Abdullah-Olukoshi, H. (1991) The Dynamics of Gender and Class in Kano's Manufacturing Sector: Two Case Studies, Paper presented at International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, The Hague, 15-26 April 1991. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, NIGERIA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WEST AFRICA, WOMENS VOICES). This paper documents processes of gender and class oppression in two manufacturing firms in Nigeria, one unionized and the other non-unionized. It is found that in the unionized factory issues of gender are of primary concern to women workers, especially job segregation on the basis of gender, and there is a general frustration with the failure of the union to address the question of gender. In the non-unionized factory, in contrast, class issues were of overriding importance to women workers, as they fought to establish a union against management wishes. It is argued that such findings demonstrate the dangers of approaches which promote class inequality above gender inequality or vice versa. Instead it is necessary to be aware that the extent to which women recognize gender or class contradictions in their lives is context dependent, and to develop a dialectical theory of class and gender.

Abraham-Van der Mark, E.E. (1983) The Impact of Industrialization on Women: A Caribbean Case. Chap. 15. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 374-386. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, CURAÇAO, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, HYDROCARBONS, IMPACT NEGATIVE, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MARGINALISATION THESIS, MULTINATIONALS, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). This study of Curacao documents historical processes of industrialisation and their impact on women. The industrialisation process began with a Shell oil refinery established early this century. This had a negative impact on women. They were excluded from employment in the refinery (except for a few women doing white collar work) and from employment in the shipping, construction and chemical companies which were later established, their role in small trade was taken over by foreign male immigrants or visitors, and the agriculture and craft sectors in which they had played an important role declined. Women were increasingly confined to dependence on marriage and children, domestic work or petty trade.In the late 1950s cutbacks and contracting out at the oil refinery led to labour disputes and increasing unemployment. Faced with a deteriorating economic situation in the late 1960s a policy of attracting electronic assembling industries was introduced, laying heavy emphasis on the huge supply of cheap female labour. Texas Instruments established a plant in 1968, employing 1 600 women assembling semi-conductors for minimal wages. In spite of the work being repetitive, exhausting and poorly paid, it was valued by the women because it provided regular income and social contacts. However, amidst union pressure for higher wages the company laid off workers and then, in 1976, pulled out completely. Few women found other employment, the supplementary trading activities they had established decreased or ceased because the women lost access to both potential buyers and start-up capital, and at least half of them have now emigrated to the Netherlands (Paraphrased from text).

Acero, L. (1984) Technical Change in a Newly Industrializing Country: A Case Study of the Impact on Employment and Skills in the Brazilian Textiles Industry ,

SPRU Occasional Paper Series 22, University of Sussex, Brighton. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPORT SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRY, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). "This paper explores the effects of technical change on labour use. It analyses the consequences upon the number and nature of jobs, the skill requirements in the labour force, the sexual division of labour, and the practices of recruitment, training and promotion implemented by a large Brazilian textile firm. These are presented in the context of the policy measures introduced to facilitate the modernization of Brazilian textiles during the 70s. The empirical evidence from Brazil is also used to explore some of the more recent theoretical contributions to the study of technical change and labour use, particularly in respect of the choice of technique, deskilling and segmented or dualistic labour markets" (pp. 6-7).

Technical change did produce an absolute and relative reduction of jobs in the firms, a large proportion of them performed by women for low wages relative to the real skills involved. Jobs only performed by women tended to be downgraded, regardless of skills, and hence rewarded less, and forewomen were paid less than foremen. Reduction in the skill component of jobs brought about by the new technology enabled unskilled workers to be recruited and freed the firm from the historical trends shaping labour supply, whereby women had tended to be spinners and men weavers. Moreover, all the new jobs were paid less than those under the old technology, relative to output (From author's conclusion).

Acero, L. (1991) Textile Workers in Brazil and Argentina: A Study of the Interrelationships between Work and Households. United Nations University, Tokyo. 305 pages. (ISBN 92-808-0753-6) (ACADEMIC, ARGENTINA, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL, BRAZIL, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CORE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LATIN AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). "The two studies presented here investigate how structural changes in industrialization in developing countries influence changes in relationships within households; in particular, how these structural transformations affect the distribution of power between men and women and between age groups within the domestic unit. At the same time, the studies are intended to show how the ways families respond to structural transformations and reorganize affect these structures.Using life histories, which enabled the recording of micro-changes in the level and management of household income, distribution of household chores, and attitudes towards fertility and sexuality, household changes occurring over the past 20 years were analysed; covering just over 1,000 family members in Brazil and the same number in Argentina, the survey gathered substantive information on household composition, behaviour, and individual perceptions of work.Among the policy implications arising from this study, one that stands out is the need for policy makers to consider how new technologies affect the quality of work and life among different occupational categories, particularly among low-level industrial workers, and, as emphasized in the study, between genders. Another important implication concerns the need to reconsider the way labour statistics are gathered, classified, and utilized.

The original data and new insights featured in this study show clearly the value of a comparative approach when determining occupational, household, and individual responses to macro-level economic events and, consequently, when assessing the impact of development policy" (From summary on back of book).

Acero, L. (1993) Conflicting Demands of New Technology and Household: Women's Employment and Training Needs in the Brazilian and Argentinian Textiles , Paper presented at the International Workshop on Information Technology and Women's Employment: A Global Overview, United Nations University/Institute for New Technologies, Maastricht, The Netherlands, April 26-29, 1993. (ACADEMIC, ARGENTINA, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL, BRAZIL, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DERIVATIVE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LATIN AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). Based on primary research and interviews with 520 workers, "this paper sets out to explore changes in the pattern of female employment, the nature of work, skills and training in the textiles industry, in the light of technical changes of an informatics base in Brazil and Argentina" (p. 1). The modernization and increasing shift to production for export of the textile industry has produced new job opportunities for women, as task simplification expanded the type of work mainly performed by women. However, it is not clear that "these new opportunities involve higher quality work, less hazards and a generally safer work environment" (p. 37).The skills women derive from socialization are becoming redundant through technical change, and their jobs are subject to casualization as a result of flexible specialization. Reprofessionalization is confined mainly to male jobs such as those of technicians and there is some evidence that highly skilled jobs are becoming even more unattainable for women. Moreover, the lack of basic literacy, numeracy and familiarity with micro-computers among low-income middle-aged women militates against their incorporation into the changing occupations. It has been suggested that a new gender division of labour is being created "where core workers, in the organized regulated activities, will be increasingly males and flexible homeworkers (with their forms of work increasingly casualized) will be women" (p. 38). New work hazards are appearing, and are particular intensified in unregulated homeworking. Furthermore, household conflicts over the role of working women highlight women's continued failure to be identified as 'real' workers (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Acevedo, L.D. (1990) Industrialization and Employment - Changes in the Patterns of Womens Work in Puerto-Rico. World Development, 18, pp. 231-255. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, PUERTO-RICO, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). "The debate on the impact of industrialization on female employment in developing countries has revolved around the issue of whether women are integrated into or marginalized from the labor market by industrialization. This paper presents the results of an empirical study of the changes in the sectoral and occupational distribution of female employment in Puerto Rico during the period 1947-82. The study divides the process of industrialization into two stages according to the type of industries promoted by the government development agency, Fomento, under the various Industrial Incentive Laws enacted during this period. Changes in female employment by economic sector were assessed through a regression analysis, while changes in occupation were assessed through the analysis of descriptive statistics. The

study found that, while women's participation in the labor force grew, the type of occupations they filled remained sex segregated, with few exceptions. Integration into the labor force was thus associated with a new sexual division of labor and does not necessarily mean an improvement in the employment situation of women as the integration hypothesis proposes." (Summary at the head of the article).

Addison, T. and Demery, L. (1988) Wages and Labour Conditions in East Asia: A Review of Case-study Evidence. Development Policy Review, 6, pp. 371-393. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, EAST ASIA, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, IMPACT POSITIVE, MALAYSIA, MANUFACTURING, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, SINGAPORE, THAILAND, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). The evidence on wages and labour conditions in the exporting sectors of the NICs studies is decidedly mixed. From some perspectives, the process of export led industrialization has been very much in the interests of the working population. Employment has expanded, poverty has been considerably reduced, and real wages have increased. The status of women has noticeably improved through their participation in the labour force, especially in Malaysia and Singapore. On the other hand, these welfare gains must be qualified by other less beneficial indicators, such as the long work hours that characterize the countries' export sectors. In other words, there are grounds for concern over labour welfare in these NICs, but they have been overstated by those relying on casual observation.The record as regards wages is a case in point. As a general rule, wages are not lower in the exporting sectors of these countries than they are in the domestic labour markets, and in some cases they are higher, taking into account the many factors which determine remuneration. There are exceptions to this, notably the lower wages paid to female workers in medium-sized South Korean firms. If we are obliged to generalize, the evidence of the studies suggests that workers in export industries earn more than their counterparts elsewhere, other things being equal.Hours of work are unquestionably a major problem for workers in the exporting sectors of the countries studied. Whether it is the sheer length of the working week (as in Malaysia, South Korea and Thailand) or the distribution of the work hours under shift work (in Malaysia and Singapore), workers in the exporting sectors appear to be worse off than those in the rest of the domestic labour market. Labour legislation on this issue is not particularly effective, with a 48-hour standard applying in all countries except for Singapore. Moreover, our evidence indicates that firms do not comply with the provisions of national legislation, and many workers (e.g. in Thailand) are not aware of their legal rights to an overtime premium. This being said, workers generally undertake overtime willingly, being eager to maximize weekly earnings, although in South Korea, they may be coerced by employers into working such long hours.Generally, the evidence reviewed here points to major gains in labour welfare in the countries that undertake ELI. The two most important qualifications are the long hours of work involved, and the restrictions imposed on the freedom of association. However, the question remains as to how, given the political will, governments can best improve the situation, and in particular, whether the process of law is an effective means. In the former case, it is doubtful that labour legislation will achieve a great deal without improvements in labour inspection. The latter problem is pre-eminently one for the lawyers.Whether the weaknesses we have identified in labour welfare under ELI justify trading sanctions against these countries is open to serious doubt. The standards observed in the exporting sectors are not out of line with those operating in the domestic labour markets of the countries concerned, and there is therefore no evidence that wages and labour conditions are deliberately kept low in these sectors. Moreover, trade sanctions against these countries are unlikely to improve the lot of workers in the export sectors. Most

proposals for social clauses in trade agreements are based on the application of ILO labour standards. These legal instruments are unlikely to be effective in the developing countries of East Asia, given the number of firms involved and the limited resources available for labour administration. As these countries have experienced export-led growth, the levels of living of the workers engaged in the leading sectors have improved. Refusing to trade with these countries can hardly be in the interests of these workers" (Authors' conclusion).

Afshar, H. (1985) The position of women in an Iranian village. In: Women, Work, and Ideology in the Third World. Ed: Afshar, H. Tavistock: London, pp. 66-82. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, IRAN, MIDDLE EAST, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). This case study of the Iranian village of Asiaback documents the development of a household based carpet weaving industry from the late 1960s onwards. Weaving is an all female task, girls beginning as early as six years old. Despite the important contribution which their work makes to household income, women's subordination has not diminished but increased. They do not have ownership rights over the product of their work, the carpets being sold by men, and they cannot sell their labour power. Thus "their ability to weave carpets has enslaved them even further in an archaic mode of production which is kept separate from the money economy of the men" (p. 84). That women's position has not improved indicates that the economic base alone cannot explain inequality between the sexes.

Aguiar, N. (1983) Household, Community, National, and Multinational Industrial Development. Chap. 5. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 117-137. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, BRAZIL, CHAPTER, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT NEGATIVE, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). Aguiar shows how multiple coexisting modes of production under state subsidy and linked to the activities of national and multinational enterprises fail to meet the needs of either a developing national economy or a developing family structure in Brazil. In the case of a multinational textile corporation workers use their salary for housing, so are threatened not by the loss of their housing but the loss of their work. The old paternalism of plantation and even slave economies seems benevolent in contrast to the policy of the multinational corporation that opportunistically seizes a government sponsored infrastructure only to close operations when profits sink to less than a third of annual income. On a cashew plantation housing is granted to workers as part of the wage, but when seasonal or cyclical downturns reduce the demand for labour workers are evicted. On a Government irrigation project housing is granted only to males heads of household, disadvantaging women's decision making role, and the threat of dismissal is used to generate conformity to government policy. (From author's conclusion and Introduction, J. Nash).

Ahmed, I. (1987) Technology, Production Linkages and Women's Employment in South Asia. International Labour Review, 126, pp. 21-40. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, ASIA, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, MARGINALISATION THESIS, REGIONAL STUDY

USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH ASIA, THE SOUTH). "Changes brought about by "modernisation" have so far done little to free women from their traditional domestic and non-market roles and labour-intensive activities... When the scale of production is increased or women's traditional activities mechanised men tend to take over, mainly because they possess or can acquire the necessary skills, training, knowledge and fixed and working capital, while women are excluded from the new opportunities, often because of institutionalised [but unfounded] sexual biases...Owing to the socio-economic factors that determine the status of female labour, different categories of women in South Asia are affected in different ways by a given technological change... In deciding the activities where new technologies should be introduced, ...policy-makers should not overlook the most demeaning (and often unpaid) tasks performed by women... which frequently entail high risks to their health." The fishing, dairy and coir industries, in which women predominate, and their ancillary production processes, need "to be protected against competition by large-scale modern sector manufacturing and imports".Generally, "women throughout South Asia are systematically denied access to credit, land titles and extension services, even where they do most of the work". Women need more training, opportunities to improve the supply of raw materials and marketing of products, improved access to collateral-free loans, and unorganised home-workers need particular protection. Formal organisational structures formed around women's production should be built upon, as they allow women to strengthen their bargaining power both inside and outside the household (From author's conclusion).

Albin, P. and Appelbaum, E. (1988) The Computer-rationalization of Work - Implications for Women Workers. Chap. 8. In: Feminization of the Labour force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 137-152. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT NEGATIVE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, NORTH AMERICA, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, USA). This chapter examines the impact on women workers of the computer rationalization of work taking place in advanced industrialized countries. The flexibility of computer and information technologies means that the way in which they are incorporated into work is more subject to managerial discretion and social influence than earlier automation technologies. In the US, immediate cost saving has been the managerial priority, rather than long-term productivity growth. As a result the computer rationalization of work has tended to follow an algorithmic path (the computer is used to limit worker decision making, initiative, and knowledge of the production process) rather than a robust one (in which worker capability is enhanced by the exploitation of the computer's enormous memory and information-processing capabilities). This downgrades the career paths of all US workers, but the routinization and deskilling of clerical work, creation of casual jobs and extension of the secondary labour market has a particularly detrimental effect on women workers, especially ethnic minority and inner-city women. Such negative impacts are not inevitable, but a function of the way in which computer rationalization has been implemented (From author's conclusion).

Alonso, J.A. (1983) The Domestic Clothing Workers in the Mexican Metropolis and their Relation to Dependent Capitalism. Chap. 7. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State

University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 161-172. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). Alonso examines the phenomena of domestic seamstresses in the metropolitan area of Mexico City, based on interviews with over 200 of them. These women make up at least 10 percent of the economically active female population in the area studied, but do not appear in the official census. They represent a petty industrial mode of production and are exploited both because as domestic workers they are denied the wage and working conditions stipulated by national labour laws and because as owners of the means of production they are liable for taxation. Moreover, unlike their seventeenth century European counterparts, their exploitation does not contribute to the accumulation of capital in the hands of the industrial elite and thence to the development of the Mexican clothing industry, but to its stagnation (Paraphrased from text).

Anderson, J. and Dimon, D. (1992) The Impact of Globalization of Production on Women's Labor Sector Participation: The case of Mexico, Paper presented to the VII International Congress of Latin American Studies Association, Los Angeles, California, September 24-27, 1992. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MEXICO, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH). This paper examines the expansion of the maquiladoras in Mexico, and seeks to determine whether they improve job opportunities for existing women workers or draw into the labour force women who would otherwise have remained in unpaid labour in the home. This is operationalized via an empirical comparison of probabilities for work activity decisions between women in an area rich in maquiladoras with an excess demand for such labour and women in an area with hardly any maquiladoras and an excess supply of labour. It is found that the different levels of labour demand have virtually no effect on married women's labour force participation decision, which is almost exclusively supply side determined by household and personal characteristics. However, the results suggest that demand does draw single women out of the home and into the formal sector (Paraphrased from text).

Anker, R. and Hein, C. (1985) Why Third World Urban Employers Usually Prefer Men. International Labour Review, 124, pp. 73-90. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CYPRUS, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, GHANA, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MARGINALISATION THESIS, MAURITIUS, MIDDLE EAST, NIGERIA, PERU, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH ASIA, SRI LANKA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE SOUTH, WEST AFRICA). "Female employees are outnumbered three to one by male employees in Third World non-agricultural employment; they are also concentrated in a limited number of occupations. The article looks into the reasons for this situation by investigating employers' perceptions and behaviour. ILO-sponsored case-studies in Cyprus, Ghana, India, Mauritius, Nigeria, Peru and Sri Lanka provide evidence as to why employers generally prefer male workers and consider certain jobs to be more suitable for women. In addition to identifying cost and legislative considerations that affect the level and distribution of female employment in the Third World, the authors draw a number of distinctions between stereotype and fact." (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 3, 1985, pp. 228-229).

Anker, R., Khan, M.E. and Gupta, R.B. (1987) Biases in Measuring the Labour Force. International Labour Review, 126, pp. 151-167. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, INDIA, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SOUTH ASIA, THE SOUTH). This article reports on a survey in three districts of Uttar Pradesh State, India, designed to find out: which type of questionnaire provides the most accurate data on female labour force activity; whether the sex of the interviewer affects the reporting of female labour force participation; and whether response biases by questionnaire type, respondent type or interviewer type differ according to the definition of labour force activity used.Approximately 90% of adult women were found to engage in labour force activities, approximately one-third in activities which resulted in monetary transactions. Women usually engaged in several different activities, each for a relatively short time. The sex of respondent and of the investigators was not found to be a major source of bias. Questionnaire design with an activity schedule was found to be the best format. (Paraphrased from authors' introduction and conclusion).

Apostle, R. and Thiessen, V. (1992) Gender, Work Task Differentiation and Job Control in the Nova-Scotia Fish Processing Industry. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 9, pp. 13-23. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, CANADA, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, NORTH AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE NORTH). The focus of our paper is on gender differentiation in job characteristics in fish processing plants in Nova Scotia, and the impact of these job characteristics on various subjective job experiences. Fish processing plants in Nova Scotia are advantageous sites to explores questions on the relationship between occupation and gender for several reasons. First, the proportion of male and female employees is relatively equal. Second, although there is some division of labour by gender, there is also substantial overlap in the tasks performed by each gender. Our paper is based on a random sample of just under 300 Nova Scotian fish plant workers employed in 26 different plants. We constructed a plant typology which distinguishes four types of plants: small, competitive, independent, and corporate. Our analysis indicates that women experience substantially less control than men over various aspects of the job, particularly over the amount and quality of work they do. Management practices are crucial in accounting for these differences, as large plants, particularly corporate ones, are more disposed to hire women for unskilled positions. Managerial style also has an impact on perceptions of control, as the higher levels of paternalism typical of smaller plants increase the sense of control. We also find, contrary to some expectations, that women whose work most clearly qualifies as reserve labour manifest higher, rather than lower, levels of work control. We suggest that women who do plant work in Nova Scotia prefer the more limited commitments of small plants because they get little assistance from husbands in household work regardless of the type or amount of paid employment they have (Author's abstract from SSCI).

Arizpe, L. and Aranda, J. (1981) The 'Comparative Advantages' of Women's Disadvantages: Women Workers in the Strawberry Export Agribusiness in Mexico. Signs, 7, pp. 453-473. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH,

WELFARE OUTCOMES). "Long-term economic trends have been leading to a relocation of labour-intensive manufacturing and agriculture from developed to underdeveloped countries and, it could be argued, to a loss of employment opportunities for women in developed countries to those in less developed ones. The supply of cheap labour in the latter countries depends on the economic `disadvantage' of women and does not improve their status or living conditions.In Mexico, a `solution' to the problem of land concentration and the eviction of family producers caused by the growth of export-oriented agriculture has been multinational investment in agro-industry to absorb the rural surplus population. The strawberry industry at Zamora has employed 10,000 young peasant women since 1970. The paper describes the conditions of work in the strawberry packing and freezing plants and argues that the companies have taken advantage of the traditional values that subordinate women. The alternatives to this employment for young women in agriculture or in domestic service are not attractive, so companies are able to attract them at wages below the legal minimum and without the benefits to which they are entitled. The payment of low wages depends upon the assumption that women do not have to support a family. Jobs are not offered to older women heads of households, nor do women's wages stem the outflow of male labour. The young women continue to live at home where patriarchal values contribute to the reproduction of submissive and docile workers. If women were to demand their rights they run the risk of the relocation of the industry to new sources of cheap labour. These dilemmas cannot, therefore, be fought except from an international perspective." PR (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 1, 1983 p180).

Armitage, J. and Sabot, R.H. (1991) Discrimination in East Africa's Urban Labor Markets. Chap. 4. In: Unfair Advantage: Labor Market Discrimination in Developing Countries. Eds: Birdsall, N. and Sabot, R., (ISBN 0-8213-1909-4,.) IBRD/WB: Washington, pp. 75-94. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CHAPTER, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPACT POSITIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, KENYA, MANUFACTURING, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, TANZANIA, THE SOUTH). To extend the analysis of Knight and Sabot (1991), Armitage and Sabot add both an intertemporal dimension, by examining the Tanzanian data for 1980, and a comparative dimension by adding a discussion of Kenya's urban labour market. They find that: "Tanzania's private manufacturing sector continues to be free of sex discrimination as does Kenya's wage labor market. The story regarding the public sector discrimination is curiously mixed. In Tanzania's public sector males earn a substantial wage premium relative to females with the same human capital endowments. With regard to race the premium enjoyed by Asians in Tanzania remained large in the private segment of the urban wage sector both in Kenya and Tanzania in 1980. However, the racial premium was markedly smaller in Kenya's public sector and had been eliminated in Tazania's public sector."(Birdsall and Sabot, 1991, p12).

Armstrong, P. and Armstrong, H. (1988) Taking Women into Account. Chap. 4. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 65-85. (ACADEMIC, CANADA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, NORTH AMERICA, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This chapter outlines the postwar reconstruction of domestic and wage labour in Canada, in the context of the growth and decline of the welfare state, and its gender differentiated impact. Female labour force

participation has risen, and most households now have at least two members in the labor force. In turn, this rise has been used to justify the reduction of employment related and universal state benefits, and to account for, and define as acceptable, higher and higher levels of unemployment. Female unemployment is more likely to be attributed to lack of skill and failure to invest in personal human capital than male. Meanwhile, female employment has provided a major means of intensifying labour, especially via part time work. Thus it can be argued that female labour has been used to provide a justification of and a means for increasing the labour reserve and making profits the priority (From author's conclusion)..

Armstrong, W. and McGee, T.G. (1985) Women Workers or Working Women? A case Study of Female Workers in Malaysia. Chap. 9. In: Theatres of Accumulation. Eds: Armstrong, W. and McGee, T.G., (ISBN 0-416-39800-6,.) Methuen: London and New York, p. 269. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MALAYSIA, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "Describes the new proletarianisation of Malay women into `free market factories' emphasising the importance of new felt needs, developed by advertising, in inducing them to do so. Mass consumption is seen as essential to mass production." (Townsend,J. 1988 p.83)The relocation of labour-intensive industries raises important questions as to what impact it is having on Third World women in the areas in which new industry has moved. What are the forces that are leading to a dissolution of precapitalist labour relations in the countryside? Are the new sources of employment provided for these women improving their socio-economic position in the society? How are the household relations being restructured as a result of these changes? Is wage labour increasing the class consciousness of these working women by removing them from the home and exposing them to wage labour markets? Most significantly is there any tendency to follow patterns that have emerged in western countries?In addressing these issues the chapter discusses the process of proletarianization, narrowly defined as entry into factory wage labour, arguing that this process is much more complicated than many existing theoretical models suggest, and in particular that the creation of consumption needs plays an important role in inducing non-proletarians into the labour force. (JRUL 910.14 A33).

Ashefelter, O. and Oaxaca, R. (1991) Labor Market Discrimination and Economic Development. Chap. 2. In: Unfair Advantage: Labour Market Discrimination in Developing Countries. Eds: Birdsall, N. and Sabot, R., (ISBN 0-8213-1909-4,.) IBRD/WB: Washington, pp. 35-54. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA). This chapter compares the statistical results from studies of labor market discrimination in developed economies with the results of the studies of developing countries. The aim is to shed light on the relationship between the process of economic development and labor market discrimination. The authors also assess how well traditional theories of discrimination, developed in high income countries, apply to relatively low income countries.

Aydin, S. and Lenz, I. (1989) Fighting Plant Closure: Women in the Strike at Videocolor. Chap. 9. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R., (ISBN 0-333 43877-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 165-182. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE NORTH, WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). This chapter focuses on "West Germany and the resistance of both German and Turkish women workers to proposals for plant closure in the context of a complex international restructuring of corporate activities. In this case a further dimension of the new international division of labour is present: the migration of workers from lower labour cost countries to Northern Europe." (Elson, D. and Pearson,R. 1989 p8). The study is based on interviews with approximately 50 workers.

Baden, S. and Joekes, S. (1993) Gender Issues in the Development of the Special Economic Zones and Open Areas in the People's Republic of China, Paper prepared for presentation at Fudan University seminar 'Women's Participation in Economic Development', Shanghai, People's Republic of China, 15 April 1993. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHINA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EAST ASIA, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). "The purpose of this paper is to make a preliminary examination of gender issues in the development of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and other Open Areas in China, in the context of the wider literature which exists on gender and export processing in developing countries. The paper is limited to a review of available sources in English and thus may have overlooked current research in this field in China" (author's introduction).It is found that despite differences between SEZs in China and EPZs in other developing countries, in terms of scale, product diversity and markets, they share similarities with respect to gender. SEZs apparently recruit a larger share of women into their workforces than enterprises outside the zones, and initial evidence suggests a wage gap operating along gender lines. There are important gaps in English language information with respect to gender on length of employment, job security, temporary workers and any wage gap, and on the age structure and educational status of the female workforce. However, the opportunity to fill many of these gaps might well be there, the rich employment/employee data routinely collected on SEZ enterprises unparalleled in any other single developing country. An important question for the future is the way in which the future evolution of SEZs and the nature of employment in them will affect women's status both within and without the labour market (Taken from author's conclusions).

Bakker, I. (1988) Women's Employment in Comparative Perspective. Chap. 2. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 17-44. (ACADEMIC, CANADA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EUROPE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, FEMINISATION THESIS, FRANCE, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, ITALY, NORTH AMERICA, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, STUDY OF NORTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SWEDEN, THE NORTH, UK, USA,

WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). Bakker's consideration of trends in the feminization of the labour force in seven industrialized countries (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, UK and US) reveals many differences between them, but also some general similarities. Women's economic participation rates in these countries have continued to increase or remain stable, the unemployment rate for women is often higher than that for men, women workers are heavily concentrated into the service sector, and many work part-time. They earn an average of 20-40 percent less than men, primarily because of their concentration into low-wage occupations, and the narrowing of the earnings gap has been slow and minimal over the last decade.Increasing numbers of women are unionized in all countries except the US, but not to the same extent as male workers. Childcare provision various considerably, but is generally inadequate. Finally, labour force participation has been boosted by the re-evaluation of taxation from a household to an individual-based system. The author concludes that the gender division of labor and its consequences must be placed firmly on the agenda of policy making, and that, because of complex interlinkages, any analysis of the feminization of the labour force must be conducted at the level of the economy as a whole as well as the labour market (From author's conclusion).

Barrett, R.E., Bridges, W.P., Semyonov, M. and Gao, X.Y. (1991) Female Labour Force Participation in Urban and Rural China. Rural Sociology, 56, pp. 1-21. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHINA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EAST ASIA, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). "The objective of this study is to examine female labour force participation and its determinants in rural and urban China. The sociological literature has demonstrated that participation tends to increase in urban and industrialised places where women have higher levels of education and fewer children, where more workers are engaged in service pursuits and where family structure is less traditional. With the use of data on counties and cities from the one percent sample of the 1982 census of the People's Republic of China, it was found that female labour force participation is likely to rise in areas with increased agricultural employment, educational levels, proportion of female headed households and higher male-to-female sex ratios. Both the size of the service sector and the fertility rate had negligible effects on female labour force participation. Although, on average, rural places have slightly higher levels of female labour force participation, when other variables are controlled, urban places have a higher rate of female participation.In addition, the findings suggest that market factors (i.e. education) are more likely to determine the rate of female labour force participation in urban areas; whereas demographic and social factors (i.e. sex ratio and household structure) play a more important role in explaining the female labour force participation in rural areas." (Studies on Women Abstract, Vol. 9, 1991, p481-482).

Baud, I. (1991) In all its Manifestations - The Impact of Changing Technology on the Gender Division of Labour. In: Indian Women in a Changing Industrial Scenario. Ed: Banerjee, N., (ISBN 0-8039-9659-4,. Indo-Dutch Studies on Development Alternatives, 5.) Sage: London, pp. 33-132. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, IMPORT SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRY, INDIA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH ASIA, SUBCONTRACTING, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). This study examines the "effects of different types of production organisations on the gender division of labour in the Indian

textile industry, with a view to gaining an insight into the effect of such employment on women's social autonomy" (From author's introduction). There are two basic types of production organisation in the industry, that based on the family/household unit and exemplified by the handloom industry and that based on the use of paid labour exemplified by the large-scale mill industries. Units in the small-scale powerloom industry lie somewhere between the two, being combination of both wage labour and unpaid family labour. While the gender division of labour in the powerloom industry is fairly equal, in the declining mill sector there is an increasing segregation between men's and women's work, less access of women to a number of functions and a marginalisation of women to the lowest paid functions.Labour participation increases women's autonomy if it is wage labour rather than unpaid family labour, and the increase is positively correlated with the degree of equality in the gender division of labour. Thus the recent growth of the powerloom industry as factory owners subcontract out cloth production is a positive development for women's autonomy. [The editor notes, however, that even when men and women work on the same job, women' monthly earnings are significantly lower presumably because they get fewer days of work per month, p. 18].The gender division of labour is much more equal in the expanding phase of an industrial sector than its second, consolidation phase, when gender is used as a factor to differentiate between groups of workers. This occurs in the context of the increasing rationalisation of production and increasing trade union mobilisation to protect the interests of male workers. Thus in the long-run it is likely that the gender division of labour in the powerloom industry will also become more skewed (From author's conclusions)..

Bauer, J. and Shin, Y.S. (1987) Female Labor-force Participation and Wages in the Republic of Korea. Population Index, 53, p. 415. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EAST ASIA, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, THE SOUTH). After outlining recent trends in female labor force participation in Korea, the authors present a model of female labor supply, analyzing the effects of female wages, male earnings, education, and demographic variables. They then outline and analyze recent trends in male and female earnings. The earnings gap between Korean men and women has remained stable. Trends in human capital acquisition, the occupational distribution of employment, the work status of females, and discrimination have helped to sustain this earnings gap.

Beechey, V. (1988) Rethinking the Definition of Work. Chap. 3. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6, Series Ed: Krieger, J. Europe and the International Order, 5.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 45-62. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FEMINISATION THESIS, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF NORTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE NORTH). "Recent years have seen enormous changes in the structure of the labor force and the organization of paid work in modern capitalist countries. The forms of restructuring have varied from country to country, but overall the division of labor has become increasingly internationalized, new technologies have been introduced on a large scale, the economies of many advanced capitalist countries have experienced

considerable deindustrialization, and there has been a massive growth in service work.... A very important structural change has been the feminization of the labour force... The aim of this chapter is to discuss an aspect of this complex set of changes... consider[ing] some of the questions which arise when one attempts to analyse gender at work and to look at the processes of restructuring in gendered terms...[It is argued that] Marxist analyses of deskilling and dual and segmented labor market theories... are more useful for analysing work in manufacturing industries than work in the service sector, but even for industrial work they have been very limited by their use of sex-blind categories which cannot adequately grasp the ways in which gender relations are embodied in the organization of production. The theories are also limited... by their acceptance of the division between public and private spheres. ...Recent attempts to revise these theories by developing more fully a theory of social reproduction... have been important in shifting the focus of analysis beyond conventional definitions of 'the economy', but they run the risk of providing a reductionist and functionalist form of explanation. Moreover, the search for explanation of labor force cleavages within the sphere of social reproduction leaves the analysis of production untouched by feminist analysis. ... [In fact] the task of developing a theory of gender [and work] has scarcely begun..." (Author's introduction).In conclusion, Beechey identifies some of the components of such a project, including identifying the different levels at which gender operates in the spheres of production and reproduction, and analysing the connection between these different levels; examining the ways in which different kinds of work are constructed in the two spheres, and have shifted between them, and how this relates to gender relations; understanding the processes by which some kinds of work have been paid while others have not and how this is linked to gender relations; and analysing changing representations of work (From author's conclusion).

Behrman, J.R. and Wolfe, B.L. (1991) Earnings and Determinants of Labor Force Participation in a Developing Country: Are there Gender Differentials? Chap. 5. In: Unfair Advantage: Labor market discrimination in Developing Countries. Eds: Birdsall, N. and Sabot, R., (ISBN 0-8213-1909-4,.) IBRD/WB: Washington, pp. 95-120. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LATIN AMERICA, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, NICARAGUA, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). "Behrman and Wolfe analyze sex differentials in determinants of labor force participation and earnings in (pre-revolutionary) Nicaragua .... Because of the support provided by extended families, the burden of child care constrains female labor force participation less in Nicaragua than in more developed countries. The influence of schooling, prior employment experience, and household nutrition are all found to have a greater impact on female than on male labour force participation. However, poor health is less of a constraint on female participation. Work experience is the most important human capital variable in accounting for mean earnings differentials by sex but the authors conclude, a combination of unobserved sex-associated traits, such as physical strength, together with sex discrimination account for a large proportion of the differential. They are unable to identify the relative importance of sex discrimination versus other unobserved factors." (Birdsall and Sabot, 1991, p12-13).

Bello, M.V. (1991) Women Organising Under Structural Adjustment Programme, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-26, 1991. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF,

FACTORY BASED, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, NIGERIA, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES AND FML, THE SOUTH, WEST AFRICA). "The purpose of this paper is to highlight the impact of SAP on Nigerian women in the formal and informal sectors, and examine the response of the state and of the women". Almost one third of the 1 million industrial workers who were retrenched between 1980-83 were women, even though women are only 20% of the country's employed labour force. There has been a growth in the informal sector with women handling multiple jobs, but gender inequalities in access to credit and the distribution of reproductive responsibilities constrain women's progress. Although there has been an increase in women's work in agriculture, their labour remains unpaid. "If the present economic recovery programme is to be successful, in the sense that all human resources are to be fully mobilized for self-reliant growth, then planners and policy formulators must develop forward looking strategies to promote the equitable participation of women in the industrial growth of the Nigerian economy". This involves a recognition a women's important income contribution to the household, the collection of sex differentiated data, the promotion of education and training for women, the encouragement of a more equitable distribution of domestic work and child-care, and the removal of legal and traditional discrimination against women (From author's introduction and conclusions).

Belussi, F. (1992) Benetton Italy: Beyond Fordism and Flexible Specialisation. The Evolution of the Network Firm Model. Chap. 5. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 73-91. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, ITALY, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SUBCONTRACTING, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). "In this paper, the author questions the widely held belief that in the "third Italy" computer technology is leading to a new industrial structure based on small firms. By looking at the most successful Italian clothing company, Benetton, she shows how by using information technology successfully small firms transform themselves into big firms and therefore create new forms of oligopoly. The network between big companies and smaller subcontractors does not necessarily herald an end to the Fordist era, but simply leads to a decentralised Fordism. The emerging organisation leads to a sharp division between core male workers in the main factory floor and peripheral women workers in the subcontracting units. The paper highlights the importance of tacit knowledge of workers in deciding on the most efficient trajectory of technology." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Beneria, L. (1989) Gender and the Global Economy. In: Instability and Change in the World Economy. Eds: MacEwan, A. and Tabb, W.K. Monthly Review Press: New York, pp. 241-258. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMINISATION THESIS, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA). This chapter "provides an overview of the way the changing nature of international production is affecting women's economic roles. Increasingly, women are being drawn into wage production and experience substantial dislocation from traditional roles. These changes are generating new political initiatives. Progressives will have to adjust, developing new sorts of demands and programs consistent with the changing needs of women, or be left behind" (MacEwan and Tabb, p. 14).

Beneria, L. and Roldan, M. (1987) The Crossroads of Class and Gender: Industrial Homeworking,Ssubcontracting and Household Dynamics in Mexico City. (ISBN 0-226-04231-4) (Series Ed: Stimpson, C.R. Women in Culture and Society.) University of Chicago, Chicago. 204 pages. (ACADEMIC, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL, ELECTRONICS, HOMEWORKING, INFORMAL SECTOR, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MEXICO, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH). "In the innovative exploration of the interaction between economic processes and social relations [the authors] examine the effect of homework on gender and family dynamics. Their fieldwork in Mexico City during 1981-82 has enabled them to provide important new empirical data on industrial piecework performed by women as well as intimate glimpses of these women's lives which place that piecework in context. Tracing the stages of production from home to jobber, workshop, and manufacturer (often a multinational corporation), the authors demonstrate the way in which the work and lives of these women are connected through subcontracting to the national and often international system of production.The extent to which nontraditional homework (such as the assembly of toys or electronic coils) occurs in Mexico has not been widely known, making the empirical data in this book a pioneer contribution, with important implications for further research and public policy. Beneria and Roldan interpret their statistical and ethnographic evidence in terms of the ways in which class and gender intersect to create actual living and working situations. An important aspect of their arguement is the examination of class as a relation that changes over the life span of individuals; their use of life histories forcefully documents this view" (From back cover).

Berik, G. (1987) Women Carpet Weavers in Rural Turkey: Patterns of Employment, Earnings and Status. (ISBN (Pb) 92-106004-7) ILO, Geneva. 112 pages. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MIDDLE EAST, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SUBCONTRACTING, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, TURKEY, WELFARE OUTCOMES). Handwoven carpets are a major export item for Turkey and carpet weaving represent a substantial share of income in rural areas, notably for poor and landless households. This study, based on fieldwork carried out by the author in 1983 in ten villages in rural Turkey, demonstrates that carpet weaving is an activity based on women's subordinate position in the home and the dependence of poor and landless families on weaving income. The poorer the household the greater its dependence on women's weaving work so that in the very poorest households women weavers contribute up to half of all income.

Merchants and exporters take advantage of the rural weaving labour force: renumeration is low, there are no social benefits and the work is conducted under unhealthy conditions. The undervaluation of women's work on the grounds that it is performed during `leisure' hours or while seated, weakens demands for higher pay for what is in effect highly skilled work. Poor conditions and lack of control over their work and income are common both to homeworkers and those employed in workshops. The author shows how women's contribution to household income is determined by the relation of production in weaving, household composition and the prevailing agrarian and social structure.

It is significant that a greater contribution from women weavers to household income does not increase their own financial autonomy as measured by a number of variables of

income control and cash handling. Thus, although carpet weaving counters proletarianisation and pauperisation of rural families and contributes to household accumulation, it does little to raise women's status or autonomy. On the contrary, the work relations of weaving presuppose and reinforce existing patterns of gender subordination and women's low position in the age and gender hierarchies determine their lack of financial autonomy. In this way, the prevailing cultural patterns, whereby women bear the heaviest workload and have the least autonomy when they are young, appear to be unaffected by the participation in paid work.

The study concludes with a discussion of the policy measures necessary to bring about improvements in working conditions, social security benefits and earnings, and greater control by the producers over their earnings. In particular it is essential that carpet weaving is officially recognised as work and that collective organisations are established based on the direct participation of the weavers." (Studies on Women Abstracts 1989 Vol 7 1989 pp130-131).

Berlin, M. (1983) The Formation of an Ethnic Group: Colombian Female Workers in Venezuela. Chap. 11. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 257-270. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, FACTORY BASED, LATIN AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH, VENEZUELA). Based on participant observation research in Caracas, Venezuela, Berlin examines the coping strategies developed by female immigrant workers in the garment industry. In order to compete with products from Asia, small and medium-sized factories employ illegal immigrants from Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and the Dominican Republic as homeworkers, with garments being finished in the factories. Such workers are predominantly young and see themselves as future housewives not factory workers, to be saved from the labour market by marriage and return to Colombia. However, the reality is that Colombian men are also migrating to Venezuela and developing relationships with Venezuelan women in order to gain access to housing. Women workers cultivate paternalistic relationships with management in the hope of extending their contract, and thus access to housing and health facilities, and do not cooperate with Venezuelan co-workers. These immigrants constitute a cheap labour source, tied to factory work by their need for housing, and their ethnic identity is reproduced not by barriers of language (since Spanish is common) but by stereotyped images of delinquent foreign elements.

Birdsall, N. and Behrman, J. (1991) Why Do Males Earn More Than Females in Urban Brazil: Earnings Discrimination or Job Discrimination. Chap. 7. In: Unfair Advantage: Labor Market Discrimination in Developing Countries. Eds: Birdsall, N. and Sabot, R., (ISBN 0-8213-1909-4,.) IBRD/WB: Washington, pp. 147-170. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LATIN AMERICA, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). Birdsall and Behrman concentrate on the urban labor market as a whole in Brazil. They "seek to explain sex differences in the labor force participation, sector of employment and in earnings. They find that the probability of working in the formal sector is more sensitive to the level of schooling among women than among men. Marriage and young children appear to constrain female participation

in the formal and domestic sectors, but not in the urban informal sector. With respect to earnings, neither differences in returns to human capital nor differences in hours worked appear to be a major factor in the considerable male-female average earnings differentials. They are unable to determine to what degree unobserved sex-related factors or discrimination account for the residual difference in earnings." (Birdsall and Sabot, 1991, p13).

Del Boca, D. (1988) Women in a Changing Workplace - The Case of Italy. Chap. 7. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 120-136. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EUROPE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, ITALY, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). This chapter attempts to explain intertemporal movements in the female labour force participation rate in Italy from the 1950s to the 1980s, through a detailed consideration of demand and supply factors. The decline in the birthrate and the rising educational status of women might be expected to increase the supply of labour, and some enabling measures have been taken by the government and employers to facilitate the combination of market and home work for women. However, other measures, such as highly protective legislation, have effectively increased the cost of female labour, particularly in high-paying, stable jobs, and thus reduced demand. This has probably resulted in substantial increases in the female participation rate in the underground economy. While women employed in this sector are less protected and probably remunerated at a lower rate, they do have the advantage of more flexibility in their employment relationship (from author's conclusion).

Bolles, L. (1983) Kitchens Hit by Priorities: Employed Working-class Jamaican Women Confront the IMF. Chap. 6. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 138-160. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, CHAPTER, FACTORY BASED, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, JAMAICA, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES AND FML, THE SOUTH). This case study focuses on the social, cultural and economic responses of urban female industrial workers and their households in Kingston, Jamaica, to the IMF program which began in 1978. The 127 women sampled worked in industries dependent on access to foreign exchange in order to import materials. The shortage of foreign exchange which resulted from the IMF program caused production to slow down and the once booming export oriented garment industry to leave Jamaica altogether. Unemployment reduced household incomes at the same time as the IMF policies caused the cost of living to escalate.The women interviewed all remained in employment, but had to maintain unemployed family members with inadequate incomes. Two principal strategies emerged. Firstly, while the woman worker generally controlled household finance most reproductive work shifted to other household members. Secondly, household members engaged in extensive networks of exchange to supplement the productive function of the working women, and sometimes also their reproductive function by obtaining child-care services through exchange. Finally, women used public demonstrations to express their probems and awareness of the way in which Jamaica's position in the global market affected their lives. (From author's conclusion).

Borzeix, A. and Maruani, M. (1988) When a Strike Comes Marching Home. Chap. 14. In: Feminization of the Labour force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 245-259. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, FRANCE, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, TEXTILES, THE NORTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WESTERN EUROPE). The authors examine the development of class consciousness and feminist consciousness in the light of a strike by women workers at a clothing factory in northern France in the 1970s. The women spent three years struggling in order to be employed again as they had been, but fighting for work which they did not like. This highlights the contradiction between women's relationship to work (wages, authority relations, promotions, qualifications and working conditions) and to employment (access to the labour market and jobs), and emphasises the fact that employment can help to liberate women even if the work is 'alienating'. Although the strikers interviewed did not perceive themselves as feminists, their actions, attitudes, symbols, reference marks and ways of thinking pertained to feminism. Thus the authors hypothesise that "unlike some intellectual or middle-class feminists, working-class women do not speak louder than they act. The lag between words and deeds still exists but in the reverse direction: between deeds and words". There is no one feminism just as there is no one 'feminine condition' (Taken from text).

Bowman, S. (1992) New Openings for Women in the UK: Design and Craft for Computer-aided Retailing. Chap. 8. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 107-116. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, HOMEWORKING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE). "This paper discusses the current use of design and craft in the UK fashion industry. It focuses on the use of new technology in the development of contemporary retail marketing strategies, where design and craft input are central, and highlights the production practice of homeworking: the flexible, cheap, unorganised female labour force on which the strategy depends. Positive initiatives for change in terms of education and training opportunities for women working in both the management and homeworking sectors are discussed and detailed. It documents the cases where technical and management training, with the aid of the European Social Fund (ESF), have allowed Asian women to use their traditional craft skills for self-employment and business in the niche markets." (Abstract at the head of the chapter).

Breathnach, P. (1993) Women's Employment and Peripheralisation: the Case of Ireland's Branch Plant Economy. Geoforum, 24, pp. 19-29. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, ELECTRONICS, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, REPUBLIC OF IRELAND, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). The mobilisation of reserves of unskilled women workers played a key role in the new international division of labour which emerged in the 1960s and 1970s. This is illustrated in the case of the branch plant economy which emerged in the Republic of Ireland after 1960. There has been rapid growth in female employment in the electrical engineering sector which is dominated by foreign firms. A case study of the

electronics industry reveals strong gender segmentation and a heavy reliance on assembly work carried out mostly by women. High levels of trade union membership have had little impact on the inferior status of women in this industry. Dominance by foreign firms has created very limited employment opportunities for women at local level. The automation of assembly work, allied to plans to upgrade the status of branch plant activities in Ireland, will further restrict women's employment prospects. (Author's abstract).

Bucholz-Will, W. (1992) Why Do Women Organise Through Trade Unions in Germany? Chap. 14. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 169-174. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, SUBCONTRACTING, TEXTILES, THE NORTH, WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). "This paper describes the achievements of German trade unions in recruiting women workers against the volatile background of automation, deregulation, subcontracting and relocations of jobs abroad. Because of its organisational strength, the Textile and Clothing Union (GRB) has managed to place certain women specific issues on its bargaining agenda concerning the implementation of new technology. The challenge lies now in helping women to reconcile their domestic commitments with changing work patterns." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Bustamante, J.A. (1983) Maquiladoras: A New Face of International Capitalism on Mexico's Northern Frontier. Chap. 10. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 224-256. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MEXICO, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This chapter documents the origins and expansion of maquiladora industries on the US-Mexico border, and then evaluates their impact. Despite the jobs they provided, there are indications that the unemployment rate in the border area exceeds the national average, and the impermanence of many of the plants offsets balance of payments advantages. The training offered is limited, and the increased purchasing power of the workforce sucks in more US imports. Bustamente notes that in 1975 females were about 80% of maquiladora employees, although the Border Industrialization Program announced by the Mexican government in 1971 did not mention any such predominance of female labor. (Paraphrased from chapter).

Cagatay, N. and Berik, G. (1991) Transition to Export-led Growth in Turkey: Is There Feminisation of Employment? Capital and Class, 43, pp. 153-177. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, MANUFACTURING, MIDDLE EAST, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH, TURKEY). "This paper uses the case of Turkey to examine the thesis that employment in manufacturing industry is feminised with the shift from import-substituting industrialisation to export-led growth in the context of structural adjustment policies. Focusing on large scale manufacturing industry, the authors find that in both public and private sectors and under both industrialisation strategies the gender composition of manufacturing employment is explained by technological characteristics

and the degree of export-orientation of establishments. Hence, the shift to export-led growth has been achieved without an accompanying or subsequent feminisation of employment." (Studies on Women Abstract, Vol. 9, 1991, pp271-272).

Carney, L.S. and O'Kelly, C.G. (1990) Women's Work and Women's Place in the Japanese Economic Miracle. Chap. 6. In: Women Workers and Global Restructuring. Ed: Ward, K., (ISBN 0-87546-162-X,.) ILR Press, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University: Ithaca, New York, pp. 113-145. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EAST ASIA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, JAPAN, PACIFIC (DEVELOPED), STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE NORTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "Larry Carney and Charlotte O'Kelly have studied the history of working women in Japan, particularly since 1945. When Japanese political and economic elites formulated Japan's strategy for successfully competing in the world economy, they emphasized patriarchal ideologies that stressed the centrality of the family and obedience to authority. Women's work outside the home was defined as subservient to their family roles, and this cheap flexible labor force provided a basis for Japan's position as a core nation in the global economy. These strategies resulted in women's work lives including early retirement, limited education and training, no access to the lifelong employment system, part-time status, and the shaping of their work relative to their roles as wives and mothers. White-collar women workers are hired for their decorative appeal in the workplace. As a result of all these working conditions, Japanese women experience the contradiction of being sought as part-time laborers but do not aquire economic autonomy. Japanese economic growth is increasingly dependent on female workers, however, and Japanese women are begining to organize around such contradictions." (Ward, K., (1990) p19) DE.

Chant, S. (1991) Women and Survival in Mexican Cities: Perspectives on Gender, Labour Markets and Low-Income Households. University of Manchester Press, Manchester. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, CHEMICALS/PLASTICS, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MEXICO, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). This book "examines the critical links between women's labor force participation and household structure" on the basis of research "in three Mexican cities distinct in their history and economic structure: Puerto Vallarta, Leon, and Queretaro. Puerto Vallarta is a tourist resort where services predominate. Leon represents a traditional manufacturing center specializing in footwear. Queretaro has a broad industrial base that includes capital goods production. Together they mirror Mexico's economy.Large numbers of working-class and immigrant households dwell in the three cities. Women play a significant role in the survival of those households but their experiences vary depending on several factors. On the basis of a limited survey of employers. Chant confirms the findings of previous studies that emphasize the effect of demand variables on women's employment. For example, the changing character of the Mexican economy and varying job opportunities in the three cities influence the level of female participation in the labour force. Employers' hiring policies and perceptions about feminine qualifications further delimit women's economic activities".

Interviews with over 300 households enable household structure to be added to the spectrum of demand variables influencing women's labour force participation. It is found that, in Chant's own words: "women's employment does not appear to be affected by education, migrant status, fertility, family size, numbers of resident children, husbands' earnings or total household earnings, with only age and numbers of dependents being statistically significant in any way". Household organization, and particularly the gender division of labor within the home and the degree of control that male heads have over their wives, is much more significant however. "In nuclear families where wives are solely responsible for domestic work and where men hold exclusive authority, women's chances for paid employment are reduced. In female-headed households, where that barrier is absent, women work outside the home even when they do not have to. In extended families where domestic labor is shared and income pooled and where women are not subject to the exclusive authority of husbands, it is far more difficult for men to forbid their wives to work for pay, especially when that pay improves the capacity of the household to survive or thrive.Women's entrance into the labor force in both male- and female-headed households tends to be followed by the incorporation of new members, often female relatives, into the domestic sphere", or in other cases "older children assume domestic responsibilities. The common denominator is the search for mechanisms to reconcile unpaid reproductive tasks and wage employment. In other words, family extension and its variants occur as a direct response to women's need for extra help around the home. During the 1980s household extension was also prompted by economic crisis and austerity programs that altered the conditions in which families survive (Extracts from Review by M.P. Fernandez-Kelly, in Economic Development and Cultural Change, April 1993, pp. 271-3).

Chhachhi, A. and Pittin, R. (1991) Multiple Identities, Multiple Strategies: Confronting State, Capital and Patriarchy, Paper presented at International Workshop of Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, The Hague, April 15-26 1991. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, ASIA, CLOTHING, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, ELECTRONICS, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, NIGERIA, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WEST AFRICA). "A comparison of data from factory-based research in India and Nigeria, [which focuses] on the relationship between identity, consciousness, and organisation among women workers. Analysis of [the] data [permits] re-examination of some common theoretical assumptions regarding women workers (such as, e.g., that women's focus on marriage and family precludes or minimises the possibility of industrial action): these assumptions [are] shown to be classist and Eurocentric" (From Final Report of Workshop, R. Pittin and A. Chhachhi, p.8). Gender identities are not fixed but constantly in flux, and they are selectively mobilized in response to social, economic and political pressures.

Chiesi, M. (1992) On Using Women as Resources: Italian Unions' Strategies Towards Information Technology and New Organisation of Work. Chap. 3. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 37-52. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, ITALY, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH,

WESTERN EUROPE). "On the basis of the findings of a positive action project sponsored by three leading trade unions in Italy, the author refutes the myth that women's skills and work preferences are incompatible with the demands of new technology. The flexible working hours and group technologies are welcomed by women so long as they can take part in negotiating them. The women-specific needs and qualities get marginalised in trades unions in Italy, yet observations of five leading clothing companies show that by using women as resources it is possible for companies to derive maximum benefits from computer-aided technologies." (Abstract provided at head of chapter) DE.

Chimanikire, D.P. (1987) Women in Industry: Legal and Social Attitudes. Afrique et Development, XII, pp. 27-39. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES, ZIMBABWE). "This article examines the factors effecting women's participation in Zimbabwean industry. Referring to some of the Zimbabwean laws especially the "Labour Relations Act", the author shows how, despite the legal rights women have acquired since independence, they are still discriminated against in the industrial sector. They are not offered the same employment opportunities as men. There remains inequality in wages, training for skilled work, promotion and in access to loan and credit facilities. However women themselves are to blame for their resigned attitudes. In order to speed up their advancement the author calls for additional legal and administrative measures, and for a unified and egalitarian labour market in Zimbabwe." (in CODESRIA Bibliography on Women).

Chinchilla, N.S. (1977) Industrialization, Monopoly Capitalism and Women's Work in Guatemala. Signs, 3, pp. 38-56. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, GUATEMALA, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MARGINALISATION THESIS, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). This study explores "the changes in occupational structure, demand for labor, division of labor by sex and inequality of employment by sex during industrial expansion in Guatemala" (p. 40). Manufacturing growth from the 1960s "created a demand for new labor which men have filled in much greater proportion than women, even in industries, such as textiles and tobacco, that have traditionally hired women (p. 48). "It would appear to be the destruction of independent artisan industries, without an increased demand for factory labor, that has seriously affected the employment of women in the manufacturing sector" (p. 48-50). Although women have entered the labor force at a faster rate than men, from a much lower base, and those with technical and professional training have found new opportunities in the service and state sectors, most women workers "remain locked into the most traditional and backward sectors of the economy (subsistence agriculture and domestic service) (p 55).

Cho, U. and Koo, H. (1983) Economic Development and Women's Work in a Newly Industrializing Country - The Case of Korea. Development and Change, 14, pp. 515-531. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EAST ASIA, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, MANUFACTURING, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, ROLE OF MIGRATION, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH). "This study investigates the relationship between economic development and women's work in one rapidly industrializing country, the Republic of Korea. Unlike most previous work on the topic, the authors do not regard change in the rate of female labour participation as the

most problematic issue, believing that women's work is always an integral part of the national economic process, but the form that it takes.An examination of all forms of Korean women's income earning activities is made, both formal and informal, legitimate and underground, by means of conventional labour statistics from 1960-1980 and a survey of 239 married women in Seoul made in 1980.The authors argue that it is the process of capital accumulation and the way in which the economy is integrated into the world capitalist system which affects the forms of women's economic activities, as well as the nature of their subordination in society. An important trend in the current phase of capital accumulation is the movement of advanced capital to peripheral economies in East Asia and Latin America in pursuit of low-cost production for export. This pattern of industrialization must be understood in order to explain how the Korean female labour force has been integrated into the development process as well as how Korean women's work has been transformed.As export-oriented labour-intensive industrialization has occurred at a rapid pace in Korea, a large proportion of young single women have been absorbed into the industrial and modernized sector of the economy, many rural-urban migrants. Rural areas are left with mostly old men and women, plus some younger women whose husbands are urban workers, and this demographic change has doubled the burden on rural women. While carrying out their traditional household work, they must also take up heavy agricultual work, and labour statistics indicate that an increasing proportion of rural women have become hired agricultural labourers.Professional and technical work for highly educated women in Korea has also expanded, giving rise to noticeable occupational differentation among the female population. Also, despite no direct information, it is suspected that the magnitude and intensity of women's informal activities have increased substantially in the past two decades, diversified out from peddling, hawking and domestic service and involve more middle-class women.Marriage is a watershed in women's formal sector participation, the majority of women moving on marriage away from wage employment and towards informal earnings. Society places heavy emphases on married women's domestic responsibilities, but also expects them to contribute to family income. This contradictory pressure seems to push many women into informal earning activities.Class and sex interaction is a very important area of study so far neglected. Women's material conditions, including their work, are deeply affected by their class positions.

Choic, D.K. and Kim, D.Y. (1976) Women's Contribution to Household Income and Structure of Women's Employment in Korea. Economic Bulletin for Asia and Pacific, 27, pp. 100-111. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EAST ASIA, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, THE SOUTH). This study uses a 1974 sample survey of over 90 000 urban households in the Republic of Korea in order to assess the structure of women's urban employment and their contribution to household income. It is found that the female contribution rate is high in low income households and low in high income households, and women workers in low income households have a higher ratio of contribution than do those in high income households. Women workers receive substantially less income than males of the same age and educational status, but part of the difference may be due to women working fewer hours than men. Female labour-force participation is influenced by marital status, with divorced or widowed women much more likely to participate than married women, and married women's participation being lowest during the normal child care ages. The level of educational attainment does not affect women's labour force participation except in the cases of no-schooling or college education (Taken from text).

Chung, Y.K. (1989) `Negotiating Target': An Ethnographic Exploration of Women and Work in a High-tech Factory in Singapore. (ISBN (Pb) 0-948-0040-22-3) (Series Eds: Stanley, l and Scott, s. Studies in Sexual Politics, 23.) Sociology Department, University of Manchester, Manchester. 87 pages. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SINGAPORE, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). "This paper is based on the author's ethnographic research with Asian female workers in a multinational company in Singapore. The paper deals with the `common sense' portrayal of Asian women as `passive' and `docile', and examines women's strategies in `negotiating target' in the workplace. Women's perceived passivity is seen not as a straightforward reflection of their lack of resistance to oppressive conditions, but as an accomplishment, and a strategy for gaining power in the workplace.The paper begins with a reflexive look at the differences between feminist intentions and feminist practice; followed by a section introducing the reader to `Sage Tech', the company at which the research was conducted. The third section on `negotiating target' covers the operation of control and resistance at Sage Tech. Section four focuses on the location of gender relations in practice and how we can `read' the operation of gender at work. It then looks at various `passive' and `active' forms of resistance by women at work. The final section sets women's experiences and consciousness in the wider context of women's life experiences and conditions in Singapore and the concluding section examines the complexity of power relations in practice within this particular factory." CG (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 8, 1990, p418).

Cockburn, C. (1985) Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men and Technical Know-how. (ISBN 0745300650) Pluto, London. (ACADEMIC, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ENGINEERING, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE). This book examines the way in which men as a sex strive to retain the power that comes from controlling technology. Hierarchies and subdivisions at work, and the gendering process, enable men to keep themselves separate from and superior to women in a world of 'men's jobs' and 'women's jobs'. Case studies of women and men working with new technology in warehousing, clothing manufacture, and hospital X-ray, and of the engineering firms that develop these new techniques, show that men continue to be the technologists and women the lowest-paid operators. So long as the relations of technology remain masculine, an 'equal opportunities' policy is of little use. An autonomous women's movement inside and outside the trade unions is needed to create women-only training and to transform the nature of technology and the relations of work (From back cover).

Cohen, M. (1984) Changing Perceptions of the Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Female Labor. International Journal of Womens Studies, 7, pp. 291-305. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EUROPE, MANUFACTURING, MARGINALISATION THESIS, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, UK). In the nineteenth century, the industrial revolution was believed to have produced a radical change for women. The industrializing process seemed to provide a mechanism for reducing the difference between women's and men's work. By the twentieth century, feminist writers began to recognize that the effect had been much less dramatic than had been supposed, and some claimed that rather than being a vehicle for liberation, modern capitalism further

subjected women by excluding them from the production process. This paper begins by identifying a model of the impact of industrialization on women which has been developed in the twentieth century. It then shows how various scholars have approached the subject and discusses their perspectives in terms of the developing models. Those issues which are still contentious and those which have been resolved are indicated.

Cole, S. (1991) Women of the Praia: Work and Lives in a Portuguese Coastal Community. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 189 pages. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, ELECTRONICS, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MULTINATIONALS, PORTUGAL, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, TEXTILES, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE, WOMENS VOICES). This book records and interprets shifts in women's work in a small northern Portuguese coastal fishing community, Vila Cha, on the basis of five detailed ethnographies. Until the mid-1960s, most women worked in household-based agriculture and fishing, combining productive and reproductive work in the context of the household economy. Cole argues that they identified strongly with their work as fisherwomen, which gave potential for an independent income, as well as one controlled jointly with their husband. However, by the mid-1980s women's participation in fishing was limited to helping to unload boats and market the produce and to employment in the fish processing industry, and has remained so. Many women are now working in the manufacturing sector, whether in small, family-run clothing factories, food-processing, or the textile and electronics plants established nearby (including by the multinational Texas Instruments).

It is argued that this industrial employment affords women less control over their time, is more difficult to combine with reproductive responsibilities, and has a different meaning for women than did fishing. Women's reproductive roles have become predominant in terms of their identities, with full-time house-work and mothering seen as the ideal and paid work something that is but temporary, to be undertaken only until household finances permit it to be abandoned. Media images of women perpetuate this ideal of the housewife, restraining women's efforts to bargain for better wages and working conditions while at the same time creating new pressures to consume. In reality, however, many women will remain in factory work throughout their lives.

Cole contends that women's position has to be understood both in terms of a historical loss of autonomy, most acute where status as full-time house-wife is achieved and dependence on male earnings is absolute, and in terms of women's struggles to negotiate gender roles and relations in order to withstand their contemporary conditions, exploited as cheap and expendable factory labour. Throughout the book she is concerned to reconcile the tensions between the structural factors which impinge on women's lives, and women's continuing efforts to give their lives meaning and to build self-esteem.

Coyle, A. (1982) Sex and Skill in the Organisation of the Clothing Industry. In: Work, Women and the Labour Market. Ed: West, J. Routledge and Kegan Paul: London. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EUROPE, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, UK, WESTERN EUROPE).

Cunningham, S. (1987) Gender and Industrialization in Brazil. In: Geography of Gender in the Third World. Eds: Momsen, J. and Townsend, J. Macmillan: London. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING

SECONDARY SOURCES, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). This chapter explores some aspects of the changing pattern of women's paid work in a rapidly industrializing country, Brazil. A basic contention is that differences in gender can be used by capital, especially in labour-surplus societies, to contain production (and other) costs. So, in addition to the well-known role of women's work inside the home in defraying the costs of reproducing and 'maintaining' the labour force, their 'productive' labour is extensively exploited by 'modern' industrialization. Women's growing participation in the urban labour force is driven by the necessity to survive and shore up family incomes, but also by their apparent desire to improve material well-being by the acquisition of durable consumer goods. The employment of female rather than male labour provides an opportunity to contain labour costs as well as performing a socializing role upon a key sector of potential consumers. (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Date-Bah, E. (1986) Sex Segregation and Discrimination in Accra-Tema: Causes and Consequences. In: Sex Inequalities in Urban Employment in the Third World. Eds: Anker, R. and Hein, C. Macmillan: London, pp. 235-276. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CHAPTER, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, GHANA, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, THE SOUTH, WEST AFRICA).

Daud, F. (1985) `Minah Kara': The Truth About Malaysian Factory Girls. Berita Publishing, Kuala Lumpur. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, MALAYSIA, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH). "A comprehensive empirical study of women in the electronics industry, based on participant observation and in-depth interviews. Particular attention is paid to the experience of work and income, ethnic relations in the factory and patterns of migration. Malaysian women must compete in a man's world, in a multiracial situation under the control of a multinational corporation." (Townsend, J. 1988 p.83) IDS.

Davidson, M. (1989) Restructuring Women's Employment in British Petroleum. Chap. 11. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R., (ISBN 0-333-43877-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 206-221. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, HYDROCARBONS, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MULTINATIONALS, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, UK). This "chapter presents an assessment of how a multinational might go about restructuring its internal sexual division of labour so as to begin to break down the occupational segregation of women into `women's jobs'. To do this it is essential that the firm recognises the demands of women's lives outside the factory, particularly the demands of child care. It is shortsighted for firms to attempt to organize production without taking account of the organisation of the reproduction of human resources - without which production is, in the long run, impossible. The creation of a labour force of young unmarried women who leave employment when they marry and/or have children only has advantages when firms have not invested resources in training them; or when there are few firm-specific skills involved. In the case of more highly trained and experienced workers, there are costs to the firm, as well as to the women, of failing to modify the organisation of employment." (Elson,D. and Pearson,R. 1989 p8).

Dean, J. (1991) Sex-Segregated Employment, Wage Inequality and Labor-Intensive Production: A Study of 33 U.S. Manufacturing Industries. Review of Radical Political Economics, 23, pp. 244-268. (ACADEMIC, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, NORTH AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE NORTH, USA). "This study develops and tests a two-part reproduction model of sex segregation and relative wage determination where both are hypothesized to be related to the technology or input requirmeents of production in ways that can account, in large part, for persistent wage inequality by gender. An analysis of occupational sex composition and relative wages in 33 manufacturing industries from the early 1960s to the late 1970s shows that women were and remained disproportionately employed in labor-intensive occupations and industries and that these technical conditions were associated with low earnings, independently of skills. The findings suggest that, once wage disparities by sex are established, the market forces of capitalism will continally resegregate women into jobs where, because of the lack of intrinsic bargaining power and disproportionate vulnerability to job loss, workers are unable to achieve wages commensurate with skills" (Authors' abstract).

Dennis, C. (1983/4) Capitalist Development and Women's Work: A Nigerian Case Study. Review of African Political Economy, 27/28, pp. 109-119. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MARGINALISATION THESIS, NIGERIA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WEST AFRICA). The provision of wage employment is not a means towards the liberation of women because such jobs reproduce and reinforce gender subordination. However, the internationalisation of the gender division of labour through the employment of women as cheap labour does not necessarily follow the same pattern everywhere. Historical patterns and cultural attitudes concerning women's rights to work and 'aptitudes' effect the pattern of women's integration into the industrial labour market, as do levels and forms of industrialisation and the political and economic circumstances of particular factories.This case study of a textile factory in Nigeria based on data collected in 1972 found that women were largely excluded from industrial work, making up less than 5% of total employment. In spite of similar qualifications and ambitions, male workers moved up the job hierarchy, gaining increased pay and new skills which they might later invest in self-employment, while women workers were disadvantaged in that they remained confined to weaving work only. (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Deyo, F.C. and Chen, P.S.J. (1976) Female Labour-Force Participation and Earning in Singapore. Economic Bulletin for Asia and Pacific, 27, pp. 82-99. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, SINGAPORE, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH). This report is a largely descriptive statistical summary of published data and research findings on recently changing patterns of female labour-force participation in Singapore, highlighting the impact of rapid industrialization on the economic status of females. It is found that "the entry of large numbers of females, particularly young females, has increased the occupational imbalance in the labour force. More than in the early sixties, women are more likely to

be found in subordinate, unskilled work, mainly in electronics, textiles and wearing apparel industries, pace setters in an early phase of industrialization...Much of the female work-force expansion was in the unskilled blue-collar and low-paying service occupations. As a result, the male-female earnings gap has probably widened in the development process. Set against this over-all inegalitarian trend are the social and economic payoffs associated with the creation of employment opportunities to absorb the large numbers of new job-seekers in the last decade.Given the likelihood that the consolidation phase in the major manufacturing industries employing substantial number[s] of females is now in progress, it is highly improbable that there will be another sharp jump in the demand for female workers. Thus, female participation is likely to grow more slowly in the near future. But conversely, a decline in the previously rapid absorption of young females into low status occupations may later be reflected in a moderate narrowing of the occupational and earnings gap" (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Dror, D.M. (1984) Aspects of Labor-Law and Relations in Selected Export Processing Zones. International Labour Review, 123, pp. 705-722. (ACADEMIC, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE SOUTH).

Dunn, L.L. (1987) The Free Zone and Caribbean Women: Employment or Exploitation, Paper presented at Symposium on Women in Industry sponsored by the Department of Economics, University of the West Indies, Mona, in collaboration with the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This paper attempts to examine free trade zones in the Caribbean and their effect on women, who comprise the majority of the labour force in these industrial enclaves. Its central theme is that the dependence of Caribbean economies on export-oriented manufacturing industries while expanding employment opportunities for women, has in fact exacted a high cost on the social, economic and cultural institutions in Caribbean societies, and has adversely affected Caribbean women and their families.An evaluation of the United Nations Decade for Women indicated that while women have in some measure achieved a greater level of participation in the work force, the struggle for achieving full participation, development and peace has just begun. It is therefore argued that there is a need to examine new methods of building women and their organizations. The horizons of trade unions also have to be expanded to ensure that women workers, as an increasingly important part of the industrial labour force, have their problems addressed in a positive and self sustaining way. Social, political and economic institutions have to increasingly value the contribution that women workers, inside the home, in the industrial and other sectors, make to the society and ensure that although free zones provide employment for women, they should not exploit them..

Dunn, L.L. (1991) Women Organising for Change in Caribbean Free Zones: Strategies and Methods, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-26, 1991. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF

INCORPORATION INTO MLF, JAMAICA, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). "This paper examines the experience of Caribbean women organising in export production enclaves for industrialisation called free trade zones (FTZs) or export processing zones (EPZs). The incentives offered to foreign companies, many of them transnationals, to encourage investment, usually include cheap labour, no foreign exchange controls, unlimited repatriation of profits, subsidised utilities and infrastructure, and a climate of non-unionisation. Together these present difficulties as well as opportunities for organising.The paper presents findings from a research project examining the impact of export-oriented industrialisation (EOI) as a development strategy in Jamaica and the Dominican Republic. The data are used to extract the main lessons for women organising in this context, with a view to advancing their social, political and economic development, as well as improve their quality of life. The paper raises issues that are applicable to women in other developing countries." (Author's introduction).

Ecevit, Y. (1991) Shop Floor Control: The Ideological Construction of Turkish Women Factory Workers. In: Working Women, International Perspectives on Labour and Gender Ideology. Eds: Redclift, N. and Sinclair, M.T., (ISBN 0-415-08142-0,.) Routledge: London, pp. 56-78. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, AUTOMOBILES, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MIDDLE EAST, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, TURKEY). The sexual division of labour in Turkish industry is changing, stigmatizing social norms no longer preventing women's employment, but the ideologies of domesticity and motherhood still inhibit women's full access to all sectors of the labour market on an equal basis with men. Women's secondary status arising from their subordination as a gender determines their place in the factory, with management and employers deliberately promoting naturalistic assumptions about women's docility and submissiveness.Women sometimes participate in industrial activity but tend not to see the union as a relevant channel for voicing their demands about working conditions.Over half the married women factory workers interviewed have gained more power in household decision-making, but reproductive work remains their full responsibility - the sexual division of labour at home is still governed by ideologies of appropriate behaviour which are strongly resistant to change. (From author's conclusion).

Edgren, G. (1982) Spearheads of Industrialisation or Sweatshops in the Sun? A Critical Appraisal of Labour Conditions in Asian Export Processing Zones, Draft ARTEP-ILO paper. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MALAYSIA, MULTINATIONALS, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, PHILIPPINES, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, SINGAPORE, SOUTH ASIA, SOUTH EAST ASIA, SRI LANKA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This paper examines whether export processing zones in Asia have been able "to create more and better remunerative employment than would otherwise have been possible" (p.

1), and whether the increase in employment is "a net contribution to employment growth in the world or... has been merely a shift of jobs from industrialised countries to the low-wage tax havens in Asia" (p. 2).The answer to these questions tends to depend on the sector of production. Thus it is argued that jobs in the electronics industry would not otherwise have been created, but in the clothing and textile industries new jobs in the EPZ may well have replaced old jobs outside it, partly due to MFA export restrictions. In the textile industry depressed demand means that the transfer of production processes to EPZs has reduced employment in the industrialised countries, although mechanisation and competition between OECD countries has had a much greater impact. In electronics, however, employment in industrialised countries would have declined anyway, even if component subcontracting to EPZs had not occurred, because the operations would have been mechanised.In general, wages and working conditions in the EPZs are no worse than in comparable industrial employment in the same countries. However the use of female labour is problematic - "cutting in on a "loop" in the working lives of women, after they leave school and before they marry, does not offer any lasting benefits either to the women or to society" (p. 39). Similarly the infringement of trade union rights and virtual absence of collective bargaining from the zones. International trade union and ILO action is necessary both to support the struggle by EPZ workers to organise and to prevent "no union" agreements between multinationals and Asian governments (Taken from text).

El-Sanabary, N. (Ed) (1983) Women and Work in the Third World: Industrialization and Global Interdependence. University of California, Berkeley. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, NORTH AND SOUTH).

Elson, D. (1989) The Cutting Edge: Multinationals in the EEC Textiles and Clothing Industry. Chap. 5. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R., (ISBN 0-333-43877-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 80-110. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MULTINATIONALS, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA, TEXTILES, THE NORTH). This chapter "examines the operations of multinationals, both European and non-European, in the EEC textiles and garments industry, still the major source of manufacturing employment for women. It discusses whether the operations of these firms have been dominated by a a move abroad for cheap foreign labour, or whether a more complex set of factors is at work, including the introduction of new technology and the use of sources of cheap female labour within Europe itself." (Elson,D. and Pearson,R. 1989 p7).

Elson, D. (1989) Bound by One Thread: The Restructuring of UK Clothing and Textile Multinationals. In: Instability and Change in the World Economy. Eds: MacEwan, A. and Tabb, W.K. Monthly Review Press: New York, pp. 187-204. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MULTINATIONALS, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, TEXTILES, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE). "Diane Elson examines the way strategies of large firms in [Clothing and Textile Multinationals]

have been affected by change in the international economy. She points out that while labor cost differentials have been significant, several other factors have also played important roles; moroever, companies' decisions to expand abroad are combined with decisions to restructure production at home. Elson addresses political problems and opportunities raised by these changes, especially for women, who are such a large portion of the labor force in the clothing and textile industries. She suggests than an effective response by labor to the strategies of the multinationals must move beyond the firm and be carried out at the social level, involving the community at large as well as the labor movement" (MacEwan and Tabb, p. 13).

Elson, D. (1991) Appraising Recent Developments in the Third World Market for Nimble Fingers: Accumulation, Regulation, Organisation, Keynote address to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-26 1991. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH). This paper examines recent trends in industrialisation and the feminisation of the labour force. "Analysts of the emergence of a new female labour force have put forward the thesis of 'flexibility' as the main characteristic feature of this phase of industrialisation, accompanied by processes of 'global feminisation' of the labour force in developing and developed countries.... [This paper argues that] the argument for flexibility rests on reducing fixed labour costs to increase profit margins... [It points out] that there are limits to increasing profitability in this way since it is constrained by the physical capacities of human beings, and is a strategy that competitors can easily adopt. Innovation which increases productivity is in the long run a far more stable form of cutting costs... [It is argued] that it is important to see the present form of flexibility, for example, in relation to subcontracting and alteration of job boundaries as only one strategy of capital accumulation. The content and context of labour flexibility was significant in determining present trends. In addition, it [is] stated that flexibility should not be judged according to the male norm of a regular, full-time skilled job, since these have not been the jobs that women have had.Although an examination of international data on labour force participation does show a tendency for women's labour participation rates to rise and men's labour participation rates to decrease, it [is] suggested that this trend could be a result of increasing visibility rather than of growth due to monetization and improvement in data collection methods. Secondly, the increase and decrease of male and female participation rates need not necessarily imply substitution of men by women workers. The increase in the female share of manufacturing employment is more a reflection of an increasing share of manufacturing output from sectors of industry in which women are concentrated. Even in these sectors, recent studies have pointed out that as a result of technical change, women's share in employment is declining over time, for example in the electronics industry in Ireland, United States, and Mexico. Present trends in industrialisation in both developing and developed countries therefore do not show a uni-directional tendency towards 'feminisation' or 'masculinisation' (From Final Report of Workshop by R. Pittin and A. Chhachhi, pp. 5-6).

Elson, D. and Pearson, R. (1981) Nimble Fingers Make Cheap Workers: An analysis of women's employment in Third World manufacturing exports. Feminist Review,, pp. 87-107. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, GLOBAL STUDY USING

SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This article examines some of the implications for Third World women of employment in factories producing for export. In the late 1960s, Japanese competition made cost-reduction in labour-intensive manufacturing in the USA and Western Europe a priority. Faced with wage-floors and cost barriers to more capital-intensive production techniques, many of the processes in textile, clothing, and electronics production were shifted overseas, attracted by cheaper labour and tax and other incentives. Third world labour is also more productive, as the de facto suspension of workers' rights means that it can be more intensively controlled.It is women's labour in particular which is targetted because it is cheaper and, according to initial studies, more productive than male labour. It is argued that the reasons for this are above all social, stemming from women's subordination as a gender. The reasons typically provided by employers, embodying concepts of women's naturally nimble fingers, their naturally docile nature and the fact that they don't need to earn as much as men, are debunked and exposed as myths.It is not possible to conclude whether the impact of factory employment on women in the Third World is positive or negative, because the dialectic between capital and gender embodies contradictory processes for women. "While there is a tendency for the decomposition of some existing forms of gender subordination, such as the control of fathers and brothers over the life-styles of young women, there is also a tendency to the recomposition of new forms of gender subordination, both through the recomposition of gender ascriptive relations in new forms, and through relations which are not intrinsically gendered becoming bearers of gender." (p. 102). Moreover, instability of employment caused by the high turn-over of processing plants means that some women may escape subordination to male relatives only to lose their jobs and be left with no means of support other than prostitution.The article concludes with an examination of the struggles of women workers, which are important not merely with respect to improvements in pay and conditions but also as a means of building capacity for women's self organization and self-determination (Paraphrased from text).

Elson, D. and Pearson, R. (1981) The Subordination of Women and the Internationalization of Factory Production. In: Of Marriage and the Market: Women's subordination in international perspective. Eds: Young, K., Wolkowitz, C. and McCullagh, R. CSE Books: London, pp. 144-166. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA).

Elson, D. and Pearson, R. (1989) Nimble Fingers and Foreign Investments. Chap. 1. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R. Macmillan: London, pp. 1-11. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA). The argument that EEC employment in textile, footwear and clothing production has declined only as a result of

the relocation of capital in search of cheaper labour must be resisted. Changes in productivity, skill requirements and industrial restructuring are also important, and there has also been inward investment in these sectors.The effect of the inflow and outflow of multinational investment is differentiated by gender. Heavy domestic responsibilities mean that women are more constrained than men in their ability to take up work opportunities when a multinational is established. When it departs it is women's unpaid labour which expands to help sustain the community, and they are more likely to have to leave the labour force.Several general conclusions can be drawn from the cases presented in the following chapters. Firstly, there is no generalised tendency for multinationals to relocate all female-labour intensive operations away from EEC countries. Secondly, the quantity, quality and stability of employment for women in multinationals is problematic. Thirdly, women's action in opposing the closure of multinationals is constrained by their lack of resources relative to capital. Fourthly, in order to meet better women's needs multinationals must become less concerned with profit maximisation and more accountable to the community. (Taken from text).

Engracia, L.T. and Herrin, A.N. (1984) Employment Structure of Female Migrants to the Cities in the Philippines. In: Women in the Urban Industrial Workforce: Southeast Asia and East Asia. Ed: Jones, G. Australian National University: Canberra, pp. 293-303. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, PHILIPPINES, ROLE OF MIGRATION, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH).

Enloe, C.H. (1983) Women Textile Workers in the Militarization of Southeast Asia. Chap. 17. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 407-425. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH EAST ASIA, SOUTH KOREA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). Women textile workers have been in the forefront of political activism in every industrializing country, but in the newly industrializing countries of Asia it has been extremely difficult for women textile workers to protest. Unions, when allowed at all, are coopted by the companies and the government, and the military and police are quick to intervene in labour disputes. Nevertheless, the very conditions that make collective action in Asia so difficult are also generating political protest. In 1977 South Korean women textile workers became one of the catalysts in the popular protest that eventually shook the entire state, despite (because of?) the fact that South Korea had become one of the most militarized societies in Asia. Furthermore, these workers were aware that it was an increasingly integrated capitalist international political economy that tightened the link between their labour conditions and South Korea's militarized regime. Competition between capitalists shapes the sexual division of labour, and women textile workers must organise worldwide to increase solidarity (Taken from pp. 420-422).

Erler, G. (1988) The German Paradox - Non-feminization of the Labor Force and Post-industrial Social Policies. Chap. 13. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 231-242. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EUROPE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME,

NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE NORTH, WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). Since 1960 the percentage of women working outside the home in West Germany has fallen in relation to most other industrial countries. This is a function of the labour market, the kind of work into which women are socialized being in decline, and because many women organize their working lives around the care they give to their families, giving up employment or taking part-time work. In consequence, it is argued that social policy must promote equal value for women's work both in the work place, acknowledging women's possibilities for autonomy and independence from individual men, and in the home, providing independent financial security for family caregivers. At the same time, policy must increase the options for men to share in caring work (Taken from text).

Eviota, E.U. (1992) The Political Economy of Gender: Women and the Sexual Division of Labour in the Philippines. Zed Press, London. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, ASIA, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, MARGINALISATION THESIS, PHILIPPINES, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH EAST ASIA, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). This book explores the relationship between the sexual division of labour and economic development in the Philippines, from the precolonial era to the present. Chapter 11 is concerned with the sexual division of labour in the contemporary period, and focuses particularly on women's work. After the Second World War a limited industrialization programme based on import substitution was implemented, which favoured large-scale, urban and capital-intensive production. The proportions of both men and women employed in manufacturing declined up to the 1970s, but to a greater extent for women. By 1975 the proportion of women in manufacturing employment was less than that of men for the first time in the post-war period, as 'male' mechanical, electrical and transport sectors expanded their share of total manufacturing and men increased their share of employment in the traditionally 'female' sectors of footwear, apparel and made-up textiles.Since the 1960s, industrialization has been mainly for export, and there has been massive foreign investment. Women's employment in manufacturing has increased, but they are concentrated in the non-waged sector of low-productivity, low-paying and subcontracted piece-work. There is a clear preference for men in those categories of employment which are more directly connected to industrialization, while women remain in stagnant sectors (such as services), in subsistence activities in agriculture and trade, or in non-productive sectors (such as the state apparatus). Where women are in modern sector employment, these are usually in labor-intensive areas offering little job stability, employed in order to cut labour costs. By and large, women are left out of the industrial labor force.Eviota provides some specific examples of women's employment in agribusiness (banana packing), garment manufacturing, textile manufacturing, and microelectronics, and the way in which the gender-based characteristics of women's work converge with women's position in the labour market. She argues that technological change in an industry usually leads to "masculinization", as high labor productivity attracts higher wages which in turn attract male labor. Therafter, however, as technological change opens up in other industries offering wages higher still, men leave and "feminization" occurs as women are brought in to replace them and wages are lowered again.

Farrands, C. (1992) Restructuring for 1992: Training Women to Meet Shortfalls in Technical and Managerial Skills. Chap. 17. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and

Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 201-211. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE). "Based on a survey of managements' responses to the challenges of 1992, the author argues that the survival of the garments industry in the UK and in the other older EC countries depends on the availability of trained managers who can cope with the demands of new technology. The training should be geared to giving technical expertise, as well as a good understanding of financial and marketing strategies. Women, who are traditionally the majority of workers in this sector, are in a good position to acquire these skills. The paper draws our attention to the need to redesign the existing management courses to meet the demands of women and of industry. The potential role of the European Commission in initiating and sustaining such training programmes is also described in some detail." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Faulkner, A.H. and Lawson, V.A. (1991) Employment Versus Empowerment: A Case Study of the Nature of Women's Work in Ecuador. Journal of Development Studies, 27, pp. 16-47. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, ECUADOR, IMPACT NEGATIVE, LATIN AMERICA, MARGINALISATION THESIS, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). "This research re-evaluates the female marginalisation hypothesis through an examination of the changing nature of work in Latin America and of women's incorporation into paid employment. The authors combine labour market segmentation theory, which explains the emergence of low level occupations in terms of capitalist restructuring, with feminist theory, which explains why women become concentrated in inferior positions. They operationalise this reconceptualisation through an empirical analysis of women's and men's relative occupational position across economic sectors and through time in Ecuador. A key finding is that women's and men's occupations are differentiated it terms of control over economic resources and control over the labour process and that this worsens over time." (Studies on Women Abstract, Vol. 10, 1992, p213).

Feldman, S. (1988a) The Politics of Informalization: Increasing Opportunities for Women's Exploitation, Paper presented to American Sociological Association Annual Convention, Athens, Georgia, 20-23 August, 1988. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INFORMAL SECTOR, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This paper reviews the contemporary debate on the nature of the informal sector in the light of global economic restructuring and "the political strategies and capabilities generated to support and legitimate the sets of relations that characterize production within this sector" (p. 3). In the context of an ideological climate of individualism and self-reliance, private sector expansion amidst public sector decline, and a push for export-led growth, many developing countries have experienced increased private investment in the informal sector. These shifts have disadvantaged the many women who work in subcontracting or homeworking. Domestic responsibilities, intensified by the curtailment of state provided services under Structural Adjustment Programmes, limit their ability to become entrepreneurs, state involvement in ensuring labour protection is minimal, and women workers find themselves isolated and invisible (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Feldman, S. (1988b) Crisis, Islam and Gender in Bangladesh: The Social Construction of a Female Labor Force. (Prepared for Workshop on Economic Crisis, Household Survival Strategies and Women's Work) Department of Rural Sociology, Cornell University, USA. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, BANGLADESH, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH ASIA, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES AND FML, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). This paper explores the impact of the 1980s global economic crisis on Bangladeshi households, and especially the ways in which responses to the crisis are manifested in new patterns of agricultural and non-farm labor exchanges, particularly among young, unmarried women. These new patterns of agricultural and non-farm labor relations correspond to the transformation of the Bangladesh rural economy, epitomized by the consolidation of land and capital in the hands of large scale agricultural producers, and Bangladesh's New Industrial Policy initiated in response to IMF, World Bank and bilateral aid demands for economic restructuring. Over 200 000 jobs were created in export manufacturing between 1982 and 1986, the majority held by young, educated, unmarried women.The new industrial policy is examined in the context of employment strategies popular during the crisis period, the articulation of an ideological climate legitimating the formation of a cadre of women workers, and the new gender relations that have emerged in this process. (Taken from author's introduction).

Ferber, M.A. and Berg, H.M. (1991) Labour Force Participation of Women and the Sex Ratio: A Cross-Country Analysis. Review of Social Economy, 49, (1) pp. 2-19. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). "The well-known relationship between the sex ratio (the ratio of men to women in the society) and women's labor force participation rate has been widely interpreted to be the result of women's poor marriage prospects when fewer potential partners are available. In this view, frequently referred to as the marriage sqeeze hypothesis, it is therefore the sex ratios, the number of men for every 100 women, that is the cause, and women's entry into the labor market that is the effect. There is no doubt that a low sex ratio results in a larger proportion of single women and that these women are more likely to work for pay than wives. It is the broader conclusion of the "marriage squeeze hypothesis," that women will be highly prized as wives and mothers and treated better when the sex ratio is high, that deserves critical examination. There is, in fact, a growing body of evidence showing that women, including wives and mothers, will be valued more and that their life chances will be better when they are economically active outside the household. Building on this research, and going beyond it to examine its implications, [the authors] propose what may be termed the "labor force participation hypothesis," which views women's labor force participation as one of the determinants of the sex ratio" (p. 2).

Fernandez-Kelly, M.P. (1983) For We Are Sold, I and My People - Women and Industry in Mexico's Frontier. State University of New York Press,, New York. (ACADEMIC, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE

DATA, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). On the basis of systematic research and personal experience, this book uncovers some of the social costs of modern production. Fernandez-Kelly peels off the labels - "Made in Taiwan", "Assembled in Mexico" - and the trade names - RCA, Sony, General Motors, United Technologies, General Electric, Mattel, Chrysler, American Hospital Supply - to reveal the hidden human dimensions of present-day multinational manufacturing procedures. Focusing on Cuidad Juarez, located at the US-Mexico border, Fernandez-Kelly examines the reality of maquiladoras, the hundreds of assembly plants that since the 1960s have been used by the Mexican government as part of its development strategy. Most maquiladoras function as subsidiaries of large US-based corporations and a majority of the employees are women. Drawing from current knowledge in political economy and anthropology, this study focuses on one common denominator of the international division of labour - a growing proletariat of Third World women exploited by what some experts are calling "the global assembly line". (Summary on back of book).

Fernandez-Kelly, M.P. (1983) Mexican Border Industrialisation, Female Labor Force Participation and Migration. Chap. 9. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 205-223. (ACADEMIC, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). This chapter explores the impact on migratory patterns of industrialisation along the US-Mexico border, with a particular emphasis on the way in which such patterns are differentiated by gender, class and family organization. A central aim of the Border Industrialisation Program was to generate employment, specifically for male workers being shed from US agriculture and more generally to curb illegal migration to the US. However, the multinational subsidiaries established, producing clothing, textiles and electronics goods for export, employ a workforce which is 85% female. Moreover, contrary to expectations that recent rural migrants to the Border areas would find employment in the factories, the majority of employees in the area studied, while migrant, were from urban or semi-urban backgrounds and had moved to the border in childhood with their parents.In the absence of other employment opportunities, many young male migrants to the border areas become undocumented or illegal aliens in the US, more able to risk the hazards involved and to remain away for long periods because of their relative autonomy from the household and particularly from domestic and reproductive functions.The wages of female maquiladora workers are often fundamental to the well-being of their family, since their husbands, brothers and sons are often unemployed or underemployed, and may have deserted. In part, this explains why some women have reversed the usual trend in occupational mobility by moving to the factory from white collar work, which, although more prestigious, is generally less well paid.However, permanence in a maquila job averages only three years. Thereafter women may be laid off, or leave voluntarily as a result of domestic responsibilities, a process often encouraged by the tedious and exhausting nature of the work and the lack of promotion prospects. In the face of inadequate income from males, many women seek a return to work later in life, but a preference for young maquila workers puts them in the

same position as many men, forced to risk illegal migration to the US. Domestic responsibilities mean that long-term migration is less feasible for females than males, and most female migrants to the US have to return frequently.

Fernandez-Kelly, M.P. (1989) International Development and Industrial Restructuring: The Case of Garment and Electronics Industries in Southern California. In: Instability and Change in the World Economy. Eds: MacEwan, A. and Tabb, W.K. Monthly Review Press: New York, pp. 147-165. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, HOMEWORKING, NORTH AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SUBCONTRACTING, THE NORTH, USA). "Fernandez-Kelly uses case studies of the garment and electronics industries in southern California to point out the way the international operation of firms in these industries has lead [sic] to a dramatic restructuring - not simply a decline or deindustrialization - within the country. Her study is a powerful antidote to an overly simplified view of the world economy, in which firms' locational decisions are dictated purely by a global search for cheap labour" (Introduction, MacEwan and Tabb, pp. 12-13.Processes of restructuring are made doubly complex by the increasing targeting of women, immigrants and refugees as a supply of labour for manufacturing, which has highly contradictory outcomes for labour. "On the one hand, the internationalization of production has diminished the potential of traditional workers' organizations. On the other hand, new class configurations and entrepreneurial options are emerging for vulnerable sectors of the working class" (From author's conclusions).

Findlay, P. (1989) Fighting Plant Closure: Women in the Plessey Occupation. Chap. 10. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R., (ISBN 0-333-43877-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 183-206. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE). This chapter examines the losses and gains of a group of women workers in Scotland arising out of plant closure. "The close interaction between the women's actions and the life of the community outside the factory is documented, and the possibilities and the problems of solidarity action by other groups of workers employed by the same firm is assessed." (Elson, D. and Pearson, R. 1989 p8) DE.

Foo, G.H.C. and Lim, L.Y.C. (1987) Poverty, Ideology and Women Export Factory Workers in Asia. In: Women, Poverty and Ideology in Asia. Eds: Afshar, H. and Agarwal, B. Macmillan: London. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT POSITIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MALAYSIA, MANUFACTURING, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This chapter makes the following arguments about poverty, ideology and women export factory workers in Asia. First, in the context of their own countries, these women are mostly not poor by origin, or as a consequence of their employment, which is motivated by reasons other than absolute

poverty or desperate economic need, and in fact lifts the women and their families out of poverty, substantially enhancing their living standards. Second, the sexual division of labor, pre-existing gender inequality, and prevailing ideologies about women's proper roles constrain their labour market opportunities and participation, thereby determining the pattern of their employment in female-intensive export factories. _Third, although they emphasise women's reproductive role in the domestic sphere, traditional ideologies do not necessarily conflict with and may even foster women's productive role in the domestic sphere, such as their employment in export factories. Many women welcome this employment as an opportunity to fulfil certain traditional obligations, even in the absence of economic need, and ideology -- such as the ideology of parent repayment -- may be more important than poverty in motivating their employment.Fourth, wage-employment in modern export factories does not drastically change women's ideologies with respect to the family and women's roles within it, but it does endow them with greater personal autonomy which they value and exercise, as in independent living and the choice of a marriage partner. Some of them also expect more shared responsibility between husband and wife than is common in traditional society. This perhaps partial embrace of "modern" values of independence, individualism and equality represents the biggest break with traditional values resulting from modern wage-employment for women and its concomitants of higher education and rural-urban migration. Fifth, at least in the Malaysian case, class ideology remains underdeveloped among the women factory workers, as a result of gender-specific ideologies and role constraints, and the locally - and historically - specific circumstances of export manufacturing in this country.In short, the existing evidence from the Asian countries which have the longest experience in female-intensive export manufacturing and the largest number of women employed in such manufacturing strongly challenges the common assumption that women export factory workers in Asia suffer from poverty and backward ideology and a hypothesized conflict between the two. We suggest instead that poverty is both less serious than is often assumed, and less important than ideology in motivating women's factory employment. Women factory workers' ideology itself is both rational, and facilitates rather than conflicts with their employment. Factory employment, by improving the economic status of women workers and their families, and by contributing to changes in ideology in a more individualistic and egalitarian direction, may also be seen as a historically progressive development for the women and their societies (From authors' conclusion).

Fujita, K. (1991) Women Workers and Flexible Specialization: The Case of Tokyo. Economy and Society, 20, pp. 260-282. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, JAPAN, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, PACIFIC (DEVELOPED), THE NORTH). "Restructuring in flexible specialisation in the post-yen shock era (since 1985) has created new and different employment opportunities for women in Tokyo and has led to a more flexible use of women workers so that corporations can maintain flexibility (e.g. in developing new products and diversifying businesses) for quicker response to market changes or for the creation of new market demand. This paper explores effects of restructuring on the female labour market in the information industry in Tokyo's information-industry district. The central argument is

around the skill formation of women and a flexible workforce. The paper concludes with some thoughts on relations between flexible specialisation and patriarchy. (Women's Studies Abstract Vol 10 pp11-12).

Gaeta, R., Belussi, F. and Mitter, S. (1992) Pronta Moda: The New Business Ventures for Women in Italy. Chap. 7. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 103-106. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EMERGENCE OF WOMEN AS ENTREPRENEURS, EUROPE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, ITALY, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). "This paper analyses the rise of a new type of women entrepreneurs in Italy who with the help of computer-aided technology, have done extremely well in the "instant fashion" market. The author explains how these women provide an Italian answer to the Japanese quick response strategy." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Gaidzanwa, R. (1991) The Ideology of Domesticity and the Struggles of Women Workers Within and Outside Political Parties: The Case of Zambia, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, 1991. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CLOTHING, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, EMERGENCE OF WOMEN AS ENTREPRENEURS, IMPACT POSITIVE, INFORMAL SECTOR, SECONDARY DATA, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, ZIMBABWE). "In Zimbabwe, an ideology of domesticity has informed and influenced the education and actions of several generations of women, although differently represented and operationalised in relation to race, class, and historical context. At present, with limited wage labour and reduced value of income, some working class women have parleyed the domestic craftwork of crocheting into international trade. Through barter across borders and mutual support within a network of women traders, women have created new sources of wealth, justified through reference to maternal obligations and provision for the family. Using sale of domestic goods to secure stronger currencies and to purchase luxury items for resale, these women challenge state policies, and establish themselves as international entrepreneurs, in the process expanding their own horixons and knowledge. Women are concurrently confronting the state, supporting the state, and using the state. They have forced action against body searches and harassment, and precipitated debates concerning the ostensible and actual effects of government policy, and its differential application in relation to class and gender. They have supported the state by reducing group pressures for economic reform (and the individual entrepreneurial nature of the women's socio-economic response has limited concerted action); and they have used the state through manipulation of policy and procedure" (From Final Report of Workshop, R. Pittin and A. Chhachhi, p 9).

Gallin, R.S. (1989) Women and Work in Rural Taiwan: Building a Contextual Model Linking Employment and Health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, pp. 374-385. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, EAST ASIA, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, TAIWAN, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This paper is based on ethnographic research in a rural Taiwanese village in which married women with children are a major source of labor for local industry. Responsibility for job and home exposes these women to repeated stress that can increase their susceptibility to illness. Existing explanatory

models linking employment and women's health, however, do not explain adequately the women's response to their wage labor and the consequences of the social aspects of their work on their health. This paper describes women's work and its meaning, and discusses the way in which micro phenomena such as meanings and health states are linked to macro phenomena such as national political-economic processes and the world capitalist system.

Gallin, R.S. (1990) Women and the Export Industry in Taiwan: The Muting of Class Consciousness. Chap. 8. In: Women Workers and Global Restructuring. Ed: Ward, K., (ISBN 0-87546-162-X,.) ILR Press, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University: Ithaca, New York, pp. 179-192. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EAST ASIA, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, TAIWAN, THE SOUTH). "Rita Gallin focuses on Taiwanese women, who have been incorporated into the labor force during Taiwan's economic growth but have been unable to form active women's unions or organizations. She finds that patriarchal norms of hard work, subordination to men's and family interests, and compliance support ideologies favour women's economic participation before they are married but discourage women from working outside the home after they are married. As a consequence, these ideologies about women workers inhibit a commitment by married women to work outside the home and their potential solidarity." (Ward, K., (1990) p20) DE.

Gebbert, C. (1992) Taylorism or Human-centred Technology? Evaluating Alternative Paths of Technology in Germany. Chap. 4. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 53-70. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE NORTH, WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). "In the clothing industry, as in the rest of the manufacturing sector, ther is no single best technical solution for the future. It depends, more than ever, on achieving that optimum combination of technology, organisation and skills which will be suitable to meet the flexibility required by specific production programmes or market niches. The recent research in Germany clearly indicates that, despite the advancement of computer-aided machines, it is the shortage of skilled workers that still proves the most crucial bottleneck in the efficient use of expensive machineries in the garment industry.A close study of the alternative modes of technological development - in sewing machines and in the hanging conveyor belt systems - reveals the advantages of human-centred technology over Taylorism. The author argues that there is a strong case for promoting counter-Tayloristic methods of work organisation, particularly in a society where it becomes increasingly difficult to recruit skilled women to an industry that has an image of low pay and negligible career progression. The author shows how the use of interactive programming and intelligent workplace terminals facilitates the use of flexible skills of women workers, that have been substantially enlarged through the "Humanisation of Work" programme promoted by the German government. However to make the human centred-technology workable and acceptable, a fresh approach is needed

with respect to systems of payments and work monitoring." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Gensior, S. and Schöler, B. (1989) Women's Employment and Multinationals in the Federal Republic of Germany. Chap. 4. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R., (ISBN 0-333-43877-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 60-79. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). This chapter gives an overview of the impact of multinationals on women's employment in the Federal Republic of Germany. The Federal Republic of Germany, like the UK, is the site of operations of both domestic and foreign multinationals, but has considerably higher wage costs. This chapter presents quantitative evidence on the employment of women by multinationals and examines some areas of debate, such as the extent to which multinationals have `exported' women's jobs from the Federal Republic. (Elson,D. and Pearson,R. 1989 p7).

van Geuns, R. (1992) An Aspect of Informalisation of Women's Work in a High-tech Age: Turkish Sweatshops in the Netherlands. Chap. 10. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 125-137. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, NETHERLANDS, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SUBCONTRACTING, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). "Nearly half of the clothing output in Amsterdam comes from Turkish sweatshops which make use of illegal foreign workers or of legal but unemployed Turkish, Moroccan and black African women and men. While the designing of garments is carried out with computer-aided machines on the main factory floors, it is the cheap, undeclared labour of ethnic contract clothing firms that provide the sought-after flexibility in the assembling stage. In this paper, the author documents the factors that explain the Dutch industry's heavy reliance on "black" labour in lieu of computers." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Ghandhi, N. (1991) Purple and Red Banners: Joint Strategies for Women Workers in the Informal Sector, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studes, The Hague, April 15-26, 1991. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, INFORMAL SECTOR, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). Gandhi documents the history of women and trade unionism in India, focusing on the contradictions between gender and class and with a particular emphasis on the informal sector. Common issues between the labour movement and the women's movement are highlighted, which might form the basis for a future alliance between them in order to develop joint strategies.

Goldstein, N. (1989) Silicon Glen: Women and Semiconductor Multinationals. Chap. 6. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R., (ISBN 0-333-43877-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 111-128. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES,

DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MULTINATIONALS, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE). This chapter "analyses women's employment in semi-conductor production in Scotland's `silicon glen' generated by inward investment from American and Japanese multinationals. This is often held to be a great success story, providing thousands of new jobs for women. A more sceptical view is taken here, especially about the future prospects for women's employment in the context of automation and re-integration of different stages of production." (Elson,D. and Pearson,R. 1989 p7) DE.

Goldstein, N. (1989) Gender and the Restructuring of High Tech Multinational Corporations, Paper presented in the panel, Political Economy of Direct Foreign Investment at conference on Global Imbalances: Alternative Perspectives on the International Economy, American University, May 26-28 1989. (ACADEMIC, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT POSITIVE, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE). "Rapid growth of and technological change in high tech microelectronics multinationals in Scotland during the early 1980s was accompanied by significant change in labor market practices and the structure of work. The industry had originally located in Scotland to tap the relatively inexpensive rural "married woman" labor supply to fill manual assembly and processing jobs. To respond to newly important labor-related costs associated with new technologies, management reorganized work and hiring in a way that improved the jobs and benefits of and managerial attitude toward workers all along the occupation spectrum. The economic rationale of "hiring lower on the skill chain" replaced the rigid divisions of the Dual Labor Market (DLM) and New International Division of Labor (NIDL) models" (Author's abstract).

Gothoskar, S. (1991) Declining Employment of Women in the Organised Sector, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisatin, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-26, 1991. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, INFORMAL SECTOR, PHARMACEUTICALS, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, SUBCONTRACTING, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). This paper documents for India "that women's employment has declined in the traditional industries, particularly textiles, as well as in the modern sectors such as pharmaceuticals, where companies stopped recruiting women from the 1960s onwards; in the 1990s, all recruitment in the permanent categories was stopped. However, the decline in women's employment in the organised sector is offset by the increasing trend towards decentralisation of production which has led to a net increase in female employment in the unorganised sector. Rather than substitution, this seems to be a case of transfer of jobs from the organised to the unorganised sector" (From Final Report of Workshop by R. Pittin and A. Chhachhi, p. 7), explained by employers in terms of the need for cheaper and more flexible labour. The failure of the unions to represent women workers' interests is documented and some suggestions made for future strategies to improve women's position.

Green, S. (1983) Silicon Valley's Women Workers: A Theoretical Analysis of Sex-segregation in the Electronics Industry Labor Market. Chap. 12. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 273-331. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, ELECTRONICS, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE NORTH, USA, WELFARE OUTCOMES). Green uses case study material on female workers in Californian assembly electronics in order to assess the theoretical validity of the segmented labour market model. Two questions are of particular concern, namely why internationalized industries demonstrate a world-wide preference for a female labour force, and why and how the character of such work-forces varies between the US and Third World. The segmented labour market model is found to fall short of answering these questions, but its explanatory power is enhanced by the incorporation of socialist feminist analysis. The latter relates women's disadvantaged position in the labour market to their secondary status in the family, which allows them to be singled out for recruitment into the least advantageous jobs sectors and excluded from better paying work. It also helps to explain that the incorporation of women into paid work is not sufficient in itself to improve their social and economic position because they remain subordinated both as a class and as a gender. (Paraphrased from author's introduction).

Greenhalgh, S. (1988) Intergenerational Contracts: Familial Roots of Sexual Stratification in Taiwan. In: A Home Divided - Women and Income in the Third World. Eds: Dwyer, D. and Bruce, J. Stanford University Press: Stanford, pp. 39-70. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EAST ASIA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, TAIWAN, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). Greenhalgh recounts how Taiwanese parents create differential contracts with male and female children. Male children are bound by a longer and somewhat looser contract of obligation. They must achieve and earn over the long term to support and honour their ageing parents. Females leave the family at marriage and so must repay their debt for nurturance and education before they are absorbed into their husbands' families. Greenhalgh contends that this system has operated in the presence of modern educational and employment opportunities to increase girls' educational attainment and their participation in formal wage labour, but that it has not resulted in an increasingly autonomous younger generation of females. Rather, she argues that the participation of young women in export-oriented production lines is a modernized version of an older family strategy that increases the value of sons' contributions to parents by using the income generated by their sisters to pay for and prolong the sons' education. Within the currently observed inter-generational contract, women's earning opportunities give them little new power and perhaps have served to subjugate them longer if not more severely.

Gringer, C.E. (1993) Inscribing Gender in Rural Development: Industrial Homework in two Midwestern Communities. Rural Sociology, 58, pp. 30-52. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF

FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, HOMEWORKING, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, NORTH AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE NORTH, USA). 'A resurgence of informal economic work, such as homeworking, occurred in some rural areas during the 1970s and the 1980s. In two midwestern communities, an employer of industrial homeworkers was recruited in an effort to boost the local economy with new jobs. In these communities, ideas about women's roles in households and the labor market are crucial to the states' ability to couple industrial homeworking with rural community development. Industrial homeworking as development in the United States shows how development goals support and maintain the sexual division of labor in households and in the local labor market. Personal interviews and archival documents form the basis of the case study data. These data are content-analzed for themes about the process of development and the relationship of the local states and industrial firms' (BIDS abstract).

Hacker, S.L. and Elcorobairutia, C. (1987) Women workers in the Mondragon System of Industrial Cooperatives. Gender and Society, 1, pp. 358-379. (ACADEMIC, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT NEGATIVE, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SPAIN, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). "A feminist analysis of the Basque Mondragon system of industrial cooperatives suggests that women fare somewhat better in cooperatives than in private firms in employment, earnings, and job security. Market phenomena and the family as basic economic unit affect women workers negatively, as does increasing professionalism in the technical core of the system. Similarities in gender stratification and segregation in capitalist, socialist, and cooperative workplaces call into question the ability of all three to deal adequately with gender equality. Full workplace democracy may depend on the distribution of goods and services based on need rather than work or the wage, socialisation of homework and childcare, de-gendering of technical and scientific knowledge, its dissemination as widely as possible throughout the workplace and the community, and the inclusion of all members of the community in major decisions. The article ends with modest suggestions for alleviating one pervasive problem in large industrial cooperatives - the concentration of technical and scientific skill among a few, primarily men." (Studies on Women Abstracts Vol 7 1989 p18).

Hadjicostandi, J. (1990) Façon: Women's Formal and Informal Work in the Garment Industry in Kavala, Greece. Chap. 4. In: Women Workers and Global Restructuring. Ed: Ward, K., (ISBN 0-87546-162-X,.) ILR Press, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University: Ithaca, New York, pp. 64-81. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GREECE, HOMEWORKING, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INFORMAL SECTOR, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, NORTH AND SOUTH, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, WESTERN EUROPE). "Joanna Hadjicostandi examines the semi-peripheral country of Greece, where women are engaged in the production of garments for export. She finds many similarities between the position of women factory workers and women home or piece workers, although the latter work many more hours (twelve to sixteen hours a day). As in other countries, the women's wages are considered supplemental to the men's, resulting in no change in the household division of labor. She finds that because of cultural norms, women are reluctant to organize." (Ward, K., (1990) p18) DE.

Hagen, E. and Jenson, J. (1988) Paradoxes and Promises - Work and Politics in the Postwar Years. Chap. 1. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 3-16. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, FEMINISATION THESIS, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF NORTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE NORTH). This introductory chapter sets out a number of themes which have arisen around the intensification of women's participation in the paid labour force of advanced industrialized countries. The first is the great diversity in women's work experience, and the second that the feminization of the labour force cannot be explained in terms of a fixed set of factors, "because at the same time as women's participation rates began to rise the economies of the advanced industrialized countries were undergoing substantial structural changes". For example, while more women are involved in paid work, programs designed to promote women's labour market equality have declined in the context of economic crisis and neo-liberalism. The third theme involves the theoretical rethinking of categories of female employment to take account of the variety of women's labour market experience, and acknowledgement that women and men have new opportunities to construct and reconstruct social identities in the productive as well as the reproductive spheres (Taken from text).

Harris, L. (1983) Industrialisation, Women and Working Class Politics in the West of Ireland. Capital and Class, 19, pp. 100-117. (ACADEMIC, CHEMICALS/PLASTICS, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, REPUBLIC OF IRELAND, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, TEXTILES, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). "A mass entry of women into industry has been the result of state-sponsored industrialization in Ireland. This study of women at work in multinational enterprises in Co. Mayo examines the implications for trade unionism. It is argued that while women have weakened the possibilities for trade union militancy in the private sector, the increased female presence in the labour force will have a positive long term effect on working class politics in the Republic, since women now have a voice outside the home" (Summary at head of text).

Harris, L. (1989) Women's Response to Multinationals in County Mayo. Chap. 8. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R., (ISBN 0-333-43877-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 144-165. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT UNKNOWN, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, REPUBLIC OF IRELAND, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE, WOMENS VOICES). This chapter "explores the reactions of women in the rural west of Ireland to the arrival of foreign multinationals, situating this in the context of women's historical experience. The importance is stressed of a realistic assessment of the alternatives open to women, in understanding their reactions." (Elson,D. and Pearson,R. 1989 p8).

Hein, C. (1984) Jobs for the Girls: Export Manufacturing in Mauritius. International Labour Review, 123, pp. 251-265. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO

MLF, MANUFACTURING, MAURITIUS, PRELIMINARY, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "This paper essentially analyses the consequences on women's employment of the creation of an Export Processing Zone in Mauritius in 1970. Overall 80% of the employment created was taken by women. The paper begins by considering the limited opportunities faced by women until recently before analysing the supply and demand sides of the industrial labour market on the basis of a survey of women workers and interviews with a sample of employers.It is noted that women maintain a low social status and their economic roles are heavily discounted. Men and women find it normal that women should not earn as much as men in comparable jobs because they are in general not the primary income earner and their own needs are less. As if to underly this, labour legislation sets minimum wages for women lower than those for men. Further women are easily subordinated given their docility in the household, whilst they actually enjoy this oppressed work because of the economic freedom it provides along with the possibility of meeting other young workers. The physical nature of much of the work is another major problem.Meanwhile on the positive side one could argue that such employment has provided women with income earning opportunities in the formal sector at the same time as high male unemployment" (Abstract from annotated bibliography by J. Griggs, Department of Economics, University of Warwick).

Hein, C. (1986) The Feminization of Industrial Employment in Mauritius: A Case Study of Sex Segregation. In: Sex Inequalities in Urban Employment in the Third World. Eds: Anker, R. and Hein, C. Macmillan: London, pp. 277-311. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CORE, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, IMPACT POSITIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, MAURITIUS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). This country study of export manufacturing in Mauritius argues that it is debatable whether or not women are disadvantaged by labour market segregation. The Government of Mauritius set up an EPZ in the early 1970s as a means of reducing unemployment which was perceived as basically a male problem, and export manufacturing is the only sector where significant numbers of new jobs have created since the mid-1970s. However, most of these jobs have gone to women, with women's share of industrial employment and of formal sector employment as a whole continually increasing. An important reason for this is the lower minimum wage for women, reflecting women's low status in the society and the general discounting of their economic role. In conjunction with general societal norms, women workers do not perceive themselves as breadwinners and also often see working as a temporary phase in their lives, such that they accept that they do not earn as much as men. Women also appreciate factory work for the opportunity it offers them to meet their peers, in a society where their movement and social contacts are restricted.Sex segregation of occupations is often to the disadvantage of women because they are restricted to occupations with low wages and little opportunity for advancement. However, in the Mauritian context, where almost one-third of all employees work as agricultural labourers and male unemployment is high, industrial jobs are relatively good jobs. The result of the survey of women factory workers show that they consider their jobs as an improvement on the traditional female occupations. However, physical fatigue is one important problem, probably related to poor nutritional status. The nutrition of workers should be improved, and ways of reducing physical effort in garment and electronics manufacturing investigated.

The concentration of women in industry does involve the exploitation of a weaker socio-economic group, yet it has provided women with an opportunity to increase their participation in the modern formal sector of the economy. (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Hensman, R. (1988) The Gender Division of Labour in Manufacturing Industry: A Case Study in India. Institute of Development Studies, Brighton. 31 pages. (Discussion Paper No 253, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex) (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, HOMEWORKING, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, INFORMAL SECTOR, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). "In India, trade unions have fought against the dismissal of women who get married or pregnant, and for facilities like maternity benefits and workplace creches which enable them to continue in employment. However, their struggles for protective legislation and benefits reveal an assumption that women will continue to bear the entire responsibility for work in the home, even when they take up paid employment. This attitude has prevented unions from fighting against job segregation and also tends to exclude women from active participation in unions. They have, however, fought for equal wages for equal work within the same workplace.Many employers have responded by ceasing to recruit women into organised industry because equal wages with protection and extra facilities make women more expensive and less flexible than men. But they are increasingly subcontracting work to the unorganised sector where women are still employed in large numbers. Thus women are being pushed out of better-paid and secure employment into low-paid insecure work or unwaged work in the home. This process will continue unless unions oppose job segregation, fight for equality of conditions in small-scale industry and struggle for demands which are based on acceptance of equal male responsibility for work in the home" (Author's summary).

Hensman, R. (1991) Urban Working Class Women: The Need for Autonomy, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-26, 1991. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, ASIA, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DERIVATIVE, ELECTRONICS, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, HOMEWORKING, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, PHARMACEUTICALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, SUBCONTRACTING, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). "There has been no lack of urban working class women's struggles in India, and these have frequently taken an organised form; women have formed their own organisations as well as participating actively in more general movements. These struggles have often resulted in significant gains, improvements in their conditions and status. Despite their militancy, however, women have continued to remain concentrated at the lower end of the labour market, an underprivileged section of the labour force; even their successes have at times been turned against them. Why is this? The cases examined here suggest that one of the main reasons has been the failure to challenge aspects of the gender division of labour, especially in the home. The paper also examines other social conditions which differentially affect women, and asks why they have never been tackled systematically" (Author's introduction).

Heyzer, N. (1982) From Rural Subsistence to an Industrial Peripheral Work Force: An Examination of Female Malaysian Migrants and Capital Accumulation in Singapore. In: Women and Development. Ed: Beneria, L. Praeger: New York, pp. 179-202. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SINGAPORE, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). It is fairly widely believed that an important element in achieving equality for women is their integration into wage labor. This integration is assumed to bring about opportunities for economic freedom and to provide an important channel for realizing some of their potential by active participation in a growing modern industrial sector. For rural women in particular, this integration is frequently seen as a form of liberation from the domestic and traditional sectors. The underlying assumption is that once women are integrated into modern wage labor, a dual process is generated for their emancipation. First, they are removed from feudal exploitation and second, technological access creates opportunities that prepare women for skilled jobs. Also, there would be a basis for women to organize collectively for their rights within their work place, alongside male workers.This chapter, however, captures a different reality. Instead of the emergence of a stable female work force integrated into a system that allows the improvement of women's position, we witness what seems to be a not-too-stable migrant sector that lives within a limiting framework of compulsion. There is the rural world to which the migrants are tied in a variety of ways. There is the economic compulsion of having to earn in the cities in order to supplement rural subsistence. There is the administrative compulsion that prevents migrants from being assimilated and making permanent homes in their host country. There is also an occupational compulsion: not only must the migrants be employed while in the host country (on pain of being expelled), but they are limited to certain kinds of employment. Women migrants are used as a semiskilled urban work force concentrated in low-skill industries: industries with high accident rates, industries that pay very low or urban subsistence wages, and industries that are highly susceptible to the fluctuations of the international market economy. In fact, the formation of this semiskilled work force appears to be an essential part in the maintenance of the overall stability; the inequality generated by the system is borne by a labor force generally known to be docile, difficult to arouse to militant action, and relatively cowed by threats.

Heyzer, N. (1987) Women Workers in South East Asia: Development, Subordination and Emancipation. (ISBN 0-335-15384-4) Open University Press, Milton Keynes. 138 pages. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, ASIA, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH EAST ASIA, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This book "documents and analyses the subordination of women as well as confronts the possibilities and problems of emancipation in South-East Asia, a region under-going a process of social fermentation and rapid change" (Preface). Chapter 6 "focuses on two questions regarding the nature of industrial employment for young women. First why are young women concentrated in certain labour-intensive industries in South-East Asia? Secondly, to what extent and in what way is this employment emancipatory for the

women who are employed? These questions are examined within the context of the textile industry, an industry which employs the largest number of young women in Asia and within the context of the relationship of these industries within South-East Asian societies" (p92).

It is argued that "the provision of wage employment away from home and the patriarchal family system is generally viewed by the women themselves as 'liberating'. They are granted a measure of economic independence and with it their status within the family has improved as they are no longer regarded as 'just another mouth to feed'. They have more personal freedom; they have access to a wider range of life experiences and activities. However, within the context of the industrial sector itself, they remain at the lowest rank of the hierarchy earning low wages, often working in poor working conditions with little hope of vertical mobility in terms of getting skilled industrial jobs.... One immediate way of reducing this heavier burden that present industrialization policies have placed on women is to ensure that skill-formation and upgrading is available to women at their workplace, so that they can quickly respond and take advantage of the transition to higher technology industries. To what extent these conditions will be improved by shifting to high technology industries in countries like Singapore remains to be seen. At the moment, however, it is the migrants and local women workers who are retrenched as the result of this restructuring.

Pay and working conditions, the traditional problems around which organization and resistance occur, can for women be linked to another set of issues around gender - the problems of their personal lives, partially freed from the ties they have to their social and cultural background. In the urban areas, under the impact of industrialization, it is usually assumed that traditional perceptions of women change and with it, male - female relationships. However, even in a situation of rapid change, traditional sex-roles and perceptions may not change but instead become re-integrated into new situations.... Although more and diverse life opportunities are offered to women in the urban areas, many women migrating to urban areas continue their traditional, 'female' tasks within the occupational structure of the city and workplace. Although a range of different life choices are opened up for women in the urban areas, it is usually the women with certain levels of education who are able to take advantage of these. Marriage patterns and the nature of leisure do change in the urban areas, but these changes are accompanied by strains and conflict" (pp. 110-111).

Heyzer, N. (Ed) (1988) Daughters in Industry: Work Skills and Consciousness of Women Workers in Asia. Asian and Pacific Development Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 395 pages. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, BANGLADESH, CHINA, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EAST ASIA, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, HOMEWORKING, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INFORMAL SECTOR, LAOS, MALAYSIA, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, PAKISTAN, PHILIPPINES, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, SECONDARY DATA, SINGAPORE, SOUTH ASIA, SOUTH EAST ASIA, SRI LANKA, TEXTILES, THAILAND, THE SOUTH). "The growth of industries in the Asian region through a combination of direct investment and sub-contracting relations at both the global and national levels has resulted in the increased participation and contribution of women to the industrialization process. Certain manufactured exports from the developing countries of Asia are mostly made by women; without women's work, certain industrial sectors would not have developed to the extent they did in many countries. Yet, a large

number of factors discriminate against the equal employment and training opportunities for women production workers, making them the most vulnerable to technological and industrial change and economic restructuring.

This book contains twelve case studies and analyzes the social, economic and cultural forces which have brought about a marked concentration of women in some industrial sectors and processes even though women are a minority of the industrial workforce as a whole. The chapters describe the varied contexts within which the lives and work of different Asian women are organized, ranging from rural and home-based industries, labour-intensive industries to high-technology industries. Covering ten countries-Bangladesh, China, the Republic of Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Thailand- focus is given to issues such as the factors affecting productivitiy and income levels of women, the ways women workers are currently viewed and treated, the way their work is organized, in order to assess realistically the type of work concepts, work organization and training which could be encouraged to support the development of women workers' potential in the context of rapid global change and economic and social advancement". (Taken from back cover).

Hirata, H. (1989) Production Relocation: An Electronics Multinational in France and Brazil. Chap. 7. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R., (ISBN 0-333-43877-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 129-143. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, FRANCE, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, LATIN AMERICA, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AND SOUTH, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, WESTERN EUROPE). This chapter "discusses a classic case of international redeployment, detailing the operations of a French electronics multinational in France and Brazil and the characteristics of the workforce in the two countries. Particular attention is paid to the determinants of the sexual division of labour: the reasons why women, but not men, are thought especially suited for some kinds of work and how women's and men's work differs in the two countries." (Elson,D. and Pearson,R. 1989 p7).

Hirata, H. and Humphrey, J. (1984) Economic Crisis and the Sexual Division of Labour: The Case of Brazil. Capital and Class, 24, pp. 45-58. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, LATIN AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH). "Against the backdrop of economic crisis in Brazil, this article looks at patterns of dismissal and rehiring in an electrical factory there. It shows how management maintained intact the established division of labour and discusses the extent to which women were discriminated against. It also raises interesting questions about the impact of crisis and unemployment on women workers." (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 3, 1985, p77-78).

Hirata, H. and Humphrey, J. (1991) Workers Response to Job Loss - Female and Male Industrial Workers in Brazil. World Development, 19, pp. 224-247. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, INFORMAL SECTOR, LATIN AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH). "It is often assumed that when formal sector workers in the Third World lose their jobs during a recession they move into the

informal sector. Lack of state support rules out long periods of unemployment, above all for breadwinners. A survey of industrial workers in Brazil shows that following job loss in the early 1980s, resorting to the informal sector was more common for women than men, and less likely for the skilled than the unskilled. Unemployment and a return to industrial employment were most common experiences for male breadwinners. Workers' preferences and the structure of labor market opportunities explain much of this behaviour." (Summary at the head of the article).

Hoel, B. (1982) Contemporary Clothing Sweatshops. In: Work, Women and the Labour Market. Ed: West, J. Routledge and Kegan Paul: London, pp. 80-98. (ACADEMIC, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EUROPE, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE). "The focus of Barbo Hoel's paper is the ways in which Asian women are exploited in the clothing trade and the limits and possibilities of resistance. She documents their use as cheap disposable labour and shows how this is actively reinforced by their vulnerability as women and as part of a pervasive immigrant community where employers and employed are often linked by kinship and community ties as well as by the organisation of the industry itself. She describes how the workforce is divided by the payment system and employers' strategies of control, which use and reproduce the more general subordination of Asian women. Her detailed ethnographic account of their conditions as wage workers is supplemented by an account of their struggle for trade union recognition in the late 1970s, illustrating the fact that the general difficulties that women workers face of sustaining industrial organisation and militancy are particularly acute for such women." KP (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 1, 1983, p272-273).

Honculada, J.A. (1991) Philippine Trade Unions and the Challenge of Gender, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-26, 1991. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, PHILIPPINES, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). "The process of industrialisation, or more precisely, the new international division of labour and globalized production, has had contradictory consequences for the massive numbers of young (and middle-aged) women [in the Philippines] plunged into the formal and informal sectors of the economy. While they are doubly exploited as part of the laboring poor and as women, socialized production creates the opportunity for collective action and collective learning.... A small but growing critical mass of women are forwarding analyses and raising issues that make gender a central demand in and out of unions. There is a need to deepen and develop the substance and methodology of gender education as basic, not specialized, education in the unions. Gender is to be taken in interaction with class and other oppressions and the basic homework of field and library research must be done to show these conjunctures. To hold up one contradiction, such as class or gender, as paramount and primary is reductionism and worse, idolatry of an insidious kind... Support structures must be created so the tasks of reproduction can be lightened for both women and men; these include child care centers, community cafeterias and laundries... (Author's conclusions, pp. 27-29).

Hopkins, M. (1992) Empowerment or Escape? Technical Training for Homeworkers in Britain. Chap. 15. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 175-184. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, EUROPE, HOMEWORKING, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE). "This paper looks briefly at the situation of technical and vocational training for homeworkers in Britain and identifies the criteria for evaluating their achievements. In terms of current activity on homeworking, the overwhelming picture that emerges is that of small marginalised organisations struggling to meet a high demand with inadequate resources. In spite of this, homeworking projects have demonstrated that homeworkers can be reached, that they are keen to train, and very committed to training given the right conditions. Although there is considerable rhetoric about the need for more training, both in the clothing sector, and more generally in Britain, mainstream training provision continues to marginalise women generally and is inaccessible to homeworkers and most black and working-class women. Hence to be fully successful, the author argues, the technical training has to be part of an integrated structure of training provisions for women that enable them to work together towards long-term changes and empowerment." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Hossfeld, K.J. (1990) "Their Logic against Them": Contradictions in Sex, Race, and Class in Silicon Valley. Chap. 7. In: Women Workers and Global Restructuring. Ed: Ward, K., (ISBN 0-87546-162-X,.) ILR Press, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University: Ithaca, New York, pp. 149-178. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, NORTH AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE NORTH, USA). "Hossfeld's study of women production workers in Silicon Valley, California, points to how managers (most of whom are white males) use tactics based on gender and race to hire and control women workers, particularly minority and immigrant women. Hossfeld also notes how women resist control by the managers by manipulating their sexist and racist assumptions through individual and small-group activities. For example, given their sexist assumptions about women's frailty and menstrual "problems," some managers give their women workers several "hormone breaks" per day. Likewise, women play on managers' racist stereotypes by insisting that ethnic workers should train members of their own group, by arguing, for example, that new Chinese workers must be chaperoned by other Chinese women.Contradictions remain, since managers define women as secondary wage earners even where they are hired for their so-called special skills and even though many women are primary wage earners. The women also express ambivalence about earning more money than men and maintaining their femininity while working. Hossfeld argues that, although womens individual acts of resistance may alleviate oppressive working conditions in the short run, collective and organized resistance is more effective in the long run in empowering women workers." (Ward, K., (1990) p19-20) DE.

House, W.J. (1983) Occupational Segregation and Discriminatory Pay - The Position of Women in the Cyprus Labor-Market. International Labour Review, 122, pp. 75-93. (ACADEMIC, CYPRUS, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MIDDLE EAST, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). Cyprus has yet to adopt

legislation which tries to eliminate situations in which women receive unequal pay for comparable work with men and suffer from discriminatory practices in employment. This first attempt to explore some of these issues has established that, within the limits imposed by the adopted methodology, there is strong prima facie evidence that women are at a serious disadvantage in the Cyprus labour market.While it is extremely difficult to identify situations where women receive unequal pay for identical work it is shown that the concentration of women in low-paid, low-skilled jobs in Cyprus is a major contributing factor to their overall pay disadvantage. The residual approach adopted here, in spite of its obvious deficiencies, has shown that women with seemingly identical productivity-related characteristics as men are paid much less. The extent to which endowment differences between the sexes themselves reflect discrimination or result from rational choices of women is a complex problem. For example, do women choose to invest less in job market experience, perhaps because of other demands on their time from household and child-rearing obligations, or do occupational barriers against women deny them such opportunities to invest as much as men? To what extent does feedback from discrimination in pay and jobs account for the inferior position of women in terms of their accumulated human capital? Clearly, more research is required to disentangle these important issues.

Humphrey, J. (1984) The Growth of Female Employment in Brazilian Manufacturing Industry in the 1970s. Journal of Development Studies, 20, pp. 224-247. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). "Female employment grew very rapidly in Brazilian manufacturing industry in the 1970s. Contrary to the predictions of some writers, women have not been marginalised from the industrial labor force as result of dependent development. Among various hypotheses advanced in the literature to explain the sharp rise in female employment, the scarcity of male labour resulting from rapid economic growth is found to be most convincing. This hypothesis is supplemented by a discussion of both the factors which made large numbers of women available for industrial work and the types of women that found employment in industry in the decade." (Summary at the head of the article).

Humphrey, J. (1987) Gender and Work in the Third World: Sexual Divisions in Brazilian Industry. (ISBN (Hb) 0-422-61900-0) Tavistock, London. 229 pages. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, THE SOUTH, THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION). "A study of the construction of the gender division of labour in seven factories in the modern sectors of Brazilian industry. There was considerable growth in female industrial employment including women production workers in the 1970s which, the author argues, disproves the thesis that the development of capitalism in Brazil has led to the marginalisation of women from economic activity. The central part of the book contains, first, a description of the familial ideology and domestic division of labour of the workforce and management strategies determining different employment prospects for male and female, married and unmarried workers. Secondly, it describes the hierarchical and segregated structure of the gender division of labour through a detailed study of the differences between male and female workers in jobs and wages, promotions, control over

performance and free-time and other aspects of the labour process. These amount to remarkably different careers for men and women which are justified by the process of devaluing women's work and women as workers. Gender segregation is a critical strategy for maintaining these differentials as it enables men to claim that they are better paid because of their jobs rather than their sex and it prevents women from demystifying the differences.The final part of the book considers the evidence in the light of segregated labour market theories. These have failed to take into account the active construction of gender identities in the work-place. People are not merely allocated jobs, the contents of which is technologically determined because of their gender: the jobs themselves are valued and organised to match the gender of the worker. Finally, the author considers the extent to which women workers have constituted a reserve army of labour during the recession of the 1980s and shows that they have been vulnerable to dismissal. This is not, however, because they are women, but because of the low value attached to the jobs women workers do." PAR (Studies on Women Abstracts, 1989, p141).

Humphries, J. and Rubery, J. (1988) Recession and Exploitation - British Women in a Changing Workplace, 1979-85. Chap. 5. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 85-105. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, THE NORTH, UK, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WESTERN EUROPE). The authors assess the validity of three hypotheses pertaining to female labour, namely the buffer, segmentation and subsitution hypotheses, in the context of female labour in the UK during the recessionary years of 1979-1985. It is found that each of the hypotheses accurately describes the experience of some subgroup of British women.While the male employment rate fell over the period, the female employment rate rose, a fact which would tend to negate the buffer hypothesis and confirm that of substitution. However, the terms and conditions of women's work worsened, particularly for unskilled and minority women and single mothers. It is part-time work female employment which expanded, to some extent as a result of changes in social service provision, and such work is more poorly paid than full-time work on both an hourly and a weekly basis. Female homeworking also grew, much of it white-collar and service work as well as manufacturing, offering employers both lower labour costs and increased flexibility. With women experiencing no reduction in the burden of domestic work, and with an overall deterioration in the terms and conditions of their paid work, the authors conclude that many of them suffered an increase in exploitation (Taken from text).

ILO/UNCTC (1985) Women workers in multinational enterprises in developing countries. (ISBN 92-2-100532-1) ILO, Geneva. 119 pages. (IMPACT POSITIVE, MULTINATIONALS, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, THE SOUTH). Multinationals in Third World countries have been instrumental in providing many jobs for women workers. Over 1 million women work for multinational enterprises in developing countries, and at least another 500,000 jobs are being generated indirectly. The largest number of women employed in multinationals are found in Latin America, followed by Asia. Although some of the activities of these enterprises are in plantations and in agribusiness and, more and more, in the services sector, the vast majority of women employed by multinationals are found in manufacturing industry. The skills which are required for clothing enterprises are to a large extent traditional, while electronics multinationals use new technologies for export-oriented industries.

Most of the women workers in manufacturing multinationals are in low-paid production jobs, and their career prospects are limited. The age and marital status of these women largely reflects local workforce characteristics and conditions, including the traditional division of labour based on sex in the host countries. Information from 30 developing countries is analysed to provide examples of the situation of women workers in multinational enterprises in the Third World today with respect to wages, hours and conditions of work, fringe benefits, labour relations and quality of life.Applying a comparative analysis, it would appear that in all sectors multinationals provide at least marginally better terms and conditions of employment than non-multinationals. Applying a historical or longitudinal analysis, multinational wage employment has tended to improve women's working and living conditions and has expanded their opportunities and horizons. It also gives their family more opportunities for upward mobility. From an individual perspective, multinational wage employment is a boon to most women who participate in it. From a social perspective, such employment is insufficient to have a global impact on women or society as a whole, although it does modify traditional culture, expand the working class, integrate more women into it and increase worker organisation. From a feminism perspective, multinational employment for women weakens but does not usually destroy patriarchal structures, increasing women's independence, power and status within the family and society but not liberating them from the primacy of the reproductive role.Policy suggestions include strengthening union organisation and women's participatory and leaderships roles in it, and the promotion of legal and educational equality for women as well as a redistribution of the gender division of labour.

ILO/UNCTC (1988) Economic and social effects of multinational enterprises in export processing zones. (ISBN 92-2-106194-9) ILO, Geneva. 166 pages. (EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, IMPACT UNKNOWN, MULTINATIONALS, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, THE SOUTH). "One of the most remarkable structural changes which took place in the world economy in the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s is undoubtedly the growth of export processing zones (EPZs) in the developing countries and areas: employment in these zones grew from around 50,000 in 1970 to over 1.3 million by 1986. Judging from the current plans for new EPZs in over a dozen countries and the expansion plans for existing zones, it would seem that employment in EPZs could continue to grow rapidly in the next few years.The phenomenon of EPZs and the role of multinational enterprises in them have been the subject of heated debate. This monograph sheds light on the multinationals' contribution to employment generation, export earnings, technology transfer and the development of linkages with the local economy. These are measured against the initial cost of the incentive package for establishing and maintaining the zones. Questions related to working conditions and labour relations are also highlighted.This book confronts a number of widely held assumptions with the available facts and figures, and points to the possible evolution of EPZs in the economies of the newly industrialising countries. It envisages the emergence of the "export processing country" and a more open and competitive approach to industrial development." (Back cover) DE.

Jackson, P. (1992) Homeworking in Italy in the Age of Computer Technology. Chap. 6. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 93-101. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, ITALY, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, SUBCONTRACTING, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). "This

paper shows that homework in Italy is not confined to the slums of Naples but is intrinsic to Italy's economic miracle and advanced robotised industrial production. The new management policy of "productive decentralisation" leads to increased subcontracting and consequent spread of homework. The author documents the contradictory impact of such a policy on women's employment in the clothing industry. With the judicious use of robotised technology, artisanal production and indirectly of homework, companies like Benetton increase the job opportunities of women. Yet in the absence of strong bargaining power, clothing homeworkers also get enmeshed in Italy's expanding black economy." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Jackson, P. and Barry, U. (1989) Women's Employment and Multinationals in the Republic of Ireland: The Creation of a New Female Labour Force. Chap. 3. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R., (ISBN 0-333-43877-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 38-59. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EUROPE, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, REPUBLIC OF IRELAND, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). This chapter gives an overview of the impact of multinational's on women's employment in Ireland. Ireland shares the low wage characteristics of the UK, but has no multinationals of its own. It has pursued a policy of encouraging inward investment by foreign multinationals for much of the post-war period. This chapter presents quantitative evidence of the employment of women by multinationals and examines some areas of debate, such as the stability of the employment they provide for women. (Elson, D. and Pearson, R. 1989 p7) DE.

Jaffee, G. (1991) Industrial Decentralisation and Women's Employment in South Africa: A Case Study, Paper presented to Conference on Women and Gender in Southern Africa, University of Natal, Durban, South Africa, January 30 - February 2 1991. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT POSITIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH AFRICA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This paper is based on a case study of the Brits Industrial zone, one of eight decentralised industrial areas in South Africa. It analyses the lives of female industrial workers from a rural village who commute 40 km daily to work, showing how gender inequality has played a role in labour force formation. Furthermore, the study focuses on the relationship between domestic life and wage labour through exploring household organisation.The entry of women into the workforce has led to a number of important transformations at the level of the household. Despite exploitation on the factory floor, access to a higher income in industry has given women workers some economic autonomy and enabled them to make choices about their personal lives. The formation of three generational households headed by older women who became dependent on their daughter's income and households characterised by strong sibling links enabled women to receive the necessary support in order to maintain their roles as mothers and working women. This support would not have been the same had they entered marriage or lived permanently with men. Women workers avoided or limited patriarchal control by constructing female centered households and by maintaining limited involvement with men.If this form of industrial development declines, it will likely affect social relations and household organisation. Women displaced from the workforce will become part of an unemployed rural proletariat or be forced to look for work in urban areas and thus

migrate. The recent withdrawal of influx control in South Africa has opened up the way for the development of squatter settlements on the periphery of large urban areas. It is most likely that women displaced from the decentralised workforce will have very little choice other than abandoning their rural homesteads and moving with or without their families to informal settlements on the urban periphery. (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Jaffee, G. and Caine, C. (1988) The Incorporation of African Women into the Industrial Workforce: Its Implications for the Women's Questions in South Africa'. Chap. 7. In: After Apartheid, Renewal of the South African Economy. Eds: Suckling, J. and White, L. James Currey: London, pp. 90-108, (ISBN 0-85255-109-X). (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH AFRICA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WOMENS VOICES). Jaffee and Caine document the incorporation of African women into the manufacturing, commercial and service sectors of the South African economy, and note that such economic participation provides, for the first time, the potential for large-scale collective organisation of African working-class women. There is no shortage of issues around which to organise, since such women are employed in the lowest-paid jobs with unhealthy working conditions and an absence of job security, maternity rights and childcare facilities.Indeed African women workers have actively contributed to recent trade union growth and militancy, despite their tremendous reproductive responsibilities. However, women's interests are still under-represented within the trade union movement, where they have to fight for equality against well-entrenched patriarchal traditions. Furthermore, involvement in trade union activities has brought them into confrontation with their fathers or partners who often view their activities with suspicion.Nevertheless, a review of women's role in community and political organisations shows that women workers are beginning to develop a consciousness which identifies the link between economic exploitation and gender oppression, and an awareness that they must struggle for emancipation within organisations which are simultaneously struggling for national liberation. (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Jenson, J. (1988) The Limits of `and the' Discourse - French Women as Marginal Workers. Chap. 9. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 155-173. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FRANCE, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). This chapter demonstrates the way in which the economic crisis in France has influenced policy responses to the feminization of the labour force. Curbing unemployment, especially of young workers and those in traditional sectors, has been a central priority, as has enhancing the flexibility of capital in order to promote international competitiveness. Within this framework, women have been conceived of as marginal workers, less needy than men of full-time protected work and more suitable than men as a source of flexible labour. Although the feminization of the labour force was recognised in the 1970s, working women were divided into 'real workers' - without gender- and 'women workers' - marginal, poorly paid and part-time. The women's movement tried to establish a discourse in which there were only two fundamental social

categories, women and men, but the state's emphasis on unemployment worked against this (From author's conclusion).

Joekes, S. (1985) Working for Lipstick? Male and Female Labour in the Clothing Industry in Morocco. Chap. 8. In: Women, Work and Ideology in the Third World. Ed: Afshar, H., (ISBN 0-422-79710-3,.) Tavistock: London, pp. 183-213. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MOROCCO, NORTH AFRICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH). "This essay explores the ways in which male and female labour are used and rewarded differently by employers in the clothing industry in Morocco, and why it is possible for them to do this. Morocco is one of many developing countries where the employment of women in industry has increased rapidly in recent years, particularly in the production of goods for export. Various theories have been put forward to explain the very fast growth of the female labour force in Third World industry. They tend to emphasize on the one hand the types of jobs produced by the expansion of industry and on the other the special characterisitcs of female labour such as women's low level of skill, and lack of commitment to wage employment.Women workers' competence and performance on the job as conventionally measured, do differ from men's, though not always in accordance with the traditional view. [Joekes argues] that these characterisitcs largely follow from the way employers use female labour, rather than being the natural consequence of women's social role. [Joekes concentrates] on the social factors which influence the amount of labour supply, and the wage at which they are prepared to work, and distinguish[es] them from men in these respects. Among other things, female labour supply is influenced to a far greater extent than male by household structures and the distribution of household types in the population. The importance of the household is hinted at in the claim that women work for lipstick, and this points in the right direction: but the claim itself is simplistic and incomplete.The material [used] is drawn from a study of 15 clothing firms in Casablanca carried out in 1980. The owners and managers of the firms gave information on their recruitment and employment practices, their preferences for male and female workers, and so on, and a survey was done of 83 male and female workers in seven of those firms for information on their wages, work experience, and household circumstances. A full report of the research is given elsewhere (Joekes,S 1982 Female-led Industrialization, Women's jobs in Third World export manufacturing: The case of the Moroccan clothing industry, Brighton Sussex: Institute of Development Studies Research Reports No. 15.)." (Joekes,S in Ashfar,H 1985 p.183-184).

Joekes, S. (1987) Women in the World Economy. (ISBN 0-19-504947-0) (A United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement and Training of Women study.) Oxford University Press, New York. 161 pages. (ACADEMIC, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT UNKNOWN, INFORMAL SECTOR, MANUFACTURING, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, THE SOUTH). "Until now, there has been little coordinated research on the role of women in the economies of developing countries, or on the impact of the international economy on women in those countries. However, the study of the position of women in the world economy has become increasingly vital against a background of the recent world economic crisis. This crisis, which has had especially severe effects in developing countries, has had a

significant impact on the economic roles traditionally assigned to women in those countries. Are women affected by international economic relations? Can the effect of increased employment of women be seen in the structure of international economic relations? What are the effects of the current world recession on women's employment?In `Women in the World Economy' written for INSTRAW by Susan Joekes, emerging long-term trends in the world economy are analyzed to show their effect on the economic position of women in developing countries. Stressing the interlinkages between the macro and micro levels of the economy, the book approaches the subject from two perspectives: the position of women who are engaged in what is defined as gainful employment - that is, women who are wage earners - and the role of women in unpaid labor such as household work, farm work on their own land, and other activities that put them in the position of managing resources. The book provides the first methodological synthesis of these approaches to portray women in developing countries as active participants in, rather than simply beneficiaries of, development. Analyzing the employment trends for women by geographical region and by sector - including agriculture, industry and services - the author assesses how the emergence of a modern international economy has affected the economic position of women. She also suggests directions for innovative development policies related to women that will take into account the current international economic climate..

Joekes, S. and Moayadi, R. (1987) Women and Export Manufacturing: A Review of the Issues and AID Policy, Paper for International Center for Research on Women. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "This paper has the following objectives: to describe USAID's current approach towards export manufacturing in developing countries, to consider the position of women in this sector, and to analyse policy aimed at increasing the economic benefits of such activity to women. USAID's overall policy has been to promote two way linkages between developing and industrialized economies. In practice this often means that multinationals locate some processes in LDCs [and] export these [products] back to their own countries where final products are assembled ready for export back to LDCs. Often, the processing of components is located in Export Processing Zones (EPZ), and these provide the focus of this study.

LDC manufacturing exports, such as clothing, textiles and electronics, tend to be labour intensive. Export manufacturing is now extensive in Asia and many locations in Latin America and the Caribbean, with much of the investment derived from foreign multinational companies. Countries with large EPZ locations for example are Hong Kong, South Korea, Puerto Rico, Singapore and Taiwan. Other up and coming lcoations are Brazil, Haiti, Malaysia and Mexico. Exporting industry whilst providing direct employment benefits, also encourages the growth of supplying industry. A main purpose of this paper is to briefly review the sex composition of LDC manufacturing industry and especially that in EPZs. The paper draws on previous analysis of women's employment in the export sector and summarizes the working conditions in this sector and the socio economic characteristics of women workers.

The share of women in export industries is often very high and generally higher than in industry as a whole. Upon export orientation, it would appear that the vast majority of

new jobs go to women. The question then arises as to the value of these new jobs. The integration thesis holds that export oriented industrialization tends to promote the liberalization and sexual equality of women through the provision of waged employment and integration of women into the modern labour market. The education of women could then be improved, whilst causing a shift in attitudes towards female domestic roles. Incomes and conditions in this sector may be significantly better than those in the informal sector. The exploitation thesis argues that the jobs available to women are unskilled and poorly paid, with continued discrimination leading to entrenched exploitation.

Analysis has revealed that the types of work created have been of unskilled or semiskilled nature, with women having little prospect of promotion. Enforced overtime often leads to long hours. Productivity meanwhile is often equal to that in the industrialized economies, and is occasionally greater. As regards incomes, wages are often greater than those in the agricultural or informal sectors. In particular a greater adherence to minimum wage legislation is observed, notwithstanding some cases of lower pay (the case of the Philippines in particular is cited). Of those paid below the minimum wage, women are likely to be disproportionately represented. The practice of hiring female apprentices for excessive "training" periods is also common. However, overall despite obvious pro male wage differentials (it is not uncommon for women to earn less than 50% of the male wage), wage levels are still greater than alternatives. Export industries are generally high risk in terms of health and safety however. Night shift work restrictions have been lifted, and it is noticeable that married women are hired specifically for the late night shift so that they can maintain their household duties. Job security is also a controversial area. Many exporting industries may be adversely affected by economic cycles, whilst many others are footloose (and therefore temporary) in search of cheap labour and tax breaks.

Women employed in [the] export sector tend to be young single secondary income earners (especially in Asia). In Latin America and the Caribbean, although still relatively young, more women are actually married and provide a substantial input into household incomes. Their greater commitment appears to be valued. Employed women tend to be well educated and from urban area.

Overall, employment in the export sector facilitates a lessening of their cash dependence on families and delaying of marriages and childbearing. The fact that wages are low is simply due to the fact that wages are low elsewhere in the economy. Women themselves often feel that their wages are reasonable reward. However, one must realize that discrimination still occurs and that employment may only be short term in footloose industries. One could view women's employment in this context as short run "in and out" exploitation of women" (Abstract from annotated bibliography by J. Griggs, Department of Economics, University of Warwick).

Jones, G. (Ed) (1984) Women in the Urban and Industrial Labour Force: South-east and East Asia. (Development Studies Centre Monograph no.33) Australian National University, Canberra. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, EAST ASIA, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH).

Kabeer, N. (1987) Women's Employment in the Newly Industrialising Countries: A Case Study of India and the Philippines, Report prepared for IRDC, August 1987. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, IMPORT

SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRY, INDIA, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, MARGINALISATION THESIS, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, PHILIPPINES, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH ASIA, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). This report seeks to examine the implications of different industrialisation strategies for male and female employment and the effects of differing kinship and gender relations on the economic choices available to women, on the basis of country case studies of India and the Philippines. In both countries, import substitution industrialisation tended to create jobs for men, and also undermined traditional household-based industry. The fall in female employment was particularly dramatic in the Philippines, whereas in India it was less so because women had never been the dominant industrial labour force. A recent shift to export oriented industrialisation has increased women's share of industrial employment in the Philippines, although the terms on which they gained those jobs have often been poor, whereas in India female industrial employment continues to stagnate. The relative lack of prescriptions on women's occupation in the Philippines, their historical role in trade, the emphasis given to their contribution to the family budget and their strong educational status with respect to men have served to give them more choices of waged work. In India, by contrast, strict social controls exercised over women, particularly in the North, have restricted their engagement with the labour market.It is argued that women's labour market participation and position is determined by the underlying system of gender relations in which they are located and the nature of the overall regime of capital accumulation. In India women gained few of the jobs created by industrialisations due to a combination of their "heavier domestic work load and its incompatibility with certain forms of occupations; because of their poorer educational and skill qualifications; because they did not organise to defend their own interests; because the more powerful agents in the labour market assented to or initiated restrictive legislations and practices; most of all women lost out because, given a situation of male labour surplus, and restricted competition in the (product and factor) markets, there were no material forces to counter the full weight of gender ideology that saw men as the primary breadwinners" (p. 222). In the Philippines, by contrast, there was a preferential demand for female labour under EOI because of "the way women entered the labour market bearing certain gender attributes that allowed them to be paid less, to be perceived as less likely to organise to protect their standard of living and more amenable to the periodic layoffs that characterised export-oriented production" (p. 223). Furthermore, "the state's assumption of responsibility for maternity benefits further reduced any remaining disincentives to employing women" (p. 223) (From author's conclusions, pp. 206-224).

Kabeer, N. (1991) Cultural Dopes or Rational Fools: Women, Factory Employment and Garment Production in Bangladesh. European Journal of Development Research, 3, pp. 133-160. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, BANGLADESH, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, FACTORY BASED, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH ASIA, THE SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). This paper examines some of the processes underlying the massive recent influx of women workers into export-oriented garment factories in Bangladesh. Bangladesh has long been characterised as an underdeveloped economy, where Islam operates in a conservative fashion, particularly in determining permissible modes of behaviour for women. Socially-sanctioned norms of purdah (female seclusion) have enforced women's absence from public employment for most of its known history. Yet within a relatively short space of time, several thousands of women have entered a highly visible form of employment in factory production. The explanation of this phenomenon can be

undertaken at a number of levels and the broader contexts are dealt with very briefly. However, the main substance of this paper is based on the self-explanations offered by women workers themselves of their labour supply behaviour. It draws on material from semi-structured, informal interviews conducted in Dhaka in 1987/88 with 60 female garment workers from different social categories: educated and illiterate, married and non-married. (From author's introduction).

Kabeer, N. (1991) The Structure of 'Revealed' Preference: Race, Community and Female Labour Supply in the London Clothing Industry, Paper presented at Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies Seminar Series, December 1991. (ACADEMIC, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EUROPE, HOMEWORKING, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, PRELIMINARY, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE NORTH, UK). This paper seeks to analyse labour supply decision-making for Bangladeshi women in the London clothing industry, on the basis of in-depth and semi-structured interviews with 60 such workers. It is argued that their concentration in homework does not reveal their preference, but is the result of a bargaining process in which the preferences of other key family and community members play an important role. Moreover, the male preferences which shape women's labour market role are in turn shaped by "the defensive social relations of a community responding to the racism of British culture and practice" (p. 45). Indeed, it is argued that all labour market behaviour must be located in a broader context rather than analysed simply in terms of individual behaviour (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Kabeer, N. (1994) The Structure of Revealed Preference: Race, Community and Female Labor Supply in the London Clothing Industry. Development and Change, 25, pp. 307-331. (ACADEMIC, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CORE, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EUROPE, HOMEWORKING, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE, WOMENS VOICES). This article takes as its starting point the overwhelming concentration of Bangladeshi women in the homeworking sector of the clothing industry in London. This pattern forms a contrast to the large numbers of male Bangladeshi workers also concentrated in the garment industry but who are to be found mainly in the factories and sweatshops. The article uses the accounts given by the Bangladeshi homeworkers themselves for their concentration in this form of work to explore different theoretical explanations of female labour supply behaviour, focusing in particular on questions of choice and constraint, culture and economy.

The study suggests that the 'preferences' revealed by the labour market behaviour of Bangladeshi women cannot be attributed solely to them, but must be seen in terms of bargaining and negotiation with other, more powerful members of the family. Furthermore, the intra-household decision-making process is itself embedded within a broader institutional environment which determines the access enjoyed by different groups to socially-valued resources. For Bangladeshis, a key factor in this broader environment is the operation of racially-based forms of exclusion from the mainstream opportunities. Consequently, community solidarity and networks represent important symbolic and material resources for members. However, these resources are distributed in highly gender-specific ways, with very clear implications for women's place within the community. The article argues therefore that any attempt to explain Bangladeshi women's concentration in homework has to move beyond a focus on either individual

circumstances or cultural norms to an exploration of the interaction of racism, community identity and gender relations in shaping women's labour market options.

Katz, N. and Kemnitzer, D.S. (1983) Fast Forward: The Internationalisation of Silicon Valley. Chap. 13. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 332-345. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, HOMEWORKING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AMERICA, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, THE NORTH, USA). In Silicon Valley some 70,000 women make up the bulk of the production work force, and are variously estimated to hold from 80 to 90 percent of operative and labourer jobs on the factory floor. Between 45 and 50 percent of these women are estimated to be from the Third World, especially Asia, and many of the male employees are also immigrant. Unionisation rates are low, and wages have not kept pace with those for other US industrial workers. Race, ethnic and gender differences are used to mark out particular groups of people for tedious, unrewarding and poorly paid work. Managers portray the work as undemanding and suitable for women who are temporary and secondary workers - in reality the work is far from being a supplementary or temporary activity but part of a lifelong strategy for coping with or overcoming low class, race, and/or gender status.The recent proliferation of homeworking in the industry cheapens labour further, but is often preferred by women workers because they can fit it in around their domestic responsibilities and perceive it as offering levels of income, initiative, excitement and job satisfaction that are unattainable to them inside the factory. Homeworking, and the selective recruitment of women and Third World immigrants, offers an alternative in the pursuit of lower production costs to the relocation of production overseas. (Taken from text).

Keller, J.F. (1983) The Division of Labor in Electronics. Chap. 14. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 346-373. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, NORTH AMERICA, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, USA). The US electronics industry has organised its labour force around two occupational poles. On the one hand scientific research and development, and on the other unskilled production and assembly. The latter has remained relatively labour intensive and low paying, and men have left production work to be replaced by less privileged women workers. Since the post-1965 legal restrictions on unskilled migration to the US, the internal labour migration of unskilled, minority workers from less developed regions of the country has added an ethnic division of labour in the industry to the gender division. (From author's conclusion).

Kelly, D. (1986) St Lucia Female Electronics Factory Workers - Key Components in an Export-Oriented Industrialization Strategy. World Development, 14, pp. 823-838. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, ST LUCIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE

SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). "Government officials, international lending organisations, and transnational corporations maintain that the establishment of labor-intensive, export-oriented factories is the first step along the path to industrialisation for small, developing nations like St. Lucia. But this strategy has not changed significantly the way the St. Lucian women employed in electronics assembly perceive the possibilities for improving their economic status in society. Those interviewed for this study state clearly what they like and dislike about factory work and can pragmatically assess their options. The majority favor joining a union, but at the same time many doubt whether, even collectively, they possess enough bargaining power vis-à-vis absentee factory owners to effect real, long-term improvements in working conditions. Migration emerges as the major opportunity for women factory workers to lift themselves above survival-level existence" (Summary provided at head of article).

Keremitsis, D. (1984) Latin American Women Workers in Transition - Sexual Division of the Labor Force in Mexico and Colombia in the Textile Industry. Americas, 40, pp. 491-504. (ACADEMIC, COLOMBIA, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, LATIN AMERICA, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, MEXICO, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH).

Kim, Y. (1991) Women, Home-Based Work and Questions of Organising: The Case of South Korea, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-26, 1991. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CLOTHING, EAST ASIA, HOMEWORKING, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, SUBCONTRACTING, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). On the basis of a random household survey in poor areas of Seoul, Kim shows the extensive involvement of married women in home-work, and relates it to the lack of viable alternatives. Case studies of subcontracting companies in the toy, clothing, textile and luggage production sectors show that despite its highly exploitative nature, home-working is not recognised as 'real' work. The state is urged to make it easier for women to combine paid work with their domestic responsibilities, and to regulate unfair practices in home-working. However, inadequate compliance with legislation which regulates home-work in Japan highlights the need for home-workers to organise, finding ways to overcome problems of isolation and invisibility. The author concludes "Women on-site must begin to think creatively about linking with women working in isolation in the home. On the other hand, women activists should look for a way to help homeworkers to define their own experiences of oppression and develop their own framework for struggle against it, while supporting them to enter into organised production sector whenever possible" (From author's conclusions, pp. 20-21).

Knight, J.B. and Sabot, R.H. (1991) Labor Market Discrimination in a Poor Urban Economy. Chap. 3. In: Unfair Advantage: Labour Market Discrimination in Developing Countries. Eds: Birdsall, N. and Sabot, R., (ISBN 0-8213-1909-4,.) IBRD/WB: Washington, pp. 55-76. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, TANZANIA, THE SOUTH). This chapter analyses "the extent of race and sex discrimination in Tanzania's manufacturing sector in 1971. As in the USA, [the authors] find that the mean wages of males were substantially higher than for females. In

marked contrast to the USA, however, the differences can be explained almost entirely by differences in economic characteristics. Only a small part of the gross difference in mean wages between Asians and Africans, however, can be explained by the markedly higher level of education and training attained by the former. Their finding of an absence of wage discrimination against females challenges the assumption that economic development brings social enlightenment, while their evidence of discrimination in favor of Asians challenges the belief that only groups with substantial political and economic power benefit from discrimination." (Birdsall and Sabot, 1991, p12).

Sassen-Koob, S. (1984) Notes on the Incorporation of Third World Women into Wage-labor Through Immigration and Off-shore Production. International Migration Review, 18, pp. 1144-1167. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AND SOUTH, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA). This article focuses on "the growth of export-production in Third World countries and on the massive increase in Third World immigration to the U.S. Both have taken place over the last fifteen years and both contain as one constitutive trait the incorporation of Third World women into waged employment on a scale that can be seen as representing a new phase in the history of women. The article posits that there is a systemic relation between this globalization and feminization of wage-labor.Immigration and off-shore production have evolved into mechanisms for the massive incorporation of Third World women into wage-labor. While there is excellent scholarship on both the employment of women in off-shore production in less developed countries and the employment of immigrant women in developed countries, these two trends have rarely been seen as related. Yet there are a number of systemic links. Immigration and off-shore production are ways of securing a low-wage labor force and of fighting the demands of organized workers in developed countries. They also represent a sort of functional equivalence: that is, productive facilities that cannot be shifted off-shore and have to be performed where the demand is, eg., restaurants and hospitals, can use immigrant labor while facilities that can be shifted abroad can use low-wage labor in less developed countries. There is yet another, more basic connection, and one more difficult to describe. The same set of processes that have promoted the location of plants and offices abroad [the general shift to a service economy, the downgrading of manufacturing and the direct and indirect demand for low-wage labor generated by the expansion of management and control functions centered in these large cities and necessary for the regulation of the global economy (p. 1161)] also have contributed to a large supply of low wage jobs in the U.S. for which immigrant workers are a desirable labor supply" (Author's abstract and introduction).

Kottis, A.P. (1988) The Impact of Economic Development on Women's Labour Force Participation Rates in Greece: An Analysis by Age Groups. Equal Opportunities International, 7, pp. 9-15. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EUROPE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, FEMINISATION THESIS, GREECE, MARGINALISATION THESIS, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). "Although economic development is expected to increase the opportunities available to both men and women, some initial changes may have adverse effects on women's economic position. A U-shaped impact of economic development on women's labour force participation is hypothesized and tested with empirical data from urban, semi-urban and rural areas of Greece from 1961-1981. During the initial 1961-1971

phase of economic development in Greece a statistical analysis indicated a steep decline in women's labour force participation rates due to a reduction in the number of jobs available in agricultural and other traditional sectors. From 1971-1981, the decline continued but was slower in the semi-urban and rural areas and was reversed in the urban areas. After 1971, accelerating modernization resulted in an increase in rates of women's labour force participation. Remedial-labour and related policies are needed during these initial phases to protect women from hiring inequalities." (ABI Inform)"The author uses empirical evidence on women's employment trends in Greece between 1961 and 1981 to support her hypothesis that during the initial stages of economic development and modernisation women suffer a reduction in employment opportunities arising from the contraction of agricultural industries and their unequal competition with men in jobs in the newer industries, but that in secondary stages of development employment opportunities for women increase as the excess supply of male workers is absorbed by [the] industrial and service [sectors] of the economy." AG (Women's Studies Abstract, Vol. 7, 1989, p192).

Kottis, A.P. (1990) Shifts Over Time and Regional Variation in Women's Labor Force Participation Rates in a Developing Economy. Journal of Development Economics, 33, pp. 117-132. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DERIVATIVE, EUROPE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GREECE, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). "Kottis trys to explain the decline and the inter-area variation in women's activity rates in Greece during the process of its economic development. She tries to ascertain any shifts in the relevant relationships over time and to estimate women's hidden unemployment. The impact of economic development on activity rates is explained using a hypothesised U-shaped relationship. In order to determine whether there were any shifts over time in the relationship between labour force participation rates of different areas and the factors that affected them, a regression was run on the census data for 1971 and 1981. The results show the discouraging effect that women's unemployment had on their labour force participation. The estimates of women's hidden unemployment indicate a serious underestimation of the extent of women's unemployment by using the normal measure. The size of the agricultural sector was found to be a significant determinant of women's labour force particiption rates." (ABI Inform).

Kung, L. (1983) Factory Women in Taiwan. (Studies in Cultural Anthropology, no.51.) UMI Research Press, Ann Arbor. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, EAST ASIA, FACTORY BASED, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, TAIWAN, THE SOUTH).

Lazreg, M. (1990) Women, Work and Social Change in Algeria. Chap. 6. In: Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour. Eds: Stichter, S. and Parpart, J.L., (ISBN 0-333-45161-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 183-197. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, ALGERIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, NORTH AFRICA, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). Lazreg examines women's officially low labour force participation in Algeria, and argues that the main causal factors are political-economic, demographic and familial. Islamic religion, she stresses, has much less to do with it than is usually imagined. On the one hand women's labour force participation did not increase during the reorganisation of the economy along socialist lines from 1962 to 1978, and on the other women are investing a major part of their energies in the production of children because of a deeply rooted pronatalist popular culture rather than because of Islamic religious injunctions. Lack of

change in the sex division of labour in the family, plus state reinforcement of family patriarchal authority in the 1984 Family Code, also contributes to women's reluctance to accept outside employment.Two aspects of the family undercut women's employment participation: the pressure to produce children, and women's subordinate position with respect to rights, labour and decision making. The state also ignores women's work by underestimating it, while at the same time benefitting from women's low-cost labour. Gender ideology, which assumes that the male takes economic responsibility for women, makes it possible for state planners to see their task as creating jobs for men. Lazreg only believes that paid work is liberating for women to the extent that their burden of productive and reproductive labour in the household is lessened. (Stitchter and Parpart, 1990, pp.6-7).

Lever, A. (1988) Capital, Gender and Skill: Women Homeworkers in Rural Spain. Feminist Review, 30, pp. 3-24. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EUROPE, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SPAIN, SUBCONTRACTING, TEXTILES, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). Based on a survey of 579 households in San Santiago, central Spain, Lever examines highly skilled, low-paid women workers in a region where almost all female wage-earners embroider for a living. The development of the embroidery industry is traced, and the way in which control over it has passed to men, both in large retail companies and the local firms they use to orchestrate production by women homeworkers. Homeworking must be understood both in the context of Franco-regime policies designed to keep Spanish women in the home, and the reluctance of men to take on responsibility for domestic work and child-care. Patriarchy and capital are intertwined in the question of homework - there are clear advantages to men in women's taking on home-based wage-work, and also to capital, from female entrepreneurs in San Santiago itself to the big retail firms in the cities.

Li, S. (1989) Labour Mobility, Migration and Urbanization in the Pearly River Delta Area. Asian Geographer, 8, pp. 35-60. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHINA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EAST ASIA, FACTORY BASED, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, ROLE OF MIGRATION, THE SOUTH). "The launching of the "open-door" policy in 1978 has resulted in profound changes in China's urban and rural landscapes. In regions such as the Pearl River Delta area, rural industrial enterprises are developing at a highly rapid rate. Many small villages have been transformed to dynamic and prosperous industrial towns, drawing hundreds of thousands of peasants not only from nearby farms but also from other xians or counties and other provinces. The present study attempts to undertake a micro-level analysis of this immense transformation process. Extensive fieldworks including questionnaire surveys have been carried out to elicit aspects of this process of labour and spatial mobility. The results indicate that most of the new comers to towns in the Pearl River Delta area are young, unmarried and have junior secondary school education. Data from the in-migrant registry office of Shajing show that both sexes are about equally represented although other samples indicate that there are more female migrants than male ones. Significant differences are discerned between the two sexes. The female tend to be younger and better educated, and are mainly working in a factory environment. On the other hand, the male tend to take up construction and other manual jobs and come from places which are closer to the place of destination. Significant directional biases are also discerned. Huadong, which is located to the north of Guangzhou, can only attract migrants from the north, along the Beijing-Guangshou

Railway. Shajing, a booming small town located on the edge of the Pearl River Estuary, has a gravitational field exhibiting two distinct wedges, one toward the northeast and the other toward the northwest. The paths of information flow and the existence of intervening opportunities play an important part in shaping the migratory paths (Author's own abstract).

Lim, L.Y.C. (1980) Women in the Redeployment of Manufacturing Industry to Developing Countries, UNIDO Working Paper on Structural Changes No 18, prepared by the Global and Conceptual Studies Section, International Centre for Industrial Studies. (ACADEMIC, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). In the course of industrialization of developing countries the traditional role of women is undergoing dramatic changes. In many countries the female labour force has emerged as a major resource for industrial development. The use of this resource for this purpose has been discovered and utilized primarily by international industrial companies in search of new cheaper locations for their labour-intensive production lines. A brief review and analysis of the dimensions and implications of the female-intensive pattern of employment in these companies is the subject of the present study.In most countries individual workers benefit from short-run economic gains in the form of the wages they are paid in a relatively brief period of employment. This gain is sometimes obtained at the cost of generally poor working and living conditions which present short and long-run health and safety problems that are largely uncompensated. Social and cultural changes occur which have both positive and negative impact on the women.Net national economic gains have been made although low wages mean low value added and low foreign exchange earnings and externalities and social costs in the form of health losses and social and cultural disruption may reduce these gains. Net national economic benefit in the short-run could be increased if the conditions and wages of women workers were improved, raising domestic value added and foreign exchange earnings, but the problem is that if average wages were raised, the host country might run the risk of losing the investment. Export oriented industries in developing countries tend to have highly competitive market structures, so any one firm would be reluctant to unilaterally initiate higher wages as higher costs of production would hurt it in market competition. But this argument of competition and pressure on profit margins can be exaggerated in the case of the industries (such as the international electronics industry), which have a more oligopolistic market structure and whose overseas operations in developing countries are therefore very profitable. There is a need for effort to conceive suitable international and/or regional agreements with respect to improving the conditions of women workers.There are positive aspects to female employment creation in foreign industries. Even if it is based on women's inferiority and lack of bargaining power in the labour market, female employment does increase women's opportunities for work outside the home. There are also external benefits such as the largely unanticipated favourable demographic consequences.

Lim, L.Y.C. (1983) Capitalism, Imperialism, and Patriarchy: The Dilemma of Third-World Women Workers in Multinational Factories. Chap. 3. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 70-91. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER,

EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MULTINATIONALS, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This chapter examines case study material in an attempt to ascertain whether employment in multinational factories in developing countries is primarily an experience of liberation or exploitation for the women concerned. It is argued that women's employment in multinationals is generally an improvement on local employment opportunities and provides a limited escape from domestic exploitation. However, patriarchal exploitation is fundamentally linked to the development of multinationals under capitalism, being the very thing that conditions women's entry into world-market factories at low absolute and relative wages. In the long run, therefore, the exploitation of women by patriarchy reinforces their exploitation by capital, and vice versa, such that women must be liberated from both if their exploitation in the labour force is to be eliminated. (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Lim, L.Y.C. (1990) Women's Work in Export Factories: The Politics of a Cause. Chap. 7. In: Persistent Inequalities - Women and World Development. Ed: Tinker, I., (ISBN 0-19-505935-2,.) Oxford University Press: New York, pp. 101-119. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT POSITIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "Linda Y. C. Lim was one of the first to study the socioeconomic impact of export industries that had been set up by multinationals in Third World countries. In her provocative chapter, Lim explores the reasons why this issue, which in fact is only a tiny proportion of working women in developing countries, became such a `cause célèbre'. She writes that the vision of multinational greed and exploited young women served ideological stances of Marxists, feminists, and trade unionists. As a result, facts were overwhelmed by symbolism as these various protagonists utilized and interpreted reality to suit their purpose." (Tinker,I 1990 p10).

Lim, L.Y.C. and ILO (1985) Women Workers in Multinational Enterprises in Developing Countries. (A joint UNCTC/ILO contribution to the United Nations Decade for Women, ISBN 92-2-100532-1) ILO, Geneva. 119 pages. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT POSITIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "Does work in multinational enterprises give women in developing countries an opportunity to free themselves from the restrictions of existing social structures? Multinationals in Third World countries have been instrumental in providing many jobs for women workers. Over 1 million women work for multinational enterprises in developing countries, and at least 500,000 jobs are being generated indirectly. The largest number of women employed in multinationals are found in Latin America, followed by Asia. Although some of the activities of these enterprises are in plantations and in agribusiness and, more and more, in the services sector, the vast majority of women employed by multinationals are found in manufacturing industry.The skills which are required by clothing enterprises are to a large extent traditional, while electronics multinationals use new technologies for export-oriented industries. Most of the women workers in manufacturing multinationals are in low-paid production

jobs, and their career prospects are limited. The age and marital status of these women largely reflects local workforce characteristics and conditions, including the traditional division of labour based on sex in the host countries. Information from 30 developing countries is analysed to provide examples of the situation of women workers in multinational enterprises in the Third World today with respect to wages, hours and conditions of work, fringe benefits, labour relations and quality of life." (Back cover).Applying a comparative analysis, it would appear that in all sectors multinationals provide at least marginally better terms and conditions of employment than non-multinationals. Applying a historical or longitudinal analysis, multinational wage employment has tended to improve women's working and living conditions and has expanded their opportunities and horizons. It also gives their family more opportunities for upward mobility. From an individual perspective, such employment is insufficient to have a global impact on women or society as a whole, although it does modify traditional culture, expand the working class, integrating more women into it and increase worker organisation. From a feminism perspective, multinational employment for women weakens but does not usually destroy patriarchal structures, increasing women's independence, power and status with the family and society but not liberating them from the primacy of the reproductive role. Policy suggests include strengthening union organisation and women's participatory and leadership roles in it, and the promotion of legal and educational equality for women as well as a redistribution of the gender division of labour.

Lin, V. (1987) Women Electronics Workers in Southeast Asia: the Emergence of a Working Class. In: Global Restructuring and Territorial Development. Eds: Henderson, J. and Castells, M. Sage: London, pp. 112-135. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT POSITIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MALAYSIA, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA, SINGAPORE, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WOMENS VOICES). This chapter examines the social impact of industrialization on "Malaysian and Singaporean women who experience industrial labour for the first time, largely as a result of foreign penetration of these Southeast Asian economies. Drawing on her own studies of semiconductor workers, Lin, in contradistinction to previous research, argues that female electronics workers are beginning to constitute a relatively permanent section of the working class. While there are differences between the racial groups (Malay, Chinese, Indian) and between Malaysia and Singapore, she finds that the women workers tend to be older, more of them married, and more with a continuous involvement with wage labour, than earlier. Furthermore, she shows that the women appreciate the increased status they achieve within their families, as well as the growing relative independence, which results from their role as factory workers.Lin suggests that the family-centred orientations (and, we might add, obligations), typical of rural, pre-capitalist social formations, are beginning to wane. In their place are appearing the types of peer-group orientations and affiliations more typical of industrial society. Lin argues that in effect what is taking place in Malaysia and Singapore is that women factory workers are being constituted as a working class. While they are a long way from becoming a class 'for themselves', they are becoming culturally proletarianized and more liberated as women. By drawing parallels with nineteenth-century female proletarianization in Europe and America, Lin implies the possibility of class struggle on the industrializing periphery" (Introduction, Henderson and Castells, pp. 12-13).

Long, S. (1990) Fiji: No Paradise for Garment Workers. Journal of Australian Political Economy, 26, pp. 101-110. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CLOTHING, FIJI, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This paper takes up a number of issues arising from the boom in Fiji's garment industry and the formation of the tax free zone/factory scheme. It examines the plight of garment workers in Fiji, and the implications of the tax free zone/tax free factory scheme for the union movement in Fiji, as well as critically examining its merits as a strategy for economic development. It also looks at the likely impact of the boom in Fiji's garment industry for the Australian industry and its workers, and examines trade union responses to labour exploitation in the Fiji garment industry.

Lucker, G. and Alvarez, A. (1985) Controlling Maquiladora Turnover through Personnel Selection. Southwest Journal of Business and Economics, 2, pp. 1-10. (ACADEMIC, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT POSITIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MEXICO, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WOMENS VOICES). "Although the maquiladora industry of Northern Mexico has been plagued with criticisms of 'worker exploitation', the literature reveals very little data to support these allegations. The present study was done to explore charges of 'exploitation' by examining maquiladora workers' attitudes about their jobs. Job satisfaction surveys were administered to all workers (497 females) at two coupon processing plants in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. Workers reported being adequately trained and equipped for their jobs. They believed that the amount of work required of them was fair and that they were not pressured to perform beyond their capacity. A significant minority reported that their work was entertaining while only a small number reported their jobs to be boring. Finally, the vast majority of workers reported being happy with their jobs and stated that if a friend were looking for work, they would recommend that the friend seek work at their plant" (Author abstract).

MacEwan Scott, A. (1984) Industrialisation, Gender Segregation and Stratification Theory, Paper presented to the ESRC Gender and Stratification Conference, University of East Anglia, July 1984. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA). This paper shows "that the allocation of men and women to different occupations has been produced by an interaction between economic, political and ideological forces rather than by economic ones alone" (p. 40). Based on a comparison of gender segregation across time and space, Scott reveals the powerful influence on the pattern of female employment of a gender ideology which gives priority to women's domestic roles. This ideology of 'domesticity' influences both the pattern of female labour participation and the kind of work women do, and the idea that women constitute a special type of labour persists in all societies, "despite the fact that they could no longer be differentiated from man in terms of their supply characteristics" (p. 41).It is argued that this ideology pre-dated industrialisation, being linked with feudal aristocracies and world religion and notions of moral and social order. Industrialisation has facilitated its spread through the class system, via politico-religious control of key social institutions (especially educational and legal), via the development of the 'secondary worker' stereotype and the sex-typing of occupations to justify male/female wage differentials; and through the establishment of social mobility. Scott concludes that

the division of labour is not as autonomous from other social structures as economic theory would have us believe, and that economic roles and statuses are overlaid with those of gender (From author's conclusion).

Mager, A. (1989) Moving the Fence: Gender in the Ciskei and Border Textile Industry, 1945-1986. Social Dynamics, 28, pp. 46-62. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH AFRICA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This paper traces the incorporation of women into semi-skilled wage labour in the textile industry in the Ciskei and Border region of South Africa. It aims to demonstrate that gender is crucial for an understanding of the working class in the region. The processes of proletarianisation, as well as the nature of experience of work, altered the position of women in regard to the economic political and ideological relations that structured their lives. These factors also affected women's consciousness and the terms of their resistance. While wage employment allowed women a measure of economic autonomy and strength in the face of patriarchal controls in the family, it increased their vulnerability to exploitation as women workers in the factory. Political restructuring has confined many African women to the Bantustans and to a future of insecure, highly exploited, gender defined employment in decentralised industry. (Author's abstract).

Mather, C. (1985) 'Rather Than Make Trouble, It's Better Just to Leave': Behind the Lack of Industrial Strife in the Tangerang Region of West Java. In: Women, Work, and Ideology in the Third World. Ed: Afshar, H. Tavistock: London, pp. 153-180. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDONESIA, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This study of industrialization in the Tangerang regency of West Java shows that capital, by locating production within the rural areas, is able to benefit from the dependence of its young labour force on the subsistence factor. These workers are paid a wage below subsistence and are employed through male religious leaders who can exercise both the authority of their gender and that of the formal ideology to secure a docile and submissive labour force. (Afshar, 1985, p. xi).

Mathew, P.M. (1986) Women's Industrial Employment in Kerala, India. Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 18, pp. 43-58. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, ASIA, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, ELECTRONICS, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, INFORMAL SECTOR, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH ASIA, THE SOUTH). In recent years there have been several efforts to integrate gender perspectives into the theoretical debates on the informal sector, and an emerging debate on when and what types of women's organizations contribute to the empowerment versus the social control of lower class women. Mathew's article contributes to and connects these two sets of debates, arguing that the increasing involvement of Indian womens' organizations in economic production activities serves to integrate lower class women into the capitalist system and to legitimate and rationalize informal relations of production. (BCAS editors).

Mauleon, C.O. (1991) Feminist Training's Contribution to the Democratization of Labour Unions, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-26, 1991. (ACADEMIC, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, IMPACT POSITIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, PERU, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). This paper examines the contribution to raising the consciousness of women industrial workers in Peru made by feminist collectives and centers, which grew rapidly in the 1980s. Workshops and course have served to empower women workers and to build community and solidarity both between workers and between workers and feminist activists. Many women workers went on to work in commissions submitting proposals to the national Body of Legislators, primarily based around their role as mother but latterly around their role as workers, and then became union leaders. As a result of women's roles in union leaderships previously controlled by men communication networks and negotiation strategies have helped to resolve conflicts and men have begun to discuss gender issues for the first time. Future challenges include safeguarding industrial employment for women at a time of industrial restructuring, facilitating retrenched women's search for income generating activities which utilise their skills, and furthering the links between workers and ex-workers with other elements of the women's movement. (Paraphrased from text).

Mensah-Kutin, R. (1991) The Pattern of Women's Work in Ghanaian Industry: Issues and Strategies for Organising, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-26, 1991. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FACTORY BASED, GHANA, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES AND FML, THE SOUTH, WEST AFRICA). This paper shows that "in Ghana, since the Economic Recovery Programme/SAP was initiated, there has been a change in the distribution of employment between sectors of the economy. The increase in employment in mining, timber logging, transport and communications has not benefitted women since these are traditionally male preserves. In the public sector which employed a large number of women, retrenchment and a freeze on new recruitment have hit women directly. In those manufacturing industries where women still have jobs such as food processing, companies have resorted to restructuring the workforce through retrenchment, increasing work intensity and designating workers as casual labour" (From Final Report of Workshop by R. Pittin and A. Chhachhi, p. 7). In conclusion, the author suggests some strategies for organising around issues of the negative impact of SAP on women, and the failure of the state and trade unions to be sensitive to women's needs.

Mies, M. (1982) The Lace-makers of Naraspur: Indian Housewives Produce for the World Market - A Study Prepared for the ILO World Employment Programme. Zed, London. (ISBN 0862320321) (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT

NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH ASIA, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "Poor rural and urban women are recruited as housewives, to produce lace as a so-called spare time activity in their own homes. Although this dates from colonial times, the basic structure has been preserved with no transformation into wage labour proper, despite a phenomenal recent growth in the export capacity of the industry. Pauperisation of the peasantry has increased labour supply; the working day in lace has increased; incomes remain appallingly low and do not permit any economic improvement. The integration of the lace makers into the world market has aggravated, not solved, the problems of their poverty. Relations of production and reproduction and the structure of the industry are analysed as a process of primitive accumulation." (Townsend, J. 1988 p71).

Mies, M. (1986) Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour. (ISBN (Pb) 0-86232-342-8) Zed Books Ltd., London. 251 pages. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "A feminist analysis seeking to transcend divisions between Western and Third World women by examining the capitalist patriarchy which has divided them while integrating the whole world into a system of global exploitation and accumulation."(In Townsend, J. 1988 p.164) "The author considers that it is necessary to redevelop existing concepts, discourses and linguistic usages to show the true nature of women's situation in the world.In all cultures from tribal to post-industrial, women's work is the production of life; this term incorporates use-value production, such as child-care and housework which is not conceptualised as work, as well as low-paid work which produces surplus value. Male work and production is not possible without this basis of female work in and out of the home. Women's work should be seen as work and not as a natural unpaid activity as is customary in all societies from tribal to modern capitalist and state socialist; these require a dual labour from women and at the same time discount it. She finds that the increased violence against women, the gap between First and Third World women, the continued exploitation of women in socialist countries and other features of contemporary societies, are all related to the asymmetry of power between men and women. Her thesis is that capitalist accumulation cannot continue without this gross exploitation of women and their labour, paid and unpaid; this sexual and international division of labour is harmful to all women but in particular to Third World women; First World women should support them in their struggle for control over their own labour, land and rights; an example has been the campaign against Depoprovera." BA (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 4, 1986, p359).

Mitter, S. (1986) Common Fate, Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy. Pluto Press, London. 184 pages. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, NORTH AND SOUTH, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, SUBCONTRACTING). "Presents the central role of women working in the current worldwide industrial restructuring.

They are decribed as a new flexible workforce, created to undermine the power of organised labour through the casualisation of employment. A vivid popular presentation well presented."(Townsend, J. 1988 p.160).Women's employment is expanding worldwide. They are the key workers in the new sweatshops of the Third World and - increasingly - of the industrialized West. New technology has allowed large corporations to reorganize production globally and a new international division of labour is emerging; its key characteristic the division between core male workers and peripheral female workers. Corporations increasingly produce by subcontracting, reducing the core labour force they employ. At the end of the chain of subcontracting, it is increasingly black women in the sweatshop economy of the West who provide the most disposable labour of all. Women are fighting back. In doing so they encounter the patriarchal values of the state and the family - exploited and reinforced by the multinationals. Drawing extensively on grassroots research by feminist organizations in many countries, the astonishing strength and determination that women are bringing to this struggle is documented. (From back of book).

Mitter, S. (1986) Industrial Restructuring and Manufacturing Homework: Immigrant Women in the UK Clothing Industry. Capital and Class, 27, pp. 37-80. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SUBCONTRACTING, THE NORTH, UK, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WESTERN EUROPE). "One of the most significant aspects of the recent industrial restructuring process in Western Europe has been the casualisation of employment and the rise in homework. This is part of a growing sweatshop economy, where both homeworkers and workers in small unregistered sweatshops find employment through kin and community links and share similar hazards and difficulties. However such work has received scant attention in the literature. Focusing on the clothing industry, the author dismisses claims that recent changes in labour/output ratios can be explained by increased labour productivity. Instead, she suggests that an increasing proportion of the work in this sector is being transferred from factories to outworkers who do not appear in official estimates of numbers in the labour force and whose activities are invisible, insecure and poorly paid.The garment industry in Europe is characterised by a decentralised mode of production among a large group of small manufacturers. A chain of subcontracting and the fragmentation of the production process have become major features of the trade. This allows companies to hold down overheads, avoids the necessity of managing a large labour force and provides flexible and non-unionised workers. It also facilitates a speedy efficient response to changes in market demand. The case of Benetton is used to illustrate these points. It is argued that, in Britain, the role of ethnic women has become of increased importance in the clothing industry and that the cheap labour of black and other minority women has become the basis of the growing sweat-shop economy. The insecurity of immigrant women within the British state, together with their subordinate position in their own communities, make them a suitable source of labour for the unregulated sector. They are particularly vulnerable to exploitative working conditions and receive little protection from either the state or the trade unions.The author argues that legislation on its own can do little to alleviate the conditions of female immigrant homeworkers whose situation is circumscribed by wider economic, social and racial problems. It must be realised that homeworking is not just a national issue but that, as a form of reorganising the labour process, it is currently playing an important part in the global restructuring of capital." MM (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 4, 1986, p87-88).

Mitter, S. (1989) Technological Trends in the Garment Industry of Developing Countries: With Special Reference to Human Resource Development and Women's Training, Prepared for the UNIDO Report on the Indonesian Garment Industry, June 1989. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH). Survival and growth in the clothing garment industry depends on flexibility of design and management so that the right product can be supplied "at the right time at the right price with a high design content" (p3). Crucial to these ends is the application of computer technology, especially with respect to design. Computer-Aided Design reduces fabric waste, grading time, and design generation and modification time. There is less scope for automation in assembly operations "mainly because of the inherent limitation of limp fabrics, which necessitates exclusive manual positioning by the sewing machine operators" (p. 9). However, the use of Electronic Point of Sale systems facilitates a 'Just in Time' approach to stocking, as well as providing marketing information. Subcontracting is also a feature of this approach, with unskilled production processes typically being put out to subcontractors while the major manufacturers do the skilled work.Technological changes have eroded the comparative advantages of low-wage regions in garment production, such that following years of decline production is shifting back towards developed countries. In response, countries like Hong Kong are adopting a high technology solution. While some production is subcontracted to China, or Southeast Asia, in response to MFA quota restrictions and an unskilled labour shortage, computer technology is being introduced to improve labour productivity and quality control. Hong Kong can now produce its own designs for large scale exports and is establishing itself as an international fashion centre. Training has been upgraded in both fashion and computing, and women's enrolment on the various training courses is particularly prominent. South Korea and Singapore have followed a similar line, although with slightly less success.India has adopted a low technology solution, finding a niche in the summer cotton goods market in developed countries, ensuring a good supply of cotton and a wide variety of fabrics at short notice, using its cheap labour prudently and developing its own designs. Subcontractors do the labour intensive work while the factories cut and finish. Malaysia has a similar strategy, but higher labour costs and low productivity make it problematic and the clothing industry tends to respond to demand rather than trying to initiative it. The government has recently moved to try to increase productivity and competitiveness through restructuring, training and marketing.China has adopted a careful mix of labour-intensive and capital-intensive strategies, processing fabric and sewing for Hong Kong, boosting exports and also trying to upgrade style and quality. Thailand has a similar approach, producing designer-label goods for the US and Europe, and seeking to promote more capital-intensive production methods.The use of computer-aided technology is gradually becoming inevitable in all developing country garment producers, but adequate training is vital and can only be established over time. In the interim, low technology strategies are also useful, particularly with decentralised and differentiated production based on regional craft skills.

Mitter, S. (1989) Women in Industrial Development in Developing Countries: Trends and Perspectives, Prepared as a contribution by UNIDO to the 1989 World Survey on the Role of Women in Development. PPD.137. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED

INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, HOMEWORKING, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INFORMAL SECTOR, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, MANUFACTURING, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). The paper discusses the present role of women in industry. The second section examines recent trends in women's manufacturing employment world-wide. Such features as: hours worked, wages and occupations, the impact of EPZs, formal/informal sector, part-time/full-time, self-employed and demographic trends, unemployment and work experience are discussed. The third section discusses factors affecting women's participation in industry such as trends in industrial growth, the impact of technological changes on employment and skill requirements, human resource development as a determinant of economic competitiveness, education and training, training in the formal and informal sectors.Two illustrative industries are examined; textiles and electronics. In the textiles and clothing industries how factors such as technological innovations, new skill requirements and new work-place design affect women are discussed. So too are the effects on women of structural changes, technological changes and the new skill requirements of the electronics industry. The paper concludes with hypotheses as to likely future trends in the women's participation rates in manufacturing; examining the trends as responses to technological and organisational changes in the workplace coming from such areas as IT and Biotechnology and the scope for governmental, nongovernmental and international organisations in human resource planning. DE.

Mitter, S. (1991) Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment: A Global Critique of Post-Fordism. In: Women, Work and Computerization: Understanding and Overcoming Bias in Work and Education. Eds: Eriksson, I.V., Kitchenham, B.A. and Tijdens, K.G., (Proceedings of the IFIP TC9/WG 9.1 Conference on Women, Work and Computerization.) North-Holland:, pp. 53-65. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, MANUFACTURING, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA).

Mitter, S. (1992) New Skills Requirements and Appropriate Programmes for the Enhancement of Participation of the Female Labour Force in Industry in Selected Economies of the Asia-Pacific Region, Paper presented at Regional Workshop on Promoting Diversified Skill Development for Women in Industry, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 23-27 March 1992. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MANUFACTURING, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). This report, based primarily on published materials and statistics but also supplemented by some primary research, evaluates existing plans for training and skill diversification in various Asian and Pacific countries, in the context of structural changes and the emerging international division of labour. In the 1990s these countries face a slower rate of growth, fierce protectionism and stricter control of technology outflow in developed countries, and a lower demand for cheap low-skill labour due to the use of computer-aided production systems and the need for fast, flexible and specialised production. To remain competitive they must diversify into high-value added products with multi-skill workers, develop their own technology and persuade multinationals to produce directly or subcontract work in the region.

"In the short term, the flexible and cheap labour of young women provides a cost-effective substitute for computer-aided assembling or factory-line work" (p. 21), and firms in the advanced NICs have been shifting labour intensive production processes to lower wage Asian countries such as China, Indonesia and Malaysia. However, in the longer run it is essential that training and skills, particularly of women, are developed in order to build capacity for diversification into higher value products for niche markets. Large countries like India and China, with vast domestic markets, are promoting import substitution but must still improve the education, training and skill levels of women in order to both increase output and attract foreign companies seeking trained personnel.Existing training programmes in the NICs are reviewed, and their absence in most other Asian countries noted. Finally, suggestions are made for the design of national programmes for women's skill diversification, in order to "strengthen the productive capacity of the domestic manufacturing sector; make the country attractive for multinational investors; ensure international competitiveness in the era of information technologies; facilitate equitable distribution of employment and life chances among women and men" (p. 42).

Mitter, S. and Pearson, R. (1992) Global Information Processing: The Emergence of Software Services and Data Entry Jobs in Selected Developing Countries, ILO Sectoral Activities Programme working paper, produced in collaboration with Cecilia Ng. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, INDUSTRIAL COVERAGE UNKNOWN, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This report outlines newly emerging patterns of white collar employment in the developing world based on new technology, and highlights the following trends. "A polarisation between technically skilled personnel in software systems analysis and semi-skilled workers in the repetitive clerical data entry and data processing work; a polarisation in terms of gender with men occupying the majority of the highly skilled posts and women clustered in the low-skilled clerical jobs; an international mobility of new technology workers, particularly of software consultants; an international relocation of new technology work, both in the field of software programming and in the simple data entry and/or processing sectors; a perceptible shift towards developing countries in the international sourcing of skilled and semi-skilled workers, arising through demographic factros; a rise in the number of new-tech workers not only in the export-orientated section but also within the domestic manufacturing and services enterprises...; the creation of new-tech work in a variety of organisations ranging from micro-enterprises to large-scale global organisations; the deployment of highly skilled workers on a freelance or fixed-term basis and of low-skilled workers as short-term, or piece rate employees; the incidence of health hazards in computer-related employment and the absence of enforcable health and safety regulations.In summary, the rise of new technology white collar work offers strength and opportunities as well as weaknesses and threats for the developing world. On the one hand, it represents opportunities for the upgrading of human capital in technical skills where shortages, on a global level, have been predicted for the year 2000 and beyond. On the other hand, growing evidence concerning lower wages, insecurity in employment contracts, the prospect of a 'brain drain' and health hazards, warrants serious concern. The implications of the 'non-bargaining' status of a large secton of skilled new technology workers and of an insignificant rate of unionisation among data entry workers deserve special attention" (Authors' conclusions, pp. 50-51).

Moghadam, V.M. (1991) Women's Employment in the Middle East and North Africa: Gender, Class and State Policies, Paper presented at annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, 23-27 August 1991, Cleveland, Ohio, USA. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, MIDDLE EAST, NORTH AFRICA, PRELIMINARY, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). The paper explores and assesses the gains made by women in the paid labor force in the three decades since industrialization and state expansion "took off" in the Middle East and North Africa, fueled largely by oil revenues. The focus is on patterns of female employment in the formal sector, an important indicator of women's status, access to economic resources, and equity.The structural determinants of women's employment are: a) state policy and national development strategy, b) class location, and c) gender arrangements and cultural understandings. While women's overall labor force participation remains low in comparison to other regions - attributable to the type of development pursued in the region and to the specificities of the sex/gender system in Arab-Islamic countries - there has been a steady increase in modern sector employment, particularly in the state sector. Intra-regional differentiation of women's employment is explained by state legal and economic policy (including export-oriented manufacturing versus capital-intensive oil-centered growth). It is argued that one must look at economic and political factors, and not just cultural, in the specification of Middle Eastern women's roles and status, including and especially access to employment.Sources of data are census and statistical reports from various countries, UN data, other secondary sources, and the author's research travels and interviews. (Author's own abstract).

Moghadam, V.M. (1991) Gender and Restructuring: A Comparative Analysis of Third World Industrializing Countries and the Former State Socialist Societies, Paper prepared for the UNU/WIDER Research Conference on Gender and Restructuring: Perestroika, the 1989 Revolutions, and Women, held at WIDER, Helsinki, 2-3 September 1991. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EASTERN EUROPE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AND SOUTH, RECESSION AND RETRENCHMENT, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES AND FML, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "This paper examines two cases of restructuring and economic reform - industrializing countries in the Third World on the one hand and Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union on the other. The main objective of the comparison is to discern similarities and differences in the two cases in order to assess the likely impact of restructuring on women and on gender relations in the former state socialist countries. Another objective is to establish restructuring as a global phenomenon and transformations in the former CMEA countries as part of world-systemic imperatives. Finally, the paper illustrates the salience of gender in processes of economic and political change....Access to and participation in formal employment is clearly a historic gain for women, and for the larger goals of gender equity and women's empowerment. But there are negative entailments which lie at both the economic and cultural levels. Women are still a source of cheap (and in some countries, "flexible") labour, and the sphere of reproduction is still regarded as a woman's (rather than a man's) responsiblitiy. In many countries, the cultural and institutional support to enable women to exercise the right of employment is still insufficient if they have children. Moreover, the recent experience of

global restructuring has everywhere rendered precarious the economic position of women.... Massive lay-offs of women and their re-attachment to the family could interrupt the trend toward greater autonomy, equity, and empowerment of women" (From author's introduction).

Moghadam, V.M. (1992) Development and Patriarchy: The Case of the Middle East and North Africa, Paper presented at the UNU/WIDER Conference on Trajectories of Patriarchy and Development, Helsinki, 6-7 July 1992. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CORE, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, MIDDLE EAST, NORTH AFRICA, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). The relationship between development and women's emancipation is neither direct, automatic, nor unilinear. Intervening factors such as economic crisis, cultural revivalism, and political instability could worsen women's status. However, development erodes classic patriarchy, even though new forms of gender inequality emerge and class differences are intensified, and the long-term trend is toward less rather than more gender inequality, because development has provided women (although not all women) with education, paid employment, access to the public sphere, and a wider range of life-options.In the Middle East, for about ten years following the oil price increases of the early 1970s, a massive investment programme by oil-producing countries saw an expansion of the female labour force, as women occupied paid positions in factories and offices, as workers, administrators, and professionals. Feminist concerns and women's movements also emerged, and by 1980 most Middle Eastern countries had women's organizations dealing with issues of literacy, education, employment, te law, and so on. These social changes have had a positive effect in reducing traditional sex segregation and female seclusion, in introducing changes in the structure of the Middle Eastern family, and in producing a generation of middle class women not dependent on family or marriage for survival and status. Increased educational attainment and labor force attachment has created a stratum of highly visible and increasingly vocal women in the public sphere.The secular trend toward altering and improving women's work and lives seems to have encountered an impasse in the 1980s. Rising debt, 70% of GNP for the Middle East and North Africa in 1989 according to the UN, has brought tough economic reforms and austerity and these, combined with social disparities and political repression, have tended to de-legitimize "Western-style" systems and revive questions of cultural identity, including renewed calls for greater control over female mobility. It is in this context of economic failures and political delegitimation that Islamist movements are presenting themselves as alternatives, with specific implications for the legal status and social positions of women.Thus on balance it appears that the economic strategies pursued (excessive reliance on oil revenues, high military expenditures) and the political mechanisms deployed (authoritarian rule), have resulted in a) a limited set of achievements for women, and b) social tensions and a conservative backlash with particular implications for women. This paper highlights the positive and negative entailments of development for Middle Eastern women, its contribution to the erosion of the patriarchal family, and the impasse faced by women in the context of economic failures and political crisis. (From author's introduction).

Moors, A. (nd) Restructuring and Gender: Garment Production in Nablus, Occasional Paper No 3, Middle East Research Associates, Amsterdam. (ACADEMIC, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF

FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MIDDLE EAST, PALESTINE, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This paper examines the relation between gender and garment production in Nablus, the largest town in the northern part of the West Bank. Since the Israeli occupation in 1967 many clothing producers have become dependent upon sub-contracts from Israeli firms and the labour force has been feminized. Women workers are not preferred because of their innate natural qualities, but because existing asymmetries in gender relations define them as highly productive, docile and cheap workers. Horizontal gender segregation, with separate sectors of highly skilled male and female tailors and their assistants, has been replaced by vertical gender segregation. Entrepreneurs are mainly male and most workers are female. Women work exclusively as machinists and sometimes as supervisors over women, whereas what male workers there are work in cutting, pressing or maintenance or, where they are machinists, work together in standard production leaving tasks of finishing for women. Men are generally paid a piece wage, while most women are paid monthly, averaging about half of what men earn over the month.Women can be paid lower wages because social constraints on their mobility leave them few alternatives. While male labour is controlled through the market, employers adopt paternalistic attitudes towards women workers, downplaying the economic side of the relationship between them, and women's spatial segregation from male workers helps to prevent them being influenced by men's more market-oriented approach to labour. Restructuring has also resulted in the loss of respectability for the garment trade. As a result, urban middle class women no longer work in this trade and sewing has largely become the domain of less educated, non-urban women from a lower class background. As gender difference is more accentuated amongst these classes, the low social position of female garment workers actually enforces gender hierarchy in the female worker - male employer relation.While gender asymmetry and social hierarchy generally tend to reinforce each other, this relation is not free from contradictions. In the labour process, female workers themselves emphasise gender differences to under-mine employer dominance. Furthermore, the wage labour of women from a non-urban, lower-class background in itself undermines the gender division of labour, and gives individual women access to economic resources, making them less dependent upon their male kin. (From text).

Nash, J. (1983) The Impact of the Changing International Division of Labor on Different Sectors of the Labor Force. Chap. 1. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 3-38. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, FACTORY BASED, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AND SOUTH, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA). Nash gives a historical account of the international division of labour, and the segmentation by gender, ethnicity, age and education of the labour force in both industrial core and peripheral nations. The detrimental impact of multinational production on employment, social welfare, workers' controls over the work-place and unionisation are then considered. It is argued that the movement of capital overseas has led to the development of new forms of industrial relations, with stronger managerial control and a weakening of organized labour. The changes are not all in the direction core-periphery however, the practices and characteristics of the host country feeding

back into the development of labour relations to make their own impact. For example, in South East Asia the dormitories, schools, dining facilities and recreational activities provided by multinationals for their young female work-force fit well into the culture of paternalism and patriarchal control. At the same time, they help to control workers and promote company loyalty, to maintain labour relations at an informal interpersonal level, and to lessen the formation of class consciousness. (Taken from text).

Ng, S.H. (1986) Perception of Sex-discrimination in Employment and the Class Context - The Case of Hong Kong Female Workers. British Journal of Sociology, 37, pp. 307-331. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, EAST ASIA, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, HONG KONG, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). Where female factory workers are concentrated in clusters of seemingly low-status female jobs, their sensitivity to sexual discrimination is masked by class feelings of 'relative deprivation'. In as much as these female manual workers are 'enclaved' in specific types of industrial employment, their orbits of comparison are likely to consist predominantly of other female employees in similar positions. The relative absence of a male 'reference group' in the workplace makes it difficult for these workers to become conscious of their deprivation due to sex discrimination.Moreover, it has to be recognized that any discussion on the perception of sex discrimination and feelings of 'relative deprivation' in the work situation cannot be detached from the structural consideration of social class, as demonstrated by the Hong Kong case. Here, professional female members of the civil service have been vocal during the previous decades in advancing their parochial claims for 'equal pay' and 'equal rights' as a lever to their deprived position vis-a-vis their male colleagues in employment. Conversely, female industrial workers, constrained by their restrictive frame of reference emanating from their labouring class situation, tend to concetrate upon 'such market factors as the level of pay, security of employment' etc. in evaluating their employment conditions. As its central argument, this paper suggests that the class 'divide' cuts across and emasculates the solidarity of any 'equal rights' movement that might otherwise serve to integrate the aristocratic professional and the grass-roots blue-collar members of the female labour force.Furthermore, other structural conditions of employment may affect the workers' perception of equity and accordingly their sense of deprivation vis-a-vis other groups. A key factor reviewed earlier in this paper is hence the payment system. Specifically, the monthly rated system can be described as a method of payment by status. As such, it is more discriminatory in terms of sex and other attributes than the piecework system which, being a payment by result scheme, usually rewards effort by output quite regardless of the status of the recipient. Analysis of industrial wages data in Hong Kong, for instance, demonstrates that male/female pay differentials are more characteristic of the monthly rated system of payment than with other forms of payment. In as much as factory workers in Hong Kong are paid more frequently by the day or piece, they are probably less sensitized to the discrimination of pay rates otherwise manifest under a monthly system of payment. Sex discrimination, often concealing a 'class' significance but institutionalized under the guise of 'custom and practices', is therefore not readily perceptible to female manual workers, especially where the jobs are remunerated daily or by piece. Given their limited frame of reference, they are likely to take the distribution of manual tasks in their workplace for granted and are docile in questioning its rationale that might have disguised an element of sex inequity in job allocation.

Nihila, M. (1993) Development Process and Status of Women: Tanning Industry in Tamil Nadu. Economic and Political Weekly, 28, pp. 2220-2228. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH ASIA, TANNING, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). The [Indian] Factories Act 1948 prohibits the employment of women and children in the leather industry, which is being promoted as an export-oriented industry. The provision of the act notwithstanding, women are employed in large numbers in tanners and in leather finishing processes. Drawing upon a case study undertaken in Dindigul district in Tamil Nadu, this paper describes the conditions of women workers in this hazardous industry and raises the question of whether the current pattern of industrialisation without regard to the impact of certain hazardous industries on workers should be encouraged (Author's abstract).

North-South Institute (1985) Women in Industry: North-South Connections. North-South Institute, Ottawa. 76 pages. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AMERICA, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA, TEXTILES). "Women, through their work, are major participants in the world industrial economy, yet as a rule they have had little say or consideration in the sweeping changes that have done much to alter their everyday lives. Though disadvantaged compared to many male workers in the economy, women make up a majority of the workforce in most manufacturing industries prominent in North-South trade, in both industrialized and developing countries. Because of their numbers in these industries, they are often painted as adversaries or competitors in the international marketplace, a perception that has led to much misunderstanding and sometimes to damaging actions. This situation conceals a bitter irony, for in both developed and developing countries, jobs in these industries have become notorious for the low pay and poor working conditions they often provide. In highlighting these complex and controversial connections, this report identifies some basic signposts for responsible concern and positive policy actions in the areas treated in the study" (From back cover).

Ong, A. (1983) Global industries and Malay peasants in Peninsular Malaysia. Chap. 18. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 426-441. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MALAYSIA, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). This paper examines the extensive use of female labour in export oriented production in Peninsular Malaysia. In the electronics industry maximum production output is being extracted from rural women, quickly exhausted operators being encouraged to leave so that they can be replaced by the next crop of school leavers. The high turnover of female workers is also a mechanism for disrupting union formation.

Ong uses data from fieldwork in and around free trade zones to reassess the labour aristocracy model. In particular, the assumption that multinationals necessarily generate a labour aristocracy, with an investment in the status quo which precludes class consciousness and organisation, is questioned. On the one hand, close inspection of surface phenomena reveals that a multiplicity of working classes are emerging, casual labourers, peddlers, car attendants, waitresses and paupers as much a product of the multinationals as unskilled operators and skilled industrial workers. On the other hand, anthropological research reveals the covert resistance and protest by local groups and isolated individuals, despite political tranquility on the surface. (Taken from text).

Ong, A. (1986) Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline: Factory Women in Malaysia. State University of New York Press, Albany. 256 pages. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MALAYSIA, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH).

Papps, I. (1992) Women, Work and Well-Being in the Middle East: An Outline of the Relevant Literature. Journal of Development Studies, 28, pp. 595-615. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MIDDLE EAST, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). There is now an extensive literature on the role of women in economic development and the impact of development on their lives. This article concentrates on the economic literature and discusses its importance for policies aimed at working women in the Middle East. It identifies the important strands and places the discussion within the wider context of women in the labour market in both developing and developed countries. The general conclusion is that we are very far from having sufficient knowledge to implement effective policy or even to evaluate existing policies.

Parveen, F. and Ali, K. (1991) Role of a Support Network in Organising Women Factory Workers: The Experience of the "Women Workers Centre" Karachi, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-26, 1991. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CLOTHING, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, PAKISTAN, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "This paper describes the experience of an Action Research [Project] conducted in Pakistan with the objective of ascertaining the backgrounds, working conditions. and. organisational situation of women factory workers in the formal sector industries of the cities of Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad and Multan - the largest urban industrial centres of Pakistan. The paper then details the process of conscientisation resulting from the research and the subsequent creation of a Support Centre (Women Workers Centre) and the experience thereof in the city of Karachi. Certain conclusions are also drawn with reference to the role and effectiveness of various forms of organisation available to workers in general and women workers in particular in their efforts to improve their working conditions and opportunities" (p. 1).It was found that most women were substantial if not sole contributors to household income, but few controlled their earnings. Employment security and working conditions

were poor but few women were aware of their rights, social controls and reproductive responsibilities curtailed women's mobility, and the importance of their earnings made them vulnerable to pressure by management and the informal networks through which they had been recruited. Group discussions during the period of research quickly raised women's consciousness and desire to improve their situation, but the subsequent battles with management over the formation of a union illustrate that worker commitment is not enough - support mechanisms and networks such as the Women Workers Centre are essential in order to provide financial support to union organisers who are laid off, to counteract management propaganda and smear campaigns, to coordinate and help finance legal battles, to undertake political lobbying, deal with women's practical problems and draw support for the union from both the women's movement and the labour movement (From text).

Pearson, R. (1984) Multinational Companies and Female Labour Force in the Third and First World: The Same Sides of Different Coins. (Discussion Paper no.159) UEA School of Development Studies, Norwich. (ACADEMIC, FACTORY BASED, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA).

Pearson, R. (1986) Female Workers in First and Third Worlds: The "Greening" of Women's Labour. In: The Changing Experience of Employment: Restructuring and Recession. Ed: Purcell, K. Macmillan: London. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA).

Pearson, R. (1986) Latin American Women and the New International Division of Labour: A Reassessment. Bulletin of Latin American Research, 5, pp. 67-79. (ACADEMIC, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). "In this paper, Pearson revises earlier interpretations of the global significance of the New International Division of Labor and the position of women workers within it. By the mid-1980s, she argues, the trend toward export processing appears to have been reversed almost everywhere in Latin America, with the exception of the Mexican maquilas" (Abstract from Sklair, 1988, Annotated Bibliography and Research Guide to Mexico'a In-Bond Industry, 1980-1988, p. 101).

Pearson, R. (1989) Women's Employment and Multinationals in the UK: Restructuring and Flexibility. Chap. 2. In: Women's Employment and Multinationals in Europe. Eds: Elson, D. and Pearson, R. Macmillan: London, pp. 12-37. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ELECTRONICS, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, SECONDARY DATA, TEXTILES, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE). The impact of multinationals on women's employment in the UK needs to be situated in the context of two major trends: the

overall decline in employment in the UK manufacturing sector; and the rising participation of women in paid employment. Many of the thousands of jobs lost in the UK as the result of rationalisation by British multinationals were in the textiles and clothing sectors, which employ large numbers of women workers. At the same time, foreign investment in electronics has incorporated females into a work-force which was previously dominated by males.Statistical analysis suggests that the form that internationalisation of capital has taken in the UK does indeed provide employment for women. However, there is some evidence that foreign firms employ a higher percentage of women in 'manual' grades, particularly low grade assembly work and secretarial and administrative work. Such employment is insecure, subject to be cut if changes in technology and organisation of production lessen the demand for untrained and unpaid labour.Multinationals fail to offer these workers any deconstruction of the sexual division of labour in industry which has always operated to the disadvantage of women. However, they are able to reconstruct labour practices and negotiating procedures - indeed the fact that a large part of the labour force is female may make it easier to develop company-specific relations, particularly in areas of established male union militancy based on highly organised male-intensive industries. (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Pearson, R. (1991) Male Bias and Women's Work in Mexico's Border Industries. In: Male Bias in the Development Process. Ed: Elson, D. Manchester University Press: Manchester, pp. 133-163. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, ELECTRONICS, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This chapter charts the trajectory of women's employment in Mexico's border industries and critically examines some interpretations of its significance. It argues that the female work-force should not be viewed as an undifferentiated mass of women all sharing the same characteristics, and highlights important differences between the female work-force in electronics and garment factories. It also shows how women in both sectors have largely been confined to low-paid jobs without prospects at the bottom of the production hierarchy. The growth in recent years of jobs requiring technical and administrative skills is shown to be associated with a fall in the female share of the labour force. Male bias has structured both the way in which women have been incorporated into the border industries, and the appraisal of the significance of this growth of industrial jobs for women. (Authors's summary).

Pearson, R. (1992) Gender Issues in Industrialization. Chap. 8. In: Industrialization and Development. Eds: Hewitt, T., Johnson, H. and Wield, D., (ISBN (Pb) 0-19-877333-1,.) Oxford University Press in association with the Open University: Oxford, pp. 222-247. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, FEMINISATION THESIS, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, INFORMAL SECTOR, MANUFACTURING, MARGINALISATION THESIS, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH). Pearson "has examined the employment and income-earning opportunities brought by industrialization, and their implications for women. The debate on how industrialization has affected women is reviewed in the context of data on the changing composition of the industrial labour force in Third World. .... The first consensus was that women were marginalized from industrial development. This consensus arose from focusing on early experiences of import substitution (especially in Latin America) which were associated with capital-intensive production and male employment generation. ... The second

consensus suggested that industrialization was based on the increasing employment of women. This view focused on the export-oriented industrialization since the 1970s which has used labour-intensive techniques, particularly in textiles, garments and electronics production, and where women have formed the majority of the labour force....No single consensus has an adequate explanation of the relationship between industrialization and women's employment. Women appear to be excluded at certain points and targeted at others. Understanding which characteristics are demanded of women workers and comparing case studies reveals the diversity and differences. Industrialization is a dynamic process, as is the nature of the labour force which changes with different skill requirements, production technologies, specialization and social and political contexts.... A gender-based analysis of industrialization enables us to see dimensions and issues and raise questions that other gender-blind approaches do not. Industrialization is not linear; the informal sector is as much as a part of industrialization as organized factories; women's participation in industrialization may take many forms from homeworking to permanent waged employment. Industrialization - its process and impact - therefore concerns a wide spectrum of social relations from households to companies." (Hewitt, Johnson and Wield, 1992, p247).

Pearson, R. (1993) Health and Safety Issues for Women in Information Processing Jobs: Learning from International Experience, Paper presented to International Workshop on Information Technology and Women's Employment: A Global Overview, United Nations University/Institute for New Technologies, Maastricht, The Netherlands, April 26-29 1993. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT NEGATIVE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, WELFARE OUTCOMES). Pearson examines some of the health and safety risks associated with the relocation of information processing jobs to developing countries, especially in the Caribbean. These risks have been virtually ignored by the orthodox literature, which concentrates on the advantages to capital (a low cost, high productivity, conscientious workforce), and to developing countries (employment for school leavers in a "clean" industry, export earnings, and the potential to "leap-frog" into technology and gain a knowledge based comparative advantage). Such an omission is revealing, given the extent of the debate over the health and safety risks of information processing in developed countries, and indicative of the fact that "whilst the technology itselfmay be new, it would appear that women's relationship to its international diffusion are [sic] in danger of being recreated in a very familiar role - that of cheap labour" (p. 7).This evidence for health hazards associated with the use of computers and keyboards, including muscular-skeletal disorders, deterioration of visual capacity, stress and fatigue, skin complaints, and reproductive hazard, is reviewed. In view of the deep controversies within the literature, and the absence of hard data, Pearson focuses mainly on repetitive strain injury (RSI). Even this is a contested term, and it has been suggested by some medics that the symptoms have a psychological cause, relating to job dissatisfaction, such that the epidemic of RSI in Australia can be likened to outbreaks of mass hysteria in the export processing factories of Southeast Asia. Yet RSI symptoms are accepted as genuine when made by skilled and professional artists such as musicians and ballet dancers.More studies are needed to determine to what extent RSI or other computer related health risks are an issue in developing countries. The specific context in which the technology is being introduced is important and will help to determine whether or not its impact is to intensify, decompose or recompose existing gender and other social relations. The contradictions faced by workers must also be highlighted - they may recognise that if they organise around health hazards their jobs are at risk; companies may prevent

unionisation (as is the case in Jamaica); and management may promote notions of keyboard operator skill and working condition superiority (in comparison with assembly line workers) in order to diminish the perceived threat of health hazards associated with computer work (Paraphrased from text).

Pearson, R. (1993) Gender and New Technology in the Caribbean: New Work for Women? In: Women and Change in the Caribbean. Ed: Momsen, J. James Currey: London, pp. 287-295. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). In this chapter Pearson examines gender dimensions of the growth of the data entry and processing industry in Jamaica. She is specifically concerned to determine whether or not it is useful to understand the labour market position of these women in a similar way to those involved in export processing in developing countries, whereby gender relations "construct women as 'cheap' labour by requiring of them skills, speed and accuracy over a variety of labour processes that command no premiums within the labour market because the employers offer no training for them" (p. 299).Having summarised the expansion of the data entry and processing industry into the Third World generally, and Jamaica specifically, the question of women's work is addresseed. They are the preferred labour force, because they can be paid less than male workers and are more productive, but "instead of being the new 'high tech' skilled workers of the future, the women employed in this sector are merely playing out a variation of an old theme: most of the women employed in the industry are in low-skilled, low-paid, dead-end jobs with no prospects of moving up any promotion or training ladder" (p. 292). The wages, conditions of work, opportunities for promotion and security and longetivy of employment are no better than in the garment factories in Kingston's free zone.However, investing in women's skills could be strategic, allowing the Jamaican industry to "start to compete on the basis of professional skills and services rather than just low operating costs, cheap labour and swift turnover" (p. 292). To achieve this "the ongoing practice of writing off women's experience in employment as unskilled and unimportant, of denying its currency in the professional labour market and affording that experience no usefulness as an orientation for technical training must be reversed" (p. 293) (Taken from text).

Pearson, R. and Mitter, S. (1993) Employment and Working Conditions of Low-skilled Information-processing Workers in Less Developed Countries. International Labour Review, 132, pp. 49-64. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, BRAZIL, CARIBBEAN, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA, LATIN AMERICA, MALAYSIA, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). The increased use of computer technology in less developed countries (LDCs) has led to the emergence of a new group of white-collar employees specializing in information-processing work. They perform a wide range of tasks, from simple data entry or word processing to high-powered software programming or system specification. In spite of their growing numbers, little hard information is available on their employment characteristics or working conditions. In the past two or three years software programming has received some attention but the low-skilled end of the job spectrum has been largely neglected.

This article aims to redress the balance by highlighting some of the issues pertaining to the less skilled among these information-processing workers: we draw particularly, but not exclusively, on data from Brazil, Jamaica and Malaysia. The evidence is admittedly scant, but it point to certain trends which need exploring in future research in order to ensure safe and fair working conditions for a potentially vulnerable section of the white-collar population (Authors' own abstract).

Pena, D. (1986) Between the Lines: A New Perspective on the Industrial Sociology of Women Workers in Transnational Labor Processes. In: Chicana Voices: Intersections of Class, Race, and Gender. Ed: Cordova, C.et al Center for Mexican American Studies, University of Texas: Austin, Texas, pp. 77-95. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, MULTINATIONALS, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "In this complex article, Pena attempts to construct a critical Marxist-feminist approach to the analysis of women workers. He points out the importance of studying strategies of resistance against the various control mechanisms based on class, race, and gender, used by the transnationals. The problems of theorizing the relationships between the household and the factory are illustrated in a reworking of his Ciudad Juarez studies. Pena argues that the treatment of women workers in the maquila industry exemplifies some new trends in how the transnational corporation seeks control over its work force. The most important findings are that: "It seems maquila workers are challenging traditional patriarchal authority within the households," and, in an interesting evaluation of the Braverman thesis, that deskilling of labour does not, in the case of the maquilas, necessarily imply the depoliticization of the workers." (Abstract in Sklair, 1988, Annotated Bibliography and Research Guide to Mexico's In-Bond Industry, 1980-1988, p. 49).

Pena, D. (1987) Tortuosidad: Shop Floor Struggles of Female Maquiladoras Workers. In: Women on the US Mexico Border: Responses to Change. Eds: Ruiz, V. and Tiano, S., ( Series Ed: Merkx, G.W. Thematic Studies in Latin America, 2.) Allen and Unwin: London, pp. 129-153, (ISBN 0-04-497038-2). (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MEXICO, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). "Pena reports on the structure and incidence of informal output restriction and sabotage of production among maquila women in Juarez. Over 60 percent of the [223] workers in his sample had participated in output restriction and this phenomenon, which he labels tortuosidad (working at a turtle's pace), is found to be related to management attempts to speed up production. Usually, male first-line supervisors pressure female group-chiefs to achieve these ends. Pena connects the maquila experience with other research on informal shop-floor resistance in a variety of settings" (Abstract in Sklair, 1988, Annotated Bibliography and Research Guide to Mexico's In-Bond Industry, 1980-1988, pp. 49-50).

Penn, R., Martin, A. and Scattergood, H. (1991) Gender Relations, Technology and Employment Change in the Contemporary Textile Industry. Sociology, 25, (4) pp. 569-587. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, MARGINALISATION THESIS, PRIMARY DATA,

QUANTITATIVE, TEXTILES, THE NORTH, UK). "This paper examines employment patterns in the British textile industry over the last twenty years. In particular it focuses on a dramatic structural shift in the balance of male and female employees within textiles. From the onset of the Industrial Revolution at the end of the eighteenth century until the 1960s, around two-thirds of textile employees were female. Over the last twenty years textile manufacture has become increasingly the domain of male employees. The research reported was located in Rochdale, one of the six localities which were researched as part of the Social Change and Economic Life Initiative. Rochdale has long been a major centre for textile production. The data are based upon a survey of textile plants undertaken in 1986 and 1987. The analysis revealed that employment in these textile plants had become increasingly male during the period between 1980 and 1986. These changes were more pronounced in larger establishments and within the minority of plants that had introduced advanced machinery. A further analysis of 987 work histories collected in 1986 revealed that women were far less likely to enter textiles in the 1980s than at any time since the advent of industrialization. A major reason for this lies in the increasing adoption of full-time shift work by plants in the town. Most part-time employment has been eliminated from textile mills as they seek to run advanced equipment continuously. The growth of flexible patterns of employment in the burgeoning service sector has interacted with these developments in textiles. Women still seek paid employment in Rochdale but no longer in the textile industry' (Authors' abstract).

Perez, B.A. (1976) Women's Labour-Force Participation and Incomes in Three Asian Countries. Economic Bulletin for Asia and Pacific, 27, pp. 73-81. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, INDIA, MALAYSIA, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PHILIPPINES, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SOUTH ASIA, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH). Perez compares female labour force participation, and the factors which determine it, in India, Philippines and Malaysia, on the basis of existing secondary sources. The low rate of female labour force participation in India is explained in terms of early marriage, a poor level of female literacy, the retrenchment of women from household based industry. Over 70% of women workers are in the agricultural sector, either as labourers or own account workers. [Suprisingly, inadequate data collection and definitions of work are not mentioned].In the Philippines the female labour force participation rate has fluctuated between 30% and 45%, generally increasing while the male rate declined. Only 40% of women workers are in agriculture, and the proportion is declining. Women in manufacturing are 19% of all women employed, also declining, whereas female employment in commerce, leisure and government is increasing. female labour force participation rate increased from 1960-1979, especially for the 10-14 and 25-44 age groups.In Malaysia the female labour force participation rate was 39% in 1974, and on the increase, but there were marked variations between the different ethnic groups. About 50% of female workers are in agriculture, a decreasing proportion, while the share of women workers in manufacturing, commerce and the services has increased. The different female activity pattern between ethnic groups is closely related to their different degrees of urbanization and of orientation towards non-agricultural employment. Labour force participation peaks for women aged 20-24, declines as women marry and have children and rises again later.Improving women's education and reducing their domestic responsibilities, or at least improving the compatibility of such responsibilities with waged work, would enhance women's labour force participation (Taken from the text).

Perpinan, M.S. (1981) Women and Transnational Corporations: The Philippine Experience, Mimeo. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, ASIA, CLOTHING, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, MULTINATIONALS, PHILIPPINES, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). This study documents the position of women industrial workers in the electronics and garments industries in the Bataan Export Processing Zone and in two multinationals. Low wages, job insecurity, oppressive supervision, work pressure, inadequate safety measures and sexual harrassment abound, together with a range of threats and measures to prevent workers from organising. Presidential decrees have also banned strikes, restricted maternity and sick leave, and made the provision of special facilties for women workers non-obligatory.Wages and conditions are even worse in agri-business, which employ whole families, and logging and mining which employ males, and some recent labour struggles in these sectors, in which women played a predominant role, are documented.

Perrons, D. (1987) Flexible Accumulation, Gender and Space, Paper presented to Samos conference on Changing Labour Processes and New Forms of Urbanisation, 1987. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, UK, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WESTERN EUROPE). This paper examines some of the gender differentiated effects in the UK of the shift from mass production to a new mode of production variously termed neo-fordism, flexible accumulation or disorganised capitalism. It is found that paid employment for women in contemporary Britain is increasing in both absolute and relative terms, and that an independent source of income for women does impact positively on their lives. Working hours are increasingly flexible, which offers the potential benefit to women of a more equitable division of paid and domestic work. However, in practice flexible accumulation has meant a deterioration in the terms and conditions of employment for many women. Society is also increasingly polarised as the mass production industries of the Fordist era have declined, the number of people living in poverty has increased and women and children are disproportionately represented among the poor.

Phizacklea, A. (1990) Unpacking the Fashion Industry. (ISBN (Pb) 0-415-00055-6) Routledge, London. 121 pages. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, FRANCE, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, INFORMAL SECTOR, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA, SUBCONTRACTING, THE NORTH, UK, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). "This book incorporates research funded by the Economic and Social Research Council in Britain, parallel with that done in West Germany and France, on the interlocation of ethnicity and gendering in the clothing manufacturing industry. Globally, both in the various kinds of Free Zones and in the countries studied, also historically, the clothing worker especially the home-worker, is one of the lowest paid, least secure of all women workers, yet the profitability of the industry to its controllers and owners is very high. Though in the 1970s the industry contracted and imports increased; through the use of a cheap, very flexible, often ethnic, female labour force, Taylorised methods, new

developments in micro-technology and the presence of small-scale, ethnic minority entrepreneurs, profitability has been maintained.The existence of a cheap labour pool in the UK is the main reason for not relocating production in other countries as West Germany has done, since immigrants, male and female, still work in conditions reminiscent of the 19th century in London and other British cities. The interplay of gender and race divisions, an exploitative dualism, in part dependent on a willingness to sweat oneself, developed in the 19th century continues; for example, immigrant male Bangladeshis and other nationalities now occupy the place of 19th century immigrant male Jews in more skilled areas of work. Men still seek a family wage or find that conditions force them to start a small business while ethnic and indigenous women work on a casual, intermittent basis as homeworkers or in other low-graded jobs in the industry.Although the women's low-status/pay is in part due to immigrants' religious/cultural values which emphasise women as confined to the private sphere, their situation is basically due to structural racism in the larger society and has not been much improved by government/local authority action nor the introduction of new technology; in the main technology has benefitted only some skilled male workers and the large firms which contract out work to numerous small businesses in the UK and overseas. The study uses government papers and much previous research from the 19th century to the present time to show how continuing profit is obtained at the cost of workers with poor wages, poor conditions and very few rights." B? (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 9, 1991, p320-321).

Phizacklea, A. (1992) Technological Gradualism and Minority Women: A Case Study of the German and British Clothing Industries. Chap. 9. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 119-123. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, ROLE OF MIGRATION, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, THE NORTH, UK, WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). "The author describes the technological gradualism in the garment industries in the UK and Germany in the context of their respective policies towards immigration. The presence of ethnic minority women in the UK has slowed down the pace of investment and yet has contributed to the regeneration of certain sectors of the fashion industry. In the wake of a new round of microelectronic revolution, the future employment prospects of minority women remain uncertain." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Phizacklea, A. and Wolkowitz, C. (1995) Homeworking Women. Sage, London. 152 pages. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, HOMEWORKING, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, QUANTITATIVE, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, TEXTILES, THE NORTH, UK, WESTERN EUROPE, WOMENS VOICES). 'Homeworking has been given an attractive, even glamorous, image by the spread of information technology into the home. The traditional portrayal of the manufacturing homeworker sweating over an ancient sewing machine for a pittance is, we are told, a thing of the past. [The authors]... question this assumption, and reveal what conditions are really like for women who do paid work at home.

Homeworking Women provides an up-to-date overview of all types of home-based work, arguing that homeworking replicates wider divisions in the labour force. Consequently, its potential for improving women's employment opportunities is limited. Using original research, the book outlines the advantages and disadvantages, the pay and conditions, and the family situations for contemporary women homeworkers. The authors show that gender, class, racism and ethnicity are key factors in constructing the homeworking labour force. They acknowledge the shared position homeworkers occupy as women, as well as the differences experienced by clerical, manufacturing and professional homeworkers, and they question whether new technology in itself can be the way forward to a better paid, less onerous form of homeworking' (From back cover).

Phongpaichit, P. (1988) Two Roads to the Factory: Industrialisation Strategies and Women's Employment in South-east Asia. Chap. 6. In: Structures of Patriarchy: State, Community and Household in Modernising Asia. Ed: Agarwal, B., (ISBN 81-85107-06-8, Series Ed: Dube, L. Women and the Household in Asia, Volume 2.) Kali for Women: New Delhi, pp. 151-163, ((Also published by Zed Books, London)). (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EAST ASIA, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MULTINATIONALS, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, SECONDARY DATA, SINGAPORE, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). Phongpaichit focuses on the "changes between what she terms the first and second phases of the industrialisation process in Singapore and South Korea, and the differences in their respective experiences. She notes that in Singapore today, in contrast to in the 1960s, women's conditions of work have improved radically. A tight labour market has led to a considerable increase in female employment, a narrowing of the male/female gap, state subsidy for childcare in some cases, and state support to both male and female workers for upgrading their skills. She further argues that family support for childcare in Singapore has been crucial for women to continue working after marriage by enabling them to acquire the necessary skills and tenure for moving up the industrial hierarchy, and hold their jobs when the industry moved towards more capital-intensive and skill oriented production.In South Korea, by contrast, even in the second phase industrialisation beginning in the mid-1970s, women workers still form a floating and peripheral workforce, having short industrial working lives, usually extending only up to the time they have children. Phongpaichit attributes the disadvantaged position of South Korean workers relative to those of Singapore, to a continuing slack in the labour market despite rapid industrialization; their lack of family childcare support, given their rural-based families, which compel many to give up factory employment and take up domestic service jobs on marriage; and the virtual absence of state facilities for childcare, and for upgrading skills and educational levels, with private sector opportunities for vocational training and skill upgrading being concentrated on men.Women export factory workers in Singapore and Hong Kong today are noted to enjoy a considerably higher standard of living and better working conditions than their counterparts in most other Asian countries (Foo and Lim, 1987). In Singapore, recent observers have also found that workers are now able to defy management by carrying radios to work and taking frequent breaks. At the same time, however, the rise in labour costs is reported to have made both Singapore and Hong Kong less attractive to multinationls, leading to relocations in the garment industry to other parts of South-east Asia and the Third World (Banerjee, 1985:15). The regional non-specificity of inputs and skills required in many of these export-oriented industries and hence the ease with which

they can be relocated, underlines the basic long-term instability and insecurity of the employment they offer.

Pineda-Ofrenoo, R. (1988) Philippine Domestic Outwork: Subcontracting for Export-oriented Industries. In: Sociology of 'Developing Societies': Southeast Asia. Eds: Taylor, J.G. and Turton, A. Macmillan: Basingstoke, pp. 158-164. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, HOMEWORKING, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, PHILIPPINES, SOUTH EAST ASIA, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH).

Pittin, R. (1984) Gender and Class in a Nigerian Industrial Setting. Review of African Political Economy, 31, pp. 71-81. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, NIGERIA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WEST AFRICA, WOMENS VOICES). "This paper examines the relationship between female and male workers in a factory in Zaria. The author argues that one of the factors inhibiting the organisation of women as members of the working class is the gender discrimination women face from male co-workers. Although gender subordination is used and transformed by systems of class exploitation, it is often perceived by women as being of greater immediacy than class oppression. This is partly because men utilise gender discrimination to gain or maintain for themselves positions of relative privilege and power. Thus women workers often find themselves alienated form their male co-workers, while men fail altogether to understand women's reluctance to become involved with or participate actively in what women see as organisations catering to male interests, such as the union. Through an examination of a series of events, opinions and impressions, the author considers why a woman worker would say, and many of her fellow workers would agree, that `discrimination is not direct from management, but rather from male co-workers'." (Studies on Women Abstract, Vol. 3, 1985, p89).

Pore, K. (1991) Women at Work - A Secondary Line of Operation. In: Indian Women in a Changing Industrial Scenario. Ed: Banerjee, N. Sage: London, pp. 201-236. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, QUANTITATIVE, SOUTH ASIA, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH). "Pore's study of the garment and electronics industries [based on interviews with 266 women workers] is located in the Thane-Pune belt in Maharashtra which is one of the most industrialised areas in India and where there is a long, socially sanctioned tradition of women working in industry" (Banerjee, p. 15). The demand for female labour is a function both of their skills and because their secondary status as breadwinners and unorganisation means they can be employed at lower wages than men. Regardless of reality, women are assumed to be maintained through the wages of men, such that their earnings supplement rather than support the family. Such assumptions are perpetuated by women's own primary identification with their role as housewife and mother and the fact that having a paid job did little to enhance their status.Wages and conditions were better in the electronics industry, partly because it is a higher technology, higher skill input industry, and partly because its labour is better education, more aware of labour legislation and unionised. By contrast, traditional industry is low

technology and low skill, workers are generally less educated and aware of their rights and personalised management is used to avoid unionisation. In both modern and traditional industry, conditions of work were better in larger units.The supply of women workers is more sensitive to family circumstances and need than wages. Once in work, women derive substantial non-monetary benefits and a large number said they would not stop working even if it were no longer necessary economically. However, domestic responsibilities mean that women workers face a double burden, and emphasis should be placed on public provision of regular day-care centres for children, public latrines, community kitchens and other facilities which would enable many more women to take up paid work (From author's conclusions).

Porpora, D.V., Prommas, U. and Limm, M.H. (1989) The Role of Women in the International Division of Labor: The Case of Thailand. Development and Change, 20, pp. 269-294. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, TEXTILES, THAILAND, THE SOUTH). "It is now generally recognized that a new international division of labour is taking shape in which low-skill, low-paying jobs are being relocated to the developing countries to be performed predominantly by women while high-skill, high-paying jobs continue to remain in the developed countries where they are performed predominantly by men. The relocation of jobs is particularly noticeable in the electronics and textiles industries. The low-skill, low-paying jobs associated with these industries are being relocated first because they are relocatable and second because such relocation cuts the cost associated with labour, taxes, and environmental regulations.Marxist feminist scholars argue that similar concerns play a part in management's evident preference for female labour (Green, 1983; Fuentes and Ehrenreich 1984; Lim, 1983). According to this argument management is seeking a docile labour force that can be easily controlled. Consequently, management prefers to hire women because the patriarchal structures of many developing country make women more compliant than men. Families also play a part in this process. According to Marxist feminists, when rural economies deteriorate as a result of misdirected government policies, families send their daughters to work in urban factories to help with familial support. Rural families thus contribute to the labour discipline of their daughters and share in their exploitation.While as a generalization the Marxist feminist account is largely correct, on some points it is an oversimplification and, in the cases of certain countries, misleading. The purpose of this paper is to show how the Marxist feminist model needs to be qualified in the case of Thailand, and possibly elsewhere. Specifically, [the] data indicate that in Thailand, management's preference for female labour does not always reflect a conscious strategy to secure docile workers; instead, management often tends to hire women for work in the textile factories because such work has traditionally been performed by women, and because management consequently assumes uncritically that such work is more properly done by women. [The] data further indicate that although Thai youth - both men and women - do take jobs in the textile factories in order to help support their families, this is their own autonomous decision rather than a reflection of familial pressure. Most of [the] female respondents, in particular, said that their parents actually discouraged them from making this decision. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, we found that far from being more docile than men, female Thai workers are actually more militant than their male workmates, forming the backbone of the union movement..

Psacharopoulos, G. and Tzannatos, Z. (1989) Female Labor Force Participation: An International Perspective. Research Observer, 4, (2) pp. 187-201. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, NORTH AND SOUTH, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE). "Women constitute half of any country's human endowment. In most countries, however, women contribute less than men toward the value of recorded production-both quantitatively, in labor force participation, and qualititatively, in educational achievement and skills. The underutilization of female labor has obvious implications for economic welfare and growth. Several factors, both economic and noneconomic, are responsible for this. In particular, the participation of women in the labor force appears to depend much more on the social environment than is the case for men. This dependency blurs the observed relationship between female behavior in the labor market and such economic variables as wages and incomes. This article looks at the conceptual and statistical limitations of the most widely used term of labor supply: the labor force participation rate. It then reviews some theories of women's involvement in paid production and examines the broad levels, patterns, and trends of female participation rates in different countries" (Summary at head of article). "The findings support the view that, during the transformation from an agrarian subsistence economy, the participation of women in the labor force initially decreases and picks up later after a critical level of development has been achieved. Education is seen as a potential booster of the officially recorded female labor supply in developing countries" (part of authors' abstract, p. 199).

Pyle, J.L. (1990) Export-led Development and the Underemployment of Women: The Impact of Discriminatory Development Policy in the Republic of Ireland. Chap. 5. In: Women Workers and Global Restructuring. Ed: Ward, K., (ISBN 0-87546-162-X,.) ILR Press, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University: Ithaca, New York, pp. 85-112. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EUROPE, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, MARGINALISATION THESIS, REPUBLIC OF IRELAND, SECONDARY DATA, WESTERN EUROPE). "Jean Pyle describes how the Irish government actively pursued foreign corporations that employed predominantly male workers to concur with constitutional mandates that ensure women's primary roles as wives and mothers. Industries that did invest have higher proportions of male workers than comparable industries in other countries. Thus Pyle shows how greater foreign investment in so-called women's industries can have a negligible effect on women's labour force participation rates and can result in maintaining women's traditional socioeconomic roles. (Ward, K., (1990) p18-19) DE.

Raasch, S. (1992) Computer-aided Technolgy and an Emerging International Division of Labour: Prospects for Women. Chap. 12. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 151-161. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, THE NORTH, WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). "The way companies respond to a new vintage of robotic technology depends much on their marketing concepts. By looking closely at the management and sourcing strategies of three leading clothing companies in Germany, the author unravels the complex factors that are giving rise to an emergent, and currently rather unclear, international division of labour between the high-waged and the low-waged nations. With a fall in the prices of computer-aided technologies, it is conceivable that parts of the previously run-away

production processes may eventually come home to Germany. It will happen as and when the labour cost becomes less important in the total manufacturing. There are already trends discernable in this direction. The coming home of jobs, the author argues, will not necessarily improve the employment prospects for women. The new jobs demand engineering, technical and managerial skills from workers; hence, in the absence of an active policy to remove the present discrimination against women, both in the work place and in the training institutes, women will rarely have access to these coveted multiskilled jobs." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Rakowski, C.A. (1987) Women in Steel: The Case of Ciudad Guyana, Venezuela. Qualitative Sociology, 20, pp. 269-294. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, FEMINISATION THESIS, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LATIN AMERICA, MARGINALISATION THESIS, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STEEL, THE SOUTH, VENEZUELA, WOMENS VOICES). "This paper analyses the incorporation of women into heavy industry during the Ciudad Guyana employment boom of 1974-1979 and the reduction in female employment during the post-boom period. The first and second sections outline the features of female incorporation at a speciality steel plant and the state-owned steel mill. The third section describes the discrimination to which two groups of women, day labourers and engineers, were subjected. The fourth analyses the response of women to discrimination. The study suggests that male discriminatory behaviour and female coping strategies are mediated by class and age differences. These are shaped by the individuals' prior experiences and the historical context in which the discrimination evolved." (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 6, 1988, p274).

Rao, V.R. and Husain, S. (1991) Invisible Hands - The Women Behind India's Export Earnings. Chap. 3. In: Indian Women in a Changing Industrial Scenario. Ed: Banerjee, N., (ISBN 0-8-39-9659-4,. Indo-Dutch Studies on Development Alternatives, 5.) Sage: London, pp. 133-200. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT NEGATIVE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH ASIA, SUBCONTRACTING, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WOMENS VOICES). This study "considers the newly growing garment industry of Delhi and its periphery. It focuses mainly on the socio-economic backgrounds and personal problems of workers caught in this fast expanding network of world production. General attitudes in that region had always discouraged women's employment in non-household activities; therefore, the study concentrates on how the taboos were circumvented by [women] workers and by the enterprises employing them" (Banerjee, p. 15).Production is both factory and workshop based, linked by subcontracting, and conditions of work are similar to those in FTZs elsewhere. Job insecurity arises both from market fluctuations and the continual relocation of factories and workshops in an attempt to thwart the organisation of labour. A large number of women of all ages are in the labour force, but there is a marked preference for young unmarried women with a low level of education. Women are segregated towards low-skill, monotonous and repetitive tasks, with no promotion prospects and on average earn lower wages than men. Authority relationships, in the form of famililial ideology, religious sentiment or more direct control, are reinforced in the workplace and prevent women from critically examining

their situation as workers. Piece-rate home-workers face even lower wages and problems of isolation.The situation in the home is little better. A majority of women workers give their income to the family, either directly or indirectly by devoting it to spending on family needs, and in so doing help their family to reach subsistence level. Women face a double burden as the domestic division of labour remains unchanged, and continue to construct their identity primarily as a housewife and mother (Taken from author's conclusions).

Rios, P.N. (1990) Export-oriented Industrialization and the Demand for Female Labor: Puerto Rican Women and the Manufacturing Sector, 1952-1980. Gender and Society, 4, pp. 321-337. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FEMINISATION THESIS, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, PUERTO-RICO, THE SOUTH). "This article examines the relationship between Puerto Rico's export-oriented development programme and the demand for women workers in the manufacturing sector from 1952 to 1980. Its central proposition is that the consistently high proportion of women in the manufacturing sector was the result of an employment structure characterised by specialisation in assembly-type activities and low wages. Although the Puerto Rican government pursued a development strategy designed to increase job opportunities for men, the manufacturing industries attracted to the island by its export-oriented industrialisation policies generated a strong demand for women workers. The apparent contradiction between employment practices of manufacturing establishments and government policies is due to the restructuring of the global economy and the emergence of the new international division of labour that brought increasing numbers of women into the labour market." (Studies on Women Abstract, Vol. 9, 1991, p14-15).

Robert, A. (1983) The Effects of the International Division of Labour on Female Workers in the Clothing and Textile Industries. Development and Change, 14, pp. 19-37. (INCOMPLETE, ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT NEGATIVE, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA, TEXTILES, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "This paper considers the reasons for and relationships behind the decline in female employment in industrialized countries and increasing female participation in LDC's in the textile and clothing sector.Low skill operations have been moved to LDC's where large numbers of women have been employed. However, they suffer poor conditions: Low pay (often insufficient to cover the cost of subsistence), low contributions by employers to social security provisions, long hours with inadeqate periods of rest, and extensive night and shift work. It is argued that women's energies become prematurely exhausted, adding to their difficulty in maintaining their position in the labour market. The reason for such treatment of women would appear to be their weak socioeconomic status. It is contested that female unemployment in Europe coincides with the exploitation of female labour in LDC's" (Abstract from annotated bibliography by J. Griggs, Economics Department, University of Warwick).

Roldan, M. (1991) Women Organizing in the Process of De-Industrialization: JIT (Just in Time) Technological Innovations, Industrial Restructuring and Gender Relations, Paper presented to International Workshop Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, The Hague, 15-26 April, 1991. (ACADEMIC, ARGENTINA, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, ENGINEERING, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, LATIN AMERICA, PRIMARY DATA,

QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH). Following a review of the literature on gender and technical change in industry, Roldan stresses that feminist sociological analysis of labour processes must "give priority to the analysis of technological innovations at workplace level as complex socio-economic processes 'in construction... Material and ideological dimensions are both crucial"... as well as the agency, articulation and contradictions of and between the enterprise, unions, women and men workers (p. 13). In the light of her own work, investigating the transition from line production to JIT production in an Argentinian light engineering plant and seeking to explore the construction of technological innovation and the use of gender relations in this, Roldan assesses the cost and flexibility advantages of JIT production and the way in which it is reproduced.Before JIT production women in the factory were restricted to a particular area of the shop-floor, excluded from training on machine tools, and the skills they acquired were not recognised. This benefitted working class men, who organised through the union hostile practices to prevent any change in the gendering of work, as well as capital. In the advent of JIT production this sexual division of labour proved to be a limiting factor. Women did begin to operate machines, but setting them up remained a male task only and skill redefinitions categorised all the women as simple operators. Practices and ideologies, sustained by the company, the indifference of the union, and the desperation and uncertainty of women and men perpetuate the gendering of work, despite the fact that women's exclusion from machine setting created production bottlenecks (Paraphrased from text).

Rosa, K. (1989) Women Workers' Strategies of Organising and Resistance in the Sri Lankan Free Trade Zone (FTZ). (Institute of Development Studies Discussion Paper No. 266, University of Sussex, UK) Institute of Development Studies, Brighton. 29 pages. (ISBN 0-903715-20-1) (ACADEMIC, ASIA, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH ASIA, SRI LANKA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). Rosa examines methods of organising and resistance by women workers in the Sri Lankan FTZ which go beyond the boundaries of traditional trade union organising. Three methods are discussed: spontaneous actions by women workers; establishment or use of christian, legal or women's centres; and newspapers. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses: they all have their own contribution to make, and have also developed ways to work with each other. These organisational methods have demonstrated that new and creative forms have emerged which have the potential to go beyond the boundaries of traditional trade union organising. They have tended to tackle the issues of the women workers on a wider front - ie the community they live in, their lives in the boarding houses as well as the factory. Theirs is a holistic, creative approach with possibilities of fruitful future development. (From author's conclusions).

Rosa, K. (1991) Working Conditions in EPZs Create the Need for Women to Organise Themselves, Paper presented to International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, April 15-25, 1991. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CARIBBEAN, EAST ASIA, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, JAMAICA, MALAYSIA, PHILIPPINES, PRIMARY DATA, REPUBLIC OF KOREA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH EAST ASIA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). Rosa examines some strategies and methods for organising adopted by women workers in Export Processing Zones, with a particular focus on a housing cooperative in

Jamaica, the Kilusang ng Manggagawang Kababaihan (KMK Women Workers Movement) in the Philippines and the Korean Women Workers Association (KWWA) in South Korea. All three organisations are compared with 'in house' unions in Malaysia. Many of these organisations are linked with other organisations or institutions such as women's groups, religious sects, or political parties, and "this linkage may strengthen the alliance which women establish as a collectivity - or may reduce the value and possibilities of ties, if workers perceive that recourse to the support group is only possible through affiliation to the parent organisation" (Pittin and Chhachhi, p. 11). Either way, shop-floor organisation is an essential strategy for the resolution of industrial grievances.

Ruggie, M. (1988) Gender, Work and Social Progress - Some Consequences of Interest Aggregation in Sweden. Chap. 10. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 173-188. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EUROPE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, SWEDEN, THE NORTH, WESTERN EUROPE). "Working women's causes have been more successfully promoted in Sweden than in most other advanced industrial societies because the needs and demands of workers as a whole have had a privileged position on the socialist agenda and in the corporatist governance of Sweden. However, whenever conflicts have arisen between the particular interest of women on the one hand, and the general interests of the labor force or the family on the other, the latter have taken precedence. And whenever women's interests could not be articulated in terms of their roles as workers in general or wives/mothers in general, those interests have remained unexpressed and unrealized. The most telling example is occupational segregation... The situation of women in Sweden may not appear serious when compared to women's inferior status in other countries. Yet we do not know the extent to which the lingering and newly arising problems will grow to become more troublesome. Swedish women themselves are not greatly mobilized for change at present, either in autonomous groups or in workplace organizations. Nor is organized labor pressing for renewed attempts to meet more fully and effectively its long-held goal of equality. This standstill may well be due in part to the current economic restructuring in Sweden. But... its roots can also be found in the traditional Swedish approach to social and political action on behalf of women - an approach whose limits we may now be witnessing" (Author's conclusion).

Safa, H.I. (1977) The Changing Class Composition of the Female Labour Force in Latin America. Latin American Perspectives, 4, pp. 126-136. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, LATIN AMERICA, MARGINALISATION THESIS, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH).

Safa, H.I. (1981) Runaway Shops and Female Employment: The Search for Cheap Labour. Signs, 7, pp. 418-433. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, INTERNATIONAL RELOCATION, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA, THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "[The author] describes the new form of multinational enterprise located in underdeveloped countries producing manufactures for export and employing cheap labour, especially that of women. Industries such as garment manufacturing are labour

intensive with low skill requirements. In the United States, cheap labour was first recruited from the rural areas, and then from among immigrants. However, changing economic conditions since 1960 including full employment, restricted immigration, higher wages and the growth of the service sector employing women have reduced the availability of cheap labour while mechanisation and scientific managment has fragmented production into relatively simple processes of which the less skilled stages can be exported overseas._The impact of these industries employing women in Third World countries upon the sexual division of labour varies with the degree of male unemployment and the intensity of patriarchal tradition. Most of the women employed in runaway shops are young and single and contribute their wages to the family. Yet employment has not greatly enhanced their status and independence, because of the highly exploitative conditions of work, including periodic dischargement to avoid payment of benefits due to permanent workers. High turnover is further exacerbated by intolerable production quotas and physical debilitation. The industries have, however, led to a rapid formation of a female proletariat leading to harsh measures to restrain workers solidarity. International moves to improve the conditions of work of women in these industries are restricted by the nature of the internationalisation of the division of labour which pits countries and workers against each other." PR (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 1, 1983, p179).

Safa, H.I. (1983) Women, Production, and Reproduction in Industrial Capitalism: A Comparison of Brazilian and U.S. Factory Workers. Chap. 4. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 95-116. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, NORTH AMERICA, NORTH AND SOUTH, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, TEXTILES, USA). This paper examines the way in which women combine their productive role in paid labour with their reproductive role as wives and mothers in two societies at very different stages of development: Brazil and the United States. It is based on 100 interviews with young, mostly single women employed in a textile and a garment plant in Sao Paulo, Brazil, and 80 interviews with older, mostly married women employment in a garment plant in New Jersey, United States. The household composition of these two samples indicate two very different allocations of labour. Whereas the Brazilian women are generally members of large households with multiple wage earners, the New Jersey families are small, with one or two wage earners. It is argued that this can be explained in terms of the different survival strategies of working-class families within an industrial mode of production at two different stages of development.In Brazil heavy dependence on foreign technology, capital and markets inhibits the development of skilled work, so there is no incentive to educate children for it. At the same time a labour surplus prevents the formal employment of more marginal sectors of the labour force, such as married women with children. The result is a family wage economy which seeks to maximize the number of wage earners per household, which, given the demand for young labour, often means maximizing the number of children. In New Jersey, on the other hand, which is at a later stage of industrial development, there is a demand for skilled labour. This provides incentives for families to prolong their

children's education, which in turn means that the family must compensate for the loss of older children's earnings and meet the costs of their education. Married women may be required to work, and there may be a reduction in family size to enable working class families to invest more in a few children than in the labour of many.

Safa, H.I. (1984) Female Employment and the Social Reproduction of the Puerto Rican Working Class. International Migration Review, 18, pp. 1168-1187. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, PUERTO-RICO, THE SOUTH). "This article assesses the contribution women make to the social reproduction of working class families in Puerto Rico, a society which has undergone rapid industrialisation, migration and urbanisation in the period since 1940. The first part of this paper will attempt to explain this phenomenon through an analysis of the role of women in the industrialisation process in Puerto Rico. In the second part we shall move to a micro-level of analysis in order to understand the impact which women's earnings have on the household economy. Both levels of analysis are necessary if we are to understand the role of women in the social reproduction of working class families in a developing society like Puerto Rico. (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 3, 1985, p302).

Safa, H.I. (1990) Women and Industrialisation in the Caribbean. Chap. 2. In: Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour. Eds: Stichter, S. and Parpart, J.L., (ISBN 0-333-45161-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 72-97. (ACADEMIC, CARIBBEAN, CHAPTER, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, PRIMARY DATA, PUERTO-RICO, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "Helen Safa focuses on the impact of paid employment in export manufacturing on women's status in two Caribbean nations, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic. She also offers an explanation as to why women have been exploited as a cheap and vulnerable labour force, finding the answer in the enforced specialisation of women in biological reproduction in the home as industrial capitalism moved production largely outside the domestic unit. But even though the family may in this sense be the central `site' of women's subordination, Safa argues that the labour market and the state are additional and independent sources.Safa's studies show that in both Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic family structure and gender ideology in the family are changing under the pressure of new wage-earning opportunities for women. The model of the nuclear family with a dependent wife and a male as the principal breadwinner no longer applies since both single and married women are making major contributions to family income. Suprisingly, the majority of women workers in Safa's samples in export manufacturing in both countries were married or were single heads of households, rather than young, single daughters as in the common pattern in the Far East.Safa shows how the impact of employment on family decision-making and the division of household labour varies according to the family cycle and the family status of women workers. For example, among older married women in Puerto Rico, long-term employment leads to a greater sense of self-worth, and greater class consciousness, than is true for younger single women. For older women, a small change in the gender division of labour in the household is reported, but more important there was a marked shift in authority patterns, with wives sharing more household decisions and husbands no longer considering their wives 'work as a threat to their authority. Somewhat more patriarchal patterns persist in the Dominican republic, though even here some

renegotiation of husband/wife roles is taking place. The extent of change in women's situation depends a great deal on state policies and the role of unions. In the Dominican Republic lack of unionisation, very low wages, heavy industrial discipline and lack of social services for workers have undermined women's labour force and family gains, whereas in Puerto Rico unions are more active and the state provides more benefits for workers.Safa concludes that the effect of industrialisation on women in these cases is contradictory. On the one hand, subordination is reinforced through dead-end jobs, and unions, managers and the state remain resistant to change. On the other hand, traditional familial authority patterns are being challenged and more egalitarian family structures are emerging. This latter change is particularly important for women, since material and ideological pressures still lead women to choose ongoing relationships with a male provider, and women still say they work more for family survival than for personal autonomy." (Stichter,S and Parpart,JL 1990 p2-3) DE.

Saffioti, H.I.B. (1986) Technological Change in Brazil: Its Effect on Men and Women in Two Firms. In: Women and Change in Latin America. Eds: Nash, J. and Safa, H. Bergin and Garvey: Massachusetts, pp. 109-135. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, LATIN AMERICA, MARGINALISATION THESIS, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). This chapter is based on a comparative analysis of a textile and a garment factory in Sao Paulo, Brazil. It is found that in the transition from a craft to an industrial base facilitated by technological change, many women were displaced by male labour and confined to craft industries. Women's access to domestic technology in the home, which eases the burden of domestic work, is not replicated in the factory, where technological innovation has expelled women from the production process.

Safilios-Rothschild, C. (1990) Socio-economic Determinants of the Outcomes of Women's Income-generation in Developing Countries. Chap. 8. In: Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour. Eds: Stichter, S. and Parpart, J.L., (ISBN 0-333-45161-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 221-228. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EUROPE, GREECE, HONDURAS, IMPACT VARIABLE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, KENYA, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA, WESTERN EUROPE). This chapter focuses on the question of the effects of women's employment on their family. Evidence from Greece, Honduras and Kenya is assembled to support the argument that whether wives can translate earned income into family decision-making power depends on the class position and economic security of the husband. In general, except in situation of chronic and desperate poverty, the poorer the husband and the less able he is to guarantee family survival, the more likely he is to feel threatened by his wife's income, and to attempt to actively control it even while publicly belittling its importance. When, on the other hand, husbands have a stable and sufficient economic base, they allow their wives more autonomy and income control. These findings seem to apply whether the woman's income is from wages or from the profits of small enterprises or cooperatives.

Salaff (1981) Working Daughters of Hong Kong: Filial Piety or Power in the Family. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 317 pages. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CLOTHING, EAST ASIA, ELECTRONICS, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, HONG KONG, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF,

INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WOMENS VOICES). "In this book the impact of industrialization upon family relationships and the fabric of society is illustrated through the lives of ten Hong Kong working daughters" (p. 1). Their occupations ranged from light manufacture for export (mainly of garments), service sector work, office work and semi-professional work. They perceived their work to offer several advantages, including spending money, freedom from domestic work, friends to socialise with and a sense of contributing to their family's well-being. On the whole, however, paid work outside the household is not emancipatory for them. They contribute at least 75 percent of their wages to their family, have little decision-making power and often finance for their brothers the education they were denied. Thus they may still be portrayed as dutiful daughters. Change is likely in the future, however, as the delayed marriage of working daughters makes self-selection of a partner more likely and reduces fertility.

Salaff, J.W. (1990) Women, the Family, and the State: Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore - Newly Industrialised Countries in Asia. Chap. 3. In: Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour. Eds: Stichter, S. and Parpart, J.L., (ISBN 0-333-45161-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 98-136. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EAST ASIA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, HONG KONG, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, PRIMARY DATA, SINGAPORE, SOUTH EAST ASIA, TAIWAN, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "Janet Salaff employs the concept of family strategies. In this view, families are active, decision making units which affect the characteristics of the female (and male) labour force. However, they act within the constraints imposed by world capitalism and state development policy, particularly in response to lack of alternative forms of social insurance. Implicit in this approach is Salaff's view ... that family goals remain more important for women in Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan than do individualistic goals of personal achievement.Salaff demonstrates how three structural features of the Chinese family are responsible for the predominantly single-peaked age pattern of women's labour force participation in the 1970s and 1980s: the high dependency ratio, the family type, and the division of labour within the family. The effect of each of these factors changes over the family developmental cycle. First, high dependency ratios, the out-come of high post-war fertility, created an overwhelming need to earn money and provided only one means to do so, namely the wage employment of older children. Family fortunes varied directly with the number of members in the labour force.Second, the three concentric family units, the extended patriliny, the residential domestic unit, and the mother-centred uterine family exterted different pressures on women. The patriliny generated expectations that the wife would drop out of the work-force in order to bear sons for the husband's genealogical line, and also biased parents' investments in education toward sons, leaving daughters to constitute the low wage labour force. The often nuclear residential unit coped with sheer survival on a day to day basis; wives needed both to work and to reproduce so that the children could earn money. The uterine family was needed to ensure the mother's old age support; it also motivated daughters to continue supporting their mothers.Finally, the sex division of household labour is strongly maintained, often by elders. It specifies that young girls work for market wages as long as possible (sometimes even postponing marriage), but that after marriage and children, women's domestic work must increase. Women's market wage levels, for several reasons having to do with family,

were not high enough, or seen by the family as high enough, to justify any neglect of their homewmaking duties. As a result, the great majority of married women with children were forced out of the labour force. Those who did work faced major problems arranging their household tasks, relying heavily on kin and neighbourhood support systems. Thus reproductive responsibilities appear to be the main force depressing married women's labour force participation.Women receive a sense of satisfaction at meeting family obligations, and those who earned more money could achieve widened social contacts and increase individual consumption. But such work did not greatly enhance either the single or married women's decision-making role in the family. Nor did it lead to independence from family ties; rather it promoted the interests of the nuclear sub-unit within the extended family. Still, the material and emotional benefits of wage work increased as incomes went up, and as women increased in age.

Saso, M. (1990) Women in the Japanese Workplace. (ISBN 0-948096-19-5) Hilary Shipman, London. 289 pages. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, EAST ASIA, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, HOMEWORKING, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, JAPAN, MANUFACTURING, NORTH AND SOUTH, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, REPUBLIC OF IRELAND, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, UK, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WESTERN EUROPE). "As Japanese companies extend their operations overseas, Mary Saso, an economist who has lived in Japan since 1978, examines the treatment and experiences of women working under Japanese management in Japan, Britain and Ireland. In her study - based both on statistical data and her interviews with women on the shop floor - she compares wages and conditions, training, union involvement and attitudes to work and child care. While drawing a vivid picture of women's place in Japanese businesses - self employed, in family firms or in large companies - she also considers the wider issues of Japanese investment abroad, and the reasons why in Britain and Ireland men are less happy under Japanese management than are women. She discusses how treatment of working women is changing, their response to those changes, and looks at the ways in which women and men could integrate their lives with child-rearing." (Back cover) JRUL 396.0952 S17.

Sautu, R. (1980) The Female Labor Force in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. Latin American Research Review, 15, (2) pp. 152-161. (ACADEMIC, ARGENTINA, BOLIVIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, LATIN AMERICA, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PARAGUAY, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). In this article, Sautu seeks to account for the economic behaviour of women in three developing countries, on the basis of empirical data from a comparative study of Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. She proposes that "the participation of lower-class, uneducated women is primarily determined by supply factors; and the better educated, middle-class women participate in economic activity basically as a response to demand factors. As a general rule, one may therefore expect that women in the former group join the labor market when their economic contribution is needed for the maintenance of the household; and women in the latter group do so when the availability of jobs increases and labor conditions improve. The overall pattern of female participation depends on the behaviour of different groups of women and on their respective proportion of the total potentially active female population". (p. 152).On the supply side, ceteris paribus, there is "an upward trend for younger generations to increase their propensity to work and remain longer in the labor market... an inverse relationship between the socioeconomic position of the family and the females'

propensity to participate... [and] a direct relationship between the education level of females and their propensity to participate" (p.159).On the demand side, the data suggests that "the higher the technological level of an industry or firm, the lower its absorption of women... Moreover, whenever a firm undertakes a process of technological innovation of a traditionally female activity, women are replaced by men. Whenever an activity or occupation suffers a process of deterioration in income potential, while retaining a demand for skilled labor, it replaces men by women" (p. 159).Demand factors have a stronger influence the higher the educational status of a female, and supply factors the lower the socioeconomic status of the female's family. (From author's introduction and conclusion).

Schmink, M. (1977) Dependent Development and the Division of Labour by Sex: Venezuela. Latin American Perspectives, 4, pp. 153-179. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPORT SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRY, LATIN AMERICA, MARGINALISATION THESIS, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH, VENEZUELA). To follow.

Schmink, M. (1986) Women and Urban Industrial Development in Brazil. In: Women and Change in Latin America. Eds: Nash, J. and Safa, H.I. Bergin and Garvey: Mass, pp. 136-164. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, IMPORT SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRY, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MARGINALISATION THESIS, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). In this chapter Marianne Schmink explores trends in the industrial employment of women in Brazil from the last century to the 1980s. Firstly, the loss of women's central role in the manufacturing sector, which accompanied the shift to factory-based production and then the strategy of import substitution led industrial development, is addressed. Secondly, the rise in both the female participation rate and the proportion of women in industry is documented. Thereafter, on the basis of a household survey in an area adjoining a large multinational steel-processing plant, the important productive role which low-income women play in contributing to the material support of their families is demonstrated. A comparison of this data with that from another industrial community illustrates the way in which women's employment outside the home is related to the characteristics of the domestic group of which they are a part (Taken from text).

Schultz, T.P. (1990) Women's Changing Participation in the Labor Force: A World Perspective. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 38, pp. 457-488. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, NORTH AND SOUTH, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE). "Women's economic activities are hard to compare across countries and sometimes even difficult to compare within countries over time. Cultural variation in interpreting what is productive work compounded by differences in the statistical definition of who is in the labor force are responsible for much ambiguity in measurements of women's roles that straddle home and market economic activities. It is widely recognized that women's activities are changing rapidly in high-income, technologically advanced countries. The diversity in what women do is even greater across low income countries, but there is little consensus on how these roles are changing today. This article assesses patterns in women's labor force participation and the composition of this participation among wage earners, self-employed, and unpaid family workers.

The shift of the locus of employment in contemporary societies from family to firm is attributed to technological economis of scale in production and finance and the capacity of firms to minimize transaction costs, particularly in such major sectors as manufacturing, construction, commerce and services. For women, it is also hypothesized that obtaining a job for wages outside of the family contributes to women's control over the returns to their labor and hence augments their relative power in the allocation of household economic resources. This economic status of women relative to men may in turn be associated with specific consumption patterns, investments in the health and education of children, and declines in fertility.

Despite the limitations of international census and survey data, approximately sixty countries report labor force data by sex, for at least two points in time, disaggregated by waged/self-employed/unpaid family workers, and by sector of economic activity. These data are the focus of this study, though they clearly are not a representative sample of the world's population. The sectoral composition of employment, as well as the mix of firm- and family-based jobs, changes systematically with development. This article considers whether recent trends in women's labor-force participation and the type of jobs held are explained by the intersectoral shifts in the distribution of employment or by trends within these sectors.

The association between the distribution of employment by industry and job type and the rate of participation in the market labor force by women probably embodies relationships operating in both directions. Changes in the final demands for goods and services, due to increases in per-capita income, for example, may alter the mix of employment by industry with consequences on the fraction of jobs that women are likely to hold. Conversely, an increase in the rate of participation by women will depress wages in those industries that are peculiarly intensive users of female labor, lowering unit costs and encouraging expansion of output and of female employment in these sectors. No attempt is made here to identify statistically and separate the consequences of a shift in the demand or supply schedule by specifying the variables that operate only on the supply of women wanting work or only on the demand for goods produced predominantly by women. The decompositions of labor force outcomes by industrial sector can be strictly interpreted only if it is assumed that changes in demand occurring with economic growth are responsible for part of the variation in women's labor force participation patterns, but that the casual effect in the opposite direction is relatively minor" (pp. 457-458).

Schultz, T.P. (1991) Labor Market Discrimination: Measurement and Interpretation. Chap. 1. In: Unfair Advantage: Labour Market Discrimination in Developing Countries. Eds: Birdsall, N. and Sabot, R., (ISBN 0-8213-1909-4,.) IBRD/WB: Washington, pp. 15-33. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, SECONDARY DATA, STUDY OF SOUTH USING SECONDARY SOURCES, THE SOUTH). This chapter focuses on the methodological problems that arise in trying to measure sex and race discrimination in the labour market. Schultz's critical review provides the basis for suggestions regarding analytical techniques, and their data requirements, to be used in the next generation of economic research on discrimination.

Scott, A. (1986) Industrialization, Gender Segregation and Stratification Theory. In: Gender and Stratification Theory. Eds: Crompton, R. and Mann, M. Polity: London. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, GEOGRAPHICAL SCOPE

UNKNOWN, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN).

Scott, A. (1986) Economic Development and Urban Women's Work: The Case of Lima, Peru. In: Sex Inequalities in Urban Labour Markets of the Third World. Eds: Anker, R. and Hein, C. Macmillan: London. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, LATIN AMERICA, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PERU, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). This chapter begins with a critique of two conventional hypotheses regarding the impact of economic development on women's work, namely the division of the economy into large and small scale enterprises and the level of education of women. It is argued that these are inadequate because they present too narrow a vision of the ways in which gender segregation was produced in the labour market. Through an analysis of the changing structure of female employment in Lima during this period, and of the pattern of gender segregation in 1974, I have tried to show that the position of women in the labour market was severely constrained by their confinement to female-specific labour markets. This meant that the changes in the labour market position of women between 1940-72 were only partly influenced by general trends in the economy such as increasing dualism and rising levels of education. As important as these general phenomena, were the specific transformations in the female labour market, the expansion and contraction of particular 'women's' jobs and the changing distribution of women between these jobs.Gender segregation is anticipated in all the different phases of occupational training and recruitment. The effect is to orient women towards 'female' jobs and to equip them specifically for those jobs. At the same time it creates a number of obstacles - economic, political and ideological - to their obtaining access to 'male' jobs. It is therefore mistaken to view gender segregation as the outcome of labour market processes which are assumed to be sex-neutral, in which men and women compete on an equal basis for the same jobs.In Lima, the combination of a stable pattern of gender segregation and economic growth improved conditions within the female labour market although relative inequality between men and women deteriorated. The fact that the improvements in the position of women proved to be tenuous in the face of recession, shows that ultimately enduring changes require modifications in the sexual division of labour itself. This means tackling the problems of sex-typing of occupations and the process of gender segregation in the workplace. However, until the ideological and political aspects of gender segregation are properly integrated into labour market analysis and policy formulation, gender inequalities will neither be understood nor eliminated.

Scott, A.M. (1986) Women and Industrialisation: Examining the `Female Marginalisation' Thesis. Journal of Development Studies, 22, pp. 649-680. (ACADEMIC, BRAZIL, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, LATIN AMERICA, MARGINALISATION THESIS, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PERU, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). "This article examines the thesis that women are marginalised from production in the course of development in the light of recent research which shows contradictory trends. The analysis reveals serious deficiences in the theoretical and methodological underpinnings of the `female marginalisation' thesis. The result is not that the thesis is wrong, but that it is untestable. These problems are discusses with reference to Peruvian and Brazilian material. The article argues for attention to be paid to the microlevel processes which give rise to women's marginalisation." (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 4, 1986, p412).

Scott, A.M. (1990) Patterns of Patriarchy in the Peruvian Working Class. Chap. 7. In: Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour. Eds:

Stichter, S. and Parpart, J.L., (ISBN 0-333-45161-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 198-220. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, LATIN AMERICA, PERU, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH).

Shah, N. and Gandhi, N. (1991) A Backgrounder: Women's Work in the Informal Sector in India, Paper presented at International Workshop on Women Organising in the Process of Industrialisation, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, 15-26 April 1991. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, HOMEWORKING, INDIA, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH ASIA, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH). This paper documents the rise of the informal sector in India, to which much of the poor, many of them women, have turned, unable to support themselves through agriculture and unable to find paid work in the organised sector of the economy.

Sharma, U. (1990) Public Employment and Private Relations: Women and Work in India. Chap. 9. In: Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour. Eds: Stichter, S. and Parpart, J.L., (ISBN 0-333-45161-9,.) Macmillan: London, pp. 229-246. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, HOMEWORKING, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDIA, INFORMAL SECTOR, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, SOUTH ASIA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). Sharma sounds a note of caution about conceptual efforts to distinguish and oppose the non-capitalist domestic sphere to the capitalist market, pointing out that proto-industrial capitalism in many rural areas often builds on and extends family relationships; kin relations in the domestic sphere are often co-opted by capital. Some of the resulting organisation forms, for example, outwork, remain very important even in advanced capitalist societies. In the South Asia context there is a striking interpenetration of the social relations of gender in the public and private spheres. Outwork and domestic handicraft work remain very important as sources of income for women; in addition both men and women, but particularly women, must use personal relationship to gain access to labour and product markets.Looking at those women who do earn wages in the well-organised and relatively impersonal urban labour markets in India, Sharma is sceptical of the proposition that such work will enhance women's family or personal status. An individual's say in household decision-making, she thinks, is still determined by a very large number of different factors. Wage-earning may simply result in an increase in total labour burden. On the question of independence from the family, Sharma argues that most women still do not operate as if they had distinct individual interests separate from those of the household, but rather see their destinies as determined by the welfare of the group. This view is reinforced by public ideology, and means that most women say they work 'for their families' rather than 'for themselves'.

Sheldon, K. (1991) Sewing Clothes and Sorting Cashew Nuts: Factories, Families and Women in Beira, Mozambique. Women's Studies International Forum, 14, pp. 27-35. (ACADEMIC, AFRICA, AGRIBUSINESS, CLOTHING, EAST & SOUTHERN AFRICA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT VARIABLE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, MOZAMBIQUE, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "This paper compares two groups of factory women in Beira, Mozambique. It demonstrates that garment workers had several advantages over cashew workers, in part as a result of their

family economic background, which tended to be working-class rather than peasant. The garment workers had better access to formal education, generally married later and more happily and enjoyed a more stable and comfortable working environment. Both groups benefitted from the laws of the new socialist government that supported working women. Yet the ability of the garment workers to hire domestic help meant they had a distinct advantage in providing for their families during a time of war and disruption." (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 9, 1991, p489).

Shoesmith, D. (Ed) (1986) Export Processing Zones in Five Countries - The Economic and Human Consequences. (ISBN 962-7245-01-1) Asia Partnership for Human Development (APHD), Hong Kong. 267 pages. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, EAST ASIA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EUROPE, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, IMPACT UNKNOWN, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MALAYSIA, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AND SOUTH, PHILIPPINES, REPUBLIC OF IRELAND, SOUTH EAST ASIA, SRI LANKA, TAIWAN, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WESTERN EUROPE). The study covers EPZs in five countries; Ireland, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Taiwan... The mix of countries enables comparisons to be made across a range of countries which have some common and some disparate historical, economic, political, and industrial, as well as cultural experiences.... Each of the national studies had a two-fold aim. First and most important it should document the situation of workers and other local people directly affected by the zones, identifying the human consequences of the EPZ strategy. Second, was that in order to identify the broader significance of the strategy and its impact on the host society, it would be necessary to develop a critique of the export-oriented industrialisation strategy which the zones serve, the economic model implicit in the strategy and its general economic and social impact from two perspectives: the position of women who are engaged in what is defined as gainful employment - that is, women who are wage earners - and the role of women in unpaid labor such as household work, farm work on their own land, and other activities that put them in the position of managing resources..

Snow, R.T. (1983) The New International Division of Labor and the U.S. Sork Force: The Case of the Electronics Industry. Chap. 2. In: Women, Men and the International Division of Labor. Eds: Nash, J. and Fernandez-Kelly, M.P., (ISBN 0-87395-683-4, Series Ed: Nash, J. The SUNY Series in the Anthropology of Work.) State University of New York: Albany, N.Y., pp. 39-69. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, MARGINALISATION THESIS, NORTH AMERICA, ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY, SECONDARY DATA, THE NORTH, USA). This article examines the impact of offshore sourcing by the electronics industry on the US work force over the past 20 years. Despite the very rapid growth in the reliance of this industry on workers in the Third World, particularly in Asia and Latin America, for low skill, low wage production processes, the total number of jobs for electronics workers in the US increased by 64% from 1964 to 1978. These statistics disprove the simplistic argument that offshore sourcing has reduced US electronics employment, but also mask important shifts in the composition of the electronics work force.First, both the percentage of production workers in the electronics work force and their absolute number have decreased, since the increases in employment opportunities have come in white-collar categories. Second, the percentage and absolute number of women in the electronics work force have declined since the mid-1960s, as the bulk of the new jobs have been created in traditionally male technical, white-collar sectors where women

remain underrepresented. Also, wages paid by the industry have not kept pace with increases in the wage rate for US industrial workers as a whole.Although no definite casual link can be proved, it is suggested that offshore sourcing may contribute to and exacerbate the existing inequalities and imbalances in the US society: production workers and women, already less privileged than white-collar workers and men, have lost further ground; the affluent and developed centres of the electronics industry have grown and become even more heavily white-collar than before; production-worker jobs in the industry centres have becomes less attractive to native born Caucasian workers with better paying options, leading to a much heavier reliance on minority and immigrant workers. (From author's introduction).

Standing, G. (1989) Global Feminization Through Flexible Labour. World Development, 17, pp. 1077-1095. (ACADEMIC, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FEMINISATION THESIS, MANUFACTURING, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, NORTH AND SOUTH, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES AND FML). The emphasis on structural adjustment and labour flexibility in both developing and industrialized economies is rapidly altering the nature of employment. Women are being substituted for men and many forms of work are being converted into the kinds of jobs traditionally geared to women. International data on recent trends in female economic activity reveal that new types of labour data are needed to highlight the mechanisms of control over workers and the actual economic forms of vulnerability to which women are exposed. The paper concludes by posing questions that challenge the traditional concerns of donors and policy makers in many developing countries. (Summary at head of article).

Standing, G. (1992) Cumulative Disadvantage? Women Industrial Workers in Malaysia and the Philippines. (ISBN 92-2-108576-7) (Labour Market Analysis and Employment Planning, Working Paper No 60.) ILO, Geneva. (Output of the ILO Interdepartmental Project on Equality for Women in Employment) (ACADEMIC, ASIA, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, MALAYSIA, MANUFACTURING, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, PHILIPPINES, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH). This paper compares the situation of women workers in industrial employment in Malaysia and the Philippines, two countries on which there has been relatively little research. On the basis of almost identical surveys carried out in Malaysia and Singapore in 1988 and 1990 and covering 3,100 manufacturing and 1,311 industrial firms respectively, an attempt is made to identify distinctive forms of discrimination at the factory level, any cumulative process of labour market disadvantage, and any factors which offset discrimination.It is argued that "discrimination at the hiring stage influences the share of employment taken by women, and this influences the average wage, the wage of women workers and the male-female wage ratios. An intervening variable is training. The data for the Philippines show pervasive discrimination against women in that sphere, and that must influence the percentage share of jobs taken by women as well as their share of higher-level jobs and their relative wages. But there is also the likelihood of feedback effects, some strengthening segregation, some potentially weakening it. Thus, if a high female share of employment lowers female wages more than male wages, then one might expect employers to adjust their recruitment to employ more women. By contrast, if discriminatory hiring reduces the female share of employemnt to a low level, that might accentuate discriminatory hiring practices and deter women from applying to such firms (p. 74) (From author's introduction and conclusions).

Staudt, K. (1987) Programming Women's Empowerment: A Case from Northern Mexico. Chap. 7. In: Women on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Responses to Change. Eds: Ruiz, V.L. and Tiano, S., ( Series Ed: Merkx, G.W. Thematic Studies in Latin America, 2.) Allen and Unwin: London, pp. 155-173, (ISBN 0-04-497038-02). (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MEXICO, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). "Defining "empowerment" in terms of the levels of the personal, the network, and the organizational, the author analyzes the Centro de Orientacion de la Muher Obrera (COMO), a unique educational and political initiative organized by and for women maquila workers in Cuidad Juarez. She reviews the curriculum of the action-oriented "basic introductory course" at COMO and discusses the fact that it never entirely resolved the reformist/radical dilemma" (Abstract in Sklair, 1988, Annotated Bilbiography and Research Guide to Mexico's In-Bond Industry, 1980-1988, p. 108-109).

Steinberg, R. (1988) The Unsubtle Revolution - Women the State and Equal Employment. Chap. 11. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 189-213. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, NORTH AMERICA, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE NORTH, USA). This chapter reviews US legislation designed to improve the unequal labor market position of women workers, initially intended for minorities but adopted and adapted by the women's movement. The progress which women have made in attaining high-level positions, and their increasingly sophisticated use of office to achieve political reform, is also documented. Despite such progress with respect to legislation, however, it is argued that in practice women's gains have been minimal. This is partly a reflection of inadequate mobilization in the women's movement, and partly "of the liberal feminist strategy of attempting to achieve economic and political equality without social equality. Patriarchal relations are so deeply embedded in our institutions, and reproduced on a daily basis within our most intimate interactions in the family, that it would be hard to imagine all but formal equality, for example, in political and economic institutions while continuing to suffer such extreme inequality in the family" (From author's conclusion).

Stichter, S. (1990) Women, Employment and the Family: Current Debates. In: Women, Employment and the Family in the International Division of Labour. Eds: Stichter, S. and Parpart, J.L. Macmillan: London, pp. 11-71. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, NORTH AND SOUTH, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). Stitcher argues for the independent importance of the household in economic analyses of women's employment. To do so, she critically reviews approaches to conceptualising the household and proposes a detailed categorisation of household-level factors. As part of the argument, she provides a brief description of recent trends in women's employment in the Third World, summarises many of the findings for two-way linkages between households and employment, and indicates how formulations derived from studies of the western nuclear family need modification in the light of world-wide variations in household and kinship relations.

Tang, S.L. (1980) Global Reach and its Limits: Women Workers and their Responses to Work in a Multinational Electronics Plant, Working paper, Department of Sociology, University of Chicago. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, EAST ASIA, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, HONG KONG, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MULTINATIONALS, NORTH AND SOUTH, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION). This case study of the American electronics plant, Felicity Semiconductors, in Hong Kong assesses the linkages between women workers and multinationals. Documenting two wildcat strikes at the plant, Tang demonstrates that workers in a peripheral economy such as Hong Kong are not totally subject to the hegemonic power of the multinational. This power is conditioned by the interplay of structural forces such as labour market forces, government intervention, and the logic of global accumulation. Multinationals tend to be hostile to local unionization, but it must also be recognized that "the 'non-traditionality' and 'transiency' of women workers in the definitions of 'self' in both the occupation world and the social world have created conditions for the failure of the evolution of union consciousness and union organizational commitment" (from author's introduction and conclusion).

Thorborg, M. (1988) Labour in Export Processing Zones in Asia, with Special Reference to China and Sri Lanka, Third World Economic History and Development Group, London Conference, SOAS 8-10 September 1988. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHINA, EAST ASIA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, REGIONAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, SECONDARY DATA, SOUTH ASIA, SRI LANKA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). In Asia Sri Lanka is unique because it both educationally and demographically is at a much more advanced level than in regard to its degree of economic development. This is particularly so, even to a higher degree for the women of Sri Lanka. For this reason - among others - the present policy of export-led industrialization, if it does not lead to more women in positions of skill and leadership, can be seriously questioned. Much more could be done for women of university entrance level education regarding specialized management and leadership training, rather than creating the simplest type of assembly line work for them. Such an educated work force will, of course, be mobile as soon as they get a chance for something better, or if they can afford to have periods out of work. Singapore's policy of consciously creating and attracting more skilled work could be copied to some degree, as well as aid given to women entrepreneurs.Women workers in EPZs learn few new skills, since those in charge of transferring know-how are usually foreigners and men, and in sex-segregated patriarchal Asian countries they prefer to teach their skills to other men in order to avoid conflict. Without acquiring any technological know-how they usually find the roads to advancement closed to them as well. Trade union activities are usually curtailed or closely monitored in EPZs, even in developing countries with long trade union traditions such as Sri Lanka.According to most surveys, the main gains for women employees in EPZs in developing countries seem to be: having a wage at their disposal for the first time; good health services; a chance for after-work schooling; and a life outside the confines of the family. But more resources ought to be invested in vocational and managerial training in the countries concerned, especially for the female labour-force. (Taken from author's conclusion).

Tiano, S. (1990) Maquiladora Women: A New Category of Workers? Chap. 9. In: Women Workers and Global Restructuring. Ed: Ward, K., (ISBN 0-87546-162-X,.) ILR Press, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University: Ithaca, New York, pp. 193-223. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, GENDER DISCRIMINATION, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WOMENS VOICES). "Susan Tiano divides theories about the determinants of maquiladora (factory) employment into two categories: those that focus on the effects of male unemployment and those that focus on women as a new category of workers. In her study of women garment, electronics and service workers in Mexicali, she found that maquiladora employment has failed to improve the unemployment problem for either women or men. Further, many women are primary bread winners or support others in their households, and although many have extensive work histories, especially garment workers, they earn less than subsistence wages. Most of the women express ambivalence about their need and desire to work and about social norms concerning their femininity if they work." (Ward, K., (1990) p20) DE.

Tiano, S. (1987) Maquiladoras in Mexicali: Integration or Exploitation? In: Women on the US Mexico Border: Responses to Change. Ed: Ruiz Vicki and Tiano Susan, (ISBN 0-04-497038-2, Series Ed: Merkx, G. Thematic Studies in Latin America, 2.) Allen and Unwin: London, pp. 77-101. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, ELECTRONICS, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WOMENS VOICES). A heated debate has ensued concerning the effects of participation in assembly processing on women workers and their families in the Third World. Some view it as a way of integrating women into modern industry with its attendant economic and nonmaterial benefits. Others see it as but another form of capitalist exploitation and patriarchal oppression. This chapter reports some preliminary findings of a study of 194 export processing workers in Mexicali, Mexico, in the electronics, clothing and service sectors. Earning is found to be important for all the women workers, most of whom pool their wages with one or more contributors in the household, but noneconomic advantages of work mean most claimed they would continue to work even if they did not need their incomes. Contrary to the exploitation thesis, neither electronics workers nor other women surveyed appear to be reluctant wage earners.However, other findings are more consistent with the exploitation thesis. Being on average younger, better educated and more likely to be single and childless than women in the apparel industry, it might be expected that electronics workers would have a more favourable labour market position. However their income rarely exceeds the minimum wage, they have few extra benefits, are more vulnerable to retrenchment, and less likely than other workers to believe their jobs have taught them useful skills.The integration-exploitation debate may be based on a false conceptual dichotomy. If one employs the orthodox Marxian definition of exploitation as the production of surplus value, then such exploitation requires integration into capitalist relations of production. Nonetheless, what is clear is that while maquiladoras provide jobs, minimum wages and state-mandated benefits for women who must support themselves and their families, these jobs are more insecure, and their wages generally lower, than many service occupations..

Tiano, S. (1987) Women's Work and Unemployment in Northern Mexico. In: Women on the US Mexico Border, Responses to Change. Eds: Ruiz, V. and Tiano, S., ( Series Ed: Merkx, G.W. Thematic Studies in Latin America, 2.) Allen and Unwin: London, pp. 17-39, (ISBN 0-04-497038-2). (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, FACTORY BASED, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, LATIN AMERICA, MANUFACTURING, MEXICO, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE SOUTH). On the basis of an examination of data on men and women's labour force participation rate, Tiano rejects the argument that unemployment in northern Mexico is essentially a male phenomenon. There is no evidence that the maquiladora program has led to a disproportionately high level of female labour force participation, or exacerbated male unemployment in northern cities. Joblessness remains a problem for women of all ages, and is particularly high among those aged 12 to 24, the sector which provides the bulk of the assembly plant labour force. Moreover, women of most ages are twice as likely as men to be unemployed. By ensuring a steady labour supply and by creating a competitive situation holding wages to a minimum, female unemployment encourages the establishment of maquiladoras. It is not so much that the maquiladoras have contributed to unemployment in the region but rather that the existence of a pool of surplus female labour has led to the proliferation of maquiladoras (Taken from text).

Totterdill, P. (1992) The Role of Local Intervention: Choices and Agencies for Change. Chap. 16. In: Computer-aided manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 185-198. (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FACTORY BASED, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, HOMEWORKING, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, THE NORTH, UK). "In this paper, Peter Totterdill analyses the implications both of flexible technologies and decentralised industrial structures for women's employment prospects in the clothing industry. On the basis of a critical review of the BRITE programme and of the industrial policy of the UK government, Totterdill maps out the strategies that local government can adopt in order to revive traditional industries. In this context, he evaluates the relevance of the "third Italy" model and of self organised work groups to meet the demands of computer-aided technologies." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Truelove, C. (1990) Disguised Industrial Proletarians in Rural Latin America: Women's Informal-sector Factory Work and the Social Reproduction of Coffee Farm Labor in Colombia. Chap. 3. In: Women Workers and Global Restructuring. Ed: Ward, K., (ISBN 0-87546-162-X,.) ILR Press, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University: Ithaca, New York, pp. 48-63. (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, COLOMBIA, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, INFORMAL SECTOR, LATIN AMERICA, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, THE SOUTH). "Cynthia Truelove explores the interrelationships between TNCs, agribusinesses, and women's informal-sector participation in Colombia's coffee-growing region. She argues that the disguised proletarianization of women in the informal sector reproduces the coffee export sector via the maintenance of male laborers. The coffee industries have formed mini-maquilas in garment construction and shoe assembly for export. These co-operatives use female labor and provide wages at 70 percent of subsistence costs. Workers make up the difference by increasing their production and competing for bonuses. Managers hire women on the basis of their attitudes and cooperative appearance

(E.g., appropriate female behaviours), and their employment ensures a cash flow to households throughout the year and when men are unemployed. Thus women's factory work subsidizes and reproduces agricultural labor. Further, the cooperatives form the lowest point in the subcontracting pyramids in that the women workers constitute disguised wage workers for TNCs and national industries that subcontract piecework to rural factories sponsored by the coffee sector." (Ward, K., (1990) p18) DE.

Vogelheim, E. (1988) Women in a Changing Workplace - The Case of the Federal Republic of Germany. Chap. 6. In: Feminization of the Labour Force - Paradoxes and Promises. Eds: Jenson, J., Hagen, E. and Reddy, C., (ISBN 0-7456-0548-6,.) Polity Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 106-119. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CONSTRUCTION OF A FMLF, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE, HOMEWORKING, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, THE NORTH, WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). This chapter documents the rising female labour force participation rate in West Germany, where women have a 99 percent share of part-time work, but there is a higher female employment rate than male. There has been a remarkable shift in attitudes towards female employment between 1970, when women's labour was perceived as an underutilized resource of great importance, and the 1980s, when rising unemployment saw a focus on the 'problems' of female labour in terms of their lack of skills, lack of regional mobility and family commitments. State policies designed to promote the growth of part-time flexible female employment have emerged from this new conceptualisation of female labour. These are documented, as are attempts by unions to organise around issues of unemployment and reduced working hours (Summary of text).

White, M.C. (1990) Improving the Welfare of Women Factory Workers: Lessons from Indonesia. International Labour Review, 129, pp. 121-133. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, INDONESIA, MANUFACTURING, NON-ACADEMIC PUBLISHER, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH). "Pressure for higher labour productivity provides an incentive for improving workers' welfare and conditions. Appealing to employers' self-interest, a recent International Labour Office pilot project provided workplace health education and simple health services for a sample of women factory workers in Jakarta, and persuaded employers to introduce other low-cost changes in workplace facilities. Assessing this experience, the author finds that the women's health and other behavioural indicators improved significantly. However, she warns, not all employers see the advantage of such action, and a clear commitment on the part of top management is essential for its success. In all cases it will take determined efforts to sustain the improvements made."(Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 8, 1990, p385).

Wilson, F. (1991) Sweaters: Gender, Class and Workshop-based Industry in Mexico. (ISBN (Hb) 0-333-53829-3) Macmillan Academic, Basingstoke, UK. 224 pages. (ACADEMIC, CLOTHING, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INFORMAL SECTOR, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, SUBCONTRACTING, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES, WOMENS VOICES). "In recent years, regions of rural Mexico have specialised in small-scale industry, much of which rests on women's labour. Hidden in people's houses or backstreet workshops, the scale and nature of the industrialisation process is difficult to fathom. This book explores the histories, actions and opinions of people from one, small centre during an

earlier phase of violence and impoverishment and in later years when workshops have flourished. Two main themes arise: workshop expansion and differentiation over the past 25 years; and the way that gender and class relations have moulded industrial organisation while being themselves reformulated over time."JP (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 10, 1992, p252).The workshop employment of young, unmarried women does not free them from household control, because they are sent out to work in order to support their families. However, they do derive benefit from having access to cash for personal expenditure, and they gain recognised skills, membership of a workplace community and a more active social identity in helping to provide for their families. Some working women marry later than their own mother's did, and the experience of wage work puts them in a stronger position to negotiate the distribution of money and goods in marriage. Their savings, together with support from their mother's generation, have allowed working women to avoid spending their first years of married life in the home of their parents-in-law. Furthermore, they have won the right to broaden their social contacts to include friendships formed at the work-place as well as kin.Nonetheless, a range of social practices have not been altered by women's employment, including the likelihood of marriage for the majority of women, the unacceptability of divorce and a gender division of labour which assigns to women total responsibility for domestic work.In a concluding comment about the impact of industrialisation on women, Wilson notes that the "ability and readiness shown by women to use the opportunities presented by the industrial growth to struggle for a more valued and dignified position in the household and society" has made a lasting impression. Industrialisation has allowed women to better their position in society relative to earlier generations of women, but it is not clear that they have been able to circumvent totally the disadvantages of their class and gender position.

Wilson, F. (1992) Technology and Workshop-based Production in Mexico: The Case of the Garment Industry, Paper presented to LASA Conference, 1992. (ACADEMIC, CLOTHING, COUNTRY STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, SECONDARY DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH). This paper explores recent processes of modernisation in garment production in Mexico, and sketches out the implications which major changes in economic policy are having for that sector. Mexico's garment industry was particularly prosperous during the 1970s and early 1980s but is experiencing a major turn-around now after economic policy has transformed the country from being one of the most closed economies in the world to being among the most open. Prior to the mid 1980s modernisation was taking place in some branches of the industry, through a re-assessment and re-organisation of management practices, technological up-trading, and more open struggle by workers for improved employment and working conditions. There was some transformation from low cost production of shoddy goods for local markets to high quality production for up-market outlets. These more progressive tendencies appear to have been seriously interrupted, if not finally brought to a halt, by the realignment taking place in the Mexican economy - though this is only a tentative conclusion until more case study material is available. (From author's introduction).

Wolf, D.L. (1990) Linking Women's Labor with the Global Economy: Factory Workers and their Families in Rural Java. Chap. 2. In: Women Workers and Global Restructuring. Ed: Ward, K., (ISBN 0-87546-162-X,.) ILR Press, School of Industrial

and Labor Relations, Cornell University: Ithaca, New York, pp. 25-47. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, CHAPTER, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDONESIA, MANUFACTURING, MULTINATIONALS, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH, WELFARE OUTCOMES). "Diane Wolf explores the interdependence of women workers, families, and factories and the intersection of ... the relations of production and distribution. From her fieldwork in Indonesia, Wolf found that, contrary to public statements by TNC managers, women's wages meet only part of their subsistence needs. Families subsidize the women's employment, thereby keeping down the factories' labor costs and stabilizing household income. TNC employment means that women can gain some degree of independence and at least partly support themselves, but Wolf questions whether, over time, women are actually empowered by such work." (Ward, K., 1990, p17-18) DE.

Wolf, D.L. (1992) Factory Daughters: Gender, Household Dynamics, and Rural Industrialization in Java. University of California Press, Berkeley. 323 pages. (ISBN 0-520-07072-0) (ACADEMIC, AGRIBUSINESS, ASIA, CLOTHING, EAST ASIA, EMPOWERMENT/AUTONOMY OUTCOMES, FACTORY BASED, IMPACT CONTRADICTORY, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, INDONESIA, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, JAVA, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, SMALLSCALE CASE STUDY, SOUTH EAST ASIA, TAIWAN, TEXTILES, THE SOUTH). "In this deft and vivid investigation, Diane Wolf illuminates the complex interactions between rural industrialization, women, and their families in the Third World. Taking the reader inside the homes where Javanese women live and the factories where they work, Wolf reveals the contradictions, constraints, and changes in women's lives brought on by industrialization. Her findings debunk the conventional wisdom about so-called household strategies and dutiful daughters: defying stereotypes, the young women in Factory Daughters don't uniformly relinquish autonomy or capitulate to parental authority. Wolf has teased out the complex dynamics of class, gender, agrarian change, and industrialization, shedding light on the micropolitics of households and the macropolitics of social change in rural Java.Factory Daughters is also distinguished by wide-ranging fieldwork in Java and an impressive combination of rich narratives, rigorous surveys, and quantitative analysis. The "thick description" of domestic relations in impoverished agrarian households and a comparison with Taiwanese factory daughters and their parents provide depth and scope to Wolf's investigation of women's changing lives. The stories of Javanese factory daughters sensitively depict women's agency as they negotiate employment, income, and marriage decisions through the webs of family obligations... Factory Daughters grapples provocatively with three major issues - the impact of industrialization on women, the tension between household and workplace in the perpetuation of women's subordination, and the appropriateness of concepts such as 'household strategies'" (From dustcover).

Wood, A. (1991) North-south Trade and Female Labour in Manufacturing: An Asymmetry. Journal of Development Studies, 27, pp. 168-189. (ACADEMIC, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, MANUFACTURING, NATIONAL SURVEY DATA, NORTH AND SOUTH, PRIMARY DATA, QUANTITATIVE). "A simple method of measuring the impact of north-south trade on the female intensity of manufacturing is applied to data for developed and developing countries. The results confirm that growth of exports has increased the relative demand for female labour in the south. However, there does not appear to have been a general counterpart reduction in the relative demand for female labour in northern

manufacturing, even among blue-collar workers. There are several possible reasons for the apparent conflict between these findings and other evidence that in northern manufacturing females have been disproportionately displaced by trade." (Studies on Women Abstracts, Vol. 9, 1991, p282).

Wortmann, M. (1992) Technical Developments and Internationalisation of the German Clothing and Knitwear industry. Chap. 11. In: Computer-aided Manufacturing and Women's Employment - The Clothing Industry in Four EC Countries. Ed: Mitter, S., (ISBN 3-540-19656-0,.) Springer-Verlag: London, pp. 141-149. (ACADEMIC, CASUALISATION AND FLEXIBILITY, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, DECONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF FMLF, EUROPE, GENDER IMPACT OF TECHNICAL CHANGE, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, THE NORTH, WEST GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE). "This paper highlights the central role that computer-aided technology plays in shaping the internationalisation of Germany's clothing manufacturing industry. In the emerging international division of labour, German manufacturers specialise in high-tech, high value items at home, sourcing the rest from other parts of the world. This strategy may be commercially sound but, as the author argues, leaves little space for the immediate needs of women workers employed in the depressed regions of Germany." (Abstract at the head of the chapter) DE.

Young, G. (1984) Women, Development, and Human Rights: Issues in Integrated Transnational Production. Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, 20, pp. 383-401. (ACADEMIC, GLOBAL STUDY USING SECONDARY SOURCES, IMPACT UNKNOWN, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, MANUFACTURING, SECONDARY DATA, THE SOUTH). "Gay Young, who has done extensive research on maquila women in Ciudad Juarez, poses the question: "Do the relations through which women are being incorporated into development enhance or inhibit their capacity to shape and share values in the community process? She analyzes the possible responses to this question in the context of women workers in the maquilas and other Third World industrial locations" (Abstract from Sklair, 1988, Annotated Bibliography and Research Guide to Mexico's In-Bond Industry, 1980-1988, p. 114).

Young, G. (1987) Gender Identification and Working class Solidarity among Maquila Workers in Ciudad Juårez: Stereotypes and Realities. Chap. 5. In: Women on the US Mexico Border, Responses to Change. Eds: Ruiz, V. and Tiano, S., ( Series Ed: Merkx, G.W. Thematic Studies in Latin America, 2.) Allen and Unwin: London, pp. 105-127, (ISBN 0-04-497038-2). (ACADEMIC, CHAPTER, CLOTHING, ELECTRONICS, FACTORY BASED, IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN OF INCORPORATION INTO MLF, LARGESCALE CASE STUDY, LATIN AMERICA, MEXICO, PRIMARY DATA, QUALITATIVE DATA, STRATEGIES AND CONSTRAINTS OF LABOUR ORGANISATION, THE SOUTH, WOMENS VOICES). This is a study of 201 maquila women in three groups - "one group involved in consciousness-raising activities (through COMO), another recently involved in a strike in a garment maquila, and a third "control" group from an electronics maquila. The purpose of the research was to discover the extent to which the different experiences of the three groups had affected solidarity, orientations to work, and sex role identification. The findings indicated "not only that some maquila workers depart from the female stereotype but also that they are far from unorganizable" (Abstract in Sklair, 1988, Annotated Bibliography and Research Guide to Mexico's In-Bond Industry, 1980-1988, p. 71).

Zosa-Feranil, I. (1984) Female Employment and the Family: A Case Study of the Bataan Export Processing Zone. In: Women in the Urban and Industrial Labour Force: South-east and East Asia. Ed: Jones, G. Australian National University: Canberra. (ACADEMIC, ASIA, EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRY, FACTORY BASED, INTERSECTION OF WORKPLACE AND HOME, MANUFACTURING, METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN, PHILIPPINES, SOUTH EAST ASIA, THE SOUTH).