Sustainable Land and Resource Management Elective

1. Processes in agricultural systemsApplying the Australian land capabilities system to the local area in order to compare existing land use to that suggested by a land capability assessment, to ensure sustainable land use

Symbol Land type NeedsI Very rare and very fertile No special needsII Nearly flat, fertile cropland Up to 4 crops in 10 years within

minimum tillage and pasture in other years to prevent soil damage

III Fertile, sloping cropland Up to 4 crops in 10 years within minimum tillage and pasture in other years and contour banks to stop runoff to prevent soil damage

IV Good grazing land but too fragile for regular crops

Up to 2 crops in 10 years with minimum tillage to improve pastures. Keep pasture taller than 5cm

V Fragile, grazing land Up to 2 crops in 10 years with minimum tillage to improve pastures as well as contour banks to stop runoff. May need more lime or fertiliser. Keep pasture taller than 5cm

VI Very fragile grazing landNo cultivation

Improve pasture by broadcasting seed and fertilisers. Limit tree clearing to 50% cover. Keep pasture taller than 8cm

VII Too fragile for grazingKeep trees for seed, honey or wood

Reduce fuels to save fire damage, ask before clearing any trees and control pests

VIII Non-farming scenic woodland or wetland farm Holiday or bushwalking

No disturbance of natural bushland

Discussing the effects of soil degradation on agricultural productivity and sustainability Land degradation results in loss of farm productivity and profitability It costs about $1500 million annually in lost production Impacts of land degradation reach beyond their source and into wider environments Solutions need to be invested so that costs of land degradation are spread throughout whole community Forms of degradation include soil erosion, Dryland salinity, irrigation salinity, soil acidification and soil

structure decline – these forms reduce the quality and quantity of soil for agricultural production

Land degradation EffectsErosion Wind Erosion – loss of fine particles leaves only larger particles which affect soil

nutrient levels and its ability to retain moisture for plant growth. Can remove soil from bare areas to planted areas which buries plants and reduces yield or can bury fences or knock them downSheet and Rill Erosion – occur mainly on sloping land where there is insufficient groundcover. Rill and sheet erosion contribute to declining land productivity by

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removing layer of top soil (which contains higher proportions of nutrients and OM)Gully Erosion – a problem as: it removes more fertile topsoil layers; contributes to sedimentation of creeks, rivers and water supplies; discolours and contaminates water caused by clay materials carried in suspension; lowers water table; forms pathways for removal of sediments of adjacent areas; reduces area of arable land dividing it into smaller parcels thus increasing the cost of farming operations;Destroying public facilities (i.e. roads) by undercutting or burying

Dryland Salinity Salts become concentrated in patches causing death of existing vegetation (salt stops osmosis which is needed to get water and nutrients) and formation of bare areas (which usually erode) – salt crystals can be observed on these bare areas and grazing salt congregate to lick salt crystals and their trampling aggravates erosion. Soil structure can break down, becoming loose and prone to erosion. Soil may become water logged and poorly aerated. Salt damages infrastructure (i.e. through rusting)

Irrigation Salinity Salt is accumulated at or near the surface of soil, killing or stunting trees, crops, pastures and reducing yields (salt stops osmosis which is needed to get water and nutrients) Crops vary in tolerance to salt concentration. Soil structure can break down, becoming loose and crumbly and prone to erosion. Soil may become water logged and poorly aerated. Salt damages infrastructure (i.e. through rusting)

Soil acidification As soil becomes more acidic, availability of nutrients change and some chemicals become unavailable whilst others increase to toxic levels – producing uneven crop and pasture growth. legume nodules develop poorly in acidic conditions and acid tolerant weeds (geranium, fog grass and sorrel) invade and can out compete pastures

Soil structure decline Tillage machinery can pulverise soil aggregates and compact soil, OM is reduced by tillage, seedling emergence is reduced (as arrangement of particles and air spaces is altered so water infiltration and aeration are not optimal) and increases erosion hazard

Discussing the issues related to water quality, supply and regulationProblems Solutions

Over consumption - Water restrictions- Better water use (i.e. campaigns like Water Wise)- Use of more efficient systems (drip irrigation not flood irrigation)- Education and community awareness

Contamination with industrial waste, fertiliser and pesticides

- Industrial waste regulation- Pollution controls- Purification systems

Urbanisation - Regulate urbanisation with planning controlsLoss of native fish and increasing carp levels

- Restocking of rivers with native fish- Aquaculture industries

Groundwater contaminated by leaching from landfills and disposal areas

- Regulation of designated disposal areas and landfills to prevent chemical seepage and leaching into groundwater supplies

River degradation - Maintenance of native vegetation to stabilise riverbanks- Vegetation acts as a filter for chemical runoff and soil

deposition into river system- Fence off river banks so livestock cannot graze vegetation

and trample soil- Engineering works to direct flow of water away from banks

Algae contamination - Prevention of excessive runoff of nitrogen and phosphorus

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fertilisers which encourage the rapid build up of algaeRising water tables and salinity problems

- Salinity control measures i.e. planting perennial pastures and trees and implementing drainage systems

Destruction of natural wetlands - Regulations to prevent destruction of wetlands

Examining the causes of the following types of soil degradation: soil erosion, Dryland salinity, irrigation salinity, soil acidification and soil structure decline (with special reference to those arising from farming practices)

1. Soil erosion Removal of soil from an area Affects productivity of farm, district and catchment level because eroded soils are less fertile Has an enormous impact on environment as soil washed into watercourses increasing turbidity and

adding nutrients and other chemicals that can affect water quality Main cause is loss of vegetation – more plant cover means soil is more protected against erosion Cultivation and overgrazing can also leave soil unprotected and increase rate of erosion

Erosion by water begins with impact of raindrops on soil surface. Plant residue will cushion the fall of raindrops which otherwise shatter soil peds

Once surface is disturbed by raindrop impact, soil particles are readily washed away by water in runoff Moving particles in turn scour other soil surfaces increasing rate of erosion – lack of vegetation will

increase rate of runoff - fast moving water carries more soil and causes more damage than slow water Sheet erosion (a uniform layer of soil is removed from surface), Rill erosion (runoff produces many small channels

across surface) and Gully erosion (runoff cuts deeper channels through land surface) are all types of water erosion Recommended treatments aim to maintain a good ground cover of grasses, herbs and leaf litter Cultivated land soil conservation structural works such as contour banks are installed to:

- Reduce velocity of surface runoff- Divert runoff to safe disposal sites- Contain sediment within bank channels - Direct tillage operations onto the contour

Crop and soil management practices are a necessary component to reduce sheet and rill erosion on cultivated land. Practices include:

- Changes to rotations to reduce number of cultivations- Stubble retention to protect ground surface- Green manuring to improve OM levels- Reduced or Zero tillage systems which involve use of non-residual herbicides to

control weed growth and reduce level of disturbance of soil On grazing lands ground cover can be improved by:

- Adjusting stocking rates- Evenly distributing grazing pressures by installing more watering points- Applying fertilisers, including trace elements for known deficiencies- Removing stock when ground cover levels fall below critical limits or if erosion

levels fall below critical limits or if erosion levels are severe to very severe- Constructing works to control surface runoff across bare areas and assist

revegetation

Wind is able to lift and carry away light, sandy soils and fine soils Soil that is left is less fertile and less able to retain moisture Risk of wind erosion is increased by reducing groundcover and by breaking soil aggregates into smaller,

lighter pieces Lands which are subjected to very severe wind erosion when disturbed are best left in their natural state

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Where danger is less severe lands may be cleared for grazing but not cultivated for annual crops On cropping lands, best ways to reduce threat of wind erosion are to:

- Retain crop stubble for as long as possible after harvest- Avoid stubble burning- Sow succeeding crops into stubble residues- Use reduced tillage systems

Increasing length of rotation (in crop rotation) can improve soil structure which reduces hazard of erosion Maintaining adequate groundcover can be achieved by retaining crop stubble, direct drilling crops into

old stubble, reduced tillage, no burning of stubble and adjusting stocking rates (so no overgrazing occurs) Farming practices that may increase ground over loss include increased stocking rates, sowing

introduced pasture species, applying fertilisers (increases plant nutrients which increases the number of insects) and clearing vegetation

2. Irrigation Salinity The Murray-Darling River Basin has been severely affected by salinity Cutting down trees has significantly contributed to salinity as trees used to use the water rather than

letting it leak down into the water table. Water table rises with increasing groundwater. This groundwater can rise to the surface, bringing soluble salts with it (this is Dryland salinity)

Recommended treatments involve lowering saline water tables below the root zone of plants however it is more efficient to prevent the problem rather tan attempt to treat degraded land

Prevention requires improvement in irrigation practices - only water that is needed should be applied Water applications should be timed on basis of soil moisture levels Where water tables are already high and are restricting production, mechanical systems i.e. deep

drainage can be installed to lower water table levels. If waters are saline, they should be diverted to evaporative basins to stop salt from entering rivers and affecting downstream areas

3. Soil acidification Plant growth is reduced as soil becomes acidified which in turn increases rate of erosion (no groundcover) Main factors increasing soil acidity are:

- Nitrate leaching – nitrogen compounds (i.e. from fertilisers and legumes) can be converted into nitrates in the soil. Nitrates begin to accumulate in soil if there are insufficient plants (particularly deep rooted perennial pasture grasses). These excess nitrates are leached deeper into subsoil or watercourses. Other nutrients (calcium, magnesium etc) leach away with nitrates. Overall effect of leaching is an increase in concentration of acid in topsoil

- OM accumulation – improved pastures add OM to soil (much more so than natives) OM is acidic and when it accumulates in soil, pH can be lowered

- Fertiliser use – some acidify the soil i.e. those containing ammonia or elemental sulphur will lower pH when they are converted to forms plants can use. Other fertilisers do not directly acidify soil even if fertiliser is acidic (i.e. Superphosphate) as there is not sufficient acid in application to change pH however it promotes the growth of plants (i.e. Superphosphate encourages clover) which in turn adds OM, building up nitrate reserves, leading to soil acidification

- Product removal – acidity increases with the removal of hay, crops and animal products. Plants remove a range of nutrients from soil i.e. when calcium, magnesium and potassium are taken up by plants, acidity of soil increases

Recommended treatments for soil acidification include:- Liming with an appropriate rate and method of application of a suitable quality lime

along with proper timing of application and effective incorporation into soil (lime increases soil pH by reducing hydrogen in soil water)

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- Use of acid-tolerant plant species- Changes in management of farming systems to reduce rate of acidification,

including modifying fallowing practices, using deep rooted perennial species and ammonia based fertilisers and increasing grass levels in legume based perennials

4. Soil structure decline Tillage implements as well as stock trampling break up peds and destroy structure

The quickest and most effective way of reversing soil structure decline is to establish a good a pasture that includes fibrous rooted grasses

On cropping lands the following techniques are recommended:- Integrating pasture leys of suitable length within the cropping rotation (an essential

requirement)- Using reduced/zero tillage and direct drilling practices (moderately textured red earth's)- Using green manuring crops to increase OM content (moderate to light textured soil)- Breaking up plough pans or compact soils by deep ripping (benefits of this rapidly

disappear in high silt/sand content soils)

5. Dryland salinity Build up of salt in surface soil usually as a result of rising water table and subsequent groundwater

seepage – refers to non-irrigated areas showing a salt problem Native trees, shrubs and perennial grasses dry soil out – when land is cleared and these plants are

replaced with shallow rooted crop and pasture plants (wheat and clover) and these do not soak up as much water therefore excess water leaks into groundwater causing level to rise until it reaches surface

When water table rises, salts stored deep in soil profile are mobilised and these salts become concentrated at surface by evaporation

Water table does not need to reach surface to cause Dryland salinity – when it reaches between 1 and 2m it can be drawn to surface through capillary action and plants can then suffer from effects of soil

When water table reaches surface plants suffer effects of both water logging and salinity Three main sources of salt

i) Cyclic salts – ocean salts carried inland by wind and deposited by rainfallii) Weathering – soluble salts from weathering of minerals in rocksiii) Fossil/connate soils – trapped salty water in ancient marine sediments are released

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Dryland salinity is determined by a number of characteristics in the local catchment for example:- Catchment shape and geology of area – can restrict water flow i.e. a change in

slope; impermeable rocks which store groundwater; geological faulting causing or restricting water movement, dykes (a vertical layer of less permeable material which forces groundwater up) as well as valley restrictions (a narrowing in width or reduction in depth of catchment throat restricting water movement)

- Climate – rainfall recharges groundwater – if there is persistent rainfall, soil fills and water moves past root zone into groundwater system

- Soil type – amount of water reaching groundwater system is determined by infiltration rate of soil (moves more rapidly through sandy soils, clay holds more water) and soil depth (deep soils have greater water storage capacity)

- Farming practices and vegetative cover – some waste a lot of available water which then drains into water table (i.e. clearing native vegetation, growing annuals, long fallows, poor surface drainage, overgrazing, sowing late, leaking dams and poor crop/pasture growth)

Dryland salinity occurs when water balance is upset and problem will continue to spread until equilibrium conditions are restored i.e. when input into groundwater equals amount moving out

Ground water levels need to be monitored over time by measuring bore heights to assess seasonal and long term changes to groundwater system – done with a piezometers (Gk word of pressure meter)

Recommended treatments to treat Dryland salinity include:- Fencing off sold outbreaks- Reducing stocking rates or totally excluding stock- Using salt tolerant grasses/herbs/shrubs/trees on saline areas- Surface mulching using old meadow hay or straw- Surface tillage or deep ripping of site to assist plant germination- Subsurface drainage- Installing interceptor banks to divert water away from site- Strategic soil conservation works to isolate affected sites from runoff and to reduce

erosion hazard- Changes in management of sub-catchment to incorporate high water using pastures

and regeneration of timber on groundwater intake zones

Degradation problem CausesSoil erosion Inappropriate land use

CultivationOvergrazing

Irrigation salinity Poor irrigation practicesSoil acidification Nitrate leaching

Accumulation of OMInappropriate fertiliser useProduct removal

Soil structure decline Excessive cultivationMachinery and stock trafficLoss of OM

Dryland Salinity Clearing of natives and perennials

Other forms of land degradation include:Problem Common symptoms Possible causes

Vegetation decline Trees and shrubs dying or suffering from dieback

Insect damage, salinity or overgrazing

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Soil fertility decline Poor crop growth and yields; excessive weed competition

Over cropping, poor pasture growth or loss of top soil by erosion

Soil and water pollution

Poor crop/pasture growth; stock ill health; algal blooms on dam; excessive aquatic weed growth

Excessive fertiliser application or inadequate or thoughtless waste disposal methods

Pest plants and animals

Problem weeds spreading; woody shrub invasion; increasing damage to crops from feral animals

Deliberate or accidental introduction by man, inadequate control measures or unsustainable farming systems

Scalding Bare, unproductive areas with no vegetation; little/no topsoil that is clayey and impermeable to water

Erosion of duplex soils or soils in arid or semi arid regions and floodplains, over cultivation or overgrazing

Mass movement Soil creep; slumps; landslips and slides; rock avalanches

Excessive water levels in soil on steep slopes or clayey soils or tree clearing

Soil sodicity Clay soil at surface disperses when wet, crusts when dry; poor drainage; gully and tunnel erosion common; poor plant growth

Naturally high sodium content derived from weathered parent rock (i.e. granite or marine sediments) or bore water

Explaining in detail the processes that have led to one of the above types of soil degradation and outlining the extent of this soil degradation problem in Australia, with specific reference to effects on plant and animal production Rate of degradation increased enormously since introduction of European style farming methods (1788) Initially crops were grown on fertile lands around penal colonies of NSW, VIC and TAS and stock

ranged over a wider area – degradation was almost immediately obvious Land clearing and vegetation thinning were an important start to farm establishment – often done with

aid of fire so that large areas were made bare, exposed to erosion Heavy grazing or repeated tillage prevented re-growth and increased likelihood of soil structure damage Introduced species usually less drought resistant with higher nutrient needs (than the natives they replaced) Erosion - more than 60% of Aus is used for grazing whilst 6% is mostly cropped – erosion can be a

problem in all these areas if they are not managed properly Dryland salinity can develop in Aus soils when natives are extensively cleared for cropping – in

Southwest WA, almost 4% of farming land is unusable due to salinity - predicted be 16% in 2010 Irrigation salinity is a major problem as irrigation is extensively used – the Murray Darling Basin has a

big problem with salinity affecting about 30% of Victoria’s irrigated lands (NSW, VIC and SA most affected) Soil acidification – many Aus soils are naturally acidic but agricultural practices can increase levels and

states most affected include TAS, NSW, QLD and NT Soil structure decline – mainly caused by tillage and compression by machinery and stock therefore

considered one of most serious problems since all agricultural lands in Aus can be affected

2. Research methodology and presentation of researchAnalysing a study of innovative technologies or practices that are assisting with the conservation and efficient use of water in agricultural production system Partial Rootzone Drying (PRD) Water is becoming an increasingly valuable resource and with environmental pressures such as water

salinity increase and increasing planting areas changes in Aus water policy have been prompted. A restriction in water availability in future will require improved irrigation practices and a higher Water

Use Efficiency (WUE) for horticultural crops7

Objective – devise an irrigation technique to reduce the vigour of grape vines whilst maintaining crop yield and quantity (excess vigour or vegetative growth is detrimental in most vineyards and has negative implications for fruit yield, disease control, cost of production and efficient water use)

PRD is a new irrigation technique that requires approximately half of the root system to always be in a dry or drying state whilst the remainder is irrigated

The wetted and dried sides of the root system are alternated on a 10-14 day cycle Early work has shown that by withholding water from half the root system, stomatal conductance,

photosynthesis and growth are reduced when compared with vines with all their roots fully irrigated Improved WUE was a result had greatest impact on viticulture industry Abscisic acid (ABA) derived from drying rots is through to be responsible for the physiological changes

to the plant as well as the inhibition of the plant hormones cytokinins (CK) that also affect stomatal aperture and lateral shoot development

Experimental Design:- Data was obtained from field grown vines at a number of experimental sites- Field experiments were applied to Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon and Riesling vines

using different irrigation methods (i.e. standard drip emitters and subsurface drip lines)- Intention was to create two wetted zones per vine which would be alternatively

irrigated on a cycle of approximately two weeks- Water application rates were measured by water meters- Soil moisture sensors were installed within each wetted zone to assess whether

water applied to one side infiltrated to the other supposedly dry side (in all cases it was found that there was satisfactory separation of wet and dry zones in a range of soil types)

- Six root samples of each irrigation treatment were taken at 2 different depths and according to the diameter of the roots they were sorted into three different classes

- After drying total weight of roots of each class were measured- Other measurements included ABA (in root tissues, xylem sap and leaf tissues), CK, shoot

growth weight, crop yield and WUE- Treated vines were compared with untreated vines on the same property (control)

and control vines were normally irrigated and therefore received twice as much water as the PRD vines

Results:- Hormonal control – ABA levels rise during PRD and CK levels decline- Shoot Growth – in vines subjected to PRD there was a reduction in vegetative

growth as measured by leaf area, pruning weight and shoot growth- Root Growth – it was found that withholding water from one side of root system

changed the distribution of roots and PRD caused roots to grow deeper into sol layers however total dry weight for control and PRD roots did not differ. It was concluded that the greater abundance of roots in the deeper soil layers in PRD treated vines may contribute to water stress tolerance of these vines

- Yield and WUE – no significant reduction in yield due to PRD therefore WUE of crop produced per unit of water applied doubled in response to PRD. There was also no effect on berry size in response to a halving of irrigation amount

Statistical Analysis:- The general linear model was used to determine whether the difference between

treatment means were significant Discussion:

- WUE is doubled in vines receiving PRD – this is due to the physiological and biochemical response of the vines to the alternating wetting and drying of roots

- The ABA synthesised in drying roots is transported to leaves and the stomata in the leaves respond to the ABA by reducing their aperture. This reduces transpiration

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and photosynthesis as CO2 and water vapour share the same stomatal pathway through the leaf surface. The reduction in CK also acts as a signal to reduce stomatal aperture but in addition to reduce the lateral shoot development

- Whilst total root weight of PRD vines and control vines was not significantly different, PRD vines had a greater proportion of roots in deeper soil layers which allows greater water stress tolerance

- Physiological and biochemical responses are transient and return to normal pre-treatment levels within a few weeks

- Keeping one side of the root system wet prevents a reduction in yield due to water stress. Irrigation system is therefore aimed at keeping one part of the root system in a state of drying so as to maximise the production of ABA and CK and hence their inhibiting effects on transpiration and growth

3. Innovation, ethics and current issuesExamining and evaluating the current recommended procedure to alleviate the problem studied above with special reference to the physical and biological processes occurring in the soil Salinity Can be detected by patches of waterlogged soil, trees dying for no obvious reason, salt crystals on the

surface, stock congregating to lick the salty surface, patches of bare of soil that erode easily Can also be detected by an abundance of salt tolerant plants growing in the area i.e. bulrush or couch Salt tolerant plants can be planted on affected areas – doesn’t provide good pasture but does stop erosion Adding fertilisers to native pastures will increase the growth rate of the pastures which will stop erosion

and use water to keep the water table down Opportunity cropping uses excess groundwater (deciding what crop to plant depending on soil moisture content –

taking advantage of available soil moisture) Opportunity cropping and zero till methods preserves soil structure, conserves soil moisture and

efficiently utilises the available water for the chosen crop Deep rooted plants reduce recharge (infiltration) of water because deep roots use water at a greater depth

in soil profile – this prevents excess water moving through soil profile and entering groundwater Revegetating areas for salinity control can increase productivity of an area down slope however the farm

can remain profitable as well i.e. Lucerne can be sown for salinity control (long tap roots) and harvested into fodder crops or the planting of tea trees which produce oils

If ground water is not used efficiently on high ground then water can seep out down a slope bringing salts to surface- possibly on neighbouring land (off farm impacts)

Dryland salinity can be tackled using groundwater effectively by: Revegetating areas; using zero tillage methods; using opportunity cropping as well as establishing deep rooted perennial pastures

Monitoring water table height is useful in evaluating effectiveness of management practices Land degradation is not confined to fence lines and concerns the whole community so communities need

to work together c.f. Pine Ridge Landcare group which implemented things like:- Lowering the road – to let flood water flow freely and not dam the road- Opportunity cropping – improve water use efficiency and therefore reduce salinity

(increases productivity and profitability too)- Saltbush – revegetating with extensive root systems (stock can also graze it)- Trees – reduce recharge therefore reduce risk of salinity at bottom of slope- Permanent pastures – use available soil moisture, provide feed for grazing stock and

increase soil fertility- Tree nursery – provides seedlings to revegetate affected areas- Drainage system – reduce water logging and recharge

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- Piezometers and electromagnetic survey – monitor ground water levels so Landcare can assess how successful they’ve been in land management practices

Soil erosion A natural process but enhanced and accelerated by human activities (agriculture, urban development, mining) Off farm impacts of soil erosion include a reduction in water quality for human and stock consumption,

damage to structure as well as silting up the natural drainage system In many cases, soil erosion problems cannot be fixed – damage is beyond repair Five basic principles to prevent soil erosion:

- Reduce runoff by protecting soil surface – retain ground cover (pasture, stubble)- Slow down wind and running water that erode soil – plant wind breaks- Keep soil in place, do not disturb surface – reduce running water (build contour banks)- Catch soil down slope i.e. trap soil already lost to reduce off farm impacts –

trapping lost soil by building contour banks and sedimentation ponds- Manage fallows – use zero or minimum tillage

Zero till means soil is not cultivated between crops – stubble is grazed or left as mulch after harvest Weeds are controlled with herbicides (bad) and special direct drill planters are used to sow seeds of next

crop into residue of previous crop Direct drilling also minimises soil disturbance

Analysing the strategies and innovative activities occurring in programmes related to Total Catchment Management, Landcare and whole-farm planning as a means of dealing with sustainability in agriculture In response to increasing concern over state of environment there has been a concerted effort at local,

regional, state and federal level to address issues

Landcare Relies on communities to identify local problem areas and take action on sustainable land use National Landcare Programme has an integrated approach to sustainable management of Australia’s

natural resources and maintenance of biodiversity Operates at community, regional, state and commonwealth levels – everybody has to play a role i.e.

individual landholders, community groups, NGOs, local governments, states, territory and commonwealth agencies

Integrated approach means resource management and conversation of nature has high chance of success Action can be taken to repair local land degradation i.e. Pine Ridge Landcare – work on repair of

Dryland Salinity Regional natural resources (water, land, plants, animals) can be managed sustainably in this way Activities local Landcare groups can fund include:

- Raise awareness in their community about local land degradation problems- Train local people to manage their resources sustainably- Map extent of degradation in their area- Plan action to repair environmental damage- Monitor effects of their land management strategies- Carry out trials of proposed land management practices- Put into practice resource management strategies

Case study - Pine Ridge Landcare Group:- People from 8 properties involved- People work together towards shared social, economic and environmental goals- Groups meet every two months (or when they need to)

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- A catchment group was formed which coordinates activities with other groups and developed a catchment plan

- Main goal of catchment group is to lower water table by 1m/5years- They have done much to raise awareness and educate people about Dryland salinity

in Liverpool Plains – recently produced a brochure so others can understand- They avoid long fallow cropping systems, increase perennial pastures, grow

saltbush and deep rooted perennials in high risk areas and improve grazing management by improving plant growth and therefore water use

- Shire council, Department of Land and Water Conservation, Salt Action and Greening Australia have all been involved, supplying equipment, machinery, tree seedlings, expertise and labour

- Individual landholders contribute labour and capital costs for works on their land - Projects undertaken include an electromagnetic survey (carried out to measure

conductivity of soils which indicates salinity levels – allowed them to identify risk areas); coordinate drainage (helped to reduce water logging); agroforestry (plant trials have been carried out to determine most suitable species to grow, trees have been planted in recharge areas and tea trees in discharge areas which resulted in agroforestry industry); tree nurseries (collect seeds from tress known to grow well in area, seedlings raised in nursery and supplied to group members); pasture plants trialled to determine if they can be established over a wide area (Lucerne, fescue and strawberry clover roots reach into water table and can survive well in non irrigated areas) as well as loaning a tree planter to group members which can plant thousands of trees in just a few hours

- Group has been successful because farmers have been brought together to talk about issues concerned with land management in a manner which is neither confronting nor threatening

- Attitudes are slowly changing as people are realising they are accountable for their actions and that their activities can have a major impact on other landholders

- Difficult to measure effectiveness or success of groups projects because many of them are designed to provide long term solutions (not just quick band-aid treatments)

- Benefits already observed include: successful establishment of tea trees in water logged areas at risk of salinity; productive pastures growing and supporting grazing enterprises; improve soil structure and erosion control with perennial pastures; unproductive land becoming productive through plantations of saltbush; future timber production and income opportunities through agroforestry; enterprise diversification and income opportunities with essential oils (tea tree); improved drainage and flood mitigation (easing) as well as awareness of farming practices that allow water to enter water table

- They promote/achieve sustainability through: implementing strategies to prevent rather than cure Dryland salinity; using groundwater to restrict movement of salt and water; adopting farming practices that use soil water efficiently to prevent it leaking into water table; trialling alternative enterprises that suit environmental conditions as well as maintaining profitability; working cooperatively on projects to benefit whole community; improving economic and environmental value of land; increasing knowledge, skills and understanding of sustainable resource management; raising community awareness of activities by erecting signposts and producing brochures

Different communities have different needs so programmes have been implemented to cater for these Programmes aim for: efficient use of resources; better planning of housing, schools and recreational

areas; design of energy efficient building and streets as well as safe sewage and waste water disposal

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Central issue for Landcare is improvement of land management strategies These strategies need to be developed and implemented so that land is used and managed in a

sustainable way to benefit all Australians now and in future Communities are provided with information and support to help them care for local environments Landcare groups are formed by people with a common concern abut their local environment – people

work together to repair land degradation in a wide range of places (public land, farms, schools, parks, beaches) Landcare have an effective symbol suggesting a hands-on approach to caring for Australian environment National Overview set out five national goals for Decade of Landcare Plan:

i) Whole community awareness of land degradation problems and benefits of sustainability

ii) Continuing development and implementation of sustainable land use principles and practices

iii) All public and private land users and managers understanding principles of sustainable land use and applying them in their use of and management decisions

iv) All Australians working together in partnership for sustainable land use v) Put effective and appropriate economic, legislative and policy mechanisms in place

to facilitate achievement of sustainable land use Sustainable land use – to be able to use land in a way which is productive and profitable which at same

time retains capacity of land to maintain production. Minimise use of energy and resources but a maximum recycling of matter and nutrients (retaining stubble, manure from animals…)

Landcare groups are established so farmers can support each other and supply funding as a group Landcare groups: repair degradation (engineering solutions to erosion/salinity); monitor environment (i.e. water

table levels); produce farm management plans (help farmers find a way forward), demonstrate sustainable land management practices

Groups involved in Landcare programmes – Rivercare and Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources (DIPNR supply information and expertise in promoting sustainable land use conducts demonstration, soil conservation engineering works)

Rural areas Urban areas- Soil degradation problems

(salinity, erosion, soil structure decline and soil compaction)

- Chemical runoff into water sources

- Drainage problems- Weeds- Pest and disease control- Cost of finding solutions to

land degradation

- Drainage of water and sewage- Regenerating urban bushland- Controlling pollution

Total Catchment Management (TCM) Coordinated and sustainable use and management of water, land, vegetation and other natural resources

on a water catchment basis so as to balance resource utilisation and conservation Main objectives are:

- Coordinating policies, programmes and activities as they relate to catchment management

- Achieving active community participation in natural resources management- Identifying and rectifying natural resource degradation- Promoting sustainable use of natural resources

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- Providing stable and productive soil, high quality water and protective and productive vegetative cover within each states catchments

A catchment is a drainage area – all runoff in area flows from hills into basin or catchment Catchments vary in size and composition – large catchments (Murray-Darling Basin) are made up of

hundreds of smaller sub catchments Dryland salinity management can occur on a farm level but also on a catchment level Salinity often appears with acidity, structural decline, water logging and erosion Dryland salinity management relies on an understanding of soils, climate, vegetation, land use and

groundwater catchment – all these factors influence the movement of water and salt across catchment TCM is about cooperation between government and community and people working together towards

sustainable natural resource management People living and working in catchments are aware of impact their activities are having on others TCM provides a place where conflicts over natural resource use and management can be sorted out This is an integrated approach over an area with natural rather than artificial boundaries like fences Communities gain a better understanding of their natural ecosystem Groups can work with Landcare to implement their plant of action for problems identified in local areas Resource management on a catchment scale is important since degradation can best be reversed or

prevented over whole area (problems i.e. salinity, water quality, soil erosion, stream bank erosion and pests/weeds) Catchment management depends on a cooperative community approach – a local group identifies a

problem then plans can be made to rectify the situation (in process, conflicts over land use are resolved)

Community as a whole must be responsible for land and water management All stakeholders must be involved – landowner, local communities, local government, organisation such

as National Farmers Federation and government bodies such as NSW Agriculture and Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources (DIPNR)

DIPNR provides funding and co-ordinates to assist volunteers in activities such as whole farm planning, fencing off degraded areas, tree planting, creating wildlife corridors (with remnant vegetation) and improving surrounding environment

Whole Farm Planning is managing the farm as a whole and integrating all its resources in planning process – an aerial photograph can be used to plan layout and operations on property

Planning includes – identifying soil suitability classes on property; fencing farm into different suitability areas; pinpointing problem areas and addressing these problems as well as and soil testing analysis of property

Discussing the importance of the attitudes of farmers and the wider community to effectively achieve environmental, economic and social sustainability to agricultural systems Wider community expects farmers to produce a guaranteed supply (quantity) of agricultural products and

a clean, consistent and safe supply (quality) of fresh food etc Growing awareness of land degradation problems and acceptance of need to work together to solve them No longer considered ‘greenies’ – there is now widespread concern for the environment and an

expectation that farmers will look after their land Many farming practices have low profitability – farmers realise community expect them to provide

guaranteed quantity and quality of food, fibre etc however farmers also expect suitable reimbursement for cost and effort needed to produce enough quality products

Community also expects farmers to look after land and prevent further degradation Some farmers trying to reverse damage done by previous generations Science and technology have provided many answers to problems in agriculture Herbicides have been developed to eradicate weeds and genetically engineered, disease resistant wheat

varieties are being developed Many people believe that nature can heal itself however agriculture disturbs ecosystems

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Sustainability and agriculture seem to be incompatible A healthy diverse ecosystem needs to be maintained to achieve ecological sustainability Biodiversity maintains productivity of an ecosystem. More diverse plants and animals are in an area,

better chances of survival when environment changes Ecological integrity refers to general health and resilience of natural ecosystems and their ability to

assimilate wastes though natural cycles and withstand stresses Natural capital is our stock of productive soils, freshwater, marine environments, forests, subsoil assets

and other resources needed for our survival and prosperity Social integrity refers to social and environmental issues that are often intertwined. For example,

historical and economic pressures that influenced agricultural development in Aus Aus’s poor soils and variable climate limit agricultural production however it is activities of humans that

put pressure on our natural resources Human activity in Aus has resulted in around 40% of land being profoundly changed due to complete

clearing or thinning of native vegetation for agricultural or pasture use as well as less than 5% of lands still forested and in a condition to sustain forest products, conservation and water movement

In order to achieve sustainability, we need to do something about adverse trends that have emerged, these include:

- Loss of biodiversity as a result of loss of habitat- Widespread land degradation with 2.3% of our rangeland areas irreversibly eroded

and another 15% needing de-stocking to recover- Poor quality of inland water systems due to poor past management and failure o

take sufficient account of rainfall variability- Climatic changes due to emission of greenhouse gases- An increase size and depth of hole in ozone layer

Environmental programmes need to address biodiversity loss and the complex environmental issues associated with ozone depletion and emission of greenhouse gases i.e. carbon dioxide and methane

Often conflict between long term sustainability and profitability in agricultural enterprises

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