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The Intersection of Voice Science and Vocal Pedagogy in Western Practice 0

2018

The Intersection of Voice Science and Vocal Pedagogy in Western Practice

An overview covering bel canto to present day applicationsElla McGaunn


Table of ContentsINTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................2

BEL CANTO................................................................................................................................................10

Breath Management/Appoggio..............................................................................................................14

Onset/Coup de glotte.............................................................................................................................16

Resonance/Chiaroscuro.........................................................................................................................18

Vocal Registers......................................................................................................................................19

Posture...................................................................................................................................................20

JO ESTILL (1921-2010)..............................................................................................................................21

Estill on Breath Management................................................................................................................23

Estill on Onset.......................................................................................................................................24

Estill on Resonance...............................................................................................................................25

Estill on Vocal Registers.......................................................................................................................26

Estill on Posture.....................................................................................................................................27

Estill on Technology and Acoustical Physics........................................................................................28

RICHARD MILLER (1926-2009)..................................................................................................................29

Miller on Breath Management...............................................................................................................29

Miller on Onset......................................................................................................................................30

Miller on Resonance..............................................................................................................................31

Miller on Vocal Registers......................................................................................................................32

Miller on Posture...................................................................................................................................32

Miller on Technology and Acoustical Physics.......................................................................................33

KENNETH BOZEMAN (CURRENTLY ACTIVE)..............................................................................................34

Bozeman on Breath Management:.........................................................................................................35

Bozeman on Onset:................................................................................................................................36

Bozeman on Resonance:........................................................................................................................36

Bozeman on Vocal Registers:................................................................................................................38

Bozeman on Posture:.............................................................................................................................38

Bozeman on Technology and Acoustical Physics:.................................................................................38

CONCLUSION: 21ST CENTURY APPLICATIONS.............................................................................................39

REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................42


Every art consists of a technico-mechanical part and an aesthetical part. A singer who cannot overcome the difficulties of the first part can never attain perfection in

the second, not even a genius. - Mathilde Marchesi

INTRODUCTIONHumans were designed for community and communication, and thus vocalization is an

innate human function. In the Judeo-Christian account of the creation story the entire Universe

was spoken into existence. Voices have been used to build people up and tear them down.

Nations have risen and fallen because of words uttered. From the first cry of a babe in arms to

the opera singer on the stage, to the heavy metal vocalist, our voices are used as instruments to

convey our deepest desires. It then comes as no surprise that for as long as humans have been

vocalizing, we have sought to edit, enhance, magnify, capture or beautify our voices whether

through training of rhetoric or of endurance and strength.

In venturing to train the singing voice there has always been tension between technical

brilliance and artistic expression. In vocal pedagogy (the teaching of singing) two seemingly

divergent paths (voice science and artistic teaching) were defined when Manuel Garcia II is

credited with having invented the laryngoscopy in 1854. From that point on the study of voice

science has transformed the path of vocal pedagogy. Voice science is defined here by two

branches: 1) anatomy and physiology as it pertains to singing and 2) acoustical physics.

The aim of this paper is to identify trends in vocal pedagogy in the Western world, and to

show how voice science has intertwined with how singing has been taught over the past century.

Mary Montgomery Koppel, 11/29/17, RESOLVED

You’re getting deeply philosophical after getting quite specific with examples. These are sentences describing verbalization, not singing. Should you *start* with these before naming the wide varieties of vocalization styles?


Screamo -> seeking to beautify? Maybe say “OR beautify” rather than “and”


You’re getting deeply philosophical after getting quite specific with examples. These are sentences describing verbalization, not singing. Should you *start* with these before naming the wide varieties of vocalization styles?


The main pedagogues/pedagogies explored in this paper will be bel canto (the Historic Italian

School), Jo Estill, Richard Miller, and Kenneth Bozeman. The following sections will discuss,

compare, and contrast the different singing philosophies to show how voice science has shaped

vocal pedagogy. The conclusion will serve as a proposal for how artistry and science can be

married through present-day studio applications.

As it is outside of the scope of this paper to adequately cover all vocal pedagogy, the

following summary highlights major figures and themes of the Historic Italian School of singing

in recorded history and the modern schools that developed from it. This summary starts around

the 16th century and gives a brief introduction to the major pedagogues/philosophies that will be

expanded upon in subsequent sections. Other teachers and pedagogies are mentioned but are

outside the scope of the paper to fully elaborate on. They are mentioned merely for contextual

purposes, and to perhaps provide evidence for Richard Miller’s (1996) assurance that, “There is a

prevalent opinion that in past centuries singers had little interest in science. That viewpoint is not

supported by historical review.” (p. 217)

A BRIEF HISTORY OF WESTERN VOCAL PEDAGOGY

Vocal pedagogy until the 16th century existed primarily through oral tradition rather than

written methods and guides. This is logical because singing itself is an oral tradition. Children

sing the melodies they hear from their mothers and imitate the styles of singing that they are

exposed to. Singing is taught orally from teacher to student, often with demonstrations that are

difficult to put to words. These traditions have been passed down from student to student. Even

now, teachers of voice claim lineage to the Historic Italian School of singing through teachers

such as Mathilde Marchesi, Manuel Garcia II, and Lamperti. Who is to say that what is being


comma


Flip these two sentences around, and combine into one single sentence. “The goal of the following summary is……, as it would be beyond the scope of this project to……..”




This final paragraph should be in your very first page. This 9-page section is NOT an introduction – it’s far too long to be considered “introductory.” I’d treat the vocal ped history as the first section of your paper, and go back and rework a 1-2 page introduction that outlines the aims /main topics of the paper, hints at the synthesis of your thesis (the true synthesis can come at the conclusion.)


taught even resembles what these teachers once taught? It has undoubtedly been watered down.

Even still, what of the teachings before the 19th century? Any writings about singing were

primarily concerned with style rather than technique. In the Renaissance (15th century),

comments about singing could be found in music scores, prefaces to song collections and operas,

works about ornamentation styles, letters, early books on music history, and other sources.

However, these commentaries were primarily concerned about stylistic practices of the time

rather than technique. Scholars have speculated about singing techniques before treatises were

written through the analysis of snippets of manuscripts and scores; their findings, however, are

dubious at best. Allusions to tastes and debates were made without prescriptive suggestions to

alleviate the issues brought forth.

Franchinus Gaffurius commented in his Practica Musicae (1496) about vibrato, which

music historians and historical performers still debate today. His description of "wide vibrato"

suggests to some that for Renaissance singing vibrato was not used for anything except vocal

ornament. Contemporaries to Gaffurius wrote about "nasality" and "singing out of tune" in

similarly descriptive ways, without real ideas about what a singer ought to do to remedy the

problems. Some of these comments are also questionable because they may have been intended

for the ensemble singer rather than the solo singer. Since music around 1500 predates the

emergence of the solo singer as a virtuoso, debating historical performance practices of the

earlier era is, at best, quite difficult.

The problem of teaching "bel canto technique” is related to this historical lapse. First, we

must come to a consensus on how to define the term "bel canto" (a blanket term meaning

beautiful singing that has been used to label many things over the years); then we must try to

discern how to produce bel canto singing from texts that are often contradictory and the


No dash in the middle of the word “akin”. I also don’t think “akin” is the right word…..just say “related”


Impossible? How about combining the two sentences: “As music around 1500 predates the emergence of the solo singer as a virtuoso, debating historical performance practice of the earlier era is, at best, quite difficult.”


No comma


No comma


I think you mean “allusions”


Again, awkwardly worded. Be more direct. Try: “Scholars have speculated on singing techniques before treatises on the subject were written through the analysis of snippets of manuscripts and scores; their findings, however, are dubious at best.”




translations of which may not tell the whole truth. 16th and 17th century writers alike found that

codification of performance rules was a chief concern (Miller, 2006). A notable example of this

was Caccini’s Le nuove Musiche in 1601. His assertions that “pop vocalists” had destroyed the

art of singing are still echoed today:

But, now seeing many of them going around tattered and spoiled, badly making use of those long vocal gyrations, simple and double, even redoubled, one twisted up with another, when they [my songs] were invented by me in order to avoid that antiquated style of passaggi formerly custom, but [which is] more appropriate for wind and string instruments than for voice. (Caccini, 1601)

Writings from that century were similarly filled with criticisms and opinions, with no remarks on

the anatomical and physiological approaches a singer should take.

Pedagogical focus continuing into the 17th century was primarily directed at men

(although most of the principles apply to women as well). The most likely reason for this

omission is because in 1586 the Pope banned the use of female voices in sacred singing. This

increased the popularity of castrato's1 as well as Spanish falsettists2. Some historians have

interpreted these early writings as solely for use of the castrato voice. Recent scholars such as

Richard Miller reject that theory in favor of viewing works such as Pier Francesco Tosi’s

Observations on the Florid Song 1723 as instructions for all male voice types. Tosi talks about

two qualities of voice: voce di testa (head voice) and voce di petto (chest voice), terms that are

still used, debated and qualified today. These descriptions of the quality of voice are based on

sympathetic vibrations3. When singing in a low and full voice, singers can feel vibrations in their

chest cavities when they place their hands on their chests. When singing with a higher and more

1 Castrato refers to a man that was castrated before puberty in an attempt to keep the treble vocal range of a boy voice into adulthood.2 Falsetto is the term for the highest register of the male voice that resembles a woman’s voice. Falsettists were men who developed their falsetto register so much that they sung primarily in a woman’s range. 3 Sympathetic vibrations refer to where we feel vibrations in our body, but not necessarily where the sounds initiate.

Ella McGaunn, 03/21/18, RESOLVED

Footnote or parenthetical definition?


Put into direct voice


Need dashes: “16th- and 17th-century writers…”


flute-like vocal quality (not using the chest voice) singers may feel vibrations around the face

and head. The terms 'head' and 'chest' voice are, therefore, intuitive, but not necessarily

scientifically accurate (as future pedagogues will argue). Tosi (1723) also makes comments on

ornamentations, proper diction and the importance of talent not only as an artist, but in the art of

teaching itself:

It may seem to many, that every perfect Singer must also be a perfect instructor but it is not so; for his Qualifications (though ever so great) are insufficient, if he cannot communicate his Sentiments with Ease, and in a Method adapted to the Ability of the Scholar;… and a manner of instructing, which may seem rather an Entertainment than a Lesson, with the happy Talent to show the Ability of the Singer to Advantage, and conceal his Imperfections; which are the principal and most necessary instruction.(Tosi, G. Blankenbehler, Trans., 2009, p.68)

Tosi’s sentiments about studying in the mind (in current terminology audiation, the

process of imagining the pitches and rhythms of a piece instead of singing them) are echoed in

even 21st-century music education circles. Tosi also recommends using solfeggio to teach

emerging singing. Solfeggio is a system of using syllables to represent different notes in the

scale. These syllables can be fixed to a particular pitch (such as the "fixed-do" system in which

the syllable "do" always represents C), or "do" can be movable, representing "home" in the key

in use. Solfeggio also refers to a set of progressive exercises to train the voice. Teachers would

create solfeggios for students to practice, many of which were published in the 18th-20th centuries

and widely disseminated. Some of these solfeggios accompanied vocal “treatises” or were

accompanied by short notes about proper singing and diction.

At the close of the 18th century, Giambattista Mancini described at length the registers of

the voice (head and chest) and their blending. These descriptions are sometimes cited as a

precursor to the current 3 register theory that Manuel Garcia II and Lilli Lehman are famous for

outlining. Mancini’s Reflections on the Figurative Art of Singing (1774, revised 1777) was


italics


Take out “with” and use a semicolon instead


dash. When using the words “20th century” to name the era, do not use a dash. When using them as a descriptor, use it.


italics


No – and I would take out “such as trills”


Dr. MK, do I need to define this?


translated in 1912 by Pietro Buzzi, and at the dedication Alessandro Bucci stated, “If modern

science discoveries would blend themselves with the old Italian Method, using the latter as

foundation, then the Art of Song would again be raised to its former high standard.” (Coffin,

2002, p. 7) Mancini also speaks in depth about posture and the physiological positioning of the

body and mouth, an approach which will later be echoed by others, especially in the somatic

teachers of singing. Mancini encourages "singing through a smile,” a method used in the Historic

Italian School for many years. Like Tosi, Mancini emphasizes the importance of learning

specific ornaments common to particular eras/styles.

Manuel Garcia I (1775-1832) (also called Manuel Père, or Manuel Senior in some texts)

is the patriarch of the prolific Garcia family that revolutionized vocal pedagogy. Garcia I and his

son Garcia II will be discussed further in the bel canto section, but their introduction is necessary

in this historic overview. Around 1819-1822, Garcia I wrote Exercises Pour La Voix, a book of

approximately 340 exercises and discourse to conquer any vocal difficulty one could encounter.

When Garcia I retired, his son Manuel Garcia II (1805-1906) took over much of his teaching

responsibilities. Garcia II took his father’s teaching methods further and stirred up controversy.

Some believed he was the first of the great vocal teachers, and some believed he was the last.

This tension is still echoed today in the great debate over artistry vs. science. Garcia II

popularized the laryngoscopy (surprising, since he was not a medical professional) and opened a

whole field of voice science.

19th century descendants of the Garcian pedagogy, including Julius Stockhausen and

Mathilde Marchesi, dominated the world of vocal pedagogy for years to come. Marchesi was

friends with many composers and famous singers of the age. Gounod and Massenet for example

were frequent visitors in her home. Marchesi incorporated the science of her time into her


how do I want to cite this?


teaching, and tried to teach using common sense. She gave advice about healthy lifestyle choices

for singers and heralded breathing naturally, which she called diaphragmatic or abdominal

breathing. These terms are still echoed today whenever a choral conductor or vocal instructor

begs a student to “breathe from your diaphragm.” Marchesi preferred to teach beginning

students using "vocalises" rather than solfeggio. Vocalises are similar exercises to the vocal

training exercises developed out of solfeggio (Vaccai, 1975), but they are sung on a neutral

vowel instead of a combination of consonants and vowels in a solfeggio syllable. Vocalises are

similar to etudes for piano. They can be simply used for practice, or they can be more virtuosic in

scope and serve as performance pieces.

The next influential family of vocal teachers were the Lampertis. Francesco Lamperti

(1813-1892) and his son Giovanni Battista Lamperti (1839-1910) both wrote important treatises

on singing, and their students went on to be some of the greatest singers of the century. The last

great teacher considered to be in the bel canto tradition is Lilli Lehmann (1848-1929). Although,

not discussed further in this paper, she is an interesting example of the 20th-century teachers

trying to amalgamate current voice science with the sensations felt while singing. In her 1902

book How to Sing, (revised in 1914) she outlined the sensations and sympathetic vibrations she

felt while singing to help students become in touch with their bodies. She furthered this idea by

asking her students to draw how they think their bodies worked (a technique later used by

Barbara Conable in Body Mapping). Although much of the information in her book could be

described as pseudoscientific, she opened the door for more discussion of the intersection of

artistry and science in singing.

In the 20th century, a new field often described as "Somatics" began to emerge. Somatics

explores how the body is designed to move and promotes awareness and efficiency of daily


sentence break?


“…the bel canto tradition…”


Uhhhhh…..solfeggio is a system of sightreading as much as it is a tool for vocal development (or perhaps more?) Vocalises are actually quite different. Maybe say “Vocalises are similar to the vocal training exercises developed out of solfeggio”


“and”


activities. These methods are not strictly for singing. People utilize them for public speaking,

playing instruments and even basic tasks. One of the most widely known of these techniques is

the "Alexander Technique," developed in the 1930s by F.M. Alexander (1869-1955). His method

was originally designed for actors and public speakers (because he was a Shakespearean actor

himself). His technique has been adapted for a variety of consumers such as (but, not limited to)

athletes, musicians and singers. Certification in the Alexander Technique is now a common

qualification listed on a voice teacher’s resume.

A similar method, called the "Feldenkrais Method" was developed by Moshé Feldenkrais

(1949). Later Barbara and William Conable developed Body Mapping as an offshoot of the

Alexander Technique and founded their school Andover Educators in 1998 to disseminate this

method. Body Mapping puts an emphasis on teaching anatomy and physiology in order to create

a mental map (Body Map) of how the body works most efficiently. The idea is that if you

understand how your body is designed, movement is freed.

Also emphasizing the importance of anatomical study, Jo Estill (1921-2010) developed

her own technique called the "Estill Voice Model" in 1998. This technique emphasizes the study

of anatomy on a smaller level (primarily at the level of the vocal folds). Estill Voice Model is

primarily based on research that she conducted herself and makes use of directives to trigger the

physiological responses desired at the vocal fold level.

A contemporary of Jo Estill, rivaling her in public acclaim and furthering the field of

voice science, is Richard Miller (1926-2009). His research in the fields of voice science and

historical pedagogy aimed to unite the Historic Italian School and the research of his day.


Should I explain Somatics more Dr. MK?


Put “body mapping” and “Feldenkrais” and “Alexander technique” in italics – the same way you do with Estill Voice Technique, below


Should I explain Somatics more Dr. MK?


The final pedagogue discussed in this paper is a student of Richard Miller, Kenneth

Bozeman (currently active). Bozeman is one of the up-and-coming master teachers of our age.

His two books Practical Vocal Acoustics 2013 and Kinesthetic Voice Pedagogy 2017 make voice

science accessible to the typical voice teacher. They provide practical applications of the

physical principals involved in singing and demystify many of the questions about the singing

voice. Bozeman’s work is heavily influenced by Miller but extends that work into the 21st

century. Both Miller and Bozeman have written about the links between current and bel canto

pedagogies.

BEL CANTOBel canto, Italian for “beautiful singing,” has been used to mean a variety of things over

the years. For example, it has been used to describe florid singing (fioritura) found in Handelian

operas. The entirety of the Historic Italian School of singing could be described as bel canto

teaching. The term is commonly associated with the operas of Bellini, Donizetti and Rossini. Bel

canto could also be used to describe a singing technique (or more accurately, a set of techniques)

codified in the 19th century. Many teachers today who claim to teach using the "bel canto

method” use the term synonymously with “good” singing, or “classical training.” Others take

the term to mean that their teaching comes from a lineage such as from the Lamperti or Marchesi

line. George Bernard Shaw (1960) describes this phenomenon bitingly by claiming, “Every

private teacher with whom I am or have ever been acquainted, has rediscovered Porpora’s

method [Porpora was a famous Italian voice teacher], and can explain it at considerable length,

teaches exclusively on it, and is the only person in the world who can do so, all other being

notorious quacks and voice destroyers.” (p. 99)


“(or more accurately, a set of techniques)”


Divide this sentence in two – it reads awkwardly.


I don’t have the dates for Bozeman


The definition of bel canto “technique” is similarly wrapped in mystery. The history of

the use of the term therefore warrants some explanation:

Terms like ‘bel canto’ and ‘belcantismo’ were unknown in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. They spread, in Italy and abroad, between 1820 and 1830, precisely at a time when bel canto opera was on the wane, giving way to other operatic trends and other styles more directly bound up with dramatic expression and at variance with the ancient concept of singing understood as beauty of sound and technical mastery. The term bel canto was thus used in a polemical and nostalgic sense. (Celletti, 1991, p. 13)

The label bel canto was essentially used retroactively to describe a bygone era of vocalism. The

music of Verdi and Wagner, who led opera in new directions in the second half of the 19th

century, demanded a heavier, more powerful singing style than that of their predecessors.

Although Donizetti overlapped Verdi, bel canto ideals of singing were being tossed to the

wayside. Orchestras were louder and larger and demands on singers varied. Furthermore, the end

goal of singing in the operas of Wagner and Verdi was not to sound beautiful and showcase the

technical pyrotechnicsof which the singer was capable; they aimed instead to embody the

emotion and the character being represented.

The actor-singer thus arose as the natural successor to the opera diva. Dramatic

expression was no longer for the prima donna to decide, but rather the composer, librettist, and

conductor held all creative power. An example of this is the practice of "insertion arias," entire

arias which in earlier years of opera the soprano could add or substitute at her discretion. These

insertion arias epitomize the control of the singer over the performance, and indicate that

beautiful, flashy singing was revered over dramatic intent. Although some singers were known to

choose arias of an appropriate style, perhaps even with words that may make sense for the plot,

most simply chose arias that suited their voices and could showcase their abilities. In the later

Romantic Era, the Wagnerian soprano could not change a single note, never mind add an entire


I would put this before you explain how Verdi/Wagner-era changed it. Explain


italics


dramatic expression?


to


Add Verdi quote here


spelling? Should it be Verdian? I’ve never seen this term used….unlike Wagnerian


“larger, and the demands…”


italics


Either put a comma after “Essentially,” or phrase as “The label bel canto was essentially…”


aria. The shift can also be seen in the names of the operatic eras; bel canto is translated as

beautiful singing while verismo translates as realism (or truth). Although beautiful singing is

expected in verismo opera, the goal is for the singing to serve the overarching drama. The art

work is more important than individual beauty. Similarly, although revealing truth and reality is

integral to bel canto, ultimately it is about beautiful singing.

As tastes in singing changed, the importance of preserving the “old ways” of teaching

increased. In the 19th and 20th centuries the once-oral tradition of passing down singing technique

began to be recorded. Methodologies, solfeggios and manifestos on the “maxims” of singing

began to pour onto shelves. Composers and famous singers began to record themselves for

posterity. At this point, the aforementioned invention of the laryngoscope was also creating

ripples in the field of vocal pedagogy. Although many scientists had observed the larynx after a

person was deceased, the invention allowed Garcia II to observe the vocal folds in action. More

importantly, his observations were directly applied to singing, rather than to the typical action of

normal speech or necessary functions such as the movement of the larynx for coughing, clearing

the throat or swallowing.

Emphasizing voice science and studio applications of laryngoscopy met mixed reviews.

This divided opinions on pedagogy and continues to divide teachers to this day. Garcia II and his

followers developed an approach to singing based on his findings on the mechanisms of the

larynx. However, his contemporary pedagogues (such as G.B. Lamperti) put little emphasis on

anatomical studies and included nothing on vocal anatomy in their writings. Pedagogues who

chose to include anatomical information often took excerpts (sometimes stolen) from other


sounds strange, re-word:. “…put very little emphasis on anatomical studies, and included nothing on vocal anatomy in their writings.”


this should be your opening sentence in this paragraph!


“…deceased, the new invention allowed Garcia to observe…”


comma


comma


people’s writings. The Art of Singing (1884) used an extract from Louis Manl's Hygiene de la

voix (1879). Lamperti does the same thing in Technics of Bel Canto (1905).

Some believe that Garcia II used his invention to justify and enhance bel canto pedagogy.

Others, such as the performer, teacher, and author Lucie Manén (1900-1991) believed that

Garcia II’s teaching destroyed the art of bel canto. Garcia I published a set of 340 vocal exercises

to train singers in the bel canto method. Garcia II changed the order of how vocal training was

approached and emphasized various aspects of singing.

[T]hinking that he knew better, he deliberately altered the Bel Canto teaching of his father, ‘in order that instruction can be sustained by physiology and directed [on the basis of the vocal-cord theory] more clearly and completely’. ...But by making his alterations, Garcia jun. had mutilated the traditional Bel Canto method of teaching singing for which the pupils of the Ecole Garcia had become famous. He had placed the basic exercises for the ‘start of sound’ – the preparation for the principal Bel Canto exercises –not at the beginning, as Busti and Nava had done, but only as a later exercise.” (Manén, 1987, p. 8)

Manén further complained that the emphasis on the glottal attack (coup de glotte, the onset of the

voice) also detracted from the teaching of how to use different shading and coloring of the voice.

Singers taught by Garcia had amazing control over dynamics and the range of their voices, but

according to Manén (1987) this was at the cost of artistic control.

“After the flowering of the classical Italian art of singing, the last century saw it decline as a result of the erroneous teaching of Manuel Garcia jun. By using the vocal-cord mechanism, a singer could vary the music composed for him in respect to range and volume; but he was no longer taught to employ any of the timbres of Bel Canto” (p. 23)

Manén (and others) presented the issue as being a fight between a scientific approach to singing

and an artistic, and more ancient, way of teaching. Other figures in vocal pedagogy would later

argue that voice science enhances and explains the old ways of teaching rather than replaces and

deconstructs it.


“possibly” or “…, according to Manen, at the cost…”


I think it makes more sense to use past tense


Currently, these sentences are redundant and can be cleaned up: “Some believe that Garcia II used his invention to justify and enhance bel canto pedagogy. Others, such as the performer, teacher, and author Lucie Manen (1900-1991) believed that Garcia II’s teaching destroyed the art of bel canto.”


same


Should “The Art of Singing” be in quotes? Is it an article title? If a book title, put in italics like you do with Hygiene de la voix.


New sentence. “Occasionally, they used excerpts from other people’s writing, but never their own original findings.”


The main tenets of bel canto teaching that will be discussed in this section are:

1) Breathing Management/Appoggio 2) Vocal Onset/Coup de glotte 3) Resonance/Chiaroscuro 4) Theories of registration5) Posture

These aspects of singing are talked about and debated by instructors to this day. The following

discussion will survey various bel canto instructors and how each dealt with the aforementioned

five topics.

Breath Management/AppoggioBreath management4 is the most basic element of voice teaching. Without breath there is

no sound; without breath there is no life. There are as many theories about breath management as

there are voice teachers. Composers and singing instructors began writing about breath as early

as the late 1500s, but it was in the bel canto era that these theories became more fleshed out or

'codified'. However, some main schools of thought on breath management appeared in bel canto

teaching and still effect present day theories. The phrase Chi sa ben respirare e sillibare saprà

ben cantare (he who knows how to breathe knows how to sing well) has been used to describe

the philosophy of many teachers in the Historic Italian School since the 18th century (the phrase

is often attributed to Gasparo Pacchierotti). Breathing was essential to the bel canto technique

because it was tied to all parts of vocalizing. Appoggio is a term that comes from the Italian word

appoggiare which means ‘to lean’. It refers to the way the muscles of respiration move

antagonistically, but bel canto teachers also used appoggio to describe the way the breath seemed

to lean on the vocal folds and how it resonated in the vocal tract. In that way breath management

and resonance cannot truly be separated in bel canto tradition.

4 Synonymous with the terms “breath control” or “support”.


Reconsider order


sectionse


paragraph break


Fransceco Lamperti (1884) first described in the 19th century the idea of lotta vocale, which

would later become the basis for appoggio:

To sustain a given note the air should be expelled slowly; to attain this end, the respiratory [inspiratory] muscles, by continuing their action, strive to retain their air in the lungs, and oppose their action to that of the expiratory muscles, which is called the lotte vocale, or vocal struggle. On the retention of this equilibrium depends the just emission of the voice, and by means of it alone can true expression be given to the sound produced. (p. 33)

Later Francesco Lamperti’s son Giovanni Battista Lamperti would more fully flesh out appoggio:

The act of tone-production is in “contrary motion” to that of the breath-taking; the pull of the diaphragm goes parallel with the inspiration, whereas the push of the abdominal muscles is felt to oppose it…The breath pressure increases regularly as the pitch in the tone rises. With insufficient pressure, the tone lacks steadiness (appoggio; that is, the steady air-pressure on the vocal cords during tone production. (G.B. Lamperti, 2009, pg. 9)

The Lampertis thought excessive descriptions of anatomy were unhelpful so they instead used

metaphors to describe breath management to their students. G.B. Lamperti (2009) described

expiration as spinning the tone (which aligns with other bel canto teachings):

The Italian expression filar il tuono, “to spin out the tone,: mostly aptly characterizes the required mode of expiration, which must process as naturally and unconstrainedly as the preceding inspiration. As long as it causes the pupil to feel any exertion, he has not acquired the right method. (p. 9)

F. Lamperti (1884) also described the sensation of breath support as a “column of air” (p.13)

while his son G.B. Lamperti described proper exhalation as, “When one sings well, one has the

sensation of drinking” (W.E. Brown, 1957, p.129). All three of these metaphors are still used in

voice studios today.

Teachers such as G.B. Lampeti and Garcia II strongly advocated for practicing breathing

in isolation from singing while others objected that breathing should always be put into context.


Exercises usually consisted of prolonging the exhalation, practicing breathing silently with an

open glottis, and occasionally pausing between inhalation and exhalation. However, breathing

without resonation results in silence. The breath must be used to close the vocal folds and initiate

sound. Far more of bel canto literature is devoted to (and debates descriptions of) the glottal

onset.

Onset/Coup de glotteThe coup de glotte (glottal attack) has been the topic of controversy since its inception.

Part of the debate is not about the theory itself, but rather the title. A glottal ‘attack’ implies

something rough, forceful, militant and unhealthy. The term is now used to describe a harsh or

forced onset of the voice where the vocal folds5 close, air builds up beneath the folds (subglottal

pressure) and there is a burst or “pop” when the vocal folds open. This forceful onset was likely

not what Garcia II intended to convey with his term coup de glotte, rather he was likely

describing what we may term a “balanced” or “coordinated” onset. He was likely trying to

describe a full sounding, clean beginning to vocalization (because the vocal folds are fully

closed) rather than an open, breathier sound.

The daughter of Mathilde Marchesi, Blanche Marchesi described this misconception,

saying, “They could not distinguish between the hitting and closing of the glottis, and at once

decided to condemn every method that allowed singers to make their vocal cords meet when

emitting sounds” (B. Marchesi, 1932, p. 91-92). This was in direct response to attacks on her

mother and other Garcian teachers by Henry Holbrook Curtis (1909) who claimed, “The shock,

or coup de glotte, is death to the voice; it is born of ignorance, and to teach or allow its

continuance is a crime. We have no words strong enough to condemn it” (p. 159). Such violent

5 Note: the terms vocal folds and vocal cords are used synonymously, vocal folds supplanted the term cords because it is more anatomically correct. In most historical texts the term vocal cords was still in style.


Found in Stark 18


present tense?


actions of the glottis may not have been intended by Garcia, but using the word coup (translated

as stroke, or blow) does not conjure up gentle implications.

Garcia (1847) first describes coup de glotte in his Traité (Part One):

After you are thus prepared and when the lungs are full of air, without stiffening either the phonator [revised in 1872 to throat] or any part of the body, but calmly and easily attack the tones very distinctly with a light stroke of the glottis on a very clear [a] vowel. -It is necessary to prepare the stroke of the glottis by closing it, which stops and momentarily accumulates some air in the passage; then, much as a rupture operates as a means of relaxation, one opens it with an incisive and vigorous stroke, similar to the action of the lips in pronouncing the consonant [p]. (p. 25)

The terms “calmly,” “easily,” and “light” certainly suggest that Garcia did not want his theory to

be construed as tension-filled. Garcia (1847) further clarifies that “One must guard against

confusing the stroke of the glottis with a stroke of the chest [coup de la poitrine], which

resembles a cough, or the effort of expelling something which is obstructing the throat.” (p. 42).

Mathilde Marchesi (a student of Garcia II) stated that the coup de glotte mandates, “a

sudden and energetic approximation of the lips of the glottis, an instant before Expiration

commences” (Marchesi nd., p. 4). She also called the closing of the glottis “a natural and

spontaneous organic action” (p. 4) that begins at birth’s first cry. Before, Garcian theories of

onsets had been described more in terms of sound quality than vocal fold action. Elaboration and

calibration of Garcia’s theories continue to the present day.

It is also important to note that bel canto teachers acknowledged information from

acoustical physics as well. In the Marchesi’s preface to her Vocal Method she described

appoggio in terms of physical acoustics. She wrote:

Three things are needed for the production of a sound; namely, a Motor, which acts either by sending a column of air against a vibrating body, or by immediate friction with this body; a Vibrator, which executes a certain number of regular (isochronous) or irregular


Find date


Add correct accents


vibrations in a given time when set in motion by the Motor; and, finally, a Resonator (because of its function, it would be more correct to call it the cooperating element), which receives the sounding column of air that escaped from the vibrating body to imbue it with the character of its own sound by reverberation. These three elements, indispensable for the production of sound, are found in all wind, stringed, or percussion instruments. It is, therefore, only logical to admit that they should also exist in the vocal organs.” (Marchesi, nd., p. 5)

The “Motor” is the Breath Management part of appoggio, the “Vibrator” is the vocal folds

(where the onset occurs) and finally the “Resonator” is the vocal tract that resonates the sound.

Resonance/Chiaroscuro

The way the vocal tract is oriented changes the sound that is made. Every vowel and

consonant sound made in English happens in the mouth (with the exception of [h] which is a

glottal sound). Without the pharynx, velum, hard palate, soft palate, tongue, teeth and lips to

shape the sound all we would hear is a buzzing at the vocal folds. Humans shape their vocal tract

to create sounds for communication, the bel canto teachers wanted to use that ability to make

sounds to sing over orchestras and create sounds and shades that could move hearts.

Chiaroscuro is a concept commonly associated with paintings of the Italian Renaissance. The

first half of the word (chiaro) comes from the Italian word for bright while the second half

oscuro comes from the Italian word for dark. This contrast of bright and dark in one tone was the

ideal for bel canto singing. The Italians use this term for both visual and auditory arts because

they saw the connection between resonation of sound and reflection of light:

“Sound is a property of air, as color is of light, for there can be no sound without air, any more than there can be color without light… The special organization, interior and exterior, of the body, which by its oscillations sets the air vibrating, or by its surface reflects light in a particular manner, decides the nature of the sound or the shade of the color.” (Marchesi, n.d., p. iii)


Find date for this book


Being able to control dynamics and the timbres (colors/qualities/sounds) of the voice was part of

what made bel canto so beautiful. Teachers had different terms to try to describe what they were

hearing (and because many of these teachers were from different countries their terminology

overlapped, but their nuances may have been lost in translation). Terms like “dull” and “bright”

tones were used. “Bright” and “dark” “white” where also common terms used to describe (note

the connection to colors associated with sounds was in French and Italian). Aperto (open) and

chiuso (closed) were also common descriptors of voice qualities.

To create the ideal conditions for singing with chiaroscuro most bel canto pedagogues

recommended singing with a gola aperta (an open throat, open here refers to the pharynx, not to

the sound) which required a low laryngeal position. It also required aggiustamento (vowel

modification depending on the frequency of the note being sung). Imagery of placing the sound

“into the mask” was often used to help assist with manipulating resonances (which is particularly

difficult because most of the moveable parts are unseen by the singer). Another way to effect the

colors of the voice was to unite and train the vocal registers.

Vocal Registers There were several variations on theories of registration in the 19th century. Earlier

pedagogues concentrated solely on the male voice (typically only the castrato voice) and said

there were two registers voce di petto (chest voice) and voce di testa (head voice). The

differences and uses of head and chest voice are described as early as 1592 by Lodovico Zacconi

in his treatise Prattica di musica. Giulio Caccini used a similar two-register theory but drew the

line between “natural voice” (voce piena e natural) and falsetto/feigned voice (voce finta) in Le

nuove musiche (1602). Thinking on registration continued into the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries.

Many of the 17th century writers suggested avoiding the head voice altogether, while teachers


such as Tosi and Mancini advocated for training and uniting the two registers. In the 18th-

century, translations of these Italian texts into German and English created a new theory:

translators interpreted falsetto and head voice as two distinct registers, and the two-register

theory was thus muddled into three.

Definitions of register varied, but a concise and widespread definition of the term was

given by Manuel Garcia II (1847):

By the word register we mean a series of consecutive and homogenous tones going from low to high, produced by the development of the same mechanical principle, and whose nature differs essentially from another series of tones equally consecutive and homogenous produced by another mechanical principle. All the tones belonging to the same register are consequently of the same nature, whatever may be the modifications of timbre or of force to which one subjects them. (p.6)

Garcia II’s views on registration evolved throughout the years (understandable, since he lived to

be over 100 years old). Early in his career he adopted the two-register theory of his predecessors.

He described the head voice as being an offshoot of the falsetto voice (thus posing questions and

confusion when it comes to the female voice). Later in his final work Hints on Singing Garcia II

stopped using the term falsetto synonymously with the middle voice. He also adopted a three-

register theory, “Every voice is formed of three distinct portions, or registers, namely, chest,

medium, and head. The chest holds the lowest place, the medium the middle, the head the

highest. These names are incorrect, but accepted” (Garcia 1894, 7). Garcia’s views were echoed

by his successors Marchesi and Stockhausen. G.B. Lamperti, another authority of bel canto said

that females have three registers, but males have four. The fourth he called voix mixte (mixed

voice), a term he preferred over falsetto.


Posture Remarks on posture and its effect on singing and performance appear in almost every treatise on

singing. G.B. Lamperti (1905) wrote:

The position of the body must be easy and natural. Throwing the weight on the right foot, which should be slightly advanced, let the pupil look straight ahead, much as if gazing on a picture, and in a wholly unconstrained posture; the expression of the face composed and pleasant, and the head erect, inclining neither forward nor backward. Take care, above all, that the muscles of neck and throat are not unnecessarily tense; the entire attitude must be easy and unconstrained. Hold the shoulder-joints free and loose, with the shoulders slightly thrown back to allow the chest due freedom in front, without raising it. For the present, the arms may hang loosely. (p. 7)

Marchesi held similar thoughts on posture:

“The attitude of the pupil, in singing, should be as natural and easy as possible. The body should be kept upright, the head erect, the shoulders thrown back, without effort, and the chest free. In order to give perfect freedom to the vocal organs while singing, all the muscles surrounding those parts should be completely relaxed.” (Marchesi, nd., p. 3)

Although there were slight variations on “correct” posture, most pedagogues agreed it

needed to look natural, and exclude any kind of tension. However, a precise method of reducing

tension was never described in bel canto pedagogies, and little space was devoted to discussing

posture. This gap would be filled in by the pedagogies and methods surrounding Somatics.

Methods such as Alexander Technique and Body Mapping focus far more on postural awareness

(though they often prefer words such as “balance” or “buoyancy” rather than “posture”)].

JO ESTILL (1921-2010)Josephine (Jo) Estill was certainly not the first voice teacher to voyage into the field of

voice science. Manuel Garcia II had begun that trend in 1855, over a century before Estill’s

research began in1972. Voice teachers such as William Shakespeare6 wrote about the importance

of understanding the anatomy and physiology of singing in his 1921 treatise The Art of Singing.

6 William Shakespeare (1849-1931), vocal pedagogue and English tenor, not the English playwright of the same name.


Would it be worth clarifying that this is NOT the William Shakespeare? Maybe in a footnote or just parenthetical…


missing the word “in”


Colloquialism. A more formal way of making the same point would be to say something like, “Jo Estill was not the first voice teacher to dive into vocal science research.”


Find date of book


William Vennard also used the science of his time to justify his teaching methods in Singing;

The Mechanism and the Technic (1967). Estill (2017) was also acutely aware of the role of voice

science in voice lessons:

Singing is a mystery. It has been that way for centuries, because the voice was inside and not visible. No one could see it. It has only been since 1855, when Garcia invented a mirror to look down at the voice from the back of the mouth, that the voice became visible. Today, with more sophisticated instruments, every throat doctor can look at your voice. Even with these modern instruments, voice teaching still relies on imagery from hundreds of years ago… There is very little agreement across their favorite ‘methods’ of singing - and very little of what they say is related to the real physiology of singing. (p. 3)

What set Jo Estill apart was her desire for vocal pedagogy to be for all people, not just

elite classical singers. Her research focused on how any person could create any kind of sound

(whether for public speaking, pop singing, classical singing, musical theatre - or even country

singing). Estill believed that if she could understand how a beautiful sound was produced, then

she could teach anyone to produce it. To accomplish this goal, she developed thirteen

compulsory "figures" to explain and train different aspects of the voice. Estill called them

"figures" to draw a connection between the actions that singers must execute on command if they

have mastered them and the maneuvers an ice skater performs to show off technical facility. The

current master teachers of the Estill Model define compulsory figures as, “physical exercises that

explore the range of movement for each anatomical structure.” (Steinhauer & McDonald-Klimek

& Estill, 2017, p. 29). Learning these figures requires careful, intentional practice, and awareness

of small movements (akin to the inclusive awareness principles in Body Mapping, discussed

below).

To avoid her approach's seeming cold and scientific, Jo Estill emphasized that technique

and the physiological side of singing was only 1/3 of the "singing formula" (Estill, 2017, p. 27).


Check citation


Are these her words? If so, maybe you could use a colon before the quote to make it clear that you are elaborating on your explanation.


I know this is debatable but I think it looks more professional to spell out numbers below 20


was – use a consistent tense


she?


“focused on”


Use the word “also” – if you want to say “too” you need commas before and after


Estill asserted that the study of voice was really the study of Craft (physiology), Artistry

(aesthetics), and Performance Magic (metaphysics).

Estill on Breath Management Jo Estill subscribed to the Source-Filter theory of sound production that was popular

during the years of her research. Source-Filter theory describes how the sounds we hear are

shaped by the source (the vocal folds and their movement) as well as how the filter is oriented

(the vocal tract). She added the component Power to this theory to emphasize the necessity for

breath flow to create singing. This is where Estill’s research began to delve into the field of

acoustical physics. She referred to the model as Power-Source-Filter (PSF) and it is the

framework for the rest of her method. Power refers to the respiratory system (or the air that is

creating the motion of the vocal folds). The Source is the true vocal folds closing into the breath

stream to produce a ‘buzz.’ The Filter is the resonance of the space in the vocal tract that

processes the ‘buzz’ into vowels and voice quality” (Estill et al., 2017, p. 15). This explanation

mirrors Marchesi's explanation of how resonation works (she simply used the terms motor,

vibrator, and resonator).

Estill does not dedicate much of her writing to breath management because it is

dependent on style and phrasing. Another consideration is that the focus of the Estill method was

not on breathing mechanics (to which much study had already been devoted) but rather on how

the breath interacts with the vocal folds and is then filtered by the vocal tract. She assumed that

good breathing is a pre-requisite for any of the functions of the compulsory figures.

One interesting take on breathing philosophies is that “The Estill Voice Model addresses

breath and support as separate and variable skills because of the complex and dynamic nature of

breathing for high-level performance. One of the operating principles of Estill Voice Training is


Check citation


You’re alternating between past tense and present tense. Pick one.


Put in quotations? Or maybe italics? The random capitalization seems strange. I think italics for Source-Filter and Power and even earlier for Figures would be good.


Have you defined this earlier? If not, say a few words about what it is.


This is written in a distinct style – “the singing formula” and the unconventional capitalization…I am guessing this is how she wrote it. You should include the citation OR put it into your own words/style, since you are clearly giving credit to her for the ideas. I actually prefer the latter.


to allow the breath to free vary.” (Estill et al., p. 203) This free variance takes into consideration

that speech requires different breaths and different pitch levels require different breaths. In

addition she knew that the volume or length of phrases changes breath needs as well. Estill

emphasized the fact that the motion of the diaphragm on exhale is a release (the elastic recoil

described in Body Mapping) which is not of our own volition, “Many speakers and singers

devote daily practice to diaphragmatic movement; however, research has shown that while we

can voluntarily inhale, we cannot voluntarily contract the diaphragm.” (p. 204). Estill also

despised the misconception that “low breathing” should expand our bellies (a remnant of the

German school of Stauprinzip).

Estill on OnsetOnset of the voice is described in the compulsory figure for the true vocal folds (TVFs).

For Jo Estill, training the TVFs involved the onset (the start of a note/phonation) and the offset

(termination of phonation). While earlier pedagogues concentrated on the coup de glotte’s start

of sound, Estill recognized the similar motions of the start and end of sounds. The three

descriptions of onset/offset in the Estill Model are: Glottal, Aspirate, and Smooth. Glottal

on/offsets are described as hard, heavy, chopped, clipped, an attack, or sharp. A glottal stop is

the sound at the beginning of “uh oh” or the glottal stop found in German words like

"und" or cockney accents, such as the popping sound when someone sings “Wouldn’t it be

Loverly” from My Fair Lady. This happens when “TVF closure precedes and stops phonation”

(Estill et al., 2017, p. ) Some interpreted the coup de la glotte as being synonymous with this

kind of glottal onset.

Another type of onset/offset described by Estill is the aspirate onset/offset, which can be

either abrupt or gradual. The abrupt onset can still produce a crisp and clear tone, but sounds as if


“Estill’s system” or “Estill method” sounds better than “the Estill”


Comma after


Have you defined this earlier? And this should be in italics for sure – you do that at the bottom of the page!


Will discuss on 3/20


Should figure be in italics? Capitalized? Most people would call them exercises…


Add in German name


Add title


spelling


someone started the note with an /h/ sound. The gradual-aspirate onset sounds breathy, weak and

more like a sigh. Both aspirate offsets come across as a sigh or breathy. An aspirate onset is

produced when, “breath flows before and after phonation. TVF movement begins/ends tone

abruptly or gradually” (p.46). The last onset/offset is Smooth, which could be described as

balanced, clean, focused, or coordinated. The figure describes this onset/offset as being when,

“breath flow and TVF movement coordinate simultaneously to start/end the tone.” (p. 46) After

creating an onset that is both healthy and stylistic an Estill student is taught to manipulate their

vocal tract depending on the quality of sound they are looking for.

Estill on ResonanceEstill categorized four (later six) vocal qualities: Speech Quality, Twang Quality, Sob

Quality, Opera Quality (and later Falsetto Quality and Belt Quality). She taught that the mixture

of these different qualities allows singers to sing in any style they want while still producing a

healthy, beautiful and sustainable tone. These different qualities of voice are related to both

issues of resonance and of vocal register. The compulsory figures were originally labelled as

“Power” “Source” or “Filter” cards. Any of the “filter” cards related to resonance. Resonance in

singing is essentially how a sound is filtered through the vocal tract.

Every time a space changes shape, the frequency center of its resonator changes, too. As the source sound passes through the vocal tract, all of these resonances, or formants, filter out the frequencies making the buzz to reveal the voice. This filtering process produces your unique voice quality as well as the vowels and consonants you use to communicate. (Estill et al., 2017, p. 35)

Estill chose to describe resonance in technical, anatomical and acoustical terminology instead of

in the descriptive language that was more common for her time.

The 13 anatomical structures that Estill chose to focus on were Head and Neck, Velum

(soft palate), Lips, Tongue, Jaw, Larynx, Aryepiglottic Sphincter, False Vocal Folds (FVFs),


“anatomical structures”


fix


Long quote. Should be separated from the paragraph and single-spaced.


True Vocal Folds (TVFs), Thyroid Cartilage, Cricoid Cartilage, and Torso. Whereas the

Historic Italian School combined breath support and aspects of resonance as appoggio, Estill

defined all kinds of resonance by the specific body part and movement required to produce it.

The main factors in resonance are the anatomical filters, which Estill said were Lips, Tongue,

Jaw, Larynx, and Aryepiglottic Sphincter. However, she pointed out that changes in posture

(Head and Neck, Jaw, and Torso) have huge impacts on resonance in addition to the movements

of the cartilages of the larynx (Thyroid Cartilage and Cricoid Cartilage) and the true and false

folds themselves (TVFs and FVFs). Estill felt that any change in these anatomical structures

affected resonance and therefore should be trained for singing.

Estill created different “recipes” for creating different sounds, based on changing the

levels of individual compulsory figures to create one of the six voice qualities (or a hybrid of

them). For example, if one desired a Country Western Style which gives a twangy quality to the

voice, the recipe was:

1) Smooth onset of the TVFs 2) Retracted FVFs 3) Thin TVT Body Cover 4) A titled Thyroid Cartilage 5) Vertical Cricoid Cartilage6) Narrow Aryepiglottic Sphincter 7) High Larynx8) High Tongue9) Mid to High Velum10) Mid Jaw11) Mid Lips12) Relaxed Head and Neck13) Relaxed Torso

Estill on Vocal RegistersJo Estill found accepted terminology about registers to be subjective, confusing and

inconsistent. To combat that confusion, she talked instead about options of movement for the


affected


Comma after


maybe use italics if you’re going to capitalize each item?


true vocal folds. Terms she associated with thick phonation are, “Authentic, Chest voice, Earthy,

Full voice, Heavy, Modal speech, Parlando, Rich, Speech quality, Strong, TA [Thyroid

Arytenoid], dominant, Textured, Thick” (p. 73). She said the vocal fold body is thick when the

“Cover is pliant and flexible producing a relatively long closed phase” (p.73). This is in direct

contrast to the thin option, when “the Cover is less flexible, and closed phase long enough to

produce a clear, soft tone” (p. 73). The thin option is associated more with a head voice, CT

(Cricothyroid dominant voice), and can also be described as a “mixed” voice in belting. The stiff

form of phonation describes the highest notes of the female head voice, and the falsetto singing

of male voices. Slack phonation describes the pulse/fry/creaky register of the voice, which pop

singers use for effect but is never acceptable in classical singing. As with all of the compulsory

figures, a solid understanding of the anatomy and physiology involved is needed, and to have

mastered the figure the singer must be able to execute every option on command.

Estill on Posture Jo Estill's research assured her that good posture is a known prerequisite for good

singing, and therefore her method does not focus on posture, but rather on laryngeal functioning.

Only her last two compulsory figures refer to posture, Head and Neck and Torso. The two

postural positions Estill described are "relaxed" and "anchored." This terminology appears

directly to oppose the approach to posture in Somatic methods such as Body Mapping. In Estill's

figures "relaxed" is considered an undesirable state, while "anchored" (a term that implies being

held or firm) is the aim. In Body Mapping Barbara Conable advocates that relaxed singing is a

state of buoyancy, springiness and release, while anchoring is a state of bearing down or placing

oneself (neither of which she thinks are good ideas). Some of this apparent disagreement may be

a difference in philosophy, but, in my opinion, it is an issue of semantics, and both pedagogies

are looking for the same result. By "relaxed," Estill is implying an "unready" state, rather than a



I have some questions about this we will talk on 3/20


The mix of capitalized names of things versus non-capitalized looks sloppy. I’d take those that are names she has assigned and put them in italics to clean it up/clarify.


"released" state. When describing anchoring, Estill uses terms such as, "poised," "strong" and

"supported."

Estill also described a singer's poise as "noble" and "appoggiare7" which makes one

question whether Estill was trying to advocate for the poses recommended by teachers of the

Historic Italian School. The noble position was advocated by late 18th-century and early 19-

century treatises on singing. Richard Miller in Solutions for Singers also referred to the noble

position as the "Garcia position" because it is what Garcia taught. Miller (2004) wrote: “Breath is

renewed while postural elegance is retained. The position ensures that the sternum is relatively

elevated, the shoulders are comfortably back and down, while an exaggerated military stance is

avoided.” (p. 39) Garcia II was credited for originating the position, but his father Garcia I

advocated for it long before Garcia II. The Lamperti School and Marchesi school also adopted

this stance.

Estill on Technology and Acoustical PhysicsEstill was among the first to commercially distribute technological tools for voice

teachers. She developed software that teachers can use in their private studios. The software is

called Estill Voiceprint Plus™, which uses a microphone to create various “blueprints” of the

voice. Estill Voiceprint Plus™ makes use of spectrogram technology and can help students and

teachers visually see voice differences and voice problems. It can display pitch (frequency) as

well as harmonics and formants in understandable displays. It’s also valuable in demonstrating

the difference between the six voice qualities (sob, twang, opera, belt, falsetto, and speech).

However, this technology is no replacement for a teacher’s eye and ear for good singing and

posture.

7 Appoggiare is an Italian term meaning support/lean; related to appoggio.


This last sentence should be the first in this paragraph!


define or delete Ella


I’d use past tense to discuss the Estill – more consistent with what you’ve done throughout most of the section


RICHARD MILLER (1926-2009)Richard Miller’s writings and masterclasses changed how voice was taught worldwide.

He was a pioneer of voice science in the vocal studio. Many say his emphasis on balancing

anatomy and artistry in his teaching “married” the two together. In the preface to The Structure

of Singing (1986), Richard Miller’s textbook used around the world, he says, “Artistry cannot be

realized without the technical means for its presentation. Systematic vocal technique and artistic

expression are inseparable; they comprise the structure of singing” (p. xvi). Miller wrote eight

books, published over 100 articles and traveled around the world giving masterclasses. He also

served as a professor at Oberlin Conservatory for over 40 years and worked as an adjunct

member of Cleveland Clinic's otolaryngology department. Much of his work is what led to Ken

Bozeman’s research. They both cited research done by Ingo Titze, an influential voice scientist

in the 1970s.

Miller also had an enormous impact on modern views of the history of vocal pedagogy.

His book English, French, German and Italian Techniques of Singing (1977) is indispensable for

understanding the history of various schools of singing over time. His chapter Historical

Overview of Vocal Pedagogy in Sataloff’s Vocal Health and Pedagogy also gives him authority

on this subject. Instead of discarding the past, Miller used tradition alongside the science of his

time to create the most effective teaching possible. He thought that someone can have beautiful

artistry, a keen ear and a great understanding of singing, but that without the aid of anatomical

information, correcting a student's problems becomes an inexact science.

Miller on Breath ManagementIn his books, Richard Miller described the science behind bel canto traditions. For

example, he took an entire chapter in The Structure of Singing (1986) to explain appoggio

(literally to support, or lean on) in physiological terms. To Miller, appoggio was not only breath


management, it also encompassed resonation in the voice. Miller defined which specific muscles

are used in inspiration and expiration, and even points out the differences between different

schools of thought on breathing. In his books he talks about the different metaphors used in the

voice studio (such as ‘drinking in the tone’, ‘spinning the tone’, ‘support being a column of air’

etc discussed in the bel canto section) and some of the problems with them.

There is a role for some imagery in the teaching of technique. Technical imagery, however, is mostly of value if it is associated with already established, repeatable functional freedom. After the singer had learned to coordinate breath management and proper laryngeal and resonatory responses, an image may be useful in unifying those functions. The superimposition of imagery on the student beforehand may bring more confusion than assistance” (1996, p. 3-4).

Images are helpful for solidifying technique once a student already knows how to produce it and

how it feels in the body. Miller also wants those images to be backed by a physiological

phenomenon. One image that he condemned for breathing was “yawn while you breathe in.”

Instead, he suggested, “smelling in the rose while inhaling.” Yawning adds unwanted tension and

darkening to the tone. On the other hand, “To breathe as though inhaling deeply the fragrance of

a rose is to accomplish the buccopharyngeal position of gola aperta [open throat], in direct

contrast to techniques of the open throat achieved through the yawn” (Miller, 1986, pg. 60). This

gola aperta was a teaching of bel canto that he regarded highly.

Miller on OnsetOnset was so vital to Miller that he placed his chapter on onset before his chapter on

breathing in The Structure of Singing. Similar to Estill he described both onsets and releases

[offsets]. He refers to the different onsets as: hard, soft and balanced/dynamic muscle

equilibrium. The hard attack Miller says is synonymous with the bel canto coup de glotte (which

is interesting, because he tends to agree with Garcia in most other aspects). The hard onset is

when the vocal folds are closed before air starts and therefore subglottal pressure builds up and


has to pop open the vocal folds. The soft onset is when air escapes through the vocal folds before

the glottis closes. Lastly (the most desirable of the three) the balanced onset is described as an

onset where the vocal tract is tuned and ready to sing before phonation occurs. Miller provides

ample amounts of exercises to practice all three kinds of onsets (similar to the vocalises and

solfeggios from older pedagogy books).

Miller on Resonance Throughout his lifetime Miller used cutting-edge voice science to explain how to improve

resonance and how to use the physical properties of phenomena such as formants in vowels and

the acoustic properties of timbre. Talking about resonance in terms of placement and physical

sensations is a popular method that does not come from the Historic Italian School. Many

teachers suggest using “forward placement” or singing “into the masque” or “behind the eyes.”

Disregarding the accuracy of these statements, the problem, according to Miller (1986), with

using these descriptions is,

“[T]here is always a peril that the student may not experience the sensation that the teacher’s terminology meant to elicit. A wise route, it might seem, would be to understand the acoustic principle of resonator coupling in singing, and to find some objective technical language to communicate this information.” (p.61)

This information about formants and resonator coupling in singing is relatively new, but those

principals have been used in singing for centuries. The Italian’s term translated “placement

sensations” was a combination of breath management and the way the vocal apparatus works

together to phonate.

Impostazione produces distinct and recognizable sensations of resonator coupling. Whereas pedagogies that strive for localized placement also localize sensation, in the historic Italian School resonator coupling permits sensation in all parts of the vocal tract. The resonator balance (placement) relies neither on the pharynx nor on the mouth as chief resonator, but on the combination of both. Sensation centers neither in the throat nor in


the face. Resonator coupling becomes resonance balancing without functional or acoustic violation of any single part of the vocal tract.” (p. 61)

Miller on Vocal Registers

Out of all the pedagogues discussed at length in this paper Miller has the most to say

about registration. He published individual books about each of the main voice types and

describes at length how differences in passagi8 (Italian for passageway), define a singer’s Fach9.

Miller uses much of the same terminology as past pedagogues (i.e. head, chest and middle

voice). He also talks about registers that were usually only described in the Historic Italian

School (i.e. voce mista, or voce finta). He also specified two registers unique to males (falsetto

and strohbass: the low gravely voice rarely used in singing), and one unique female register

(flageolet or whistle register which is the highest notes of a high soprano like those sung in the

Queen of the Night aria). Miller gives individual exercises for each vocal register and each voice

type to train the muscles in the larynx.

Miller on PostureOver his long career Miller made relatively few comments about “proper” posture. When

performing on the stage a singer is often not in the optimal position all the time, but rather needs

to move in a way that allows free singing. Free singing and being “relaxed” is often conflated

into one concept; Miller (1996) writes:

When singing, one should be in a state of "relaxation" roughly equivalent to that experienced b y a confident player on the tennis court, the skilled contestant at a swimming match, the Olympic figure skater, or the child about to take off on the hundred yard dash on the grammar school playground, waiting for the count of three. Ready for action, not "relaxed." (p. 254)

8 Like the modern idea of “break notes”. Passagio is a section of the voice that is transitioning into another register and is often less powerful or comfortable to a singer who has not properly blended their voice.9 The German system for determining voice types.


Miller on Technology and Acoustical Physics In his research on vocal pedagogy, Miller (1996) visited hundreds of vocal students and

sat in on thousands of lessons across America and the world. He found that “Comparative vocal

pedagogy reveals stratified systems of both fact and nonsense existing side by side” (p. 218). The

nonsense he described as “tricky teachers”, and “McPedagogies” which are categorized by ever

changing pedagogies, quick fixes, and constantly changing images that leave students confused

and with less knowledge about their body than when they began. In order to avoid

“McPedagogies” and “Tricky Teaching” Miller suggested some ways to integrate tradition and

voice science into the studio.

Instead of completely condemning the use of imagery in the voice studio, Miller (1996) is

primarily concerned about too much reliance on it. “To rely entirely on imagery is to be saddled

with a serious handicap in teaching healthy vocalism. The teacher and student may finally arrive

at what the teacher wants by hit and miss. Persons using divining rods have also been known to

locate groundwater.” (p. 219) Images are subjective and mean different things to different

people. Even if the minds of the teacher and student work very similarly it is impossible for two

people to always experience the same physical sensations and for the same images to always

work. Using images is always a hit-and-miss proposition and does not help students to know

what they need to do to create those sensations. Furthermore, sympathetic vibrations and

resonance change on every note and with every vowel. The number of images needed to account

for that movement isn’t practical.

He used spectral analysis to show vowel formants and talked about what modern

technology can and cannot do in the voice studio. Something that differentiated Miller from

Estill is that he published all his information for the public rather than developing a technique for


teachers to be trained in. His research was also almost solely for classical singing and did not go

into the depth that Estill did on different singing styles. When he was writing in 1996, he had

established one of the first vocal arts labs of its kind at Oberlin Conservatory where he taught.

Miller (1996) makes it clear that,

“First, it does not make the voice teacher superfluous. Second, it does not replace traditional vocal instruction. It reexamines pedagogic assumptions in the light of function. Third, it does not replace the musicianly ear of either the teacher or the student. Fourth, it accelerates the removal of technical barriers so that artistry can become the singer’s primary concern” (p. 304).

Some of the things that Miller thought that vocal labs can help in are heightening

awareness of the singing and visualizing effects like: resonance balancing (chiaroscuro), onset

and release, pitch, vowel tracking, vibrato, voiced and unvoiced consonants, nasality, airflow and

subglottal pressure. Some of the many devices Miller had at his disposal were, a spectrum

analyzer, a nasometer, an EGG (Electroglottograph), an Oscilloscope and a Spirometer in

addition to recording devices. Kenneth Bozeman working in the 21st-century was able to take

these devices to new heights in modern voice studios.

KENNETH BOZEMAN (CURRENTLY ACTIVE)Since the 2013 release of his first book, Practical Vocal Acoustics, Kenneth Bozeman has

been a driving force in incorporating vocal acoustic research into vocal pedagogy. Bozeman is a

tenor and professor of music at Lawrence University Conservatory of Music in Appleton,

Wisconsin. He was a student of Richard Miller and has continued and expanded upon much of

the work Miller did in his life. In particular, Bozeman has followed the lineage of researchers

such as William Vennard, Johan Sundberg, Ingo Titze, and Donald Miller to study how

acoustical phenomena affect the singing voice. In Spring 2018, Bozeman will travel the world

giving lectures on his work and masterclasses to singers young and old.


comma


you don’t need to state his name every single sentence


of


“Kenneth”


comma


“his” – you don’t need to say his name twice in one sentence


Bozeman on Breath Management:Kenneth Bozeman’s writings do not focus on breath management, since he assumes the

student already understands the foundations of healthy breathing. He aims to teach a specific

aspect of singing (vocal acoustics) rather than to give a complete overview of vocal technique.

This choice is not because vocal techniques are unimportant for understanding vocal acoustics,

but rather because “[E]ffective coordination of breath with phonation, as well as an ability to

make the laryngeal adjustments in vocal fold shape necessary for all pitches of the range, are

requisite, foundational factors in establishing optimal resonance.” (2013, p. 8)

Though they are not prominent in his writing, Bozeman (2017) does rely on foundational

concepts of breathing as explored in earlier vocal literature. Some of the elements on which his

theory relies include: our vocal apparatus should be tuned (positioned) before we sing, breathing

is “a response to the impulse to communicate” (p. 3), and inhalation should be noiseless. Another

interesting nuance that Bozeman points out about breathing is what he sees as a misinterpretation

of bel canto breathing (appoggio). Bel canto pedagogies based their breathing models on a baby

about to laugh or cry, while many newer pedagogies base it on a baby asleep or at rest. Bozeman

thinks that this isn’t helpful because the abdomen is not engaged when breathing at rest. He says

imitating a dynamic breath is more helpful because

In this expressively activated mode, the lower abdominal musculature is already engaged, providing some resistance to the visceral pressure of a descending diaphragm, and thereby directing more of the expansion toward the lower back, in contrast to the relaxed frontal expansion of the lower abdomen used in resting inhalation.” (p. 4)

Like bel canto teachers, Bozeman finds proper breathing essential to singing and does not see his

methods as conflicting with the Historic Italian School; rather he adds to their approach with

recent scientific findings.


:


I’d make this the beginning of a new paragraph


“but rather because…”


Sounds elementary. Maybe “…rather than a complete overview of vocal technique”?


Bozeman on Onset:Kenneth Bozeman does not explicitly discuss onset in the fashion of Garcia’s coup de glotte,

but he addresses the idea of an onset by discussing flow phonation. Speech Pathologists and

Vocal Pedagogues often discuss the onset or offset of the voice, because without enough

pressure at the onset, the sound becomes breathy, but with too much pressure, the sound becomes

pressed. Instead of focusing on the onset itself, Bozeman discusses current thoughts on the

phonation in general. He describes these forms of pressure as different modes of phonation

(breath flow through the vocal folds) and further qualifies it with how it affects sound and

efficiency of the vocal folds. This topic could be labeled "Breath Management" or "Resonance,"

but since in Bozeman’s work it is the primary factor in onsets, it will be described under this

title.

According to Bozeman, there are three modes of phonation (Pressed, Breathy and Flow).

The relationship between these variables is described by this equation:

Breath pressure/air flow = glottal resistance

The desired outcome for western singing is when the breath pressure/air flow equation is

1 (a balanced amount of glottal resistance). This means that there is just enough air pressure

beneath the vocal folds for them to vibrate efficiently, without excess pressure creating a harsh

tone or too little pressure creating a breathy sound. This description of desired airflow is

equivalent to the bel canto ideal of coup de glotte or the "balanced onset" of the Estill Voice

Method.

Bozeman on Resonance:Most of Kenneth Bozeman’s pedagogy is based on how the voice is resonated and

formant theory. A full explanation of formants and vocal acoustics is outside the scope of this

paper, but the basic premise is this: the sound we hear is a complex wave made of multiple


Not a scholarly tone. How about “but the basic premise is this:”


Should this read “how THE voice is resonated”? or should it be a different word than resonated?


pedagogy


I’m not sure what this paragraph means. Can you clarify? Might be good if it is more similar in length to other sentences, as well.


I still think foreign terms like coup de glotte should be in italics


Dr. MK I revised this section, but should I explain the formula more fully? I will happily do that, I just wasn’t sure if more information would be a digression, or helpful?


sentence fragment


comma


“in Bozeman’s work…”


“This topic could be labeled as…”


vary your word choice


describes (keep tense consistent)


unnecessary


comma


breathy?


harmonics. A harmonic is an even integer above the fundamental frequency. The fundamental

frequency is the strongest frequency and is the pitch we perceive (for example, if we hear the

pitch A4 we will hear the fundamental frequency of 440). Even though we are perceiving one

pitch, however, multiples of that frequency, harmonics above the fundamental frequency, are

actually present. When harmonics are near formants, they are strengthened (amplified,

intensified). A forma in its simplest definition is a resonance of the vocal tract. It is not a specific

"location" in the vocal tract; rather it is a frequency "area" that can boost the fundamental

frequency or a harmonic when the formant and harmonic line up. (This is called the “singer’s

formant” or a “formant cluster"). However, it is important to note that although harmonics and

formants are related and interact, they are not the same thing. Formants are what define the

qualities that help distinguish vowels. More specifically, formants 1 and 2 are called "vowel

formants" because they determine our vowels. We can change the harmonics (the pitch) without

changing the formant (the vowel) and similarly we can change the vowel (formant) without

changing the pitch (harmonics).

Kenneth Bozeman uses formants to describe the bel canto ideal of chiaroscuro. The way

we orient our vocal tract to create vowels changed the way our voice is resonated. Bozeman uses

“affect” to shape the vocal tract. Affect is a term Bozeman uses to mean thinking about a certain

emotion to help with resonance. An emotion can trigger a certain orientation of the vocal tract

(for example the feeling of a sob, or laughter can help you raise the soft palate). This theory

springs from the idea that all of vocalizing is motivated by communication (similar to how a

small baby makes a large sound naturally when they want to communicate a need).


define


comma


Bozeman on Vocal Registers:Many of the older descriptions of laryngeal registration refer to the "sympathetic vibrations"

that occur when singing in a certain “voice.” Bozeman prefers to describe things more

technically, so describes registrations with the newer term “Vibrational Modes” as follows:

Mode 0 for vocal fry/pulse Mode 1 for thick vocal folds (which could also be described as chest voice, or TA

dominant) Mode 2 for thin vocal folds (head voice or CT-dominant) Mode 3 for whistle register

Bozeman on Posture:Kenneth Bozeman writes more about “pharyngeal” posture than he does about the

posture required of the torso and limbs. Instead Bozeman suggests using Body Mapping to

familiarize yourself with the anatomical realities of your vocal apparatus. In Kinesthetic Voice

Pedagogy (2017), Bozeman describes the process of mapping the tongue properly, “When

relaxed, the tongue is fronted, somewhat rounded and usually in contact with the roof of the

mouth rather than lowered and flattened” (p.11). He further describes the preferred pharyngeal

posture as follows: “If upon inhalation the student uses appropriate effects to stimulate a better

pharyngeal posture, the throat can be open in a more spontaneous manner.” (p. 14). Similar to his

lack of attention to breathing methods, Bozeman does not go into length about posture, not

because he considers it unimportant, but rather because it is outside the scope of his books to

discuss every aspect of singing at length.

Bozeman on Technology and Acoustical Physics: Bozeman is an enthusiastic advocate of using new technologies in the vocal studio. Some of the

resources he recommends include:

Madde Voice Synthesizer VoceVista


Colloquial. Could you call him “an enthusiastic advocate” instead?


“not because he considers it unimportant, but rather because it is outside the scope…”


comma


use present tense


should date be in parentheses? Or is it part of the title and should be in italics? Is this a book or an article? (article would be in quotes)


The Madde Synthesizer is especially useful in helping visual learners understand Bozeman’s

teachings. Formants and partials are conveniently represented by a keyboard so that users can

easily see their correlation with pitches on the staff or piano. Teachers use the Madde to help

demonstrate principles of acoustic science surrounding the voice source (vocal folds) and the

vocal tract filter. It can even show topics that Bozeman discusses such as source harmonics, roll

off, and laryngeal registration, and timbres such as “whoop” timbre (not discussed here).

VoceVista is a downloadable piece of software that can capture and analyze sounds. It can show

a singer the fundamental frequency (pitch) being sung as well as the overtones (harmonics)

present to help illustrate the timbre of the sound. Vocevista is useful in both voice education and

voice therapy. You can also compare audio files side-by-side, visually recognize the difference

between a variety of sounds, and see what creates those timbral shifts. Bozeman’s (2013) rebuttal

to voice teachers who are wary of the use of these programs is as follows:

This is no different in principle than the use of a mirror, an audio recording device, or a video recording device. The teacher is still just as dependent on a refined ability to hear and observe what the student is doing, but instructional technology can improve the specificity of instruction, the learning curve of students, quickly settle arguments over sounds just made, and generally make teaching more efficient. Of course one can imagine use of the same technology becoming intrusive, too prominent, or inefficient if not well managed, much like an obsession with the mirror might be. (p.2)

Bozeman teaches seminars to train voice teachers how to implement basic computer programs as

an extra set of feedback in the voice studio.

CONCLUSION: 21ST CENTURY APPLICATIONSThe art of teaching voice is built on centuries of tradition, and, like any tradition, there

are both innovators who wish to diverge, and traditionalists who want to keep using the old

methods. Remarkably, most of the innovation, research and modern technology in vocal

pedagogy seems to point back to what teachers have been saying for hundreds of years. Singing


Take out “us”


“Remarkably, most of the innovation, research…….”


“both”


“who are wary”


beautifully requires artistry, facilitation of registers, appropriate diction, breath management and

consistent practice to build the stamina to execute vocal gymnastics. The terminology used varies

greatly, the details change based on conventions of the time and the styles of singing involved,

but the basics of classical western pedagogy have had, through the ages, consistent underlying

principles.

Vocal pedagogy has changed over the years in the evolution away from analogies and

visualizations in favor of using more technical terms to describe what is happening

physiologically. For example, a modern teacher might use terms like "TA dominant" or "mode

one" instead of "chest voice." Similarly, accessibility to scientific knowledge of the anatomy and

physiology of the voice allows students and teachers to easily explore photographs, diagrams and

videos about how their voices work. Analogies are still incredibly helpful and often necessary for

teaching voice. Unfortunately, they are also often hit-or-miss by nature. There is no way to

guarantee a student will respond the same way the teacher does to any given imagery. One

student told to feel as if “there’s a cathedral in the roof of yor mouth” may understand that

perfectly and raise the soft palate. Another student might try to force the jaw open and produce a

gag reflex. Educating students about how the body is designed and how it functions is a more

concrete approach.

With the shift from imagery to technical teaching, many teachers fear that artistry will be

lost. That, however, has not been the goal of any of the pedagogues discussed in this paper. Jo

Estill, Richard Miller, and Ken Bozeman all wrote extensively about the importance of artistry in

singing. On his website, Bozeman responds to a question on this topic by saying:

The main goal of voice instruction is to enable beautiful, creative expression through singing. Any technical approach can become too intrusive, result in overly complicated micromanagement, and inhibit free expression. Technique needs to be the servant of


from


“is a more concrete approach”


“often”?


“are still”?


No parentheses, and make it a complete sentence. “A simple example would be using terms like…”


Unnecessary. Just say, “Vocal pedagogy has changed over the years in the evolution away from analogies and visualizations in favor of using more technical terms to describe what is happening.”


“fads” sounds derogatory. How about “trends” or “conventions”?


Something about this sentence is awkward. Read it out loud to yourself. I like the content but the wording seems clunky.


vocal freedom and efficiency, so that artistry is freed from constraints and limitations. Since skillful acoustic singing maximizes freedom, power, dynamic flexibility, and beauty, it serves the goals stated above very well. (n.d.)

Programs to assist vocal teaching, and book and video knowledge can never fully replace

the need for a teacher. The voice lesson will forever necessitate oral tradition and an apprentice-

master relationship because of our need for feedback. We can look in the mirror for as long as

we want, but if we don’t know what to look for, we will waste our time. Similarly, a program

that gives some feedback about the voice needs to be interpreted by someone knowledgeable and

cannot replace a teacher’s ear for minute issues with the voice. Analogously, even if we had the

technology to create at-home x-ray kits, we would still need a doctor to interpret the results and

prescribe a course of action. In the same way, all the technology in the world cannot replace a

teacher's ear. The goal of incorporating programs to show us the formants or harmonics in our

voices is to provide additional, visual, feedback in the classroom. This information is especially

helpful when working with students with vocal damage that needs to be repaired. The

technology and terminology used will continue to evolve and change, but good vocalism will

always be beautiful, stylistic, dependent on human anatomy, and will continue to require the

communication and expression of a true artist.

Throughout the years, technology has evolved, terminology has been debated, and styles

have changed. However, the heart of good vocalism remains consistent. Students of any style

need control over their breath, registration, and resonance to achieve the effects they want.

Proper posture and healthy onsets are necessary for vocal health as are making sure they are not

distracting from the performance in respect to the venue and conventions of the genre. The

pursuit of technical brilliance is meaningless without a sense of artistry behind it, and to

communicate what an artist desires to say, an amount of technical proficiency is needed.


Great conclusion!


comma


“on”


comma


add citation in works cited


Teachers of singing shouldn't see a scientific and an artistic approach to pedagogy as

dichotomous, but rather as an inextricably intertwined struggle that many have devoted their

lives to balancing.

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ellamcgaunnsoprano.files.wordpress.com€¦ · Web viewThe Intersection of Voice Science and Vocal Pedagogy in Western Practice. An overview covering bel canto to present day applications