures, wounds, anddisease. Other ancient civilizations acquired medicalknowledge from the Egyptians.

Describing What was distinctiveabout Egyptian art?

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Checking for Understanding1. Define dynasty, pharaoh, bureaucracy,

vizier, mummification, hieroglyphics,hieratic script.

2. Identify Menes, Hyksos, Hatshepsut,Akhenaton, Tutankhamen, Ramses II,Cleopatra VII.

3. Locate Nile River, Lower Egypt, UpperEgypt, Giza.

4. Explain the significance of the Egyptianruler’s title “Son of Re.”

5. List the various peoples who domi-nated Egypt after the collapse of theNew Kingdom.

Critical Thinking6. Describe In what ways are the cus-

toms of ancient Egypt similar to thecustoms in your society today?

7. Organizing Information Use a dia-gram like the one below to describe theimpact the Nile had on life in ancientEgypt.

Analyzing Visuals8. Describe what the artifacts pictured

on page 52 of your text tell you aboutroyal Egyptian life. How do the Egyp-tian tools compare to the Paleolithictools shown on page 23 of your text?

Nile River 9. Descriptive Writing Assume youare a tour guide leading a tour ofthe Great Pyramid. Explain to yourtour group why the pyramids werebuilt and what historians believe tobe the significance of the Great Pyra-mid. Create an advertising brochureto promote and sell your tour.

Ancient civilizations thrived in bothMesopotamia and Egypt.

1. Making Comparisons Create amap of Mesopotamia and Egypt.Develop icons to illustrate the differ-ences and similarities in the cultures.

2. Evaluating How did geographicaldifferences influence the develop-ment of these cultures?

c. 1600 B.C.Hittites create empirein western Asia

c. 1200 B.C.Israelites emerge as adistinct group of people

c. 1200 B.C.End of Hittitekingdom

Guide to Reading

New Centers of Civilization

Preview of Events

586 B.C.Chaldeans destroyJerusalem

772 B.C.Assyrians overrun theKingdom of Israel

✦1600 B.C. ✦1400 B.C. ✦1200 B.C. ✦1000 B.C. ✦800 B.C. ✦600 B.C. ✦400 B.C.

According to the biblical account, it was during the flight from Egypt, where theyhad been enslaved, that the Israelites made a covenant with God:

“And God spoke all these words, ‘I am the Lord your God, who brought you out ofEgypt, out of the land of slavery. You shall have no other gods before me. You shallnot make for yourself an idol in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earthbeneath or in the waters below. . . . You shall not murder. You shall not commit adul-tery. You shall not steal.’”

—Exodus 20:1–17, New International Version Bible

Obedience to God’s law, the Ten Commandments, became an important aspect ofthe Jewish religious tradition.

The Role of Nomadic PeoplesOur story of civilization so far has focused on Mesopotamia and Egypt. Only

recently have archaeologists discovered what they believe is another ancient civi-lization that flourished in central Asia (in what are now the republics of Turk-menistan and Uzbekistan) around 4,000 years ago. People in this civilization builtmud-brick buildings, raised sheep and goats, had bronze tools, and used a systemof irrigation to grow wheat and barley. Recently discovered inscriptions show thatthese early people may have had writing.



Moses receiving the Ten Commandments

Main Ideas• The decline of the Hittites and Egyptians

allowed a number of small kingdomsand city-states to emerge.

• The Israelites did not create an empire,but they left a world religion, Judaism,that influenced the later religions ofChristianity and Islam.

Key Termspastoral nomad, monotheistic

People to IdentifyIndo-Europeans, Hittites, Phoenicians,Israelites, King Solomon, Isaiah

Places to LocatePalestine, Jerusalem

Preview Questions1. How did nomadic peoples affect the

centers of civilization?2. What factors caused the decline of

the Hittite kingdom?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Use a dia-gram like the one below to show how thePhoenicians affected the development of civilization in Southwest Asia.

Phoenicians

and Anatolia around 1750 B.C. and combined withthe native peoples to form the Hittite kingdom withits capital at Hattusha (Bogazköy in modern Turkey).

Between 1600 and 1200 B.C., the Hittites createdtheir own empire inwestern Asia and eventhreatened the powerof the Egyptians. TheHittites were the firstof the Indo-Europeanpeoples to make use ofiron. This technologyenabled them to useweapons that were stronger and cheaper to makebecause of the widespread availability of iron ore.Around 1200 B.C., however, new waves of invadersknown to historians only as the “Sea Peoples”destroyed the Hittite Empire.

The end of the Hittite kingdom and the weakeningof Egypt around 1200 B.C. temporarily left no domi-nant powers in western Asia. This allowed a numberof small kingdoms and city-states to emerge, espe-cially in the area of Syria and Palestine. The Phoeni-cians were one of these peoples.

Identifying Who were the first Indo-Europeans to make use of iron?

The PhoeniciansThe Phoenicians lived in the area of Palestine

along the Mediterranean coast on a narrow band ofland 120 miles (193 km) long. After the downfall of the Hittites and the Egyptians, the newfound

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A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z

Imperial Latin did not distinguish between I and J or between V and U. There was no W. Y and Z were introducedafter 100 B.C. for foreign words only.

Hebrew

Phoenician

Imperial Latin

Hebrew, Phoenician, and Latin Alphabets

On the fringes of these civilizations lived nomadicpeoples who depended on hunting and gathering,herding, and sometimes farming for their survival.Most important were the pastoral nomads who onoccasion overran settled communities and createdtheir own empires. Pastoral nomads domesticatedanimals for both food and clothing. They movedalong regular migratory routes to provide steadysources of nourishment for their animals.

People who lived in settled communities oftenviewed nomadic peoples as hostile and barbaric, oruncivilized. The two types of groups did interact,however. Nomads traded animals and animal prod-ucts for grains and vegetables they were unable togrow. Pastoral nomads also aided long-distancetrade by carrying products between civilized centers.In this way, nomads often passed on new technolog-ical developments, such as the use of bronze andiron, that provided new sources of strength to the oldcivilizations. When the normal patterns of the pas-toral nomads were disrupted by drought or over-population, however, they often attacked thecivilized communities to obtain relief.

The Indo-Europeans were one of the most impor-tant nomadic peoples. The term Indo-European refersto a particular group of people who used a languagederived from a single parent tongue. Indo-Europeanlanguages include Greek, Latin, Persian, Sanskrit,and the Germanic languages. The original Indo-European peoples were probably based somewherein the steppe region north of the Black Sea or inSouthwest Asia. Around 2000 B.C. they began tomove into Europe, India, and western Asia. Onegroup of Indo-Europeans moved into Asia Minor

H I T T I T E E M P I R E

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MediterraneanSea

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Black Sea

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phr ates R.

Many civilizations developed their own alphabets.

1. Comparing What similarities do you see amongthe three alphabets shown here?

The “Children of Israel”To the south of the Phoenicians lived another

group of Semitic-speaking people known as theIsraelites. They were a minor factor in the politics ofthe region. However, their religion—known today asJudaism—flourished as a world religion and laterinfluenced the religions of Christianity and Islam.Much of the history and the religious beliefs of theIsraelites were eventually recorded in written form inthe Hebrew Bible, parts of which are known to Christians as the Old Testament. According to theirhistory, the Israelites migrated from Mesopotamia toPalestine, which the Hebrews referred to as Canaan.They followed a lifestyle based on grazing flocks andherds rather than on farming. Then, because ofdrought, the Israelites migrated to Egypt, where theywere enslaved until Moses led them out of Egypt.They wandered for many years in the desert untilthey returned to Palestine.


political independence of the Phoenicians helpedthem expand their trade. Trade had long been thebasis of Phoenician prosperity. The chief cities ofPhoenicia—Byblos, Tyre, and Sidon—were ports onthe eastern Mediterranean. The Phoenicians pro-duced a number of goods for foreign markets,including purple dye, glass, and lumber from thecedar forests of Lebanon.

The Phoenicians improved their ships, becamegreat international sea traders, and thus created atrade empire. They charted new routes not only inthe Mediterranean but also in the Atlantic Ocean,where they reached Britain and sailed south alongthe west coast of Africa. The Phoenicians set up anumber of colonies in the western Mediterranean.Carthage, their most famous colony, was located onthe North African coast.

The Phoenician culture is best known for its alpha-bet. The Phoenicians, who spoke a Semitic language,simplified their writing by using 22 different signs torepresent the sounds of theirspeech. These 22 characters, or let-ters, could be used to spell out allthe words in the Phoenician lan-guage. Although the Phoenicianswere not the only people to inventan alphabet, theirs was importantbecause it was eventually passed onto the Greeks. From the Greekalphabet was derived the Romanalphabet that we still use today.

IdentifyingWhat was the most significant culturalinvention of the Phoenicians?

Reading Check

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Ancient Palestine

After King Solomon died, unified Pales-tine was divided into two separate kingdoms.

1. Interpreting Maps When Israel was divided into two kingdoms, which kingdom lost access to theMediterranean?

2. Applying Geography Skills Whydid the Phoenicians not develop intoan agricultural society?

57CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity

Conflict in PalestineConflict in Southwest Asia has a long history. When

the Israelites entered Palestine, around 1220 B.C., otherpeoples were already settled there. One of these peo-ples was the Philistines. For over two centuries, Israelitesand Philistines fought for control.

By 1020 B.C., the Israelites found themselves on theverge of being conquered by the Philistines. TheIsraelites decided to give up their loose tribal organiza-tion, choosing to unite behind one of their members—Saul—as king.

At first, Saul and the small army he organized weresuccessful. Around 1000 B.C., however, when they daredto meet the Philistines on an open plain, Saul and hisarmy were defeated.

David, the next king of the Israelites, defeated thePhilistines and established control over all of Palestine.Although later the Israelites would be conquered andscattered, Palestine remained the Promised Land in theminds of many Jews.

In 1948, the independentJewish state of Israel was estab-lished in Palestine. More thantwo-thirds of the people therewere Arab Muslims who werenot eager to be governed by theIsraelis. Arab neighbors of thenew state were outraged. In1964, an Arab organization calledthe Palestine Liberation Organi-zation was founded to bringabout an independent Arab stateof Palestine. Conflict betweenArabs and Israelis over Palestinecontinues to this day.

� Conflict in the Middle East

Recent archaeological evidence sometimes contra-dicts the details of the biblical account. What is gen-erally agreed, however, is that between 1200 and 1000 B.C., the Israelites emerged as a distinct group ofpeople, organized in tribes, who established a unitedkingdom known as Israel.

The United Kingdom By the time of KingSolomon, who ruled from about 970 to 930 B.C., theIsraelites had established control over all of Palestineand made Jerusalem into the capital of Israel.Solomon greatly strengthened royal power. Heexpanded the government and army and encouragedtrade. Solomon is best known for building a templein the city of Jerusalem. The Israelites viewed thetemple as the symbolic center of their religion and ofthe Israelite kingdom itself. Under Solomon, ancientIsrael was at the height of its power.

King Solomon was also known for his wisdom.Once, two women brought a child before him, eachclaiming that she was the child’s mother. Solomonordered his servant to cut the child in half, giving onehalf to each woman. The first woman objected:

“Please, my lord, give her the living baby!Don’t kill him!” The second womanreplied, “Neither I nor you shall havehim. Cut him in two!” Then Solomonsaid: “Give the baby to the first woman.Do not kill him; she is his mother.” Accord-ing to the biblical account, “When all Israelheard the verdict the king had given, theyheld the king in awe, because they saw thathe had wisdom from God to administer justice.”

The Divided Kingdom After Solomon’s death, ten-sion between the northern and southern tribes withinIsrael led to the creation of two separate kingdoms.The Kingdom of Israel was composed of the tennorthern tribes and had its capital at Samaria. To thesouth, the Kingdom of Judah consisted of two tribesand had its capital at Jerusalem.

In 722 B.C., the Assyrians overran the Kingdom ofIsrael and sent many Israelites to other parts of theAssyrian Empire. These scattered Israelites (the “tenlost tribes”) merged with neighboring peoples andgradually lost their identity.

King Solomon

Research the steps that have been taken to reach apeaceful settlement between the Israelis and Pales-tinians over the past five years. What actions havebeen the most successful? What are the most signifi-cant reasons that a lasting peace still does not exist?

Ancient Israel

The primary goal of marriage in ancientIsrael was to produce children. Chil-

dren were the “crown of man.” Sons, inparticular, were desired. Daughters wouldeventually leave the family house; sonscarried on the family line. According to the Old Testament, “sons are olive plantsaround the table, a reward, like arrows inthe hand of a hero; happy the man whohas his quiver full of them.”

Upon his father’s death the eldest sonbecame head of the family and was givena double portion of his father’s estate. Therights of an eldest son were protected bylaw, although committing a grave offense,such as murder, could cost him those

rights. A father’s inheritance passed only to his sons.

Children were named immediately afterbirth because Israelites believed that one’sname defined one’s essence and disclosedthe destiny and character of the child. Theearly education of children was placed

The Kingdom of Judah managed to retain its inde-pendence for a while, but a new enemy soon appearedon the horizon. The Chaldeans (kal•DEE•uhnz)defeated Assyria,conquered the King-dom of Judah, andcompletely destroyedJerusalem in 586 B.C.Many upper-classpeople of Judah weresent as captives toBabylonia. The memory of their exile is evoked in thewords of Psalm 137:

“By the rivers of Babylon, we sat and wept whenwe remembered Zion. . . . How can we sing thesongs of the Lord while in a foreign land? If I forgetyou, O Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill.May my tongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I donot remember you, if I do not consider Jerusalem myhighest joy.”

The Babylonian captivity of the people of Judahdid not last. A new set of conquerors, the Persians,destroyed the Chaldean kingdom and allowed thepeople of Judah to return to Jerusalem and rebuild

their city and temple. The revived Kingdom of Judahremained under Persian control until the conquestsof Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. Thepeople of Judah survived, eventually becomingknown as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism.The Babylonian captivity had changed Judaism. Itbecame a stateless religion based on the belief thatGod was not fixed to one particular land but insteadwas Creator and Lord of the whole world.

The Spiritual Dimensions of Israel According toJewish beliefs, there is but one God, called Yahweh(YAH•WAY), the creator of the world and everythingin it. In their view, God ruled the world; all peopleswere his servants, whether they knew it or not. Godhad created nature but was not in nature. The stars,moon, rivers, wind, and other natural phenomenawere not gods, as other ancient peoples believed, butGod’s handiwork. All of God’s creations could beadmired for their awesome beauty, but not wor-shipped as gods.

This powerful creator, however, was not removedfrom the life he had created. God was just and good,and he expected goodness from his people. If theydid not obey his will, they would be punished. How-ever, he was also a God of mercy and love: “The Lord

The Ark of the Covenant, as depicted here, playedan important role in Jewish worship.

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is gracious and compassionate, slow to anger andrich in love. The Lord is good to all; he has compas-sion on all he has made.” Each person could have apersonal relationship with this powerful being.

The Jews were monotheistic; they believed in oneGod. The covenant, law, and prophets were threeaspects of the Jewish religious tradition. The Jewsbelieved that during the exodus from Egypt, whenMoses led his people out of bondage into thepromised land, God made a covenant, or contract,with them. The covenant between Yahweh and theJews could be fulfilled by obedience to the law of God,called the Ten Commandments. Yahweh revealedthese commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai.

The Jews believed that certain religious teachers,called prophets, were sent by God to serve as hisvoice to his people. The following selection from Isa-iah makes clear the prophets’ belief that God’s pun-ishment would fall upon the Hebrews for their sins.

“The Lord enters into judgment against the eldersand leaders of his people: ‘It is you who have ruinedmy vineyard; the plunder from the poor is in yourhouses. What do you mean by crushing my peopleand grinding the faces of the poor?’ declares the Lord,the Lord Almighty. The Lord says, ‘The women of Zion

in the hands of the mother, especially inregard to basic moral principles.

As boys matured, their fathers took overresponsibility for their education, whichremained largely informal. This includedreligious instruction as well as a generaleducation for life. Since trades were usuallyhereditary, fathers also chose trades for theirsons. As one rabbi stated, “He who doesnot teach his son a useful trade is bringinghim up to be a thief.”

Additional education for boys camefrom teachers whose sacred mission wasto instruct boys in the Torah, the first fivebooks of the Old Testament. An organizedschool system was not established untilmuch later, possibly in the second centuryB.C. The education girls received was fromtheir mothers, who taught them the basicfundamentals of how to be good wives,mothers, and housekeepers.

Following strict rules, scribes carefullycopied the Torah by hand.

are haughty . . . with ornaments jingling on theirankles. Therefore the Lord will bring sores on theheads of the women of Zion; the Lord will make theirscalps bald. . . . Instead of fragrance there will be astench; . . . instead of fine clothing, sackcloth; insteadof beauty, branding. Your men will fall by the sword,your warriors in battle. The gates of Zion will lamentand mourn; destitute, she will sit on the ground.’”

The golden age of prophecy began in the mid-eighth century B.C. and continued during the timewhen the people of Judah and Israel were threatenedby Assyrian conquerors. The prophets went throughthe land telling the Jews that if they failed to keepGod’s commandments, they would be punished forbreaking the covenant.

From the prophets came new concepts thatenriched the Jewish tradition. The prophetsembraced a concern for all humanity. All nationswould someday come to the God of Israel. Thisvision included the end of war and the establishmentof peace for all the nations of the world. In the wordsof the prophet Isaiah:

CONNECTING TO THE PAST

1. Compare and Contrast Compare the upbringingand education of the eldest son in a Jewish family tothat of an eldest daughter.

2. Writing about History “The primary goal of mar-riage in ancient Israel was to produce children.”Explain why this might be. Do you think the primarygoal of marriage is the same today?

“He will judge between the nations and will settledisputes for many people. They will beat their swordsinto plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks.Nation will not take up sword against nation, nor willthey train for war anymore.”

The prophets also cried out against social injustice.They condemned the rich for causing the poor to suf-fer. They denounced luxuries as worthless, and they

threatened Israel with prophecies of dire punish-ments for these sins. They said that God’s commandwas to live justly, share with one’s neighbors, care forthe poor and the unfortunate, and act with compas-sion. When God’s command was not followed,according to the prophets, the community wasthreatened. These words of the Hebrew prophetsbecame a source for universal ideals of social justice.

The Hebrew religion was unique among the reli-gions of western Asia and Egypt. The most dramaticdifference was the Hebrews’ belief that there is onlyone God for all peoples (monotheism). In all otherreligions at that time, only priests (and some rulers)had access to the gods. In the Hebrew tradition,God’s wishes, though communicated to the peoplethrough prophets, had all been written down. NoJewish spiritual leader could claim that he aloneknew God’s will. This knowledge was open to any-one who could read Hebrew.

Although the prophets developed a concern for allhumanity, the demands of the Jewish religion—theneed to obey God—encouraged a separationbetween Jews and their non-Jewish neighbors.Unlike most other peoples of Southwest Asia, Jewswould not accept the gods of their conquerors orneighbors and be made part of another community.To remain faithful to the demands of God, they mighteven have to refuse loyalty to political leaders.

Identifying Which aspect of theHebrew culture had the greatest impact on Western civilization?

Reading Check


9. Informative Writing Using theInternet, news magazines, and news-papers, research the current conflictsin the Middle East. Prepare a briefresearch report summarizing whatyou have learned about currentevents and movements towardpeace in the region.

Checking for Understanding1. Define pastoral nomad, monotheistic.

2. Identify Indo-Europeans, Hittites,Phoenicians, Israelites, King Solomon,Isaiah.

3. Locate Palestine, Jerusalem.

4. Explain why some Israelites came tobe known as the “ten lost tribes.” Howdid the fate of the “ten lost tribes” com-pare to that of the other Kingdom ofIsrael at the time?

5. List the areas reached by Phoeniciantraders. Also list the areas that werecolonized by the Phoenicians.

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate How did nomadic peoples

both contribute to and slow down the development of civilization?

7. Organizing Information Use a chartlike the one below to show the signifi-cance of three major events in the his-tory of the Israelites.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the Torah shown on page 59

of your text. Why is the Torah soimportant to the Jewish religion? Whatdoes the book’s appearance tell youabout how the book was read?

Event Significance

1.

2.

3.

The Ten Commandments1. I am the Lord thy God . . . . Thou shalt have no

other gods before me.

2. Thou shalt not make unto thee any gravenimage . . . .

3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy Godin vain . . . .

4. Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy.

5. Honor thy father and thy mother . . . .

6. Thou shalt not kill.

7. Thou shalt not commit adultery.

8. Thou shalt not steal.

9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thyneighbor.

10. Thou shalt not covet . . . anything that is thyneighbor’s.

Source: Exodus 20:1–17 Revised Standard Version Bible.


539 B.C.Babylon falls

559 B.C.Cyrus rulesPersian Empire

Guide to Reading

The Rise of New Empires

Preview of Events

330s B.C.Alexander the Great conquersthe Persian Empire

✦700 B.C. ✦600 B.C. ✦500 B.C. ✦400 B.C. ✦300 B.C. ✦200 B.C. ✦100 B.C.

Darius, one of the rulers of the Persian Empire, described the divine source of his power:

“A great god is Ahuramazda [god of the Persians], who created this earth, who cre-ated man, who made Darius king, one king of many, one lord of many. I am Dariusthe Great King, King of Kings, King of countries containing all kinds of men, King inthis great earth far and wide. I am king. This which has been done, all that by the willof Ahuramazda I did.”

—Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon, R.G. Kent, 1953

A small and independent Hebrew state could exist only as long as no larger statedominated western Asia. New empires soon arose, however, that conquered vaststretches of the ancient world.

The Assyrian EmpireThe first of the new empires was formed in Assyria, located on the upper Tigris

River. The Assyrians were a Semitic-speaking people who exploited the use ofiron weapons to establish an empire by 700 B.C. The Assyrian Empire includedMesopotamia, parts of the Iranian Plateau, sections of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine,and Egypt down to Thebes. Within less than a hundred years, however, internalstrife and resentment of Assyrian rule began to tear the Assyrian Empire apart.



Darius I

Main Ideas• The Hittites and Egyptians were eventu-

ally overshadowed by the rise of theAssyrian and Persian Empires.

• The Persian Empire brought many yearsof peace to Southwest Asia, increasingtrade and the general well being of itspeoples.

Key Termssatrapy, satrap, monarchy

People to IdentifyAssyrians, Nebuchadnezzar, Persians,Cyrus, Darius, Immortals, Zoroaster

Places to LocateAssyrian Empire, Persian Empire, RoyalRoad

Preview Questions1. What caused the downfall of the

Assyrian Empire?2. Why did the people of his time call

Cyrus “the Great”?

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast Prepare a Venndiagram listing the characteristics of theAssyrian Empire and the characteristics ofthe Persian Empire. Identify the similari-ties and differences of both empires.

AssyrianEmpire

PersianEmpire

In 605 B.C., the empire fell to a coalition of Chaldeansand Medes (people who lived in the East), and wasdivided between those two powers.

At its height, the Assyrian Empire was ruled bykings whose power was seen as absolute. Under theirleadership, the Assyrian Empire came to be wellorganized. Local officials were directly responsible tothe king. The Assyrians also developed an efficientsystem of communication to administer their empire.A network of posts was established throughout theempire that used relays of horses to carry messages.The system was so effective that a governor any-where in the empire could send a question andreceive an answer from the king within a week. Oneof the world’s first libraries was established at Nin-eveh by Ashurbanipal, one of the last Assyrian kings.This library has provided abundant information con-cerning ancient Southwest Asian civilizations.

The Assyrians were good at conquering others.Over many years of practice, they developed effectivemilitary leaders and fighters. The Assyrian army waslarge, well organized, and disciplined. A force ofinfantrymen was its core, joined by cavalrymen and

horse-drawn war chariots that were used as platformsfor shooting arrows. Moreover, the Assyrians had thefirst large armies equipped with iron weapons.

The Assyrians used terror as an instrument of war-fare. They regularly laid waste the land in which theywere fighting. They smashed dams; looted anddestroyed towns; set crops on fire; and cut downtrees, particularly fruit trees. The Assyrians wereespecially known for committing atrocities on theircaptives. King Ashurnasirpal recorded this accountof his treatment of prisoners: “3,000 of their combattroops I felled with weapons. . . . Many I took alive;from some of these I cut off their hands to the wrist,from others I cut off their noses, ears and fingers; Iput out the eyes of many of the soldiers. . . . I burnedtheir young men and women to death.”

Summarizing Why were the Assyrians so successful at conquering others?

The Persian EmpireAfter the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, the

Chaldeans, under their king Nebuchadnezzar(NEH•byuh•kuhd•NEH•zuhr) II, made Babyloniathe leading state in western Asia. Nebuchadnezzarrebuilt Babylon as the center of his empire and gaveit a reputation as one of the great cities of the ancientworld. However, the splendor of Chaldean Babyloniaproved to be short-lived. Babylon fell to the Persiansin 539 B.C.

The Rise of the Persian Empire The Persianswere an Indo-European people who lived in what istoday southwestern Iran. Primarily nomadic, the Per-sians were organized in groups until one family man-aged to unify them. One of the family’s members,Cyrus, created a powerful Persian state that stretchedfrom Asia Minor to western India.

Cyrus ruled from 559 to 530 B.C. In 539 B.C., heentered Mesopotamia and captured Babylon. Histreatment of Babylonia showed remarkable restraintand wisdom. Cyrus also issued an edict permittingthe Jews, who had been brought to Babylon in thesixth century B.C., to return to Jerusalem.

The people of his time called Cyrus “the Great.”Indeed, he must have been an unusual ruler for histime, a man who demonstrated much wisdom andcompassion in the conquest and organization of hisempire. Unlike the Assyrian rulers, Cyrus had a rep-utation for mercy. Medes, Babylonians, and Jews allaccepted him as their ruler. Cyrus had a genuinerespect for other civilizations. In building his palaces,

Reading Check


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1. Interpreting Maps Compare and contrast the geo-graphic features of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates Rivers.

2. Applying Geography Skills Why did so many civiliza-tions develop in this region?

Assyrian Empire

for example, he made use of Assyrian, Babylonian,and Egyptian designs and building methods.

Cyrus’s successors extended the territory of thePersian Empire. His son Cambyses (kam•BY•SEEZ)successfully invaded Egypt. Darius, who ruled from521 to 486 B.C., added a new Persian province inwestern India that extended to the Indus River. Hethen moved into Europe, conquering Thrace and cre-ating the largest empire the world had yet seen. Dar-ius’s contact with the Greeks led him to undertake aninvasion of the Greek mainland (see Chapter 4).

The Structure of the Persian Empire Dariusstrengthened the Persian government. He divided the empire into 20 provinces, called satrapies(SAY•truh•pees). Each province was ruled by a


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governor, or satrap,literally a “protector of

the kingdom.” Each satrapcollected taxes, provided justice and security, andrecruited soldiers for the royal army.

An efficient system of communication was crucialto sustaining the Persian Empire. Well-maintainedroads made it easy for officials to travel through theempire. The Royal Road stretched from Lydia toSusa, the chief capital of the empire. Like the Assyri-ans, the Persians set up way stations that providedfood and shelter, as well as fresh horses, for the king’smessengers.

In this vast system, the Persian king—the “GreatKing”—occupied an exalted position. The Great Kingheld the power of life and death.

Persian Empire, 500 B.C.

� Relief of King Dariusand Xerxes from thepalace of King Darius

Persian Empire

Royal Road

Cyrus and his successors developed the Persian state intothe largest empire the world had ever seen.

1. Interpreting Maps Explain why the Royal Road wasconstructed and why it was constructed where it was.

2. Applying Geography Skills How do you think theempire was divided into satrapies? Redraw the mapwith boundaries for the satrapies. Explain what youhave done.

At its height, much of the power of the PersianEmpire and its rulers depended upon the military. Bythe time of Darius, the Persian kings had created astanding army of professional soldiers. This army wascomposed of people from all over the empire. At itscore was a cavalry force of ten thousand and an eliteinfantry force of ten thousand. These groups wereknown as the Immortals because their numbers werenever allowed to fall below ten thousand. When onemember was killed, he was immediately replaced.

The Fall of the Persian Empire After Darius, thePersian kings became more and more isolated at theircourts, surrounded by luxuries provided by theimmense quantities of gold and silver that flowedinto their treasuries. As the Persian kings increasedtaxes to gain more wealth, loyalty to the empiredeclined. Struggles over the throne weakened themonarchy (rule by a king or queen).

Persian kings had many wives and many children.For example, Artaxerxes (AHR•tuh•ZUHRK•SEEZ) II,who ruled in the fourth century B.C., had 115 sons.The sons had little real power, which only encour-aged them to engage in plots to gain the throne. Ofthe nine rulers after Darius, six were murdered as aresult of such plots. Xerxes II, for example, reignedfor only 45 days before being murdered in bed by hishalf-brother. The assassin was soon killed by anotherhalf-brother. Over a period of time, this bloody strug-gle for the throne weakened the empire and led to its

conquest by the Greek ruler Alexander the Great dur-ing the 330s B.C.

Persian Religion Of all the Persians’ cultural con-tributions, the most original was their religion,Zoroastrianism (ZOHR•uh•WAS•tree•uh•NIH•zuhm). According to Persian tradition, Zoroaster wasborn in 660 B.C. After a period of wandering and soli-tude, he had visions that caused him to be revered asa prophet of the “true religion.” His teachings wereeventually written down in the Zend Avesta, thesacred book of Zoroastrianism.

Like the Jews, the followers of Zoroaster weremonotheistic. To Zoroaster, Ahuramazda (the “WiseLord”) was the supreme god who brought all thingsinto being. Ahuramazda was supreme, but he wasnot unopposed. At the beginning of the world, thegood spirit of Ahuramazda was opposed by the evilspirit known as Ahriman.

Humans also played a role in the struggle betweengood and evil. Ahuramazda, the creator, gave allhumans the freedom to choose between right andwrong. The good person chooses the right way ofAhuramazda. Zoroaster taught that there would bean end to the struggle between good and evil. Ahu-ramazda would eventually triumph; and at the lastjudgment at the end of the world, the final separationof good and evil would occur.

Examining What caused the PersianEmpire to decline after the death of Darius?

Reading Check


9. Persuasive Writing Imagine thatyou are Cyrus ruling the Babyloni-ans, a people you have just con-quered. Explain to your governmentofficials why you believe that kind-ness and tolerance are better poli-cies than harshness.

Checking for Understanding1. Define satrapy, satrap, monarchy.

2. Identify Assyrians, Nebuchadnezzar,Persians, Cyrus, Darius, Immortals,Zoroaster.

3. Locate Assyrian Empire, PersianEmpire, Royal Road.

4. Describe Who were the Immortals?What was their significance to thePersian Empire?

5. List the duties of the satraps of thePersian government.

Critical Thinking6. Compare How were the Assyrian

and Persian systems of government different?

7. Organizing Information Create a chart identifying the differencesbetween a religious system based on monotheism and one based onpolytheism.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the relief of Darius and Xerxes

on page 63. Describe what you see inthis image. What can you tell about thePersian court from this depiction? Whydo you think images such as this weremade of the Persian rulers?

Monotheism Polytheism

Understanding Cause and Effect

65

Cause and Effect

Cause

Effects• Villages used small irrigation

systems that required no stateassistance.

• Egyptian civilization tended toremain rural, with many smallvillages gathered along the Nile.

• The flooding of the Nile wasgradual and predictable.

Applying the Skill

Read an account of a current event in your communityas reported in a local newspaper. Determine at leastone cause and one effect of that event. Show the cause-and-effect relationship in a chart.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

stand cause and effect. Read the passage below andexamine the graphic organizer that follows:

Unlike the floods on Mesopotamia’s rivers, theflooding of the Nile was gradual and predictable.The river was seen as life-giving, not life-threaten-ing. Whereas massive, state-controlled irrigation andflood control were needed in Mesopotamia, thesmall villages along the Nile easily managed smallirrigation systems that required no state assistance.As a result, Egyptian civilization tended to remainmore rural. Many small villages were gathered alonga narrow band of land on both sides of the Nile.

Practicing The SkillOn a separate piece of paper, make a cause-and-

effect diagram for each of the following statements.Some of the statements may have more than onecause and effect.

1 Irrigation and drainage ditches made it possibleto grow crops on a regular basis. The resultingabundance of food supplies enabled large num-bers of people to live together in cities.

2 Under Hammurabi’s code, a son found guilty ofstriking his father had his hand cut off.

3 Akhenaton’s actions in destroying the old godsmeant destruction of Egypt itself. The upheavalsassociated with his religious revolution led to aloss of Egypt’s empire.

Why Learn This Skill?It is important to understand how or why an

event occurred. What action or situation caused aparticular event? What were the effects or conse-quences of that particular action or situation?

Learning The SkillUnderstanding cause and effect involves consid-

ering how or why an event occurred. A cause is theaction or situation that produces an event. An effectis the result or consequence of an action or situation.To identify cause-and-effect relationships, followthese steps:

• Identify two or more events or developments.

• Decide whether or not one event caused theother. Look for “clue words” such as because, ledto, brought about, produced, as a result of, so that,since, and therefore.

• Identify the outcomes of events.

Making a graphic organizer can help you under-

Using Key Terms1. A Sumerian stepped tower is called a .

2. In a society, women have fewer privileges and rightsthan men.

3. The Sumerians invented a system of writing called .

4. The Persian ruler Darius divided his empire into provincescalled , which were ruled by .

5. The basic units of Sumerian civilization were .

6. If ruling power is passed from one generation to the next,the government of a country could be called a .

7. The belief in one god, rather than many gods, is called.

8. If citizens believe their city is ruled by gods, they might calltheir government a .

9. To preserve the physical body after death, the Egyptiansused a process called .

10. A was a government official directly responsible tothe Pharaoh.

11. script was used for business transactions and recordkeeping.

12. An administrative organization with officials and regular procedures is known as a .

Reviewing Key Facts13. Government List four examples of the kinds of laws found

in Hammurabi’s code.

14. Geography How was the spring flooding of the Tigris andEuphrates Rivers both beneficial and harmful?

15. Culture Which two groups of gods were most important to the Egyptians?

16. Science and Technology When was the wheel invented?Explain at least one way in which the invention of the wheelaffected the Mesopotamian economy.

17. History What people created the first Mesopotamian civi-lization? What did they contribute to early civilization?

18. History Name at least four reasons why the Assyrians weregood at conquering others.

19. Government What were the main powers and responsibili-ties of a Sumerian king?

20. Geography List three reasons why the Nile was crucial tothe development of Egyptian civilization.

21. Culture What religion began in the Persian Empire? Howwas it similar to the Jewish religion?

22. Science and Technology Who were the first Indo-Europeans to use iron? In what way was the use of iron advantageous to this group of people?

Below are examples of how peoples discussed in Chapter 2 utilized their environment and invented new technologies.

• Egypt uses floodwatersfor farming.

• Phoenicia sets up a tradingempire on the sea.

• Mesopotamia createsirrigation and floodcontrol systems.

• Assyria develops anempire-widecommunication system.

• Mesopotamia buildstemples and houses forreligious leaders.

• Palestine adheres tosacred law to maintainseparateness.

• Assyria acquires ironmaking from the Hittites.

• Persia acquires architecturefrom the Assyrians,Babylonians, and Egyptians.

• Egypt acquires bronzemaking from the Hyksos.

• Mesopotamia inventsthe arch, dome, wheel,and a system of writing.

• Phoenicia inventsan alphabet.

• Persia creates a standingarmy.

Environment Cooperation Cultural Diffusion Innovation

66

Making Decisions31. Imagine you are the king’s adviser in a newly created

empire without a reliable communication system. Explainwhat potential problems this poses and suggest a solutionusing the Assyrian and Persian communication networks asmodels. Include the costs and benefits of your system.

32. Research different interpretations of why the Great Sphinxwas built and its purpose, or develop one of your own. Whydo historians sometimes arrive at different conclusions? Howmight these differences be reconciled?

Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History Web site at

and click on Chapter 2–Self-CheckQuiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.wh.glencoe.com

HISTORY

Directions: Use the map and your knowl-edge of world history to choose the bestanswer to the following question.

How did geography influence both Egypt and Sumeria?

F Geography provided natural borders for protecting thesecivilizations.

G Floods from nearby rivers irrigated crops.

H Challenges helped people unite and work together.

J The flooding rivers caused people to have a dark out-look on the world.

Test-Taking Tip: This question asks for an example of how geography influenced history. Eliminate any answerchoices that do not mention anything about geography orgeographic features. Then study the map thoroughly andchoose from the answer choices that remain.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 67

Critical Thinking23. Comparing and Contrasting Compare and contrast the

basic levels of government in the United States today withthe Sumerian political structure. What advantages or disad-vantages can you identify for each system?

24. Analyzing Analyze how the Jewish religion was differentfrom religions of other cultures. How did these differencesaffect the ways Jews interacted with other peoples?

25. Interpreting Restate in your own words the meaning ofWilliam Loftus’s phrase, “the cradle of civilization.”

26. Making Generalizations Identify two projects undertakenby the Egyptians at the direction of Middle Kingdompharaohs. Explain how these projects would have affectedthe Egyptian economy.

Writing About History27. Expository Writing Imagine that you are a religious scholar

examining world religions. Prepare a speech explaining whythe Israelites adopted monotheism, while the Egyptian reli-gion was based on polytheism.

Analyzing SourcesRead the following Mesopotamian poem.

“The rampant flood which no man can oppose,Which shakes the heavens and causes earth to tremble,In an appalling blanket folds mother and child,And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.”

28. How does this poem represent the importance of thephysical environment and religion in the lives of theMesopotamians?

29. Explain the significance of the line: “Which shakes theheavens and causes earth to tremble.”

Applying Technology Skills30. Using the Internet Search the Internet for the e-mail

address of an Egyptologist from an international museum or university. Compose a letter requesting information about aspects of ancient Egyptian culture such as architec-ture, religion, or hieroglyphics.

Gizaiza

Nile

R.

MemphisemphisGiza

UrukUr

Eridu

Nile

R.

Euphrates R.

Memphis

Tigris R.

Sumerian city-states

Egypt’s Old Kingdom0 mi. 500

0 km 500

N

E

S

W

Ancient Civilizations, c. 2500 B.C.

StandardizedTest Practice

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe34.php?&st=431&pt=3&bk=17

Documents

Western Asia and Egypt - Weeblymrbaileyapworldhistory.weebly.com/.../7/37176849/_chap02.pdf34 Western Asia and Egypt 3500–500 B.C. Key Events As you read, look for the key events