bedfordms.sharpschool.netbedfordms.sharpschool.net/UserFiles/Servers/Server_106… · Web viewSOL Essential Knowledge Framework 8.43Parts of Speech/Prepositions73. SOL Essential

English 8/English 8 Advanced Resource Book

2016-17

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Table of Contents

Topic Page Number Topic Page Number

SOL Essential Knowledge Framework 8.4 3 Parts of Speech/Prepositions 73SOL Essential Knowledge Framework 8.5 4 Clauses/Types of Sentences 74SOL Essential Knowledge Framework 8.6 6 Dialogue/Quotation Marks 75SOL Essential Knowledge Framework 8.7 8 Use of Commas/Common Errors 76SOL Essential Knowledge Framework 8.8 10 Writing Acronyms 77SOL Essential Knowledge Framework 8.9 11Analogies (8.4) 12Five Types of Figurative Language (8.4a) 13Prefixes, Suffixes, Roots (8.4c) 14Five Types of Context Clues (8.4b) 15Understanding a Dictionary Entry (8.4d) 16Denotation and Connotation (8.4e) 17Elements of Fiction Chart (8.5) 18Symbolism 20Characters and Characterization (8.5) 23Conflict (8.5) 24Parts of the Plot (8.5) 25Point of View and Theme (8.5) 26Foreshadowing and Flashback (8.5) 27More about Theme (8.5) 28Irony (8.5) 30Tone and Mood (8.5) 31Author’s Style/Voice (8.5) 33Poetry (8.5) 34Text Structure/Organizational Patterns, Text Features (8.6) 36Author’s Viewpoint, Persuasive Techniques, Bias (8.6) 40Author’s Purpose (8.6) and Fact/Opinion 41Main Idea and Supporting Details (8.6) 42QAR 43Prove It 44Four Types and Three Domains of Writing (8.7) 45Analyzing the Prompt (8.7) 46Prewriting (8.7) 47Writing Process – Organizing (8.7) 48Flee Map Model (8.7) 49Thesis Statement v. Topic Sentence (8.7) 50Writing a Thesis (8.7) 51“You” in Writing (8.7) 52Revising (8.7) 54What is Editing?/What Every Paper Must Have (8.8) 558th Grade Writing Prompts 56Writing Rubrics 59Parts of Speech/Nouns (8.8) 61Rules for Possessive Nouns (8.8) 62Parts of Speech/Verbs (8.8) 63Subject-verb Agreement 64Parts of Speech/Adjectives and Adverbs (8.8) 67Parts of Speech/Pronouns 68Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 69I/Me 70Parts of Speech/Conjunctions 71Parts of Speech/Interjections 72

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8th Grade English Standards of Learning: Reading Strand

8.4 The student will apply knowledge of word origins, analogies, and figurative language to extend vocabulary development within authentic texts.a) Identify and analyze an author’s use of figurative language.b) Use context, structure, and connotations to determine meaning and differentiate among multiple meanings of words and phrases.c) Use roots, affixes, cognates, synonyms, and antonyms to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words and technical vocabulary.d) Use dictionaries, thesauruses, and glossaries to determine definition, pronunciation, etymology, spelling, and usage of words.e) Discriminate between connotative and denotative meanings and interpret the connotation.f) Extend general and specialized vocabulary through speaking, listening, reading, and writing.

UNDERSTANDING THE STANDARD(Teacher Notes)

ESSENTIAL UNDERSTANDINGS ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND PROCESSES

The intent of this standard is that students will become independent learners of vocabulary by choosing from a variety of strategies to determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words.

Students will be exposed to affixes, including prefixes and suffixes, roots, derivations, and inflections of polysyllabic words and understand that words with similar parts may be related to each other in meaning and origin.

Teachers should use a study of cognates, words from the same linguistic family, to enhance vocabulary instruction. Cognates can occur within the same language or across languages, e.g., night (English), nuit (French), Nacht (German), nacht (Dutch), nicht (Scots), natt (Swedish, Norwegian), nat (Danish), raat (Urdu), nátt (Faroese), nótt (Icelandic), noc (Czech, Slovak, Polish).

Students will evaluate the use of figurative language and analogies in text.

Students will use context and connotations to help determine the meaning of synonymous words and appreciate an author’s choices of words and images.

All students should

use word structure to analyze and relate words.

Recognize that words have nuances of meaning (figurative, connotative, and technical), which help determine the appropriate meaning.

Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative and connotative meanings;

analyze the impact of specific word choices on meaning and tone, including analogies to other texts.

Recognize that figurative language and analogies enrich text.

To be successful with this standard, students are expected to

use common roots to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words and make connections with word families (e.g.,-phobia, and –ology).

Recognize the relationships among words related by structure and derivation, such as polygraph and graffiti.

Distinguish among the connotations (associations) of words with similar denotations (definitions) (e.g., refined, respectful, polite, diplomatic, condescending), recognizing that some words have technical meanings based on context such as stern.

Understand, evaluate, and use figurative language, including:simile – figure of speech that uses the words like or as to make comparisons;metaphor – figure of speech that implies comparisons;personification – figure of speech that applies human characteristics to nonhuman objects;hyperbole – intentionally exaggerated figure of speech; andsymbol – word or object that represents something else. For example, a dove stands for peace.

Analyze relationships common to analogy construction, including:type or example – cinnamon: spice; characteristics – glass: breakable;association – bow: arrow; operator – car: driver;degree – pleased: ecstatic; mathematical – three: six;number – louse: lice; synonyms and antonyms – hot: cold;purpose – chair: sit; cause/effect – sun: burn;sequence – day: week; characteristic – snow: cold;product – tree: lumber; and degree – warm: hot.

Consult reference materials (e.g., dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses), both print and digital, to find the pronunciation of a word or determine/clarify meaning.

Recognize that synonyms may have connotations, e.g., elderly and mature; youthful and juvenile and describe the impact on text.

Use context (e.g., the overall meaning of a sentence or paragraph; a word’s position or function in a sentence) as a clue to the meaning of a word or phrase.

Use both context and reference skills independently to determine the nuances and connotations of words.

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8.5 The student will read and analyze a variety of fictional texts, narrative nonfiction, and poetry.a) Explain the use of symbols and figurative language.b) Make inferences and draw conclusions based on explicit and implied information using evidence from text as support.c) Explain how authors use characters, conflict, point of view, voice, and tone to create meaning.d) Understand the author’s use of conventional elements and characteristics within a variety of genres.e) Compare and contrast the author’s use of word choice, dialogue, form, rhyme, rhythm, and voice in different texts.f) Compare and contrast authors’ styles.g) Identify and ask questions that clarify various viewpoints.h) Identify the main idea.i) Summarize text relating supporting details.j) Identify an author’s organizational pattern using textual clues, such as transitional words and phrases.k) Identify cause and effect relationships.l) Use prior and background knowledge as a context for new learning.m) Use reading strategies to monitor comprehension throughout the reading process.



The intent of this standard is that students will continue to develop an understanding of each literary form and its characteristics.

Students will understand that some literary characteristics are common to more than one form.

Students will read at and beyond the literal level, including making inferences, i.e., making judgments or drawing conclusions based on what an author has implied.

The initiating event is the incident that introduces the central conflict in a story; it may have occurred before the story opens.

Tone is used to express a writer’s attitude toward the subject.

Voice shows an author’s personality, awareness of audience, and passion for his or her subject. It adds liveliness and energy to writing. Voice is the imprint of the writer — the capacity to elicit a response from the reader.

Mood refers to the emotional atmosphere produced by an author’s use of language.

Point of view is the way an author reveals events and ideas in a story. With an omniscient or “all knowing” point of view, a narrator sees all, hears all, and

All students should

understand that an author’s voice and tone stem from the stylized use of literary devices.

Compare and contrast the characteristics of literary forms, including:novel;short story;biography;essay;speech;poetry; andmemoir.

Understand characterization as the way that an author presents a character and reveals character traits.

Analyze how a particular sentence, chapter, scene, or stanza fits into the overall structure of a text and contributes to the development of the theme, setting, or plot.

Analyze the interactions between individuals, events, and ideas in a text (e.g., how ideas influence


identify the elements of narrative structure, including:setting – time and placecharacter(s), either: (static – remaining the same during the course of the story, or

dynamic – changing during the course of and as a result of the story)external conflicts ( such as: individual vs. individual, individual vs. nature,

individual vs. society, individual vs. supernatural, individual vs. technology)internal conflict – individual vs. selfplot (including: initiating event, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution)theme

recognize different plot patterns including subplots.

understand and analyze elements of an author’s style, including:dialogue ;sentence structure ;language patterns ; tone, (including: serious, solemn, sarcastic, objective, enthusiastic, humorous, hostile, disapproving, personal, impersonal)voice.

differentiate among points of view in stories, including:first person;third person limited to a character or narrator; andthird person omniscient.

analyze how differences in points of view can create such effects as suspense or humor.

analyze an author’s use of literary devices, including:

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knows all. By contrast, a limited point of view depicts only what one character or narrator sees, hears, and feels. The point of view may be first person, narrated by someone outside the story or a character within the story. The point of view may also be third person, limited or omniscient, depending on what is known of the story.

A symbol is anything that represents something else, often by indirect association or by the convention of an emblem, token, or word. In both prose and poetry, concrete objects used as symbols stand for larger ideas or feelings. The general characteristic of poetry, i.e., its suggestiveness, makes possible the expression of complex feelings and experiences in a few words. Symbolism, like metaphor, imagery, and allusion, is a powerful instrument for the expression of large worlds of meaning in a few words.

Students will use a variety of reading strategies such as text annotation, QAR (Question-Answer Relationship), thinking aloud, etc.

individuals or events, or how individuals influence ideas or events).

Analyze how particular lines of dialogue or incidents in a story or drama propel the action, reveal aspects of a character, or provoke a decision.

Understand that poetic devices are used in prose and poetry.

Identify author’s voice.

Make inferences, draw conclusions, and point to an author’s implications in the text.

Understand the relationship between causes and effects.

Understand that a cause may have multiple effects.

Understand that an effect may have multiple causes.

Understand and use the reading process to facilitate comprehension.

Read several texts on a similar topic and synthesize what is read.

Analyze how a text makes connections among and distinctions between individuals, ideas, or events (e.g., through comparisons, analogies, or categories).

foreshadowing – the giving of clues to hint at coming events in a story;irony – the implication, through plot or character, that the actual situation is quite

different from that presented;flashback – a return to an earlier time in the course of a narrative to introduce

prior information; andsymbolism – the use of concrete and recognizable things to represent ideas.

analyze poetic devices in prose and poetry, including:word choice;figurative language;symbolism;imagery;rhyme;rhythm;repetition; andsound elements.

evaluate an author’s choice of words and images. identify poetic forms, including:

haiku – a 17-syllable, delicate, unrhymed Japanese verse, usually about nature;limerick – a 5-line, rhymed, rhythmic verse, usually humorous;ballad – a songlike narrative poem, usually featuring rhyme, rhythm, and refrain;free verse – poetry with neither regular meter nor rhyme scheme;couplet – a pair of rhyming lines; andquatrain – a stanza containing four lines.

compare and contrast an author’s choice of sound elements in prose and poetry, including:rhyme – recurring identical or similar final word sounds within or at the ends of

lines of verse;rhythm – the recurring pattern of strong and weak syllabic stresses;meter – a fixed pattern of accented and unaccented syllables in lines of fixed length

to create rhythm;repetition – repeated use of sounds, words, or ideas for effect and emphasis;alliteration – repetition of initial sounds, e.g., picked a peck of pickled peppers; andonomatopoeia – the use of a word whose sound suggests its meaning (e.g., buzz.).

determine a theme of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text.

determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text. analyze how differences in points of view can create such effects as suspense or

humor. use graphic organizers to analyze and summarize text. recognize an author’s use of connotations and persuasive language to convey a

viewpoint.

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8.6 The student will read, comprehend, and analyze a variety of nonfiction texts.a) Draw on background knowledge and knowledge of text structure to understand selections.b) Make inferences and draw conclusions based on explicit and implied information using evidence from text as support.c) Analyze the author’s qualifications, viewpoint, and impact.d) Analyze the author’s use of text structure and word choice.e) Analyze details for relevance and accuracy.f) Differentiate between fact and opinion.g) Identify the main idea.h) Summarize the text identifying supporting details.i) Identify an author’s organizational pattern using textual clues, such as transitional words and phrases.j) Identify cause and effect relationships.k) Evaluate, organize, and synthesize information for use in written and oral formats.l) Use reading strategies to monitor comprehension throughout the reading process.



The intent of this standard is that students will analyze a variety of nonfiction sources and teachers will model the higher-order thinking processes with materials at the students’ independent reading level and move students gradually to collaborative and independent comprehension of age-appropriate materials at the independent reading level.

Teachers will collaborate with students to help them apply reading skills in a variety of content texts.

Students will read at and beyond the literal level, using the reading process to predict, question, clarify, infer, organize, compare, summarize, and synthesize.

An author’s viewpoint refers to his or her bias or subjectivity toward the subject.

Students will work collaboratively and with teacher support to move toward higher-order thinking, using instructional-level reading materials.

Synthesis involves higher-order thinking and is a result of forming either a concrete or abstract whole from the logical relation of parts.

Students will use evaluation and conclusion to make reasonable inferences about what has been read by combining new information with what was known prior to reading.

Students will understand that an author’s credentials and

All students should

activate prior knowledge before reading.

make predictions prior to and during the reading process.

Recognize an author’s viewpoint and use of persuasive language.

Read and analyze writing critically.

Choose graphic organizers based on the internal text structure most prevalent in the text.

Use graphic organizers and/or rules to analyze and summarize text.

Read several texts on a similar topic and synthesize what is read.

Evaluate an author’s choice of words and images.

Recognize an author’s use of connotations, and persuasive language to convey viewpoint.

Understand that the writer implies and the reader infers.


activate prior knowledge before reading by use of:small-group or whole-class discussion;anticipation guides; andpreview of key vocabulary.

recognize an author’s use of connotations and persuasive language, to convey a viewpoint.

determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text. analyze how the author acknowledges and responds to conflicting evidence or

viewpoints. analyze and record information, using text structures (organizational patterns),

including:cause and effect;

comparison/contrast; enumeration or listing; sequential or chronological; concept/definition; generalization; and process.

analyze how a particular sentence, paragraph, chapter, or section fits into the overall structure of a text and contributes to the development of the ideas.

use strategies for summarizing, such as the following:delete trivia and redundancy; substitute a general term for a list; and find or create a main idea statement.

read and follow directions.

use text structures such as the following to enhance comprehension and note

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8.6 The student will read, comprehend, and analyze a variety of nonfiction texts.a) Draw on background knowledge and knowledge of text structure to understand selections.b) Make inferences and draw conclusions based on explicit and implied information using evidence from text as support.c) Analyze the author’s qualifications, viewpoint, and impact.d) Analyze the author’s use of text structure and word choice.e) Analyze details for relevance and accuracy.f) Differentiate between fact and opinion.g) Identify the main idea.h) Summarize the text identifying supporting details.i) Identify an author’s organizational pattern using textual clues, such as transitional words and phrases.j) Identify cause and effect relationships.k) Evaluate, organize, and synthesize information for use in written and oral formats.l) Use reading strategies to monitor comprehension throughout the reading process.



experiences contribute to his/her viewpoint.

To critique text requires that a critical (but not necessarily negative) judgment be made.

Students will use a variety of reading strategies such as text annotation, QAR (Question-Answer Relationship), thinking aloud, etc.

taking: boldface and/or italics type; type set in color; underlining; indentation; sidebars; illustrations, graphics, and photographs; headings and subheadings; and footnotes and annotations.

analyze an author’s choice of details by examining:

accuracy; placement; thoroughness; relevance; and effectiveness.

analyze multiple accounts of the same event or topic, noting important similarities and differences in the point of view they represent.

analyze two or more texts with conflicting information on the same topic and identify how the texts disagree.

distinguish between subjective and objective writing. use graphic organizers to record clues in the text and inferences or conclusions

made by the reader as a result of those clues.

8th Grade English Standards of Learning: Writing/Research Strand

8.7 The student will write in a variety of forms, including narration, exposition, persuasion, and informational.a) Identify intended audience.

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b) Use prewriting strategies to generate and organize ideas.c) Distinguish between a thesis statement and a topic sentence.d) Organize details to elaborate the central idea and provide unity. e) Select specific vocabulary and information for audience and purpose.f) Use interview quotations as evidence.g) Revise writing for clarity of content, word choice, sentence variety, and transitions among paragraphs.h) Use computer technology to plan, draft, revise, edit, and publish writing.



The intent of this standard is that students will become independent and proficient in composing a variety of types of writing.

Teachers will focus direct instruction on all three domains of writing:composing – the structuring and elaborating a writer

does to construct an effective message for readers;

written expression – those features that show the writer purposefully shaping and controlling language to affect readers; and

usage/mechanics – the features that cause written language to be acceptable and effective for standard discourse.

Elaboration can occur by using descriptive details and examples within a sentence to give detail and depth to an idea, or from paragraph to paragraph chronologically.

Voice shows an author’s personality, awareness of audience, and passion for his or her subject. It adds liveliness and energy to writing and allows the reader to know the writer’s ideas. Voice is the imprint of the writer — the capacity to elicit a response from the reader.

Tone expresses an author’s attitude toward the subject.

Coherence means that each part of the writing appears to be ‘connected’ and heading towards a single conclusion or theme in the text.

The writing process is nonlinear; returning to prewriting or drafting at any point in the process may help the writer clarify and elaborate the drafted piece.

Students will begin to assume responsibility for revising,

All students should

use a process for writing, including:planning;drafting;revising;proofreading;editing; andpublishing.

Understand that good writing has been elaborated.

Use peer and individual revising and editing.

Understand that good writing has been improved through revision.

Use keyboarding, including spell checkers and grammar checkers when available.

Understand and apply the elements of composing:central idea;elaboration;unity; andorganization.

Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, description, and pacing, to develop experiences or characters.

understand that a topic sentence supports an essay’s thesis statement; it unifies a paragraph and directs the order of the


write in a variety of forms, including:narrative – writing to tell a story;expository – writing to explain and build a body of well-organized and

understandable information;persuasive – writing to influence the reader or listener to believe or do as the

author or speaker suggests; andinformational – writing to put forth information, frequently used in textbooks and

the news media.

use a variety of prewriting strategies, for example: brainstorming; webbing; mapping; outlining; clustering; listing; and using graphic organizers.

use written expression to explain, analyze, or summarize a topic with attention to:purpose and audience; a central or controlling idea; voice; tone (such as serious,

sarcastic, objective, enthusiastic, solemn, humorous, hostile, personal, impersonal); coherent selection of information and details; embedded phrases and clauses that clarify meaning and increase variety; vivid and precise vocabulary; figurative language; sentence variety; and transitional words and phrases.

develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective techniques, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences when writing narratives.

engage and orient the reader by establishing a context and introducing a narrator and/or characters.

organize an event sequence that unfolds naturally and logically. use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, and description, to develop

experiences, events, and/or characters.

apply revising procedures, including: rereading; reflecting; rethinking; rewriting; including vivid vocabulary; combining sentences for variety and rhythm; and

providing transitions between ideas and paragraphs.

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proofreading, and editing their own writing.

Students should have practice writing on demand, for shorter time frames, and over extended periods of time.

sentences. create a thesis statement that focuses the essay, expresses the writer’s position in an argument, or explains the purpose of the essay, and is usually found in the first paragraph.

elaborate the central idea, providing sustained unity throughout the writing. choose language that expresses ideas precisely and concisely, recognizing and

eliminating wordiness and redundancy. use appropriate and varied transitions to create cohesion and clarify the

relationships among ideas and concepts. sustain a formal style. develop a conclusion.

8.8 The student will edit writing for correct grammar, capitalization, punctuation, spelling, sentence structure, and paragraphing.a) Use a variety of graphic organizers, including sentence diagrams, to analyze and improve sentence formation and paragraph structure.b) Use and punctuate correctly varied sentence structures to include conjunctions and transition words.c) Choose the correct case and number for pronouns in prepositional phrases with compound objects.

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d) Maintain consistent verb tense across paragraphs.e) Use comparative and superlative degrees in adverbs and adjectives.f) Use quotation marks with dialogue and direct quotations.g) Use correct spelling for frequently used words.



The intent of this standard is that students will understand and apply all the conventions of language learned at the elementary and middle school levels.

Students will maintain correct use of language to enhance writing and to avoid confusing or distracting the reader.

The conventions of correct language are an integral part of the writing process.

Diagramming sentences is a strategy to increase understanding of their structure.

Teachers will explain the function of verbals (gerunds, participles, and infinitives) and how they are used to provide sentence variety in writing.

All students should

proofread and edit drafts with teacher assistance, peer collaboration, and growing independence.

Understand that pronouns need to agree with antecedents in gender, number, and person.

Understand that verbs must agree with subjects.

Use verbs in the indicative, imperative, interrogative, conditional, and subjunctive form.

Recognize and correct inappropriate shifts in verb forms.


use complete sentences with appropriate punctuation, including the punctuation of dialogue and the punctuation between dependent and independent clauses.

use punctuation (comma, ellipsis, dash) to indicate a pause or break. use an ellipsis to indicate an omission. diagram sentences with phrases and clauses. use a singular verb with a singular subject and a plural verb with a plural subject. use a singular pronoun to refer to a singular antecedent and a plural pronoun to refer

to a plural antecedent. use objective pronouns in prepositional phrases with compound objects. choose and maintain tense (present, past, future) throughout an entire paragraph or

text. use comparative and superlative adjectives. use comparative and superlative adverbs. use and correctly punctuate transitional words, such as furthermore, however, since,

and next. use correct conjunctions, such as either/or and neither/nor. embed quotations from other sources with skill and accuracy. use quotation marks correctly with dialogue.

8.9 The student will apply knowledge of appropriate reference materials to produce a research product.a) Collect and synthesize information from multiple sources including online, print and media.b) Evaluate the validity and authenticity of texts.c) Use technology as a tool to research, organize, evaluate, and communicate information.d) Make sense of information gathered from diverse sources by identifying misconceptions,

main and supporting ideas, conflicting information, point of view or bias.e) Cite primary and secondary sources using Modern Language Association (MLA) or American Psychological Association (APA) style.

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f) Publish findings and respond to feedback.g) Define the meaning and consequences of plagiarism and follow ethical and legal guidelines for gathering and using information.



The intent of this standard is that students will collect resources, evaluate their usefulness, conduct research, and appropriately cite reliable sources of information.

Students will evaluate the accuracy and authenticity of multiple sources.

Students will evaluate the intent of the author, which may include misinformation, bias, and unsupported assertions.

All students should

determine if a source is trustworthy and accurate.

Understand that using multiple sources of information produces a more complete understanding of a topic.


understand that a primary source is an original document or a firsthand or eyewitness account of an event.

understand that a secondary source discusses information originally presented somewhere else. Secondary sources provide analysis, interpretation, or evaluation of the original information.

use a variety of strategies to generate notes, and determine the central ideas of a primary or secondary source, synthesize information, and provide an accurate summary.

embed quotations from other sources with skill and accuracy.

evaluate the validity and authenticity of texts, using questions such as:Does the source appear in a reputable publication?Is the source free from bias? Does the writer have something to gain from his

opinion?Does the information contain facts for support?Is the same information found in more than one source?

conduct short research projects to answer a question drawing on several sources and generating questions.

use computer technology to research, organize, evaluate, and communicate information.

document using a standard form such as MLA or APA. avoid plagiarism, give credit whenever using another person’s idea or opinion,

facts, statistics, graphs, drawings, quotations, or paraphrases of another person’s words.

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8.4 Vocabulary Notes

Analogies

An analogy is a way of comparing the relationship between groups of words. There are often one or two analogy questions on the reading SOL test. In order to successfully answer an analogy question, you have to understand the relationship between the first pair of words and apply the same relationship, in the same order, to the second group of words.

The types of relationships used to form analogies include:

type or example – cinnamon: spice; characteristics – glass: breakable;association – bow: arrow; operator – car: driver;degree – pleased: ecstatic; mathematical – three: six;number – louse: lice; synonyms and antonyms – hot: cold;purpose – chair: sit; cause/effect – sun: burn;sequence – day: week; characteristic – snow: cold;product – tree: lumber; degree – warm: hot.

After you identify the relationship between the first pair of words, create a sample sentence to express the relationship. This should help determine which of the possible answer choices shows the same relationship.

Example: cinnamon:spice::novel:book

A sentence to express the relationship between cinnamon and spice is: Cinnamon is a type of spice. The second half of the analogy fits the same relationship sentence: A novel is a type of book. The relationship and the order are the same in both halves of the analogy.

A bridge map can be used to visualize the relationship between the words in an analogy.

Relating

1st word in 1st analogy factor 2nd word in 1st analogy

1st word in 2nd analogy 2nd word in 2nd analogy

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8.4a Vocabulary Notes

Figurative Language – Five Types

Figurative language is defined as language that is not meant to be taken literally; it is used to give expression to writing and make it more interesting to read.

1. simile – using like or as to compare two unlike things; example: I ran as fast as a cheetah when I thought I would miss the bus home.

2. metaphor – comparing two unlike things without using the words like or as; example: Mom told my brother his room was a pig sty.

3. hyperbole – extreme exaggeration; example: I’ve told you a million times to pick up your clothes from the floor!

4. personification – giving human characteristics to non-human objects or animals; example: The leaves danced in the trees as the wind blew softly.

5. idiom – a figure of speech in which the meaning has nothing to do with what is said; example: It was raining cats and dogs last night.

Common Idiom Definitions

1. A Piece of Cake: A task that can be accomplished very easily.2. A Slap on the Wrist: A very mild punishment.3. Back Seat Driver: People who criticize from the sidelines, much like someone giving unwanted advice from the back seat of

a vehicle to the driver.4. Between A Rock And A Hard Place: Stuck between two very bad options.5. Crack Someone Up: To make someone laugh.6. Cross Your Fingers: To hope that something happens the way you want it to.7. Drive someone up the wall: To irritate and/or annoy very much.8. Get Over It: To move beyond something that is bothering you.9. Gut Feeling: A personal intuition you get, especially when feel something may not be right. 10. Head Over Heels: Very excited and/or joyful, especially when in love. 11. High Five: Slapping palms above each other’s heads as celebration gesture. 12. Hit The Books: To study, especially for a test or exam.13. Keep An Eye On Him: You should carefully watch him.14. Lend Me Your Ear: To politely ask for someone’s full attention.15. Never Bite The Hand That Feeds You: Don’t hurt anyone that helps you.16. Over My Dead Body: When you absolutely will not allow something to happen.17. Rise and Shine: Time to get out of bed and get ready for work/school.18. Smell Something Fishy: Detecting that something isn’t right and there might be a reason for it.19. Tie the knot: To get married.20. When Pigs Fly : Something that will never ever happen.

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8.4c Vocabulary Notes

Prefixes, Suffixes, Roots

Prefixes and suffixes, which originated as words themselves, are now syllables added to roots to create new words. The root is the base element of the word—the part of the word that contains the basic meaning (definition) of the word. A prefix is a syllable(s) forming a word element placed before a root, word, or word group to modify the meaning or make a new word. A suffix is a syllable(s) forming a word element that is placed after a root, word, or word group to modify the meaning or make a new word. The suffix may also modify the word’s grammatical function by redefining its part of speech (e.g., noun, verb, adjective, adverb).

Common Roots Common Prefixes Common Suffixes

struct = build un = not, none able = capable of port = carry pre = before, in advance ion = act or process; condition graph = writing re = again, back ology = study ofbio = life sub = under, below ful = quantity that fills tract = pull dis = not, none less = without, missing flect, flex = bend auto = self dict, dic = speak, say de = away, from, reverse of im = in, into

(Above from: VDOE, English Enhanced Scope and Sequence Lesson Skill: Determining meaning of words by taking them apart)

The lists above can be used to determine the meaning of words based on their parts. However, this is NOT A COMPLETE LIST. There are MANY other examples that you will see in daily reading!!

For example: destruction = the act or process that is the reverse of building

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8.4b Vocabulary NotesFive Types of Context Clues

1. Definition/Explanation Clue

The meaning of a word or phrase is revealed by an explanation immediately following.

Example: “The city holds a bazaar, or market, every other Saturday.” The meaning of the noun bazaar can be found in the appositive, market.

2. Restatement/Synonym Clue

The meaning of a word or phrase is revealed by a simple restatement or synonym.

Example: “The remote site was far away from our current location.” The sentence provides a synonym, far away, for the adjective remote.

3. Contrast/Antonym Clue

The meaning of a word or phrase is revealed by a statement of the opposite meaning.

Example: “We wanted to contribute to the project, not take away from it.” The word not signals that the verb contribute is an antonym to “take away from.” Therefore, the reader knows it means “add to.”

4. Inference/General Context Clue

The meaning of a word or phrase is revealed elsewhere in the text, not within the sentence containing the word. Relationships, which are not directly apparent, are inferred or implied.

Example: “The haberdashery was Lou’s favorite place. He loved shopping for nice suits. The people who worked there were so friendly and helpful.” The meaning of the noun haberdashery is inferred by the information in the next two sentences: it is a place to buy nice suits and is staffed by helpful people, i.e., it is an upscale clothing store.

5. Tone and Setting Clue

The meaning of a word or phrase is revealed by the actions or setting.

Example: “The hostile dog barked at everyone and everything in sight. He even thought a piece of trash was an enemy, so he barked at it, too.” The meaning of the word hostile is shown by the dog’s actions, which are “unfriendly” and “aggressive.”

(Above from: VDOE, English Enhanced Scope and Sequence Lesson Skill: Using Context Clues)

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8.4d Vocabulary Notes

Understanding a Dictionary Entry

intent/interview 387

in.tent1 [in tent´] n. 1 Something that is intended; purpose;

aim. Her intent has always been to go to college. 2 Meaning;

signi_cance. What was the intent of what he said?plural intents (from L. intendere “a stretching out”)in.tent2 [in tent´] adj. Having the mind _rmly _xed on

something.Is he intent on leaving? She was intent on the book shewas reading. (from L. intentus “attentive, eager,

waiting”)

hat, age, rde, fär; let, be, term; it, ice; hot, go, rder; oil, out; cup, putth, thin; __, then; zh, measure, e represents a in about, e in taken, I in e

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Guide words - This tells you the first and last words defined on each page.

Page number

Entry word - The . separates the syllables. The 1 notes there are more than one definition entry.

Pronunciation - This is separated into syllables and tells you how to pronounce the entry word. The ´ tells you which syllable is stressed.

Part of speech - This abbreviation tells you what part of speech the defined word is, in this case a noun.

Definition - This explains the meaning of the entry word. If there is more than one meaning, the definition is divided by numbers. Also, an example sentence is often used to make the meaning more clear.

Plural form – Shows how the entry word is written in plural form.

Origin – Shows the origin of the entry word, in this case, Latin.

Pronunciation guide - This guide explains the meanings of the symbols used in the pronunciation. It is normally located in the front of a dictionary and at the bottom of every facing page. It is usually separated from the page by a line or is placed in a colored box.

Above From: Super Teacher Worksheets. https://www.superteacherworksheets.com/dictionary-skills/dictionary-parts_PARTS.pdf

8.4e Vocabulary Notes

Denotation and Connotation

Denotation – the dictionary definition of a word; it provides the exact, specific meaning of the word

Connotation -- the feelings or emotions associated with a word; the connotation of a word is usually positive or negative; the connotation of a word may show the intensity/degree of something (hot/scorching) or may depend on the context in which the word is used

Some words do not have a specific emotional “feel” to them; these words have a neutral connotation.

Examples: Positive Negative Neutral

passed away croaked died

brilliant nerdy intelligent

slender scrawny thin

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https://www.superteacherworksheets.com/dictionary-skills/dictionary-parts_PARTS.pdf

8.5 Reading Notes – Fiction

Elements of Fiction

Element Definition Example from Story

Characters The people or animals in a story

Protagonist The main character – may be good or bad

Antagonist A character in conflict with the main character

Direct Characterization

The author gives readers specific information about the character – may describe the character or may be the narrator directly stating (ex. Bob was a lazy, mean man.)

Indirect Characterization

The author informs readers about a character by telling: the character’s actions, the character’s words, the character’s thoughts, what other characters say about the character, description of the character or his/her expression (ex. – covered in dirt, neat and clean, angry scowl)

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Narrator The character or outside voice telling the story

Circle one: is the narrator inside or outside of the story? If inside, write the character’s name on the line.

INSIDE: (name)

OUTSIDE (no name here)

Point of View Indicates who is telling the story. May be 1st person (a character in the story is telling the story), 3rd person limited (an outside narrator is telling the story but we only know one character’s thoughts), or 3rd person omniscient (an outside narrator is telling the story and knows the thoughts/feelings of all characters)

Conflict – Internal Conflict is a problem. An internal conflict is a problem a character has in his/her own mind – a decision to be made or something he/she is worried about.

Conflict – External Conflict is a problem. An external conflict is a problem a character has with someone or something else – it can be a problem with another character, a problem with something supernatural (ghost, witches, etc), a problem with nature, a problem with technology, or a problem with society

Setting Setting is where and when a story takes place. It includes the time period of the story (past, present, future), even if there is no specific date. It also includes the location of the story – a city, someone’s house, Narnia or some other fantasy location. The length of time a story lasts is also part of the setting (duration).

Plot Plot is the events that happen in a story, in the order they happen. It includes the exposition, initiating event, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution of the story. The plot is built

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around the conflict.

8.5a Symbolism

Symbolism is when writers use animals, elements, things, places, or colors to represent other things. The symbols they use are usually well known in literature or culture. When you understand the symbol being used, you connect its meaning to the story you are reading and understand the story on a deeper level.

Another way to understand symbolism is to think about how the media, movies, and television, and music videos use symbols to immediately make us think of or connect with other things. For example:

In westerns, who wears the white hat?

In westerns, who wears the black hat?

See you do know about symbols! Often colors are used represent various characteristics or emotions.

White The symbol of good or innocence. Brides and angels wear white.

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Click here to check your answ er!

Click here to check your answ er!

BlackThe symbol of evil. Villains in old time movies often wore black.

RedThe symbol of love or courage.

Red is the color of Valentine's Day.

BlueThe symbol of beauty and loyalty.

The sky is blue, and Mary in the Bible is usually pictured wearing blue.

PurpleThe symbol of royalty.

In ancient times only the king or emperor was allowed to wear purple.

GoldThe symbol of wealth and power.

Gold is the precious metal we prize the most. Only the rich and powerful possess a lot of gold.

GreenThe symbol of hope, growth, and new life.

In the spring, the earth turns green bringing us the hope of a new season.

Writers use symbolic colors in their work in many ways. Sometimes color can be used to describe clothing of characters or in the setting of a story. If you are looking for them, these symbols tell you more about the characters and the story.

Colors are not the only things that are used as literary symbols. Often nature provides writers with symbols.

The elements that surround us are also well known symbols in literature.

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FireThe symbol of cleansing and purification.Fire burns everything away leaving things cleared to begin again.

WaterThe symbol of life and cleansingWater is necessary to live and is used in church to wash away our sins.

AirThe symbol of change. As air sweeps in taking the form of wind it sweeps away the old and brings in the new.

StoneThe symbol of building and solidity.Stone is natural, of the earth, and the strongest building material.

Although there are many other symbols that writers use, one last set must be addressed: animals. States and countries choose animals to represent traits they want associated with them. Nursery rhymes and cartoons use animals as characters and those characters can often be interpreted symbolically.

Most symbols in literature connect to things you are familiar with in life. Being aware that writers use them, means that you can spot them in the stories you read and make connections to the meanings these symbols have. This helps you to understand the story on a much deeper level.

Remember, symbolism is when writers use animals, elements, things, places, or colors to represent other things. Watch for them when you read and try to use symbols when you write.

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8.5 Reading Notes – FictionCharacter and Characterization

TYPES OF CHARACTERS

Static Character – A static character does not change much in the course of a storyDynamic Character – A dynamic character changes as the result of a story’s eventsFlat Character – A flat character is not well developed; we do not know much about flat characters.

Often flat characters are known only by one character trait and/or their job (example – the evil stepmother)

Round Character – A round character is well developed; we know a great deal about the character’s personality and character traits

LEARNING ABOUT CHARACTERS

Motivation – Motivation is any force (example – love, fear, jealousy) that causes a character to behave in a particular way

Characterization – The way a writer reveals the personality of a characterDirect Characterization – The writer simply tells readers what kind of person a character isIndirect Characterization – The writer reveals a character’s personality through what the character says, through a

description of the character’s looks and clothing, through a description of the character’s thoughts and feelings, through comments made about the character by other characters, through the character’s behavior (actions)

Note – when a writer uses indirect characterization, we must use our own judgment and the evidence the writer gives to infer the character’s traits.

TYPES OF INDIRECT CHARACTERIZATION

1. What a character says – The words a character uses give readers clues about what type of person a character is. For example, if a character talks about skipping school, readers can infer that the character is not a responsible student and doesn’t care about being successful in school.

2. What a character does – A character’s actions and behavior demonstrate what kind of person he/she is. We learn about people through what they do. For example, readers can infer that a character who helps an old lady carry her groceries into her house is kind and compassionate.

3. How a character looks – A character’s appearance, clothing, facial expressions, posture, etc. can help you understand more about him/her. For example, you might infer that a character who is wearing old, dirty clothes, is hunched over, and carrying a ragged backpack is homeless.

4. What a character thinks or feels – In a story that tells you the thoughts and feelings of one or more characters, you get a direct look at what kind of person the character thinks he/she is.

5. What other characters think or say about a character – The reactions, thoughts, or words of other characters can tell you what type of person a character is. For example, if a character is a student in a middle school that other students try to avoid making angry, you might infer that the character is a bully.

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Conflict

CONFLICT – the problem faced by a character in a story

INTERNAL CONFLICT -- a problem within a character (a decision, worrying about something, doesn’t like something about self, etc.); no one else is involved in this type of conflict

There is only one type of internal conflict – individual v. self

EXTERNAL CONFLICT – a problem outside the character; someone or something else is involved

There are five main types of external conflict:

Individual v. individual – character has a problem with another character or characters

Individual v. nature – character must deal with a problem involving nature (scared of spiders, tornado destroyed house, alone in the woods overnight, etc.)

Individual v. technology – problem with machinery or electronics of some kind (car breaks down, computer hard drive crashes, stuck in an elevator, etc.)

Individual v. society – person has a problem with a law or socially acceptable behavior (using bad language in class, wearing inappropriate clothing, trying to change society or social rules – segregation, etc.)

Individual v. supernatural – problems involving ghosts, goblins, witches, vampires or other supernatural creatures that do not exist

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Parts of the Plot

Plot – the sequence of events in a story; these are the things that happen in a story

Conflict – the problem in a story that the main character or characters must solve

Exposition – the beginning of the story where the author provides information about the setting and the characters; in the exposition the conflict is usually introduced in an event called the initiating event

Rising Action – all the events that result from the conflict; the story action moves more quickly as the plot moves toward the climax

Climax – the moment when the story reaches its most exciting time; also can be a turning point in the story when you can see how the conflict will be solved

Falling Action – the events that follow the climax

Resolution – how the story ends when all loose ends are tied up

Climax – turning point of the story

Resolution – how the story ends

Exposition – find out characters, setting, basic Initiating Event – starts the main conflict

situation

***Subplot – there can be more than one conflict in a story; the action that revolves around a minor conflict is called a subplot; there may be multiple subplots in a story (especially a longer story or novel)***

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Rising Action – characters attempt to solve the main conflict

Falling Action – events after the climax


Point of View and Theme

Point of View

Point of view in a story refers to who is telling the story. The person telling a story is called the narrator. To determine POV (point of view), you must know the difference between narration and dialogue.

Dialogue is when the characters in a story talk to each other; it is written in quotation marks. Narration is anything that is not written in quotation marks. When looking at POV, only look at narration!!

There are three main types of point of view:

1. first person point of view – the person telling the story is a character in the story. The narrator will use the words “I,” “me,” “my,” “mine,” “we,” “us,” and “our” to describe events happening in the story.

a. an unreliable narrator – the story is told in 1st person, but the character can’t be believed for some reason\

2. third person limited point of view – the person telling the story is NOT a character in the story. The narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of only one character in the story. Readers do not know what is happening with all of the characters in the story.

3. third person omniscient point of view – the person telling the story is NOT a character in the story. The narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all characters in the story. Readers DO know what is happening with all of the characters in the story.

Theme

Theme in a story refers to the lesson or message about life that an author wants us to learn. It is usually not written directly in the story. Readers must infer what the author wants us to learn through the characters and events in the story. Many stories can have the same or similar themes. When talking about theme, we do not mention the story directly. An example of a theme may be, “friendship is more important than being popular,” or “it is important to do what is right, even though it is difficult.”

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Foreshadowing and Flashback

Foreshadow: use of hints and clues to suggest what will happen later in the story, often used to build suspense or tension in a story

Hint to Remember: Try breaking the word FORESHADOWING apart.FORE means ahead.

A SHADOW is a glimpse of something without the complete details.

Flashback: scene that interrupts the normal chronological flow of events in a story to depict something that happened at an earlier time

Hint to Remember: Now try breaking the word FLASHBACK apart.FLASH: a quick glimpse.

BACK: a look back in the story at something that previously happened.

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Theme

Theme: Life lesson, meaning, moral, or message about life or human nature that is communicated by a literary work.

In other words…

Theme is what the story teaches readers.

A theme is not a word, it is a sentence.

You don’t have to agree with the theme to identify it.

Examples

Money can’t buy happiness.

Don’t judge people based on the surface.

It is better to die free than live under tyranny.

Themes are not explicit (clearly stated).

Themes are implied.

Themes are bigger than the story.

Big World of the Theme – Applies to the REAL WORLD

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8.5 Reading Notes – FictionTheme

Follow the steps below to figure out the theme of a story.THE MEssage

Directions: Answer the questions in each box to try to arrive at a possible theme (lesson/message) from the story.

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Based on his/her actions, what did you learn about ?

What character traits describe ?

What do actions show you about life?

What is THE MEssage you can take from the story?

Based on his/her actions, what did you learn about ?

What character traits describe ?

What do actions show you about life?

What is THE Message you can take from the story?


Irony

What is Irony?

Irony is about expectations.

Irony: the opposite of what is expected.

3 kinds of irony • Verbal• Dramatic• Situational

Verbal Irony:A character says one thing but means the oppositeAlso called sarcasm or being sarcastic.

Dramatic Irony:

When the reader understands more about the events of a story than a character.

You know something that a character doesn’t.

Situational Irony:

When what actually happens is the opposite of what is expected.

Something about the situation is completely unexpected.

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Tone and Mood

Tone: the author’s attitude toward the subject (what does the author really think about what he’s writing about?)

Mood: the emotional feeling of the text (how does the author want the reader to feel when reading the text?)

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Tone Words:

What does the writer THINK about

his subject?

Mood Words:

How does the reader FEEL about the subject?

Important Terms:

Tone in literature tells us how the author thinks about his or her subject. The author's style conveys the tone in literature. Tone is the author's attitude toward story and readers.

Mood is the effect of the writer's words on the reader. Mood is how the writer’s words make us feel.

For lists of words to use to describe tone and mood, go to:

http://www.vocabulary.com/lists/202236#view=notes

OR

http://www.millcreekhs.com/attachments/article/1416/ToneMoodWordLists.pdf






Tone and Mood

Watch out! Tone and mood are similar!!

Tone is the author’s attitude toward the writing (his characters, the situation) and the readers. A work of writing can have more than one tone. An example of tone could be both serious and humorous. Tone is set by the setting, choice of vocabulary and other details.

Mood is the general atmosphere created by the author’s words. It is the feeling the reader gets from reading those words. It may be the same, or it may change from situation to situation.

Read more about it! Authors set a TONE or MOOD in literature by conveying an emotion or emotions through words. The way a person feels about an idea, event, or another person can be quickly determined through facial expressions, gestures and in the tone of voice used.

MOOD: (sometimes called atmosphere) the overall feeling of the work

Mood is the emotions that you (the reader) feel while you are reading. Some literature makes you feel sad, others joyful, still others, angry. The main purpose for some poems is to set a mood.

Writers use many devices to create mood, including images, dialogue, setting, and plot. Often a writer creates a mood at the beginning of the story and continues it to the end. However, sometimes the mood changes because of the plot or changes in characters.

Examples of MOODS include: suspenseful, joyful, depressing, excited, anxious, angry, sad, tense, lonely, suspicious, frightened, disgusted

TONE: the way feelings are expressed

Tone is the attitude that an author takes toward the audience, the subject, or the character. Tone is conveyed through the author's words and details. Use context clues to help determine the tone. In literature an author sets the tone through words. The possible tones are as boundless as the number of possible emotions a human being can have. Has anyone ever said to you, "Don't use that tone of voice with me?" Your tone can change the meaning of what you say. Tone can turn a statement like, "You're a big help!" into a genuine compliment or a cruel sarcastic remark. It depends on the context of the story.

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Words That Describe Tone

Amused Humorous Pessimistic Angry Informal Playful Cheerful Ironic Pompous Horror Light Sad Clear

Matter-of-fact Serious Formal Resigned Suspicious

Gloomy Optimistic Witty

Words That Describe Mood

Fanciful Melancholy Frightening Mysterious Frustrating Romantic Gloomy Sentimental Happy Sorrowful Joyful Suspenseful


Author’s Style

Checklist: Elements of Literary Style

The following checklist should help you understand and analyze an author’s style of writing (what makes the writing his; how is it different from everyone else’s writing?)

1. Sentence Structure: Are the sentences long or short? Why do they change? Do they contain many subordinate clauses, or are they often fragments? Are there any digressions or interruptions? Is the word-order straightforward or unconventionally crafted?

2. Pace: Is the writing heavily descriptive, with emphasis on setting and atmosphere, or does it focus on action and plot movement?

3. Expansive/Economical Diction: Is the writing tight and efficient, or elaborate and long-winded? When does the author use one or the other mode, and why?

4. Vocabulary: Are the words simple or fancy? Are they technical, flowery, obscure (and so on...)?

5. Figures of speech: Are there any metaphors, similes, or symbols? Are there any other uses of figurative language (personification, hyperbole, idiom, and so on)?

6. Use of Dialogue: How often does dialogue tell the story? Do we see whole conversations or just fragments? Does the conversation use slang or is it formal? Does it appear natural or contrived? Does the dialogue give a sense of pacing, of pauses, of the unsaid? How much does it substitute for narration?

7. Point of View: Possibilities: first, third omniscient, third limited

8. Character development: How does the author introduce characters, and how do we see their evolution in the story? What is their function and motivation? What kinds of characters are they? Flat/round? Static/dynamic?

9. Tone: What is the author’s attitude? What is the mood of the story? Does the author seem sarcastic? Aggressive? Wistful? Pessimistic? In love? Philosophically detached? Hopeful? Ironic? Bitter? (And so on...)

Whatever the tone, where is it visible in the narrative?

10. Paragraph / Chapter Structure: Are paragraphs very short, or are they enormous blocks running across many pages? Are the chapters short or long? How many are there, how are they organized, and why is this important?

Above adapted from ReadWriteThink.org: http://teachers.lakesideschool.org/us/english/ErikChristensen/WRITING%20STRATEGIES/LiteraryStyles.htm

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http://teachers.lakesideschool.org/us/english/ErikChristensen/WRITING%20STRATEGIES/LiteraryStyles.htm

http://teachers.lakesideschool.org/us/english/ErikChristensen/WRITING%20STRATEGIES/LiteraryStyles.htm

8.5 Reading Notes – Fiction (Poetry)

Poetry

Poetry Terms

1. Stanza – a group of lines (like a paragraph) in a poem

2. Refrain – line or lines that are repeated in music or in verse

3. Speaker – the narrator in a poem (may OR may not be the author)

4. Figurative language – language that is not meant to be taken literally; main types are simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole and idiom

5. Imagery – the use of words to appeal to the senses — most often visual but may be sound, smell, taste, or touch impressions

6. Rhyme – repeating identical or similar final vowel sounds (cat, sat, bat; she, me, sea)

7. Rhythm – a repeating pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables

8. Repetition – repeated use of sounds, words, or ideas

9. Alliteration – repetition of beginning consonant sounds (picked a peck of pickled peppers)

10.Onomatopoeia – the use of a words whose sound suggests its meaning (bang, pow, splat)

11.Symbolism – a concrete object that stands for larger ideas or feelings

12.Meter – a fixed pattern of accented and unaccented syllables in lines of fixed length to create rhythm

Types of Poems

1. Haiku – a 3-line, 17-syllable unrhymed Japanese verse, usually about nature

2. Limerick – a 5-line, rhymed, rhythmic verse, usually humorous

3. Ballad – a song-like narrative poem, usually featuring rhyme, rhythm, and refrain

4. Free verse – poetry with neither regular meter nor rhyme scheme

5. Couplet – a pair of rhyming lines

6. Quatrain – a stanza containing four lines34

8.5 Reading Notes – Fiction (Poetry)

Analyzing Poetry

Use the following structure (TPCASTT) to analyze/examine the meaning of a poem.

T: TITLE Before reading the poem, predict what the title means. Why do you think it might be significant?

P: PARAPHRASE Write in your own words what each line or stanza of the poem says. Don’t worry about what it may mean, just what the words say. Be as literal as possible.

C: CONNOTATION Look for poetic devices, rhyme scheme, symbols, and deeper meaning. Some examples are imagery, figurative language (simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole, idiom), sound devices (onomatopoeia, alliteration, rhythm, rhyme), point of view, diction, symbolism.

A: ATTITUDE Look for the poet’s tone and/or the poem’s mood. Pay attention to word choice and details included.

S: SHIFTS Look for changes in feelings, tone, mood, or perhaps rhyme and rhythm.

T: TITLE Evaluate the title again (yes, again!) , and decide what it means to you now.

T: THEME Write what you consider to be the theme, main idea, or lesson of the poem. What bigger message is the poet trying to communicate to readers?

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8.6 Reading Notes – Nonfiction

Text Structure/Organizational Patterns and Text Features – Definitions

1. DEFINITIONS of text structures:

Description – explains a topic, idea, person, place or thing by telling about characteristics, features and examples

Chronological/sequence – tells events in time order (chronological) or the steps of a process in the order they occur (sequence)

Cause/effect – tells why (cause) something happened (effect) Problem/solution – states a problem and gives a possible way to solve it (this is

similar to cause/effect but has an opinion) Generalization – makes a statement and then gives details to support or prove

the statement Concept/definition – gives an idea (concept) and explains what it means

(definition) Compare/contrast – tells how two things are the same (compare) and different

(contrast)2. SIGNAL WORDS for each text structure (remember – some OVERLAP and can be used for

more than one text structure – you have to READ the passage!) AND use signal words to help identify the text structure of a passage:

Description – such as, looks like, for example, for instance Chronological/sequence – first, second, next, then, on (date), at (time), finally,

before Cause/effect – reasons why, as a result, if….then, results, consequences,

outcome, therefore, because, since Problem/solution – problem is, dilemma is…, solved, question, answer, because,

since Generalization – for example, for instance Concept/definition – defined by, characteristic of Compare/contrast – differs from, similar to, alike, in contrast, both, on the other

hand3. TEXT FEATURES help you understand/locate information in text:

Table of contents – lists major parts of a book (chapters, sections) and page numbers; at the BEGINNING of a book

Index – alphabetical listing of key names, terms, events, topics and page numbers; at the END of a book

Glossary – list of key terms in alphabetical order with definition of each term

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Titles/headings – tell the topic/main idea of the text; helps readers focus on a topic by letting them know what they’re getting ready to read; larger font size and bold or different colored font

Subheadings – divide text into sections and tell the main idea/topic of each section; printed in larger or bold type

Photographs/illustrations – give information in a visual way to help understand the information; work with headings to help teach material; photos are pictures taken with a camera, and illustrations are often drawings

Captions – come below or to the side of a photograph/illustration and explain what is shown in the picture; help the reader understand information that may or may not be in the main text

Textbox/information box – provides more information/interesting facts about a topic; often give information not covered in the main text; helps readers by creating interest or emphasizing important information

Maps – drawings that show land and other geographic, political, or historical features; present information in visual form; help readers understand where an event happens

Diagrams – drawing that shows or explains something; help readers understand steps, how objects are made, parts of something using a visual format

Tables/charts – organize large amounts of information in small space; present all kinds of data (numbers, calendars, menus); help readers compare information in the text

Timelines – show when events happen in relation to each other, in chronological order; help readers understand order of events and how close/far apart in time events happen

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8.6 Reading Notes – NonfictionText Structure/Organizational Patterns

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8.6 Reading Notes – NonfictionText Structure/Organizational Patterns

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Author’s Viewpoint

Author’s viewpoint (also called author’s perspective) refers to how the author feels or what the author thinks about the topic. Does the author approve/disapprove of the topic? Does he agree or disagree? Does he think there’s a problem or not? Is one solution better than another?

Often readers can tell the author’s viewpoint through the words he uses (diction) and the details he includes in (or chooses to leave out of) the writing.

The author’s viewpoint may also be called the author’s bias toward the subject. If the author takes a specific position about the subject, he is said to be biased, and the writing is considered subjective. If the author just relates the facts about the subject, without inserting his opinion or taking a position about it, the writing is said to be objective.

The use of persuasive language/persuasive writing techniques and the use of words with positive or negative connotations will help readers figure out the author’s viewpoint.

Common Persuasive Techniques:

Rhetorical - Using questions that don’t need an answer to get the audience to think. Some question starters… How could you (we) possibly…, Do you really think…, Do you want to be part of…, Could your conscience cope with…, Is it really worth…

Repetition - Repeating words or phrases so that they stick in your audience’s mind.

Emotive Language – Using words that make people feel sad, angry, upset, sympathetic or guilty.

Exaggeration – When information is given that is over the top and may make things sound better or worse than they actually are.

Facts and Statistics - When truthful evidence and detail is given to back up a point.

Groups of Three - When 3 adjectives or phrases are used to emphasize a point.

Personal Pronouns – Using words like ‘we’, ‘you’, ‘our’ and ‘us’ to make your audience thinkyou are talking only to them.

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Author’s Purpose

Author’s purpose is often related to author’s viewpoint and refers to the reason the author is writing a specific text OR the reason the author includes a specific detail in his writing.

The three basic reasons an author writes a specific piece of text are to persuade, inform (explain, or entertain. These can be remembered using the acronym PIE.

In 8th grade, more of the questions related to author’s purpose will focus on explaining WHY the author included a detail or quote, or used a certain word or piece of figurative language.

You may see questions such as these:With which statement would the author of the article agree?What does the author suggest by including this paragraph? The author includes these sentences mainly to help the reader understand that ?

Fact and Opinion

Fact – Something that can be proven through research or experiment. Even if a fact is proven to be incorrect or wrong, it is still a fact because you have proven that it is incorrect.

Opinion – Something that someone thinks or believes to be true, but cannot be proven. Just because you agree with something doesn’t make it a fact….unless you can prove it.

Example:

The Boston Red Sox are the greatest baseball team in the major leagues. – This is an opinion (even though I agree with it) because it is not something that can be proven to be true.

The Boston Red Sox have won the World Series more than any other team in major league baseball. – This is a fact. I can check multiple sources to determine whether or not it is correct (sadly, it’s not).

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8.6 Reading Notes – NonfictionMain Idea and Supporting Details

The main idea of a passage refers to the main point or big idea that connects all the information in the passage. Supporting details are facts, ideas, statements, or examples that reinforce or help you better understand the main idea.

Sometimes the main idea of a passage is clearly stated. Often, however, you must infer (figure out) the main idea from evidence in the text.

In order to determine the main idea of a passage (and separate it from any supporting details), answer these questions:

1. What is the topic of the passage, in one or two words?2. What is the big idea the author wants me to know about the topic?3. What evidence do I have (facts, ideas, statements, examples) to prove what the big idea

is?

If you have correctly identified/inferred the main idea of a passage, you should be able to fill in a tree map or the house graphic organizer as shown below.

Main idea statement

Supporting detail 1 Supporting detail 2 Supporting detail 3

Main idea statement

supporting detail 1 supporting detail 2 supporting detail 3

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8.5/8.6 Reading Tips

QAR (question-answer relationships)

Types of Questions

There are four basic types of questions on reading assessments. All require a different level of interaction with the text.

The answers to some questions come strictly from the book; the answer to others comes from your own knowledge as well as what the author says.

In the Book In My HeadRight There!

The answer is in the text, usually easy to find. The words used to make up the question and words used to answer the question are Right There in the same sentence.(Ex. Little Red Riding Hood was going to her grandmother’s house. Question – Where is Little Red Riding Hood going?)

Author and You!

The answer is not found directly in the story, but there is some evidence in the story. You need to think about what you already know, what the author tells you in the text, and how it fits together. (INFERENCE/CONCLUSIONS questions)

Think and Search!(Putting it Together)

The answer is in the story, but you need to put together different story parts to find it. Words for the question and words for the answer are not found in the same sentence. They come from different parts of the text.

(Ex. First, you take a digital picture. Second, you download the picture to the computer. Then, you send the picture to the printer. Question – How do you print a picture?)

On Your Own!

The answer is not in the story. You can even answer the question without reading the story. You need to use your own experience.

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8.5/8.6 Reading Tips

Prove It! Strategy

The Prove It! strategy is used to make sure you are answering questions correctly. Follow the steps below to use the strategy.

1. Skim and scan all external features of the text, such as headings, subheadings, pictures, graphs, captions, vocabulary in bold or italic print

2. Read all the questions related to the passage because they represent the purpose for your reading (“look for” items). The Prove It! strategy can, and should, be used with all types of questions, including multiple choice, short answer, fill-in-the-blank, and essay.

3. Highlight key words and phrases in the question stem and identify the type of question, such as knowledge (details and facts), organization (text structure), generalization (main idea), analysis (inference), evaluation (author’s intention, propaganda).

4. Read the passage through at least once to get the gist of what it is about. Then, re-read and continue to skim and scan the passage in order to find the details necessary to answer the questions.

5. Circle any vocabulary words giving you trouble and use vocabulary strategies to assist with comprehension, such as context clues, roots, prefixes, suffixes.

6. Complete the Prove It! strategy by reading each question (one at a time) and finding the correct answer in the text. Then, be sure to underline the correct answer to the question in the text and label what question the underlined information answers.

7. Once you have chosen the correct answer, list the paragraph in which the answer was found next to the question.

8. Continue to follow these steps throughout the passage until all questions are answered by cross-referencing them with the text.

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8.7 Writing Notes

Four Types of Writing

narrative – writing to tell a story (stories…could also be a poem that tells a story)

expository – writing to explain and build a body of well-organized and understandable information (reports or research papers)

persuasive – writing to influence the reader or listener to believe or do as the author or speaker suggests (persuasive essays, commercials, election campaign materials, etc.)

informational – writing to put forth information, frequently used in textbooks and the news media (newspapers, magazines, flyers…like 21st century papers you’re supposed to take home)

Domains of Writing

Each type of writing may use a different structure/organizational pattern, signal words, etc., but all will be evaluated (graded) based on the following areas (domains):

composing – the structuring and elaborating a writer does to construct an effective message for readers; this is how your writing is ORGANIZED – is there a clear topic that is maintained throughout the whole piece? Are ideas grouped appropriately? Do you include enough detail to explain each idea clearly to readers?

Written expression – those features that show the writer purposefully shaping and controlling language to affect readers; this is how readers can hear your VOICE – what words do you use? Is there any figurative language? Do you vary your sentence length and structure or is every sentence set up the same way?

Usage/mechanics – the features that cause written language to be acceptable and effective for standard discourse; this how you follow the RULES of writing – do you use capitalization and punctuation correctly? Is your spelling correct? Are you using the correct word and not a homophone (their, there, they’re)?

When your writing is scored for the SOL test, the composing and written expression domains are combined and given a single score; the usage/mechanics is given another score. These scores are combined for a total score on your writing. In class, you will be scored using rubrics that address these domains.

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8.7 Writing Notes

Analyzing the Prompt

When you are given a writing assignment, often you will be given a specific prompt to which you will have to respond. Sometimes this will be a simple question; other times, the prompt will have a quotation or a fact followed by a related question. In all cases, you need to be sure you understand the prompt in order to be sure you are 1) answering the correct question, 2) answering in the correct format and 3) writing your response to the appropriate audience.

You should follow the steps below to analyze any writing prompt you are given, whether it is an SOL prompt or an in-class writing assignment for a different content area.

1) Read the prompt carefully; be sure you understand all the words used in the prompt…if you don’t understand something – ASK!

2) Read the prompt again; highlight important information and key words that will help you understand your writing task

3) Complete the chart to identify the subject, audience, purpose, and form

Subject: What are you writing about? What question are you answering?Audience: To whom are you writing? Sometimes your prompt will specify an audience

like your school principal or the city council. If no audience is specified, assume that you are writing to your teacher.Purpose: What kind of writing are you doing? Narrative to tell a story, expository to

explain or give information about a topic, persuasive to get someone to agree with your idea and do something you want?Form: What form is your writing going to take? Is it a letter? A story? A poem? If

no particular form is specified, write an essay.

Example:

Sometimes people recognize similarities between themselves and a character from a book or a movie. Write about a character from a book or a movie who you think is similar to you. What do you have in common with this character? Use specific details and examples in your response.

Subject: Write about a character from a book/movie who is similar to me; what do we have in common?Audience: English teacherPurpose: explainForm: essay

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8.7 Writing Notes

Prewriting

Anything you do before you actually write your first (yes, I said first) draft is pre-writing (pre = before). This includes your brainstorming to come up with an idea, as well as all of the planning/organizing of information you do. THE BETTER YOUR PRE-WRITING, THE EASIER IT WILL BE TO WRITE YOUR PAPER!

After you analyze your writing prompt, begin by brainstorming about your topic. Your brainstorming can take the form of a web, a circle map, or even just a list of ideas that fit the topic. You will probably have several ideas that you could write about. Your job at this stage of the writing process is to determine which of your ideas you can do the best and most complete job of writing about…sometimes, you will have to take a position you don’t really agree with because you’ll be able to do a better job of writing about that position.

After you brainstorm, you will need to organize your information by the main points you wish to include in your writing. This is the time when you should also decide how you are going to elaborate on your main points – all writing prompts say to, “use specific details and examples in your response;” this is the time to choose what specific details and examples you are going to include.

While you could use different forms to organize your information, I recommend using a flee map (a combination tree/flow map) – it is already set up with three main points and space below each one for your details, examples, and explanations. There is also a space for your introduction and conclusion provided…so you don’t forget them!

Once you have finished your initial tree map or other graphic organizer, you should CHECK IT CAREFULLY! You do not want to have ideas repeated or include elaboration that doesn’t fit your main point. Each of your main points should be VERY specific and distinct from the others. If you have two main points that are very similar, combine them. It is better to have two solid main points than three that are unclear and underdeveloped.

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8.7 Writing Notes

Writing Process - Organizing

1. Use a “flee” map (flow map + tree map) to organize your expository or persuasive writing. The top box is your introduction; the middle boxes are your main supporting details; the lines under the middle boxes are your explanations/elaborations; the bottom box is your conclusion.

2. The more detail you put in your map, the easier the actual writing will be!

3. Fill in the middle boxes of the map first. Then add the explanations, examples, anecdotes, statistics, etc. that “back up” each detail you have included on the lines below the boxes.

4. After you have the middle section of the map completed, begin your introduction. Remember that the LAST sentence of your introduction, NOT the first, should be your thesis statement. Before the thesis statement, you should include a short attention-grabber and some broader information that leads to your thesis statement. In a persuasive essay, the thesis is your opinion. You MUST choose a side!

5. The last section of the map to complete is your conclusion. It goes in the OPPOSITE order from your introduction – start with a restatement (different words) of your thesis, summarize the main points you covered in the body of your essay, and end with a “wrap-up” statement or a “call to action” (in a persuasive essay) related to your thesis.

Introduction goes from BROAD to NARROW

Thesis statement

BODY PARAGRAPHS

Restate thesis statement Conclusion moves from more NARROW to BROAD

Call to Action

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INTRODUCTION PARAGRAPH – LAST sentence should be your THESIS statement; this will tell readers what your whole essay is about

transition word transition word transition word

FIRST MAIN DETAIL – write SECOND MAIN DETAIL - write THIRD MAIN DETAIL - writetopic sentence here topic sentence here topic sentence here

Explain first main detail - give 3 reasons to Explain second main detail Explain third main detail

support your opinion, then EXPLAIN each

reason.

CONCLUSION PARAGRAPH – FIRST sentence should restate thesis, then summarize main details and end with a “wrap up” or “call to action”

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8.7 Writing Notes

Thesis Statement v. Topic Sentence

Thesis Statement – focuses the essay, expresses the writer’s position in an argument, or explains the purpose of the essay, and is usually found in the first paragraph; the thesis statement guides the entire essay. After reading the introduction, readers should be able to identify your thesis statement and understand the main idea of your entire essay. The thesis statement will be the top statement on your tree map.

Topic Sentence – supports an essay’s thesis statement; it unifies a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences. Each paragraph will have its own topic sentence that somehow relates back to the thesis of the entire essay. The topic sentence of each paragraph will come from the main points on your tree map.

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8.7 Writing NotesWriting a Thesis Statement

THE PERFECT PAPER (FROM: Literary Cavalcade FEBRUARY 2004)

Although the name may be new to you, chances are, you’ve written several expository essays in your lifetime. Every time you wrote about your summer vacation or did a book report, you were practicing expository writing. You’ve also read a lot of expository essays, both big and small. How-to articles, encyclopedic entries, science textbooks, and history textbooks are all examples of expository writing that you have no doubt encountered. Sound less intimidating?

THE ESSAY EXPOSED

The expository essay is actually one of the most straightforward assignments you will ever encounter. Its purpose is simply to describe or explain a specific topic to the reader, using factual information. You do not have to develop an argument or prove anything in an expository essay; you only have to understand your topic and present it to the reader in a logical, cogent manner. An expository-writing prompt will ask you to describe the changes wrought by the Industrial Revolution, but it will not require you to take a position on whether the Industrial Revolution had a positive or negative impact on America.

Usually, an expository essay is structured in five paragraphs. The first is the introduction, which contains the thesis statement. The next three body paragraphs each develop a separate point to support the thesis, and provide factual examples and information. The fifth and final paragraph is the conclusion, which ties the body paragraphs together and sums up the essay. Since the content is factual, you will need to write in the third person only. This means no “I” or “you” in the essay.

A SIMPLE SENTENCE

The thesis statement drives the structure and content. It’s the most important sentence in your essay, but that doesn’t mean it has to be complicated. In fact, the best thesis statements are simple. It’s important that the statement be clear and that it be one that you can support with facts. A thesis statement for an expository essay should not express an opinion or take a position on a topic.

Too much: The Boston Tea Party was the most important act of civil disobedience in the American colony because it protested unjust taxation without representation and was therefore the main cause of the Revolutionary War.

Just right: The Boston Tea Party was a significant act of civil disobedience that galvanized Americans around the issue of taxation without representation and helped spark the Revolutionary War.

Too much: The steam engine was invented because America is a very large country and people needed to travel long distances so they could settle the frontier and find gold in California. Just right: The invention of the steam engine changed the landscape of America, allowing people to travel further than they ever had before and speeding the settlement of the frontier.

A strong thesis for an expository essay will not present an opinion, make outlandish claims, or state an argument. Remember, your thesis statement should be based purely on factual information that you present in the body of your essay. It should be clear, concise, and well written. Once you have a sound thesis in place, writing the rest of your essay will be easy because you will know exactly what information you need to present, and in what order.

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8.7 Writing Notes

Point of ViewWhy You Shouldn’t Use “You” When Writing

First, let’s define the three points of view used when writing:1st - “I am”2nd - “You are”3rd - “He is/She is/ They are”

Many developing writers use the 2nd person P.O.V. without knowing that it is distracting to readers. It can subconsciously push away or offend readers by involving them in the writing scenario. It can place readers in awkward situations that could distract them from the point you’re trying to make.

Look at the differences here:

When you go to a baseball game you should really be more considerate of the people around you. Don’t taunt other people in the stands or be obnoxious, and don’t make threats or instigate fights.

This sounds a little bit like a personal attack directed at the reader of the statement. It isn’t meant that way, but by addressing the reader directly, by using the 2nd person P.O.V., the writer is placing the reader in the argument, and that can be distracting. Read the following revision and notice the difference in tone.

When fans go to a baseball game they should really be more considerate of the people around them. They shouldn’t taunt other people in the stands or be obnoxious, and they shouldn’t make threats or instigate fights.

The difference is slight, but it’s noticeable. Using the 2nd person can interrupt the reader’s focus. It can push readers away from a writer’s intended message, perhaps even offending readers without even intending to.

Consider the following:

Addressing readers using second-person pronouns (“you, your”) can make an essay sound informal and can bring assumptions into an essay that are not true. A student once wrote in her essay, “If you wear a tube top, guys might think that you are easy.” I wondered why the student would think that I, a male, would wear a tube top. As with first-person pronouns, second-person pronouns can be replaced by words such as “one,” “the reader,” “readers,” and “the viewer.”

http://www2.ivcc.edu/rambo/tip_formal_writing_voice.htm

note: a common attempt to avoid using the 2nd person P.O.V. is to use the word “one.” This can be too general, too bland and overly formal. Try thinking of more specific terms that better represent the actual category being referred to.

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Here are some more examples of the 2nd person P.O.V. in essays used incorrectly and then fixed:

Avoid: When you are in a movie theater, you should not talk and disrupt the other people there...

Better: When one is in a movie theater, one should not talk and disrupt the other people there...

Best: When people are in a movie theater, they... When movie viewers are in a theater, they...... When patrons are in a movie theater, they......

__________________________________________________________________________________Avoid: When you buy something only because of an ad, then you’ve fallen victim to the tactics used by the advertisers.

Better: When one buys something only because of an ad, then one has fallen victim to the tactics used by the advertisers.

Best: When consumers buy something only because of an ad, then they have... When women buy something only because of an ad, then they have... When teens buy something only because of an ad, then they have...

__________________________________________________________________________________Avoid: You would be crazy to think that you will end up being a rap star or famous actor. Instead, you should focus on a more attainable career while still chasing your dream.

Better: One would be crazy to think that one will end up being a rap star or famous actor. Instead, one should include on a more attainable career while still chasing one’s dream.

Best: Young adults shouldn’t bank on the notion that they will end up being a rap star or a famous actor. Instead, they should... Americans today should not rely on the idea that they will end up being a rap star or famous actor. Instead, they should...

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8.7 Writing Notes

Revising

Your first draft is just that…your FIRST draft. You will need to have at least two, if not three or even four, drafts BEFORE your final draft. What teachers have been trying to get you to understand, and do, since 5th grade, is revise each draft. When you revise, you don’t just go in and check for capitalization, punctuation, spelling, correct verb usage, etc. That’s editing, and it’s a different skill entirely.

Revising is the process writers use to make their writing better – more exciting, more interesting, more detailed – not just correct. Revising NEEDS to happen multiple times before completing a final draft and should involve going back to both your pre-writing and your earlier drafts.

Some parts of the revising process include: rereading; reflecting; rethinking; rewriting; including vivid vocabulary; combining sentences for variety and rhythm; and providing transitions between ideas and paragraphs.

The rereading, reflecting, and rethinking parts of the revising process are probably the most important…and the most neglected. Often students want to simply improve their word choice by including more vivid vocabulary or throw in a compound/complex sentence instead of a couple of short, choppy sentences. Don’t get me wrong, those are great things to do to improve your writing. However, you need to take the time to reread your draft, carefully, and consider: does it say what you want it to say? Is it easy to follow? Is there a better way of getting your point across? Did you include enough detail or explanation for readers to really understand your message?

After you revise your writing…at least twice…ask someone else (not your best friend) to read it. Understand that you’re not asking this person to make corrections in spelling or grammar; again, that will come later. You are asking this person to give specific, honest, constructive feedback on what you’ve actually written, on your content and your message.

When you ask someone else to help revise your writing, ask them to make notes on your writing (using sticky notes is ok). Ask for at least two pieces of specific, positive feedback – two things they think you did well. That will help soften the blow when they give the less positive feedback. The remaining feedback, again at least two pieces, should be things you need to improve. Maybe there is a sentence that is unclear the way you’ve written it or an example that doesn’t fit the point you’re trying to make. Maybe all of your sentences start the same way or the vocabulary is so vague that your writing is boring.

After you’ve revised your writing, at least twice, and had someone else review and comment on it, then you’re ready to go on to the next step: editing.

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8.8 Writing Notes

What is Editing?

While revising is the process of making your writing better, editing is the process of making your writing correct. When you edit, you are looking at all the nitpicky, boring stuff – capitalization, punctuation, grammar. This is the usage/mechanics domain of your writing.

In order to successfully edit your writing, there are particular rules you have to know:

When to use commas How to use quotation marks What type of end punctuation to use in a particular sentence How to construct different kinds of sentences Subject-verb agreement Use of comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs Consistent use of verb tense throughout a piece of writing Pronoun-antecedent agreement Using different parts of speech correctly There are more….I just didn’t list them all!

Professional writers, people who actually get paid and make a living from their writing, pay other people to look over their writing and make sure all this stuff is correct. Since you’re not a professional writer at this point, you’re going to have to learn all the rules and edit your own writing to be sure you follow them.

What Every Paper Must Have (from Judy Self, Writing Matters c2000)

Three similesExample: as fat as a pigOne question sentence

Example: Do you like ice cream?Three adjectives

(words that describe a noun)Example: pretty, rough, skinny

Three adverbs(usually ends in –ly and describes a verb)

Example: quickly, happily, excitedlyOne compound sentence

(Join two sentences with or, and, or but)Example: He likes cake, but she likes pie.

Three vivid vocabulary words(words you don’t usually use)

Example: unique, enthralled, grotesqueFive paragraphs

with a minimum of 5-7 sentences in each

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8.8 Writing Notes

Grade 8 Writing Prompts 1. Where is one place in the world you would like to visit? Explain why you would want to visit this

place, and what you would want to do or see once you arrive. Include specific details and examples in your response.

2. Write about someone who has shared wisdom and experience with you. Explain why it is important to learn from the experience of others. Include specific details and examples in your response.

3. Think about how daily life, from reading to playing games to communicating with others, has changed over the past hundred years because of technology. Using specific details and examples, explain how these advancements in technology have changed daily life.

4. Most schools offer a variety of activities, classes, and clubs. Identify one of these that students enjoy and explain why they enjoy it. Include specific details and examples in your response.

5. Community parks, state parks, and national parks provide a wide variety of interesting activities. Write about an enjoyable way to spend time outdoors. Using specific details and examples, explain why someone might find that activity enjoyable.

6. What are the advantages of earning your own money to purchase something special? Explain the advantages using specific details and examples in your response.

7. When people ask for advice, they sometimes talk to more than one person. Explain why seeking multiple opinions can help someone make a better choice. Use specific details and examples in your response.

8. Identify an enjoyable educational activity. It could be participating in a play, completing a science experiment, playing an instrument, or something else. Use specific details and examples to explain why the activity is enjoyable.

9. You have been asked to share a lesson with elementary school students. Using specific details and examples, explain the lesson and why it would be important.

10. Your assignment is to design a neighborhood of the future. Explain what you would include in a neighborhood of the future and why. Include specific details and examples in your design.

11. People often credit their successes to having good attitudes. Explain the benefits of having a good attitude, even during a difficult time. Provide examples from your own experience or from having witnessed this in others.

12. The ancient Greek storyteller Aesop said, “No act of kindness, no matter how small, is ever wasted.” Explain how small acts of kindness can have an impact on others. Use specific details and examples in your response.

13. Thoughtful acts can take many forms, such as unexpected help or even just a kind word. Explain how a thoughtful act can benefit those involved. Use specific details and examples inyour response.

14. Sometimes people recognize similarities between themselves and a character from a book or a movie. Write about a character from a book or a movie who you think is similar to you. What do you have in common with this character? Use specific details and examples in your response.

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8.8 Writing Notes

15. Civil rights leader Mahatma Gandhi wrote, “Be the change you want to see in the world.” What is one way you would like to change the world, and how can you help to bring about this change? Use specific details and examples in your response.

16. What makes someone a success? Explain how you define success, using specific details and examples in your response.

17. American jazz legend Duke Ellington said, “A problem is a chance for you to do your best.” Explain the meaning of this statement and whether you agree or disagree with it. Use specific details and examples in your response.

18. Is it better to take risks and perhaps make some mistakes or remain cautious and risk nothing? Explain using specific details and examples in your response.

19. The Roman philosopher Cicero wrote, "Nobody can give you wiser advice than yourself." However, parents, friends, and teachers often offer advice. Should people listen to their own advice or to the advice of others? Use specific details and examples to support your response.

20. What is something you would like to accomplish in the future? Perhaps you would like to learn how to play an instrument, graduate at the top of your class, or visit the ocean. Identify one thing you would like to accomplish, and include specific details and examples to help explain why it is important.

21. Some people enjoy public speaking while others are frightened by it. Using specific details and examples, explain how you feel about public speaking.

22. Some schools have a program that pairs older students with younger students. The older students are available to assist the younger students. How would this program help both the older and the younger students? Explain the effects of such a program on the students involved.

23. There is a common saying, “Don’t judge a book by its cover.” Think of something that has an unattractive appearance but that has special meaning to someone for other reasons. It might be an old car, a well-used toy, a faded photograph, or something else. Identify the object and explain why it has special meaning.

24. Competition is a constant presence in today’s schools, where students not only compete with one another in the classroom but also in sports and in various extracurricular activities. Explain how competition can improve life or make it more difficult for students. Use specific details and examples in your response.

25. Some people believe owning a pet is important, while others do not. Using specific details and examples to support your position, argue for or against owning a pet.

26. Identify a challenge facing students, and use specific details and examples to explain ways to overcome that challenge.

27. Everyone has a talent or skill. Identify a talent or skill you have, and explain how you develop and use it. Use specific details and examples in your response.

28. If you could make a significant change to the structure or appearance of your school, what would it be? Identify the change you would make, and explain why you would make it.

29. Scientist Albert Einstein said, “Imagination is more important than knowledge.” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Include specific details and examples to convince others to

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support your position.

8.8 Writing Notes

30. People sometimes say that failure can eventually lead to success. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Use specific examples to convince others to support your position.

31. Students often learn how to budget their time in order to complete important tasks and still have time for themselves. Explain how learning to budget time is an important skill for students. Use specific details and examples in your response.

32. Your school is considering making a change to the dress code. What is one change that you would recommend, and why is it important? Use specific details and examples to justify this change.

33. Studies have shown that people who take short breaks throughout the day to do light, outdoor exercise are more productive than those who do not. Use specific details and examples to convince your principal whether students should have similar breaks during the school day.

34. Many teachers assign group projects. Sometimes, however, an uncooperative member can affect the entire group. Argue for or against the use of group projects using specific details and examples.

35. An old proverb says honesty is the best policy. Sometimes, however, honesty might hurt a person’s feelings. Explain why you either agree or disagree with being honest at all times. Use specific details and examples to convince others to support your position.

36. Studies have shown that one way to improve student achievement is to start an afterschool homework club. Teachers and students volunteer to meet with those who either have difficulty in certain subjects or who want to finish their homework early. Use specific details and examples to argue for or against the idea of establishing homework clubs in your school.

37. Many schools have partnerships with local companies and organizations that allow students to explore certain professions. Write a letter to the manager of a local workplace that performs the type of work you would like to pursue. Convince the employer to allow you to visit. Include details about why you chose that workplace and the specific job.

38. Your principal has decided that all students must participate in at least one extracurricular activity. For example, students could participate in sports, work on the yearbook, or serve on the student council. Do you agree or disagree with this decision? Use specific details and examples to convince others to support your position.

39. The school board plans to add one and a half hours to school each day. Do you agree or disagree with extending the school day? Use specific details and examples to convince the school board to accept your position.

40. Some people think that schools should offer only nutritious drinks such as white milk, water, and natural fruit juice. Do you agree or disagree with this policy? Use specific details and examples to convince your principal to accept your position.

41. Many professional athletes and entertainers earn large sums of money. Do you agree or disagree with these individuals making high salaries? Use specific details and examples to convince others to support your position.

42. What improvement would make your community better? Use specific details and examples to convince the mayor of your community to accept your idea for improving where you live.

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8.7 Writing Notes

COMPOSING/WRITTEN EXPRESSION4 3 2 1

CENTRAL IDEA Clear, consistent focus on a central idea

Clear awareness of intended audience

Reasonably consistent focus on central idea

Some awareness of intended audience

Inconsistent focus on central idea

Limited awareness of audience

Little or no focus on a central idea

No awareness of audience

ORGANIZATIONAND

UNITY

Strong introduction with an effective thesis statement

Follows a logical organizational plan

Ideas are unified with few digressions

Maintains a consistent point of view

Uses transitions to connect ideas within and across paragraphs

Skillful introduction with evidence of a thesis statement

Evidence of an organizational plan

Few minor digressions

Point of view may shift occasionally

Uses transitions effectively within and across paragraphs

Weak introduction with a statement of intent or weak thesis statement

Inconsistent organizational plan

Lack of unity due to major digressions

Shifts in point of view

Limited or inconsistent use of transitions within and across paragraphs

No introduction with no purposeful thesis statement

Little or no organization of ideas

Lacks unity due to major digressions

Shifts in point of view

Absence of transitions connecting ideas

EVIDENCE AND DETAILS

Fully elaborated containing precise, relevant examples, illustrations, reasons, events, and/or details which support purpose and audience

Details clarify the writer’s purpose and clearly elaborate ideas

May contain minor lapses elaboration, relevant examples, illustrations, reasons, events, and/or details

Some details clarify the writer’s purpose

Contains limited elaboration, examples, illustrations, reasons, events, and/or details

Few details clarify the writer’s purpose

Ideas may be a list of general, underdeveloped statements

Contains little or no evidence (examples, illustrations, reasons, events, and/or details)

Little or no elaboration

List of general unrelated statements

Length is inadequate for development

CONCLUSION Strong, effective conclusion

Good conclusion Weak or ineffective conclusion

Very limited or no conclusion

FLOW Rhythmic flow resulting from purposeful sentence variety

Sentences incorporate subordination of ideas, and/or effective embedding of modifiers

Some rhythmic flow and sentence variety

Some sentences use subordination of ideas, and/or embedding modifiers

Uneven rhythmic flow, limited sentence variety, repetitive sentence patterns

Little subordination of ideas

No rhythmic flow or sentence variety, a tedious presentation

No subordination or embedding modifiers

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WORD CHOICE Contains specific word choice, descriptive language, and selected information

Appropriate, purposeful tone

Strong evidence of writer’s voice

Contains some specific word choice, descriptive language, and selected information

Evidence of tone Some evidence of

writer’s voice

Limited word choice, descriptive language and or selected information

Inconsistent tone Occasional use of

writer’s voice

Lacks tone and voice, little or no specific word choice, descriptive language, and/or selected information

Little or no evidence of writer’s voice

Writing Rubrics

8.7 Writing Notes

Usage/Mechanics Rubric

Score Point

4

The writer demonstrates consistent, though not necessarily perfect, control of the Usage and Mechanics domain's features.

The writing at this score point level:

Exhibits consistent control of sentence formation, avoiding fragments, run-ons, comma splices, and beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions.Exhibits consistent control of usage, including subject/verb agreement, pronoun agreement, pronoun case, adjectives and adverbs, verb tenses, plurals and possessives, homophones, and avoidance of double negatives.Exhibits consistent control of mechanics, including punctuation, capitalization, formatting, and spelling.

Score Point

3

The writer demonstrates reasonable, but not consistent, control of the Usage and Mechanics domain’s features. The writer exhibits control which outweighs occasional errors present in the paper.


Exhibits reasonable control of sentence formation, avoiding fragments, run-ons, comma splices, and beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions.Exhibits reasonable control of usage, including subject/verb agreement, pronoun agreement, pronoun case, adjectives and adverbs, verb tenses, plurals and possessives, homophones, and avoidance of double negatives.Exhibits reasonable control of mechanics, including punctuation, capitalization, formatting, and spelling.

Score Point

2

The writer demonstrates inconsistent control of several of the Usage and Mechanics domain’s features. Although there are frequent errors, there is also evidence of the author’s knowledge of the domain. The density and variety of errors outweigh the control present in the paper.


Exhibits inconsistent control of sentence formation, including occasional fragments, run-ons, comma splices, and a pattern of beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions.Exhibits inconsistent control of usage, including subject/verb agreement, pronoun agreement, pronoun case, adjectives and adverbs, verb tenses, plurals and possessives, homophones, and double negatives.

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Exhibits inconsistent control of mechanics, including punctuation, capitalization, formatting, and spelling.

Score Point

1

The writer demonstrates little or no control of most of the Usage and Mechanics domain’s features. Frequent and severe errors in usage and mechanics distract the reader and make the writing hard to understand. Even when meaning is not significantly affected, the density and variety of errors overwhelm the performance and keep it from meeting minimum standards of competence.


Exhibits little or no control of sentence formation, including fragments, run-ons, comma splices, and many sentences that begin with coordinating conjunctions.Exhibits little or no control of usage, including subject/verb agreement, pronoun agreement, pronoun case, adjectives and adverbs, verb tenses, plurals and possessives, homophones, and double negatives.Exhibits little or no control of mechanics, including punctuation, capitalization, formatting, and spelling.

8.8 Grammar Notes

Parts of Speech – Nouns

Noun – a word that names a person (student), place (school), thing (desk) or idea (boredom)

You must be able to recognize nouns and be able to determine if they are common/proper, singular/plural/collective, or possessive.

Common nouns – refer to any noun that is not naming a particular person, place, thing, or idea

Proper nouns – refer to the name of a particular person, place, or thing

Common Proper

principal Mrs. Watkins

school Liberty High School

shoes Vans

**Common nouns begin with lower-case letters unless they are the first word in a sentence. Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter because they are names.**

Singular Nouns – name ONE person, place, thing, or idea

Plural Nouns – name more than one person, place, thing, or idea

Collective Nouns – singular nouns that name a group of individuals

Singular Plural Collective61

player players team

student students class

goose geese flock

***Most plural nouns add –s or –es to the end of the singular noun to show that there is more than one; some plural nouns make other changes to the word (woman – women)***

Possessive Nouns – show ownership of something else; what is being owned must be a noun

catcher’s mask – the catcher owns the mask

**Possession is shown through the use of an apostrophe (‘) in nouns; there are different rules for singular and plural possessives that will be discussed later.**

8.8 Grammar NotesRules for Possessive Nouns

(From: http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/nouns/Possessive-Nouns.html)

Many people have trouble distinguishing between possessive nouns and plural nouns. Possessive nouns and pronouns demonstrate ownership or some similar relationship over something else. Plural nouns indicate more than one person, place or thing.

Grammar Rules for Possessive NounsFive basic grammar rules cover the majority of instances where writers encounter possessive nouns.

Rule #1: Making singular nouns possessiveAdd an apostrophe + s to most singular nouns and to plural nouns that do not end in s.

You’ll use this rule the most, so pay particular attention to it. English has some words that are plural but do not add an ‘s’. Words like children, sheep, women and men are such words. These plural words are treated as if they were singular words when making noun possessives.

Examples:

Singular nouns: kitten’s toy, Joe’s car, MLB’s ruling Plurals not ending in s: women’s dresses, sheep’s pasture, children’s toys

Rule #2: Making plural nouns possessiveAdd an apostrophe only to plural nouns that already end in s.

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http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/nouns/Possessive-Nouns.html

You don’t need to add an extra ‘s’ to plural nouns that already end with the letter ‘s’. Simply tuck the apostrophe onto the end to indicate that the plural noun is now a plural possessive noun.

Examples:

Companies’ workers Horses’ stalls Countries’ armies

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8.8 Grammar Notes

Parts of Speech – Verbs

Verb – a word that tells an action, state of being, or links a word in the subject of a sentence to a word in the predicate of a sentence

An action verb tells the action being performed by the subject.

A linking verb joins the subject and predicate or expresses a state of being.

A helping verb works with an action verb and is found in a verb phrase. Many linking verbs are also helping verbs.

The verb “to be” is the most commonly used linking or helping verb. The forms of the verb “to be” are: am, is, are, was, were

Other helping verbs: have, do, shall, will, can, ought, may, must

Verbs must agree with the subject of the sentence in number – if the subject is singular, the verb must be singular, and if the subject is plural, the verb must be plural.

Verbs can be written in different tenses to describe when an action occurred or a particular state of being existed. The main tenses are past, present, and future. When writing a paragraph or longer assignment, make sure to maintain a consistent tense throughout the writing. In other words, don’t begin writing in the present tense, continue in the past, and finish in the present or future. Check your writing carefully to be sure the verb tense doesn’t switch from one sentence to the next!

Verb tense is generally indicated by the use of different suffixes being added to the verb or through the use of different helping verbs.

Example:

Past – Yesterday I walked to the store. (-ed is added to walk to indicate past tense.)

Present – I am walking to the library now. (-ing is added to walk, along with the helping verb am to indicate present tense.)

Future – Later, I will walk home from the library. (The helping verb will indicates future tense.)

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8.8 Grammar Notes

Subject-Verb Agreement

agreement (noun): in language, the form of one word being decided by the form of another word. Also known as "concord"In a sentence, the verb must agree in number with the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. For example:

subject

verb

singular

He is Thai.

pluralThey are Thai

.

In the very simple example above↑ it is clear that the subject He is singular and the subject They is plural. And it is clear that the verb agrees in each case. But in some sentences, it is not always so easy. The guidelines below will help you decide how to make a verb agree with its subject.

Compound subjects

A compound subject has two or more simple subjects, usually joined by and or or.

and

If the compound subject is made from simple subjects joined by and, use a plural verb:

He and his daughter are Chinese. Jack and Jill go up the hill.

Phrases such as together with, as well as, accompanied by and including are not the same as and. They do not make compound subjects. The verb must still agree with the simple subject:

John, as well as his wife, is coming to the party. Visitors, including government employees, have to register.

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or

If the compound subject is made from simple subjects joined by or or nor, use a singular verb:

The girl or the boy is going to help. Neither he nor his sister is at home.

Midsentence words

Don't be confused by words that come between the simple subject and the verb. The verb must agree with the simple subject, not with any words between them:

One of my friends is coming. My teacher, who has six brothers, has no sisters. All the cars owned by the Russian man are leading.

Singular/plural nouns

A few nouns can be used only as singular or as plural.

Always singular

Some nouns are always singular, even though they end in -s and look plural. They must take a singular verb, for example: economics, maths, physics, gymnastics, aerobics, news

Maths was my worst subject at school. The news is not good.

Always plural

Some nouns have only plural form and always take a plural verb, for example: glasses, scissors, trousers, shorts, belongings, goods

My new sunglasses are missing. The goods have already been shipped.

Inverted subjects

Normal word order in English is subject-verb-object (SVO). Sometimes, however, the subject and verb are exchanged or inverted (VSO). This typically happens in questions and there is/are sentences. Be careful to identify the real subject.

Where are the girls playing tennis? Here are my keys. There is a car outside.

Collective nouns66

Collective nouns are words that refer to a group of people, such as: team, committee, family, company. Generally, we treat collective nouns as singular to emphasize the single group, or plural to emphasize its individual members. (Note that some writers of American English routinely treat collective nouns as singular.)

The committee was set up in 1910. The committee are eating sandwiches for lunch.

Indefinite pronouns

Singular

Some indefinite pronouns are always singular and need a singular verb, for example: anyone, anything, everyone, no-one, someone

Is anybody listening? When I call, nobody answers.

Plural

Some indefinite pronouns are always plural and need a plural verb, for example: both, few, many, others, several

I invited Kid and Nid and both want to come. Many have already left.

Singular or plural

Some indefinite pronouns can be singular when referring to an uncountable subject and plural referring to a countable subject, for example: all, any, more, most, none, some

All is forgiven. All have arrived. Here is some. Some are leaving.

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8.8 Grammar Notes

Parts of Speech – Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjective – a word used to describe a noun

Adjectives may answer three questions about a noun: which one? what kind? or how many? All words that tell the color or number of something are adjectives.

An article is a particular kind of adjective that comes before a noun, but doesn’t really describe it. There are only three articles: a, an, the. A and an are called indefinite articles – they could describe any of that noun. In other words, if a parent tells a child to eat an apple, the parent is not referring to a particular apple. However, if a parent points and says to eat the apple, the parent wants that particular apple to be eaten. The is called a definite article.

Adverb – a word used to describe a verb, an adjective, or another adverb

Adverbs answer the questions: how? when? where? why? and to what extent?

Adverbs can be single words or multiple word phrases/clauses acting as adverbs. Often (but not always) words that end in the letters –ly are adverbs.

Both adjectives and adverbs can be used to compare.

Comparative adjectives or adverbs compare two nouns or verbs. These are formed either by adding er to the end of the adjective/adverb or by using the word more before the adjective/adverb.

Superlative adjectives or adverbs compare more than two nouns or verbs. These are formed by adding est to the end of the adjective/adverb or by using the word most before the adjective/adverb.

Adjective - That math problem was easier than this one. (compares two problems)

The last problem was the easiest one on the whole page. (compares all the problems)

Adverb - I solved the first problem more easily than I solved the second one. (compares how I solved two problems)

I solved the last problem on the page most easily. (compares how I solved all the problems)

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8.8 Grammar Notes

Parts of Speech – Pronouns

Pronoun – a word used in place of a noun

Antecedent – the word being replaced by the pronoun; it can be in the same sentence as the pronoun or in a sentence prior to the pronoun being used

Example: My teacher said that she would collect books on the last day of school. She did not want to collect them any earlier because there was no storage space in the classroom.

She is being used to replace teacher in both sentences. Them is being used in the second sentence to replace books in the first sentence.

There are several kinds of pronouns: personal (which includes the possessive and reflexive forms), relative, interrogative, demonstrative, and indefinite.

Personal pronouns refer to 1st person (I), 2nd person (you), 3rd person (it, he).

I, me, he, him, it, they, them, you, she, her, we, us.

(Personal) Possessive pronouns- imply ownership.

My, mine, his, its, their, theirs, your, yours, her, hers, our, ours.

Reflexive forms

Myself, himself, herself, ourselves, themselves, yourself, itself, yourselves

Relative pronouns are used to introduce subordinate clauses (clauses that cannot stand alone as sentences).

Who, whose, that, whom, which.

Examples: The book that you gave me was the one I wanted. The woman whose name is on the program is running for mayor.

Interrogative pronouns are used in questions.

Who, which, whose, whom, what

Demonstrative Pronouns point out a particular person or thing. When used before nouns, however, they are considered adjectives (these books, those houses, that flag).

This, that, these, those

Indefinite Pronouns refer generally, not specifically, to persons, places, or things.

Commonly used indefinite pronouns:

All, another, any, anybody, anyone, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, more, much, neither, nobody, none, no one, one, several, some, somebody, someone, such.

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8.8 Grammar Notes

Sentence Structure ErrorsPronoun-antecedent Agreement

Pronoun-antecedent Agreement

An antecedent is a word to which a pronoun refers.

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number and gender.

If the antecedent is plural, the pronoun must be plural If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun must be singular. If the antecedent is masculine, the pronoun must be masculine. If the antecedent is feminine, the pronoun must be feminine.

John gave his old textbooks to a friend.

The pronoun is his and it refers to the noun John. Therefore, John is the antecedent of the pronoun his. Because John is masculine, the pronoun is his. Because John is singular, the pronoun must be singular.

The boys donated their books to a charity.

The pronoun is their and the antecedent is boys. Because boys is plural, the pronoun must be plural.

Offer to run on behalf of an injured runner, and then give them a detailed account of the race.

To determine if the pronoun agrees with the antecedent, first find the pronoun. In this sentence it is them. Then ask "To whom does the word them refer?" The answer is runner. However, runner is singular but them is plural. Therefore, the sentence has pronoun-antecedent disagreement, rather than pronoun-antecedent agreement.

To correct this sentence, you must make the pronoun agree with its antecedent.

Offer to run on behalf of an injured runner, and then give him a detailed account of the race.

The pronoun now agrees with its antecedent in number; both are singular. However, does it agree with its antecedent in gender (male or female)? Since we don't know whether the runner is male or female, we can use either him or her, or just one of them.

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8.8 Grammar Notes

Sentence Structure ErrorsPronoun-antecedent Agreement

Offer to run on behalf of an injured runner, and then give him or her a detailed account of the race.

Offer to run on behalf of an injured runner, and then give her a detailed account of the race.Indefinite pronoun

The biggest problem for most students in subject-verb agreement is the use of an indefinite pronoun in the sentence.

Indefinite pronouns are words like anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, somebody, and someone, which do not refer to a definite person or thing. Because these indefinite pronouns are singular, the personal pronouns which refer to these words must be singular as well.

When someone loses a job, they want to find another one quickly.

The indefinite pronoun someone is singular and the personal pronoun they is plural. Therefore, there is pronoun-antecedent disagreement.

The sentence can be corrected in the following ways:

When someone loses a job, he wants to find another one quickly

When someone loses a job, she wants to find another one quickly.

When someone loses a job, he or she wants to find another one quickly.

Using “I” and “Me” Correctly

When using I and me with another person, always put the other person’s name first.

Help Gary and me paint this. Bob and I rode the bus.

Remember the “And” test: When using I or me and another person’s name, cover the word “and” plus the other person’s name to determine which pronoun to use.

8.8 Grammar Notes71

Parts of Speech – Conjunctions

Conjunction – a word used to join words, phrases, or clauses

There are three types of conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions join similar items (words, phrases, or clauses); none of the items being joined is understood to be more important than the other(s). Use the acronym FANBOYS to help remember the coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

Subordinating conjunctions join two clauses, one independent and one dependent (see notes on types of sentences later). There are many subordinating conjunctions, but a few of them are: although, after, as, because, before, if, since, until, when, and while

Correlative conjunctions are always in pairs and are used to compare information in some way. Examples of correlative conjunctions are: either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also, whether/or. When using correlative junctions, you MUST use both conjunctions in the pair and MUST NOT mix the pairs. For example, you should not use neither/or.

***Make sure to follow the rules for using commas with conjunctions: if you are listing more than two words with conjunctions, use a comma to separate the words before the conjunction (apples, oranges, bananas and strawberries); if you are using a conjunction to form a compound sentence with two independent clauses, use a comma before the conjunction (I walked to school in the morning, and I walked home in the afternoon.)***

8.8 Grammar Notes

72

Parts of Speech – Interjections

Interjection – an exclamation that shows thought or feeling; it is set apart from the rest of the sentence by commas or exclamation points depending on how extreme the emotion is

Examples: Wow, you really did a great job on your science project.

Wow! You really did a great job on your science project.

The second sentence show much more excitement than the first because of the use of the exclamation point rather than a comma after the interjection.

8.8 Grammar Notes73

Parts of Speech - Prepositions

Preposition – a word that connects a noun or a pronoun to another word in a sentence and indicates a relationship of place, time, cause, purpose, direction, or means; are usually one word but can also be two or more words. The most frequently used one-word propositions are at, by, from, for, with, to, on, and of. Some prepositions with more than one word are according to, along with, in front of, and away from.

A prepositional phrase is used to describe (modify) another word in a sentence, just as an adjective or adverb is used. . A prepositional phrase used as an adjective tells which one, what kind, how many, or whose about the noun or pronoun it modifies. A prepositional phrase used as an adverb tells how, when, where, how much, or why about the word it modifies.

Common Prepositions (this is NOT all of them)

aboutabove across after against along among around at before behind below beneath beside betweenby down during except for from in inside

into like near of off on overpastsincethroughthroughouttotoward under untilupupon withwithinwithoutunderneath

8.8 Grammar Notes74

Clauses and Types of Sentences

Clause – contains a subject and a verbIndependent Clause – contains a subject, a verb, and forms a complete thoughtDependent Clause – contains a subject and a verb but does NOT form a complete thought; a dependent clause begins with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun

A simple sentence contains one independent clause. It may have more than one subject or more than one verb, but there is only one complete thought.Examples: I went to the store. (one subject, one verb, one complete thought)

My mom and I went to the store. (two subjects, one verb, one complete thought)I went to the store and bought popcorn. (one subject, two verbs, one complete thought)My mom and I went to the store and bought popcorn. (two subjects, two verbs,

one complete thought)

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses. They may be joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon.Examples: I went to the store, and I bought popcorn. (two independent clauses joined by a

comma and a coordinating conjunction)

I went to the store; I bought popcorn. (two independent clauses joined by a semicolon)

A complex sentence contains one independent and one dependent clause. The dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction. IF the dependent clause is at the beginning of the sentence, there is a comma before the beginning of the independent clause. If the independent clause is at the beginning of the sentence, no comma is needed before starting the dependent clause.Examples: I went to the store after I left work. (independent clause at beginning, dependent

clause starts with subordinating conjunction, no comma needed)After I left work, I went to the store. (dependent clause at the beginning, comma

needed)

A compound-complex sentence contains two independent clauses joined to one or more dependent clauses. The punctuation between the clauses will follow the same rules as compound and complex sentences.

8.8 Mechanics Notes

75

Dialogue and Use of Quotation Marks

Quotation Marks are used to represent someone else’s exact words that you are using in your writing (you must give credit to the person whose work you are using!) AND to show speech (dialogue) in narrative writing.

When using someone else’s words in your writing, follow the rules below:

1. Quotation marks come in pairs – if you start a quotation, you have to finish it and put the ending quotation mark

2. If the words you are quoting are a complete sentence, start with a capital letter. Example: My mother always told me, “Wash your hands before you start cooking.”

3. Do not use a capital letter at the beginning of a quote if it is only a piece of someone else’s work. Example: My brother says it is “seriously messed up” if you don’t wash your hands before cooking.

4. If a direct quote is interrupted in the middle, don’t start the second part of the quote with a capital letter. Example: “I can’t believe,” my brother told me, “that you didn’t wash your hands before you made lunch.”

5. Punctuation (commas, periods, question marks, etc.) comes BEFORE the quotation mark. If the quotation is at the end of a sentence, the comma to set off the quote comes before the first quotation mark and the period to end the sentence comes before the final quotation mark. If a quote comes at the beginning of a sentence, the comma to set it off comes before the final quotation mark.

Quotation Marks for Titles

Quotation marks should be put around the title of the following short types of works: songs, short stories, essays, poems, one-act plays, section titles of longer works, chapter title, articles in newspapers/magazines/journals, episodes of radio/tv series.

Dialogue

When writing dialogue (conversations in narrative writing), write each person’s words as a new paragraph (even if it’s only a word or two). Separate each person’s words from the narration using commas as described in number five above.

8.8 Mechanics Notes

76

Use of Commas

Follow the rules below to decide when to add a comma to your writing. Remember, using commas when you don’t need them is just as wrong as not using commas when you do need them!

1. Use commas to separate words/groups of words in a series of three or more. If the last two items have the conjunction and or or between them, you may use a comma before the conjunction but this is not required.

2. Use commas to separate two adjectives describing the same noun, IF the order of the adjectives could be changed without changing the meaning.

3. Use a comma before the coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) in a compound sentence.4. Use a comma after words or phrases that introduce or interrupt a sentence.5. Use a comma to separate the date from the year and, if the date is part of a sentence,

after the year. Example: On September 11, 2001, the World Trade Center was destroyed.

6. Use a comma after a dependent clause at the beginning of a sentence.7. Use commas to set off “extra” information that is not necessary to the meaning of a

sentence.8. Use commas to introduce, interrupt, or end direct quotations or dialogue.9. Use commas between a person’s name and Jr. or Sr. Also use commas to separate a

person’s name from his/her degree (M.D., PhD, etc.).10.Use a comma before the abbreviation etc. (et cetera) when listing.11.Use a comma between the name of a city and a state.

Common Errors in Sentence Construction

1. Fused sentences/run-on sentences: putting two (or more) independent clauses together with no conjunctions or punctuation.

Ex. We went to the movies it was fun.

2. Comma splice: putting two independent clauses together with only a comma

Ex. We went to the movies, it was fun.

8.8 Acronyms for Writing

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Capitalization Rules

M – months - rule on p. 610 of grammar text

I – pronoun I - rule on p. 605 – 622

N – names of people – rule on p. 607

T – titles – rule on p. 618-622

S – start of a sentence - rule on p. 604 – 622

Comma Usage Rules

C – conventional situations – dates, addresses, friendly letters p. 646

C – compound sentences – two sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction, p. 637

A – a series of items - p. 633-34

I – introductory items - words, phrases, clauses, p. 644

N – nonessential items/interrupters- p. 639-40

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