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AOHS Biotechnology
Lesson 2What Is Biotechnology?
Teacher Resources
Resource Description
Teacher Resource 2.1 Presentation 1 and Notes: The History of Biotechnology (includes separate PowerPoint file)
Teacher Resource 2.2 Supplement: Cheese-Making Lab
Teacher Resource 2.3 Rubric: Cheese-Making Report Conclusion
Teacher Resource 2.4 Presentation 2 and Notes: Modern Biotechnology (includes separate PowerPoint file)
Teacher Resource 2.5 Assessment Criteria: Current Biotechnology News Assignment
Teacher Resource 2.6 Key Vocabulary: What Is Biotechnology?
Teacher Resource 2.7 Bibliography: What Is Biotechnology?
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Teacher Resource 2.1
Presentation 1 Notes: The History of BiotechnologyBefore you show this presentation, use the text accompanying each slide to develop presentation notes. Writing the notes yourself enables you to approach the subject matter in a way that is comfortable to you and engaging for your students. Make this presentation as interactive as possible by stopping frequently to ask questions and encourage class discussion.
Today, we are going to learn what biotechnology is and how it got started.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Biotechnology is using biology to solve problems. We manipulate life (biology) to make useful things (technology). Biotechnology influences nearly all aspects of our lives today, including what we eat, what we wear, the homes we live in, and what we use for transportation.
According to a recent estimate, about 200,000 people work in biotechnology in the United States, generating almost $100 billion in annual revenues. There are at least 100 scientific journals that focus on biotechnology, so new research reports appear literally every day. Biotechnology is an exciting, fast-moving field, but it is also challenging to keep up with all the latest findings.
Although biotechnology is modern and high tech, it actually has very ancient origins, going back to the very beginning of human civilization. Biotechnology in the broad sense of the word has taken place in jungles, farms, kitchens, backyards, and even caves for thousands of years. This means products of biotechnology include crops such as tomatoes and corn, fermented foods such as vinegar and wine, and domesticated animals.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Biotechnology was first used in prehistoric times, thousands of years before the invention of writing, when people shifted from hunting and gathering to farming. Early farming likely resembled forest gardens, where people began to recognize and protect valuable food sources and remove undesirable species. Later, people began to keep animals and form permanent settlements where they grew their own food. Evidence of planned sowing and harvesting dates back more than 9,000 years to the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East.
Early farmers began selectively breeding plants and animals to improve traits such as yield, disease resistance, and hardiness. This is an early form of biotechnology because it is manipulating life (through selective breeding) to solve a problem (the need for more food). Selective breeding can produce crop varieties with shortened growing seasons, increased resistance to diseases and pests, larger seeds and fruits, more nutritional content, longer shelf life, and better adaptation to varied environmental conditions. As farming techniques and early biotechnology improved, practices expanded to include companion planting (choosing what crops to plant next to each other) and crop rotation (changing what crop you plant in a field from year to year) to maximize the amount of food produced.
Image retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Trilla_del_trigo_en_el_Antiguo_Egipto.jpg on December 27, 2013. Image courtesy of Carlos E. Soliverez. This image is public domain in the source country and in the US because its copyright has expired.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Domestication is the generation of new varieties and breeds by means of human intervention and is an example of biotechnology. The process of domestication is usually done by selective breeding: people choose which individual plants or animals they allow to reproduce. Usually, they select only the best individuals, the plants or animals with the most desirable traits, to reproduce. Selective breeding over hundreds of years has radically altered the foods we eat.
For example, a wild tomato is very different from any kind of tomato you can find in a grocery store. The original wild form of corn was a grass plant with very small cobs, smaller than your pinkie finger. Corn and tomatoes are only two examples of foods that have been transformed with early biotechnology. What other crops do you think look different from their ancestors?
Another part of the human expansion of agriculture was the domestication of wild animals so that they could be used for food, protection, companionship, and other purposes. Dogs were probably the first animals domesticated by humans, starting around 12,000 years ago. Sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs may have been domesticated beginning around 10,000 years ago.
Image on left retrieved from http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/news/070201_corn on December 27, 2013 and reproduced here under fair-use guidelines of Title 17, US Code. Image courtesy of John Doebley. Image on right courtesy of Carl Jones.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Picture a grocery store with a well-stocked produce section. There are many different colors and types of apples, red and green seedless grapes, different varieties of lettuce, and numerous melons, peaches, plums and nectarines. Consider potatoes: how many different types of potatoes can you think of? There are purple-, yellow-, white-, and red-skinned varieties, and they come in all different sizes. All of these varieties, even the organic ones, are the result of selective breeding. In other words, they are a product of genetic manipulation (in the form of selective breeding) by humans. They are the result of biotechnology.
Now picture the dairy section of the store. Notice all the bottles of milk and the butter, yogurt, and dozens of types of cheese, ice cream, cream cheese, and sour cream. Picture all the types of bread, cakes, and muffins. Most of these foods are also the product of biotechnology, either from selective breeding or because they are produced using microorganisms.
In a world without biotechnology, the grocery store would look very different. Imagine a store with only one type of apple, no cheese, no yogurt, no bread, and no chocolate! Why do you think people spent so much time and energy to develop such a variety of foods? One reason is that different kinds of plants grow in different parts of the world, so different groups of people domesticated different plants. It is only with modern agriculture and global transport that so many of these different crops end up in one grocery store.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
How did early people store or preserve food? Without electricity or refrigerators, they invented ways to alter food so it would keep longer. This is another type of early biotechnology.
Cheese, for example, lasts longer than milk and is easier to transport. Cheese is produced when certain enzymes and/or bacteria are combined with milk. Cheese may have been discovered accidently when milk was stored in vessels made from the stomachs of animals, exposing it to natural cheese-making enzymes. Archaeologists have found clay pots in Europe that are over 7,000 years old and were probably used for producing cheese.
Bread is another ancient food made using biotechnology. Breads that rise, known as leavened breads, exist thanks to microorganisms called yeast. Yeast spores can be found on all surfaces and even floating in the air, so they can colonize any dough left exposed to the air. The yeast produce carbon dioxide gas in the dough, causing it to rise.
Beer is made by fermenting grains, like wheat or barley, using yeast. Beer played an important role in early cultures, like the ancient Egyptians over 5,000 years ago. Today, despite the public health consequences of alcohol abuse, the US beer industry takes in around $200 billion in revenue each year.
Image retrieved from http:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EMS-89615- Rosecrucian-Egyptian-BeerMaking.jpg Photographer E. Michael Smith Chiefio. Retrieved April 18, 2014.
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Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Ancient civilizations used simple biotechnology methods to improve crops and foods, but there is no sign that people understood how or why these techniques worked. This changed in the 1800s and 1900s when a series of discoveries advanced our understanding of cells, inheritance, and DNA.
Much of what biotechnology researchers focus on today lies in the cell nucleus. Robert Brown used the term nucleus for the first time in a paper published in 1833. He used a microscope to view orchid cells and took note of an opaque spot in the cells. Brown sensed that the opaque spot was important and called it the nucleus—the term we still use today for that spot, which we now know houses DNA, the code of life. Brown thought that only plant cells had nuclei (the plural of nucleus), but later research showed that animal cells also have them. This is an example of how the initial discovery of something often contains some misunderstandings or inaccuracies: Brown was right about nuclei but wrong to think they were only found in plant cells.
Organisms that have cell nuclei are classified as eukaryotes. Do you remember from biology what we call organisms that lack cell nuclei? We call them prokaryotes, and all known prokaryotes are single-celled organisms. Bacteria, for example, are prokaryotes. Prokaryotes still have DNA, but it is not contained in a nucleus.
Image on left retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robert_Brown_% 28botanist%29.jpg on December 27, 2013. Image courtesy of Maull & Polyblank. The image is in public domain in the US because its copyright has expired.
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Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
In 1881, Walther and Franny Hesse discovered that agar, a gelatinous substance made from seaweed, could be used to grow bacteria. Agar is an important tool in biotechnology because it allows scientists to keep bacteria in the lab under controlled conditions. Walther was a physician and bacteriologist in Germany, and he was trying to study bacteria. He needed some kind of suitable substance for growing the bacteria, one that would feed the bacteria and give them a place to grow at the same time. Franny Hesse had been using agar to solidify and thicken her jams and jellies so they would not turn into a liquid even in the summer heat. Franny suggested that Walther try agar. It worked and we still use it today! In fact, we will use agar during this course to grow our own E. coli bacterial colonies. Agar is also still used in jams and jellies, so you have almost certainly eaten it yourself.
Image on left retrieved from http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/servlet/view/all/what/Portraits on December 27, 2013. Image on right retrieved from https://visualsonline.cancer.gov/details.cfm?imageid=2230. Image courtesy of Bill Branson (photographer).
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Gregor Mendel’s experiments with pea plants led him to propose the idea of what we now call genes: microscopic internal units of information, one from each parent, that produce offspring with a mix of parental traits but which are passed on without blending. A different version of a gene, called an allele, comes from each parent. If an allele is dominant, its corresponding trait will always be expressed. A recessive allele will be expressed only when both alleles present are recessive.
This discovery was important because it suggested how information might be passed from one generation to the next. Before Mendel, people realized that offspring resembled their parents but lacked any understanding of why or how that happened. They didn’t have the idea of genes.
Mendel’s discoveries are recognized today as some of the most important ever made in biology. But Mendel’s work was overlooked at first. We can’t be sure of all the reasons for this, but one possibility is that Mendel was not the best writer. The reports of his research that he published are difficult to understand. It was only in 1900 that scientists rediscovered Mendel’s reports and recognized their significance. This is a powerful example of why it is important to write good lab reports that other people can understand. Even making a huge discovery, like Mendel did, is not enough. You have to be able to communicate your research findings to other people.
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Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
When you hear the term cloning, you probably think of modern biotechnology, or maybe science fiction movies about cloned humans. But cloning, the production of two completely identical organisms, isn’t new. Hans Driesch, who specialized in the study of embryos, cloned a sea urchin over a century ago. His methods for cloning experiments were not sophisticated by modern standards. For example, he cloned a sea urchin by simply shaking the embryo until it split in two. But Hans Driesch’s experiments laid the foundation for more advanced methods for manipulating and studying embryos.
An important landmark in cloning came over a century after Driesch’s work, when in 1996 Dolly the sheep became the first mammal to be cloned. Mammal embryos are more complicated and delicate than the embryos of species like sea urchins, so much more advanced techniques were required.
Being able to produce genetically identical organisms is useful in research. For example, having genetically identical individuals allows you to test the impact of different environmental conditions on their growth and development.
Image on left retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Driesch.jpg on December 27, 2013. Image on right retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus_1.jpg and reproduced here under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en). Image courtesy of Kirt L. Onthank.
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Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
In September 1928, Alexander Fleming went to his lab after a vacation. He was not happy with what he saw. Some agar dishes he was using to grow bacteria had been contaminated with mold. He thought they were ruined; but a few days later, he noticed that in one dish the mold had killed the bacteria. Instead of just throwing out the dish, he realized this was important. With the help of another scientist, he determined that the mold was the species known as Penicillium notatum. Fleming had discovered the antibiotic penicillin.
Because of its ability to kill bacteria, penicillin is estimated to have saved over 80 million lives since it was introduced. Fleming discovered it because he was observant (he noticed that something different had occurred in one dish) and tried to understand what he saw, even if it wasn’t a formal experiment (remember, the mold in the dish was an accident). Sometimes “errors” can lead to important discoveries, if we are paying attention.
Penicillin wasn’t used as a drug until around 1940. Why the delay? Fleming was not a chemist, so he did not have the skills to produce penicillin on his own. It took him 10 years to convince a chemist that penicillin had potential as a drug. This is a common story in biotechnology: sometimes the significance of a discovery is not immediately recognized, it can take years to translate a laboratory discovery into a product people can actually use, and the process usually requires a team of scientists with different specialties.
Image on left retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Alexander_Fleming_3.jpg Image on right from http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/microbes/penicill.htm courtesy of Jim Deacon.
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Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick deduced the structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule of heredity) and started modern biotechnology. How did they figure out the structure? They guessed, but in a very scientific way. They looked at reports about the characteristics of DNA from different scientists, especially Rosalind Franklin, and came up with an idea of what DNA might look like in order to fit with those characteristics. Watson and Crick used metal parts representing the different atoms of DNA to build a model of the structure. Their first model turned out to be wrong. But after several tries, they hit on a double helix structure that matched the measurements of DNA that other people, like Franklin, had made.
The structure was important. First, the two parallel strands of DNA suggested that DNA might copy itself by “unzipping” the two strands. Second, the four different nucleotide bases suggested that DNA might control the cell by using the bases as an alphabet to spell out instructions. Since DNA is passed from parent to child, the sequence of bases could transmit information from one generation to the next. It took many years of work to figure out how DNA replication happens, and even more work to understand how information is carried in DNA, but the structure was the key breakthrough. Much of today’s biotechnology can trace its roots back to Watson and Crick’s discovery, which started with some pieces of metal and the question, “What if …?”
Image retrieved from http://education-portal.com/cimages/multimages/16/WatsonCrickDNA.jpg on December 27, 2013 and reproduced here under fair-use guidelines of Title 17, US Code. Photo taken by Antony Barrington-Brown.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Biotechnology has come a long way. It started over ten thousand years ago when people first started using selective breeding to make more useful kinds of crops and domestic animals. The foods we see in grocery stores today are the result of centuries of this kind of biotechnology. The pace of discovery in biotechnology started to accelerate in the 1800s, when scientists began to study how life works and first began to manipulate cells. Even more discoveries were made in the 1900s, like the first antibiotics (penicillin) and the structure of DNA. In this presentation, we covered some of the big discoveries through the 1950s. Next time, we will discuss how biotechnology has continued to progress since the 1950s. Biotechnology impacts our lives every day, so it is important to understand where it came from and where it might be headed.
Image credits: See previous slides.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Teacher Resource 2.2
Supplement: Cheese-Making LabThis resource works in tandem with Lab Resource 2.1, Procedure: Cheese-Making Lab, where the equipment needed and the instructions for the lab are provided for both the teacher and student. This supplement explains how to prepare for the lab.
OverviewIn this experiment students test three curdling agents (calf rennin, chymosin, and buttermilk) to see which will produce the highest volume of curds in the shortest amount of time.
Ideally, students are divided into groups of four so that each student is responsible for one tube of milk with curdling agent (whole milk as the negative control makes the fourth tube), but groups of two or three will also work if students are responsible for multiple tubes.
Advance Preparation Order the veal calf rennin, fermentation-produced chymosin, and any glass or plastic wear not
available at your school well in advance of the laboratory to be sure they are delivered in time.
Store the bottles of rennin and chymosin in the refrigerator until the day of the lab.
Purchase whole cow’s milk (raw milk will work best if available), buttermilk, coffee filters, and coffee stirrers at the grocery store.
Bring the whole milk and buttermilk to room temperature by letting them sit out of the refrigerator for at least four hours. If the class takes place early in the school day, the milk can be left out the night before or warmed in a water bath to approximately 72°F.
Equipment Setup
Part 1For each group, set out a labeled beaker with 50 ml of room-temperature whole milk with a 7 ml graduated transfer pipet. Each group also gets four 3 ml graduated transfer pipets and microcentrifuge tube of each curdling agent (rennin, chymosin, and room-temperature buttermilk). Students will use whole milk for the negative control. If you do not have enough beakers and pipets, then you may create one class-shared station for all of these reagents. Label the pipets so that students do not cross contaminate reagents. Do not dilute the rennin or chymosin before using.
Part 2No setup required.
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Teacher Resource 2.3
Rubric: Cheese-Making Report ConclusionStudent Name: _____________________________________________ Date: _______________
Use the rubric below to assess the Conclusion section of the lab report, which should follow the REE, PE, PA format (results with evidence and explanation, potential errors, practical applications). Circle or highlight statements or boxes in each row that best describe the conclusion.
Exemplary Solid Developing Needs Attention
REE Uses quantitative data from the experiment to highlight trends and provide logical analysis to support the conclusions drawn from the data.Explains any major inconsistencies and provides plausible explanations for any outliers.Correctly supports or refutes the hypothesis using the data as evidence.
Identifies trends in the data but fails to use quantitative examples to support the analysis.Mentions inconsistencies but falls short of logically explaining their presence.Correctly restates and supports or refutes the hypothesis.
Identifies some trends in data but fails explain them or incorrectly interprets the data.
Fails to mention inconsistencies in the data.
Does not readdress the hypothesis or wrongly supports or refutes the hypothesis.
Summarizes data in words but lacks any analysis of trends or inconsistencies.Fails to restate the hypothesis.
PE Identifies multiple sources of error in the experiment.Explains if and how the errors affected the results.Provides recommendations for modifying the experimental design to reduce future errors.
Identifies two or more sources of error.Briefly explains how errors could alter the experimental results.Provides some recommendations for changing the experiment that would reduce error.
Identifies one plausible source of error.Fails to explain how errors may have altered results.Provides a recommendation for altering the experiment, but the recommendation is not applicable.
Includes only insignificant or highly improbable sources of error.Does not provide recommendations for reducing future error.
PA Explains several practical applications for the knowledge gained from this experiment.Includes who would be interested in knowing the experimental results and why.
Explains at least one practical application for the knowledge gained from this experiment.Includes who would be interested in knowing the experimental results.
Provides an application for the knowledge gained.Fails to include who would be interested in knowing the experimental results and why.
Does not provide practical applications for the information gained or fails to explain next steps.Does not give additional questions to be considered.
Additional Comments:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Teacher Resource 2.4
Presentation 2 Notes: Modern BiotechnologyBefore you show this presentation, use the text accompanying each slide to develop presentation notes. Writing the notes yourself enables you to approach the subject matter in a way that is comfortable to you and engaging for your students. Make this presentation as interactive as possible by stopping frequently to ask questions and encourage class discussion.
Today, we are going to learn about some of the main methods used in modern biotechnology and how these techniques are applied in fields such as medicine, agriculture, and forensic science.
In this presentation we are going to focus on four important methods in modern biotechnology, all developed since the 1950s. We will start with a quick overview of the four methods before presenting each one in more detail.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
The first method is DNA sequencing, determining the order of the bases of DNA (A, T, C, and G). Do you remember what the letters A, T, C, and G stand for? Adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. DNA Sequencing is important because it is used to study how DNA works and to screen for genetic diseases, like sickle cell anemia.
Recombinant DNA technology allows you to take a gene from one organism and transplant it into a different organism. One of the main applications of rDNA is to turn bacteria into factories for producing useful molecules. For example, the human gene for growth hormone has been put into bacteria so that they produce human growth hormone, known as HGH. It is this HGH that some athletes have used to enhance their performance despite health risks.
Somatic cell nuclear transfer is a method for replacing the nucleus of one cell with the nucleus from another. Since the nucleus contains all the DNA, this will produce an identical copy of the first cell, so it is a cloning method. This is used in animal cloning, such as for Dolly the sheep, the first cloned mammal.
The final method we will discuss is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR is like a copy machine for DNA. Starting with just a few molecules of DNA, PCR can make millions of copies. PCR is important because sequencing and other techniques usually require a large amount of DNA to work with. One application of PCR is in forensic science, where it allows investigators to recover even tiny amounts of DNA from crime scenes.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Sequencing DNA means determining the order of the nucleotide bases (A, T, C, and G) in a section of DNA. The the order of the bases determines what kind of proteins get made. Different combinations of DNA bases make different kinds of proteins, which have different functions in the body.
There are many different methods for sequencing DNA, and a lot of research is being done to create newer and faster techniques. Sequencing DNA is estimated to be a $5 billion business each year, so if a company can develop a better way of sequencing DNA, it can probably make a lot of money.
One approach to sequencing DNA is to attach or “tag” a different chemical label to each of the four nucleotide bases. Fluorescent dye molecules make very good tags, as their different colors can be detected automatically using a laser and a special digital camera. Several kinds of automated sequencing machines use this approach to read the order of different tags, which gives you the order of bases. For example, if you tag all adenine bases with a green dye molecule, all thymine bases with a red dye molecule, all guanine bases with a black dye molecule, and all cytosine molecules with a blue dye molecule, a sequence of green-green-black-blue-blue-red would mean the DNA sequence was A-A-G-C-C-T.
This is just one way to sequence DNA. There are other methods, and new techniques are frequently introduced.
Image retrieved from http://arstechnica.com/science/2009/09/a-brief-guide-to-dna-sequencing/
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
The Human Genome Project (HGP) sequenced one complete set of human DNA. A “complete set” of an organism’s DNA is known as its genome. HGP was led by the US government, which provided most of the funding. The project ran from 1990 to 2003. A human genome – the DNA in one complete set of 23 human chromosomes – contains about 3 billion bases. Having a complete genome sequence for a human provides a “map” that makes further research easier. For example, if a scientist isolates a segment of DNA from a human cell, he or she can tell very quickly where in the genome it comes from. This helps decipher the connection between DNA and cell function.
Different people do have somewhat different DNA sequences, but the differences are relatively small. Usually, only about 1 out of every 300 bases is different between people. So even though the HGP is just one complete sequence from a mix of individuals, it can still be used as a map for everyone.
The portions of a genome that code for proteins are known as genes. Only about 10% of the human genome is composed of genes, with the other 90% of the DNA having other functions, such as regulating when genes are active. When the HGP started, most scientists thought humans would have around 100,000 genes. In fact, there are only about 20,000 genes in humans, the same as in mice and most other mammals. Even some relatively simple organisms have more genes than that. This suggests that biological complexity is not simply due to having more genes. Instead, it may be due to how those genes are regulated, as well as differences within the genes.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
The HGP took about 13 years to sequence a single human genome, at a cost of almost $3 billion. But the HGP also drove many advances in sequencing technology. Now we can sequence DNA much faster and cheaper. Companies are starting to offer whole genome sequencing to individuals. As of 2015, you can have your entire genome sequenced in about 10 weeks for around $7,000 (figures are approximate and will definitely change over time). Part of the reason it is so much cheaper to sequence human genomes now is because the original human genome from the HGP can be used as a reference.
The cost of DNA sequencing has been dropping faster than the cost of computer processing power, as shown in the graph. Computer processing power tends to double about every two years, an observation known informally as Moore’s Law (even though it is not really a “law,” since it could change at any time). This is marked on the graph with a white line. DNA sequencing power has increased by a factor of about a hundred over the last five years, as shown by the green line on the graph, which drops faster than the white line. Note that the cost scale on the graph (the y-axis) is exponential.
Now that one lab can sequence billions of DNA bases every week, we must rely on sophisticated computer programs to store and analyze all that sequence data. The computer analysis of DNA sequence data is part of bioinformatics, a growing field that combines computer science and biology.
Image retrieved from http://www.genome.gov/images/content/cost_per_genome.jpg
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
In recombinant DNA technology (rDNA), genes from one organism are inserted into the genome of another organism. Often, scientists will insert genes into yeast and bacteria. Such microorganisms are easy to keep in the lab: millions of bacteria live in one small dish of agar. Bacteria reproduce quickly and are ideal factories for making biological products.
Consider people who need insulin to treat diabetes. The old way of producing insulin was to harvest it from slaughtered cattle. But that was expensive and difficult, and some people were allergic to cow insulin. So biotechnology researchers isolated the human gene for making insulin. Then they used a special enzyme, called a restriction enzyme, to cut open the circular genome of E. coli bacteria (most bacterial genomes are circular). Next they used a different enzyme to insert the human gene for making insulin into the bacteria’s genome. This created a new form of life: an E. coli bacteria with a human insulin gene. Because the DNA code is universal, the gene works the same in bacteria as it does in humans. So the new “recombinant” E. coli bacteria produced human insulin, as do all their offspring.
In 1982, human insulin produced this way became the first drug made using rDNA to be approved for use in humans. It was the first drug developed by the biotechnology company Genentech, which was sold in 2009 for about $50 billion. Sales of recombinant human insulin amount to about $1 billion a year. Since then, rDNA has been used to produce numerous drugs and altered crops, from recombinant human growth hormone, to rice with added nutrients, to the vaccine for human papilloma virus (made using a recombinant yeast), and many others.
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
The ability to transfer genes between species, thus creating new forms of life, raises obvious ethical and safety concerns. Scientists held a special conference in 1975, soon after the first rDNA experiments. At the conference, scientists drew up a list of voluntary guidelines for safe and ethical rDNA research that they all agreed to follow. For example, they agreed to not carry out rDNA work on highly pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms. Later, different government agencies formalized these rules and added others.
But there is still the concern that “rogue” scientists, or those working in countries without rDNA regulations, could accidentally or intentionally create dangerous organisms. There are many kinds of bacteria that cause serious diseases in people, but most can be treated with antibiotics. But there are genes which make bacteria immune to certain antibiotics. What if someone used rDNA to make a disease-causing bacteria immune to antibiotics?
Some people question the ethics of moving genes between species just for entertainment. You can now purchase fish with bright fluorescent colors that glow under blue light. These GloFish™ were made using rDNA to transfer a fluorescent color gene from a jellyfish to a regular fish. They are available at US pet stores for less than $10 each, though not in every state and not in Canada. Several companies are working on an rDNA cat to alter or remove the cat gene that makes the protein that causes some people to be allergic to cats. One company managed to do that by selective breeding of cats, and their “Allerca” non-allergy-causing cats are sold for about $9,000 each.
Image retrieved from http://www.glofish.com
Presentation notes
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a method for removing the nucleus from an adult cell and transplanting it into another individual’s unfertilized egg cell that has had the nucleus removed. The egg cell with the implanted nucleus grows and divides. Since the nucleus contains the genome, the result with be a clone: an individual genetically identical to the donor of the nucleus.
The cloned cells can be implanted in the uterus of a surrogate mother if the goal is to produce a cloned animal. This was done in mammals for the first time with the sheep named Dolly that was produced in 1996 with SCNT.
Alternatively, the cloned cells can be used in stem cell research, to attempt to grow different types of tissues that would be genetically identical to the donor. This way they could potentially be transplanted back into the donor and accepted by the body. Research in this field is in the early stages, and much needs to be learned before this can become a regular medical procedure.
Graphic image retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Cloning_diagram_english.svg/1000px-Cloning_diagram_english.svg.png. Image of Dolly retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly_(sheep) on December 27, 2013, and reproduced here under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en) . Image courtesy of Toni Barros.
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AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed in the 1980s as a method for making copies of DNA. To analyze or sequence DNA, you typically need a substantial amount of it. If you only had a few molecules of DNA, you couldn’t really do anything with it. But using PCR you can make millions of copies of a few DNA molecules, which you can then analyze in different ways (e.g., by sequencing it).
PCR is a three-step process. First, the starting molecules of DNA, known as the template, are heated in order to separate the two strands of DNA. Second, a pair of short segments of DNA called primers bind to the template DNA. The primers mark the segment of DNA to be copied (such copying is also known as amplification). Next an enzyme, usually “Taq,” fills in the section between primers with new nucleotide bases. Now we have two copies of each template DNA molecule. Then the three-step PCR cycle is repeated, giving us four copies. Since the number of copies doubles with each cycle, 10 cycles will produce 1,024 copies and 20 cycles gets you over a million copies.
PCR doesn’t copy an entire molecule of DNA, just the segment in between the primers, which usually cannot be more than about 5,000 bases long. Researchers design the primers to target the segment of DNA that they are interested in. PCR is fast, taking just a few hours, and relatively inexpensive. It is one of the most common techniques in biotechnology, and is used in almost every application that involves DNA.
Image retrieved from http://www.copernicusproject.ucr.edu/ssi/HighSchoolBioResources/Genetic%20Engin%20Hum%20Genome/pcr.jpg
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AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Biotechnology is revolutionizing medicine by providing new methods for the detection and treatment of disease.
Sequencing DNA allows doctors to determine if a patient has one of the thousands of genetic diseases known in humans. Once a genetic disease is detected, treatment can often improve the patient’s health.
Cancer tumors are typically caused by mutations (changes) to the DNA. By sequencing the genome of a tumor cell, doctors can better predict which anticancer drug (chemotherapy) is most likely destroy the tumor. The general approach of using a patient’s DNA sequence to choose the best drugs to treat their condition is called pharmacogenomics or, more broadly, personalized medicine. It is currently a very popular area of research.
Many drugs are produced using rDNA technology, like human insulin and human growth hormone. It is estimated that over 250 such rDNA-produced treatments are currently available, and more are approved every year.
Finally, cloning and stem cell technologies, such as those made possible with SCNT, are being investigated for their potential use in medicine. Research is aimed at cloning a patient’s cells in order to grow replacement tissues that would not be rejected by his or her body. This kind of work is still experimental, but it is very promising and the focus of much research. There are many other ways that biotechnology is used in medicine, so this is not a complete list.
Image retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Doctor_Icon.png
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AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Scientists and farmers use modern biotechnology to help improve agriculture. Over 13 million farmers around the world use agricultural biotechnology.
rDNA is used to produce varieties of crops that are resistant to disease or pests. For example, corn borers are insects that ruin several million dollars’ worth of corn each year just in Nebraska alone. A soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, naturally produces a compound that kills corn borers but does not seem to harm most other insects or animals. The genes that produce that compound were isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis, and rDNA technology is used to insert those genes into corn. The new strain of corn, called Bt-corn, is resistant to the corn borer.
Crops have also been enhanced using biotechnology to supply more nutrition. For example, vitamin A deficiency kills over a million people each year. So scientists used rDNA to add a provitamin A gene to rice. This “golden rice” is being tested at a few farms, but it has both supporters and opponents.
Food contamination with disease-causing bacteria is a problem, as anyone who has ever had food poisoning knows. The Centers for Disease Control estimates that 1 out of every 6 people in the US get a food-borne illness each year. Of those, over 100,000 are hospitalized and about 3,000 die each year. PCR and DNA sequencing can detect which species of bacteria have contaminated a food item. Scientists can use that information to trace the contamination back to its source.
Image retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Agriculture_in_Volgograd_Oblast_002.JPG
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AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Biotechnology is increasingly used for environmental applications. Some organisms have been genetically engineered to detect pollution. For example, the rDNA GloFish™ were created to detect water pollution by “glowing” in the presence of certain compounds. Biotechnology may also help to clean up pollution. For example, researchers have used rDNA to engineer oil-eating bacteria, though these have not yet been used on a broad scale.
Endangered species have usually lost much of their genetic diversity. This can create many problems such as inbreeding (increased risk of genetic diseases when closely related individuals mate). Effective conservation plans require understanding the genetic diversity of a species and how it is distributed across its range. PCR can be used to retrieve DNA from droppings so as to not disturb the animals. Then DNA sequencing can provide important data on how much genetic diversity is left and in which groups of animals.
Crops improved with biotechnology could require fewer chemical pesticides and fertilizers, which would reduce the environmental impact of farming.
Finally, biotechnology is harnessing plant and animal products for fuel. These biofuels may be effective, sustainable substitutes for fossil fuels like gasoline. Biodiesel is made from plant or animal fat, is available in many cities, and some vehicles use it with few or no engine modifications. More than 50 biorefineries are being built across North America with technologies to produce biofuels and chemicals from plant and animal products.
Image retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel#Distribution
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AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Applying biotechnology to legal and criminal matters is an important part of forensic science. DNA sequencing can determine family relationships, such as who the biological father of a child is (paternity). A major application of forensic DNA is using PCR to retrieve DNA left by perpetrators at crime scenes. The sequence of that DNA is characterized and then compared against a database of DNA profiles of people with convictions. In the United States, a national DNA database contains the DNA profiles of over 10 million people who, at one point, were convicted of a serious crime. As of 2013, comparisons of DNA profiles from crime scenes with the convict DNA database have produced over 200,000 matches, so hundreds of thousands of crimes have been solved.
DNA is also used to identify the remains of victims of mass disasters, like tsunamis or plane crashes, so they can be returned to their family for burial. Over 800 victims of the 9/11 World Trade Center attack were identified entirely by DNA. This was done by sequencing DNA recovered from the remains and comparing it to DNA sequences from samples donated by family members.
DNA methods can also be applied to cases of illegally hunting or smuggling animals, as DNA can be used to identify the exact species of animal from even a tiny piece of tissue. This method has been used to identify meat from protected species, like certain whales, that was being sold mislabeled as coming from species that could be legally hunted.
Image retrieved from http://www.biopoliticaltimes.org/img/original/DNA_handcuffs.jpg
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AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Basic research is research that tries to understand how things work without a goal of whether the results will have a practical real-world application. Much basic research tries to understand the molecular basis of biology, how plant and animal cells function, and how DNA works.
Most basic research is done in university labs with government funding, but larger biotechnology companies often devote part of their budget to supporting basic research as well. This is because the understanding of biology that comes from basic research often leads to important methods, with many applications in biotechnology. Determining the structure of DNA, for example, was a basic research project, as was the discovery of penicillin and the initial development of recombinant DNA techniques.
Government-funded basic research is an investment that leads to biomedical jobs, health and technology innovation, and new medical products. The economic returns can be significant. However, some private investors may not fund this research if they think the government will pay for it. In addition, the government may impose stricter guidelines on the use of funds, which could mean it will take decades longer for the results of the research to reach the market.
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Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Today, we have reviewed four major methods in biotechnology, all developed since the 1950s. DNA sequencing allows us to determine the order of nucleotide bases. rDNA allows us to move genes between different organisms. SCNT lets us transplant an entire nucleus into a new cell. PCR allows us to make many copies of a specific segment of DNA.
These four methods are used in many fields, including medicine, agriculture, environmental work, and forensic science. The foundation for most techniques in biotechnology comes from basic research, which is targeted at improving our understanding of how things work without a goal of whether it is of practical value or not.
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AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Teacher Resource 2.5
Assessment Criteria: Current Biotechnology News Assignment
Student Names:______________________________________________________________
Date:_______________________________________________________________________
Assess whether students met each of the following criteria.
Met Partially Met
Didn’t Meet
Key facts about the article's title, date author, source, and project funding are all identified correctly. □ □ □The main problem that the product or research resolves is clearly explained. □ □ □The article is summarized clearly, concisely, and accurately. □ □ □The completed assignment provides an accurate explanation of how the article content relates to the larger field of biotechnology.
□ □ □
The questions posed are thought provoking and demonstrate an understanding of what more there is to learn about the topic set forth in the article.
□ □ □
The written reflection shows that the writers connect with the important and/or interesting elements of the article. □ □ □The illustration conveys important information about the article in an understandable and interesting way. □ □ □
Additional Comments:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Teacher Resource 2.6
Key Vocabulary: What Is Biotechnology?
Term Definition
agar A compound that is used to solidify culture medium, which provides a semisolid surface for microorganism growth.
basic research Research aimed at understanding how things work without regard to whether the results will have practical application.
bioinformatics Applying computer science to study biological questions, such as the use of computer programs to analyze DNA sequence data.
biotechnology The manipulation of living organisms or their components to produce useful products.
Bt-corn Corn engineered using rDNA to be resistant to the corn borer pest. A resistance gene from the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis was transferred to the corn (thus Bt-corn).
clone To produce a genetically identical copy of an organism.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
The nucleic acid that is the genetic material determining the makeup of all living cells and many viruses. It consists of two long strands of nucleotides linked together in a structure resembling a ladder twisted into a spiral.
DNA sequencing Determining the order of the nucleotide bases in a segment of DNA.
domestication The generation of new varieties of plants or animals based on human alteration of wild varieties. This is usually accomplished via selective breeding.
eukaryotes Organisms with a cell nucleus. All known multicellular organisms are eukaryotes, as are many single-celled organisms.
forensic DNA The application of biotechnology DNA techniques to legal questions.
gene A section of DNA that encodes the instructions for making a specific protein. Genes can determine distinct traits, and they are passed down from parents to offspring.
genome The entirety of an organism’s DNA.
golden rice Rice engineered using rDNA to produce provitamin A, which is found naturally in the leaves of the plant but not in the part humans eat. There are two different kinds of golden rice, which vary in the source of the genes transferred into it.
Human Genome Project (HGP)
The project that produced the first complete sequence of the human genome. Lead and funded by the US government, it operated from about 1990 to 2003 at a total cost of $2.7 billion (5% of which went to studying associated ethical issues). That was within the amount budgeted for the project.
Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.
AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Term Definition
hypothesis A predicted experimental outcome that will be supported or refuted by experimental data.
microorganism Species of organisms visible only under a microscope, often unicellular; includes bacteria and yeast.
negative control In an experiment, a sample or group where no effect is expected. Used to detect experimental error and/or to establish a baseline for other results. An example is giving placebo (sugar) pills to one group and a drug to another group. The placebo pills would be the negative control.
penicillin An antibiotic that kills bacteria. It is the first major antibiotic known; it comes from penicillium mold and was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928.
pharmacogenomics A field of study that combines the study of drugs and the study of genomics and that is concerned with developing drug therapies that compensate for genetic differences in patients. Also known as personalized medicine.
pipet A tool for dispensing a measured volume of liquid. Volumes on the order of milliliters are typically dispensed using glass tubes.
PCR (polymerase chain reaction)
An enzymatic method for making millions of copies of a few molecules of DNA. Also known as amplification.
positive control In an experiment, a sample or group where a known effect is expected; used to detect failures in the procedure.
primers Short segments of DNA produced by researchers (e.g., for use in PCR, where they mark the specific segment of DNA to be duplicated).
prokaryotes Organisms without a cell nucleus. All known prokaryotes are single-cell microorganisms.
qualitative Data reflecting subjective or non-numerical properties, such as evaluations of taste or preference. It includes nominal (e.g., nationality) and ordinal (e.g., agree/neutral/disagree) data.
quantitative Data reflecting objective or numerical properties, such as measurements of mass and size. It includes interval (e.g., date) and ratio (e.g., age) data.
recombinant DNA (rDNA) A form of DNA produced by combining genetic material from two or more different sources by means of genetic engineering.
selective breeding Controlling which individual plants or animals are allowed to reproduce, usually based on which individuals have the most desirable traits.
somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
Technique for replacing the nucleus of one cell with the nucleus from another cell. Used in cloning and the production of stem cells.
yeast A microorganism, technically considered a fungus, used in biotechnology as a model organism or to ferment products.
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AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
Teacher Resource 2.7
Bibliography: What Is Biotechnology?The following sources were used in the preparation of this lesson and may be useful for your reference or as classroom resources. We check and update the URLs annually to ensure that they continue to be useful.
PrintBarnum, Susan. Biotechnology: An Introduction. Belmont, CA: Thompson, 2005.
Daugherty, Ellyn. Biotechnology Science for the New Millennium Laboratory Manual. Saint Paul, MN: Paradigm Publishing, 2007.
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Braun, David. “Corn Domesticated from Mexican Wild Grass 8,700 Years Ago.” National Geographic, March 23, 2009, http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2009/03/23/corn_domesticated_8700_years_ago/ (accessed February 23, 2016).
Buerkle, Tom. “Breakthrough Seen in Transplant Supply: Cloned Pigs Raise Hope of Organs for Humans.” New York Times, March 15, 2000, http://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/15/news/15iht-pigs.2.t.html (accessed February 23, 2016).
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“Chymosin.” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chymosin (accessed February 23, 2016).
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“History of Agriculture.” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agriculture (accessed February 23, 2016).
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“History of Biotechnology.” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biotechnology (accessed February 23, 2016).
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AOHS BiotechnologyLesson 2 What Is Biotechnology?
“History of Cheese.” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cheese (accessed February 23, 2016).
“History of the Domestication of Animals.” History World, http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ab57 (accessed February 23, 2016).
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“Human Genome Project.” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project (accessed February 23, 2016).
“The Human Genome Project Completion: Frequently Asked Questions.” National Human Genome Research Institute, http://www.genome.gov/11006943 (accessed February 23, 2016).
“Industrial Biotechnology.” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_biotechnology (accessed February 23, 2016).
“Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).” National Institutes of Health, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/genome/probe/doc/TechPCR.shtml (accessed February 23, 2016).
“Recombinant DNA.” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA (accessed February 23, 2016).
“Timeline of Biotechnology.” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_biotechnology (accessed February 23, 2016).
“Timeline of Medical Biotechnology.” Amgen, http://biotechnology.amgen.com/timeline (accessed February 23, 2016).
Verma, Ashish Swarup, Shishir Agrahari, Shruti Rastogi, and Anchal Singh. “Biotechnology in the Realm of History.” National Institutes of Health, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178936/#__ffn_sectitle (accessed February 23, 2016).
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“What Is Biotechnology?” Biotechnology Innovation Organization, http://www.bio.org/articles/what-biotechnology (accessed February 23, 2016).
“What Is Industrial Biotechnology?” Biotechnology Innovation Organization, http://www.bio.org/articles/what-industrial-biotechnology (accessed February 23, 2016).
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