Stalin Stalin’s Domestic Policies

BACKGROUND

During the Civil War, Lenin instituted War Communism. This was complete state control over the economy, which was focused on supporting the Red Army against the White army. When the Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional government, they did not have complete control over the entire country and had to fight those who opposed them: Socialists, Anarchists, Tsarists, Even the Allies from WWI (USA, France, Britain, Japan…) it put a heavy strain on farmers and industry in general. During the revolution, Russia was a backwards nation, primarily agricultural with very little industry. After the Civil War, Lenin needed to take drastic measures to build up the economy and instituted the New Economic Policy, which allowed small forms of private business to occur. Farmers were allowed to sell their surplus food, which led to a group of wealthy farmers called Kulaks. Small businessmen were also allowed to sell good creating a class businessmen called Nepmen (men who made money off of the new system). In 1925 Trotsky argued that the NEP was creating a capitalist class of Kulaks and Nepmen that threatened the socialist/communist aspect of their revolution. At the time, Stalin and Bukharin dismissed this...but by 1928 Stalin changed his mind and decided to focus on gaining more control over agriculture and industry.

INDUSTRY

Economic modernization was something desired in 1925, and in 1926 Stalin called on the Soviet Union to catch up and overtake the West in industrial production. By 1927, Stalin had defeated the United Opposition and felt able to use some of their economic policies. Stalin stressed the foreign threat and need to increase heavy industry. In 1927-28 there was a grain crisis, which → Stalin to abandon the NEP to rapidly industrialize. This is what splits Bukharin and Stalin in 1928. With the Right defeated by the end of 1928, Stalin pushed for higher production targets. By 1929 Stalin pushed for a plan that would double Soviet production by 1932.

FIRST FIVE YEAR PLAN 1928-32

The first plan began on October 1, 1928, and concentrated on heavy industry (coal, iron, steel, oil and machine-production). Production was intended to increase by 300%. Light industry was supposed to double its production and to make sure all of this was possible, energy production was expected to increase by 600%!Many workers were excited to create a socialist economy and worked very hard to achieve their goals. Reports (unreliable) were sent to Moscow about

Stalin how targets were being exceeded and people began talking about how they would fulfill the plan in 4 years rather than 5. Stalin supported this and in 1930, propaganda posters appeared proclaiming 2+2 = 5…

This produced significant achievements: hundreds of new factories and mines were built, many in places that had no previous industrial developments. New railroads, hydroelectric schemes and industrial complexes were built. By December 1932 Stalin claimed everything had been fulfilled...but in despite massive growth, none of the major targets had been met.

CRISIS 1932-33

The success of the first Five Year Plan had cost much more than they had allowed for. The increase in coal, iron and industrial goods was too much for the railway system to deal with. As people moved to the cities, there was a housing shortage, which threatened further industrialization. There was also a food crisis due to forced collectivization (discussed under agriculture) which led to food shortages, rationing and famine.

Under these extreme situation, workers changed jobs frequently. Managers had to increase wages and offer unofficial perks in order to retain skilled worker to meet their targets.

THE SECOND FIVE YEAR PLAN 1933-37

Intended to create a fully socialist economy...but it just pushed to increase production and improved living standards and building on advancements from the first plan. From 1934-36, there were many successes: machine production and iron and steel output grew making the USSR basically self-sufficient

Success of the Second Five Year Plan is partly due to the increase in labor productivity. In August 1935 Aleksei Stakhanov, a miner, dug out a massive amount of coal in one shift (102 tones when the average was 7 tonnes). After this, production targets were greatly increased, urging workers to follow his example (his success reached international heights).

Stalin Most industries had their own version of Stakhanov. These workers receive higher bonuses and other material advantages (new apartments) as well as “Heroes of Socialist Labor” medals. BY this time, the worst effects of collectivization were over and rationing was abandoned in 1935.

THIRD FIVE YEAR PLAN, 1938-1942

Problems in 1937 occurred partly from the growing purges, which took many specialists, administrators and managers that were experts and put them in prison...or executed. The international situation also began to divert funds to defense. The third plan was not approved until 1939, by this time the proposal to develop light industry and increase consumer goods was overshadowed by the

emphasis on heavy industry and defense. Molotov stated the first two plans created the foundation for the socialist economy, and the third plan would complete the process, but it was interrupted by the invasion of Germany.

AGRICULTURE

From 1924-26 the NEP had made a small increase in agriculture production. In 1926 the state collected 50% of what had been expected. Emergency measure were taken against Kulaks and nepmen → seizure of grain and increasing taxes on kulaks to force them to sell more grain to the state. Low state purchases of grain in 1927 threatened hunger in the expanding cities, which hurt industrialization.

By 1927, many saw the NEP as getting in the way of agricultural and industrial production. Stalin said it could be overcome by strengthening co-operative farms, increasing mechanization and supporting voluntary collectivization. In 1928 low grain purchases → Stalin to tell local officials to increase their take of the grain. They took more grain and closed markets. Those who resisted were arrested. After the 1928 harvest, these actions → rural unrest and bread shortages.

Stalin In July 1928 at a Central Committee meeting Bukharin managed to get an increase in the price of grain and to end the forcible measures….Stalin wanted industrial production to continue and stopped the money from going to the Kulaks. The fall in grain sales to the state + the crop failure led to large increases in the free-market prices, which led to a slump in grain deliveries to the state and the beginning of rationing in the winter. During 1929, the rest of the USSR was forcibly collectivized and the NEP was destroyed. In December 1929, Stalin ordered the forced collectivization of all farms and the “liquidation of the Kulaks”.

Stalin was determined to resolve the grain crisis, and made a massive grain procurement was launched. Officials needed to make their quotas (or be purged) so they arrested, deported and confiscated the property of the kulaks who didn’t hand over their quotas. 16 million tonnes were taken, over 30% of the crops were taken. A Kulak was defined as any peasant that owned two horses and four cows, but many peasants were labeled kulaks without these qualifications.

MASS COLLECTIVISATION - 1930

Stalin stepped up his game against Kulaks in January 1930 by organizing collectives. Originally he used persuasion, but he pressed for rapid results, which led to an increase in violence. The kulaks were divided into groups, those who were deemed “counter-revolutionaries” or “exploiters” were given harsh punishments, deportation or execution.

Richer peasants sabotaged the system by destroying their crops and livestock rather than hand it over to the Kolkhoz (a co-operative/collective farm run by a number of peasants on state owned land). Some even raided the Kolkhoz to get their grain back. Local parties were given targets of how many households should be collectivized. About 4% of households were IDed as Kulaks, but in the end, 15% of households were impacted. 150,000 people were forced to migrate to poorer land in the north and east (their land was then confiscated by the state)

In March of 1930, 58% of peasant households were collectivized. Due to the resistance, the Politburo asked Stalin to halt the collectivization. Official policy returned voluntary collectivization, and many peasants who had been wrongly accused of being kulaks had their property restored.

COLLECTIVISATION 1930-37

This retreat was temporary. Once the 1930 harvest had been taken, collectivization resumed. By 1931 50% of Soviet households were in collectivized farms and reached 70% in 1934. By

Stalin 1937, 90% were collectivized. Between 1929 and 1932, over 2,500 Machine Tractor Stations (MTS) were made to supply seed and lend out machinery to the local Kolkhozes

As a result of this and the backlash from the peasants, there was a horrible famine in 1932-33. This was made worse by a drought. The famine first hit in the Ukraine in the spring of 1932 and spread, especially to the north. It was mostly over by 1933, but some areas were still hurt in 1934. Historians still don’t know what the exact number of deaths were, but it is estimated that 7 million died, 5 million were from the Ukraine. This massacre of peasants is called Holodomor (Execution by hunger). People were so desperate for food, that reports of cannibalism became more and more common.

SUCCESS…?

Many historians debate over whether Stalin had a plan. Many claim changes occurred because of the unforeseen problems due to the NEP. Stalin’s constant interference by increasing the targets prevented them from being successfully implemented. Stalin’s response to the crisis of 1928 was seen as a short term measure that initiated more radical changes. Other historians argued that Stalin clearly intended to modernize the Soviet Union and that his agricultural and industrial policies were a means to an end.

Soviet statistics about the increases in productivity are suspicious, especially those during the purges. The official figure for increased industrial production is 852%. Even with the padded numbers, it is notable that the Soviet Union did make tremendous gains in productivity. The

Stalin problem with the official numbers arose from the fear factory managers had of punishment for not meeting their quota. Another problem was that many workers were unskilled, as they were peasants who had the most basic training. It was also difficult to make production increase by “storming” or running the machines 24 hours a day. The machines frequently broke down, disrupting production.

IMPACT ON WORKERS

In order to meet the quotas, new work regulations were put into place. In 1929, the “uninterrupted week” was introduced with shift work organized for factories to work nonstop. Absenteeism and late arrival were punished by losing your job and house. After 1931, this was a criminal offense, and you went to a labor camp (gulag). This led many workers to change their jobs frequently.

The rushed pace of industrialization drastically reduced the living standards, especially when food shortages occurred and prices rose. Even recovery after the famine did not return to pre-1928 standards. However, they did end the high unemployment of the 1920’s and many women were able to work, leading to joint incomes for families. Peasants who became industrial workers did see a rise in their standard of living. Many young women were able to get office jobs when before they were delegated to being domestic servants. Many also benefited from the expansion of education and technical colleges.

THE GULAG

In order to overcome shortages in 1929, the OGPU was told to make timber camps to bring in foreign money. The OGPU set up a special department to run them, the Chief Administration for Corrective Labor Camps (Gulag). From 1934, all prisons, camps and colonies were under Gulag control. Life was hard and food was scarce. Prisoners (zeks) were used to make huge construction projects, such as canals, railways, etc. Many were deported kulaks or workers who had committed labor offences, while others came from the purges.

COLLECTIVISATION

This was intended to solve the problem of getting enough grain to feed the people in the cities, however the destructive resistance by the kulaks and the deporting of 2.5 million people to the gulags in 1930-31 led to a serious drop in food production and along with the drought, a serious famine in 1932-33. The deaths from the famine and collectivization are tied in with the purges,

Stalin making exact numbers difficult to make. Some estimate the combined deaths equal as many as 20 million. Even though the collectivization decreased the output, after 1928 grain deliveries to the state increased and the shift of money from agriculture to industry allowed for the rapid industrialization to occur.

ECONOMIC RECONSTRUCTION AFTER WWII

During WWII the USSR suffered immense loss:

● 100,000 Kolkhozes (collective farms) & 2,000 Sovkhozes (state owned farms) destroyed● 5 million homes destroyed● 17 million cattle destroyed● thousands of miles of railway, roads and bridges destroyed

Retreating German armies stripped the industrial areas of equipment, and agricultural produce/livestock was taken. What they couldn’t carry, they destroyed. After the war, the US and Britain refused to force massive reparation on Germany (to avoid the mistakes of WWI), thus it would be up to the USSR to recover on their own.

FOURTH FIVE YEAR PLAN: 1946-50

Stalin outlined a 15 year program for long term recovery. People were concerned that the harsh labor laws and collectivization of the 1930’s would happen again, but they did not. It emphasized rebuilding heavy industry and reviving agriculture, HOWEVER, this time civilian needs were also thought of. Nine months after the war, 2.5 million homeless people had been rehoused. The first year was not very successful, but once the mines and factories reopened, production soared. By 1950, Stalin claimed their targets had been met and even surpassed. This was an exaggeration, but massive production was achieved.

AGRICULTURE

Revival of agriculture was less successful. Even before the war, agricultural production had been insufficient; the war set them back even further. Many peasants grabbed land and sold produce on the black market, collapsing the collective system. September 1946, Stalin stated all previous collectivized land would be reclaimed. A drought and lack of labor produced a poor harvest though, and low numbers of farm animals led to a drop in meat. BUT, by 1950, they were back to producing pre-war level of meat and nearly half of all production was in private hands.

Stalin The FIFTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1950-51) set much lower targets. The Cold War resulted in increasing amounts of state funds for defense. Agriculture and industrial production was able to increase though, and rationing ended in 1947. Real wages increased, and by 1952 they were above pre-war levels.

WOMEN IN STALIN’S RUSSIA

Before 1924 the Soviet government tried to liberate women and establish equality between the genders. Steps were taken to weaken the traditional family (seen as contributing to women’s oppression). Soviets provided contraceptive advice for free, abortions were legalized and divorce was made easier. Marriages were to be brief, civil ceremonies.

In 1926, a new Family Code consolidated these earlier rights, and gave women in “common law” marriages the same rights as those in registered marriages. In Muslim areas, communists raised the minimum age of marriage to 16 (in the rest of Russia it was 18). Communists banned polygamy and bride money. They organized mass political activity (Khudzhum) for women to mobilize to oppose traditional practices. In 1927, many Muslim women removed their veils at mass meetings on International Woman’s Day. This continued, and hundreds of women in traditional areas were raped and killed by male fundamentalists for “outraging” Islamic customs.

Under Stalin some of these reforms and benefits were reduced or removed. Soviet population growth was in decline, and prompted Stalin in 1935 to promote more “traditional family” values in order to increase the population. Most of the 1926 Family Code was kept, but a new one was created in 1936, that made divorce more difficult, with a rising fee for each divorce, and restricted abortion to medical reasons only. By 1934, the divorce rate was 37% and there were over 150 abortions for every 57 births (think of how that affects the population). Population dropped and the number of abandoned children rose. Tax exemptions were given to families with many children. In 1944, only registered marriages were recognized, and children born outside of marriage could no longer inherit property. During WWII, medals were awarded to women who had many children and unmarried people were taxed more heavily.

However, there were some more benefits for women. Women received free health services, accident insurance at work, more kindergartens for working mothers, and paid holidays. Equal education continued, however sufficient housing was still a problem. In employment, women were mainly in agriculture and textile services. However, under Stalin, women were encouraged to play a more active role, and all forms of employment were opened up to them. By 1939, 33% of all engineers and 79% of doctors were women.

Stalin In 1928, the number of women listed as “workers” was just under 3 million. By 1939, this number reached 13 million. Despite the emphasis on family in the 1930’s, women continued to work. There were many women “hero workers” in the Stakhanovite movement. However, access to higher administrative posts was unequal and the patriarchal mindset was still entrenched in society. Thus emancipation did not mean freedom from housework. Women who went to work, but also had families, now had double the responsibilities. Men still did not help out in the housework or childrearing.

RELIGION IN THE USSR

Under the Tsar (Old Russian kings) the Russian Orthodox Church was the national church of the empire. Marx described religion as the “opium of the people” and believed it was used to keep the poor oppressed. After the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, religion was not seen as a threat, they allowed freedom of religion and kept churches open. However, they did confiscate land that was owned by the churches and they legally separated church and state. Responsibilities of registering birth, death and marriage was taken over by the state. In 1921, it was illegal to give religious instruction to anyone under 18 years of age, and anti-religious campaigns were allowed. However, in 1927, the Orthodox Church was granted official recognition in return for promises to stay out of politics and to remain loyal to the Soviet regime.

In 1928, Stalin began a strong campaign against religion. He closed/confiscated religious places of worship. Church bells were melted down for scrap metal to use in blast furnaces. By 1941, nearly 40,000 churches and 25,000 mosques had been closed and converted into schools, theaters, clubs, warehouses, grain stores, or Museums of Scientific Atheism. (Before Stalin became a revolutionary, he was in school to become a priest, because that’s what his mom wanted...but he was kicked out)

In 1929 worship was restricted to “registered congregations”. In 1930 Church leaders were banned from conducting religious services, those who were registered (many thousands) were arrested and sent to gulags or killed. In 1932 a new “uninterrupted work week” was introduced, partly to stop people from going to mass. In 1936, the new constitution made pro-religious propaganda (Bible study groups) a crime, however it also gave priests the right to vote. This hit the evangelical groups hard.

Stalin

“The burden of Religion” “There is no God” “Chinese Self-Boiler”

The anti-religion drive hit everyone, even Buddhism. In the Islamic republics of the USSR, Sharia Law/Courts were abolished and the frequency of ritual prayer, fasts, and feasts (which interfered with the work week) were reduced. Muslim women were granted equality and were forbidden to wear the veil. In 1935, pilgrimages to Mecca were made illegal. It was difficult to root out religion, in 1937, 57% of people defined themselves as religious, even though 50 bishops were imprisoned and shot for counter-revolutionary activities. During WWII many restrictions on the church were removed. In 1943, he reinstituted the post of Head of the Russian Orthodox Church in order to re-establish new Soviet Patriotism.

Stalin later allowed churches to reopen, by 1947 there were 20,000 churches and 67 monastic houses. Protestants and Catholics suffered severe persecution, especially in the Ukraine and Baltics areas.

ETHNIC MINORITIES

Initially the Bolsheviks tolerated native languages (USSR consists of 100’s of different ethnic minorities). The early Communist Parties allowed all major nationalities (including Jews) to have separate party sections. Stalin changed this in the 1930’s. Stalin’s desire for central control led to greater assimilation and conformity to create a “Soviet Identity”. Although he was a

Stalin Georgian, he russified everything, starting with education. Stalin became the Great Russian “Nationalist”, with Russian as the official language.

In 1936, Stalin divided Central Asia into five republics in order to weaken Pan-Turkish loyalties. A semi-Colonial relationship developed between Moscow and these republics. Some 3.3 million non-Russians were deported to special settlements (far from their homes) in the 1930-40’s. Stalin was trying to unite all nationalities to construct a Soviet patriotism to build socialism and defend the “Motherland”. Resettlements were due to a fear of war, those groups that shared ethnic origins with others on the border, who could be potential enemies, were moved. Immediately after WWII, Stalin used more violent measures against ethnic groups who were accused of collaborating with the Nazis.

JEWS

Before 1917 there were five million Jews in Russia who suffered persecution under the Tsars. Russian Jews were the first to develop the Zionist movement in order to get away from the oppression. (Zionism is a movement to re-establish a Jewish nation/homeland in Palestine) After the revolution, all anti-Semitic laws were abolished (there were Jews involved in the Revolution, Trotsky was one of them). However, when the other religions were being prosecuted, so too were the Jews for their religion. Yiddish was an acceptable language, Hebrew was not because of its religious connotations.

In 1926, Jews were granted a special “national homeland” resettlement in the far Eastern regions of the USSR. In 1934 this became an autonomous republic, but only 50,000 settled there. In 1939-40, USSR gained two million Jews when they took over part of Poland, where Zionism was strong. This led to the arrests of many Rabbis and → anti-Zionist campaigns.

Between 1926 and 1931, the number of Jewish workers in industry more than doubled, and by 1939, 79% of Jews were workers in industries/offices. This led to high hopes for rapid assimilation into Russian society. In rural areas, anti-Semitism reemerged and there were campaigns against “subversive saboteurs”. The Jews arrested in the purges were arrested as counter-revolutionaries, not as Jews. In the gulag population, Jews were underrepresented.

After WWII, Jews who survived the Nazi concentration camps were part of the intelligentsia and suffered from persecution over the State of Israel in 1948. They were “rootless cosmopolitans” and emigration to Israel was banned. Stalin also went a little crazy towards the end and created

Stalin a “Jewish-Doctor plot” to assassinate him. This led to Jewish leaders being fired from their jobs and many were arrested and 26 were executed. The persecution stopped when Stalin died in 1953. Discrimination continued against Zionists. (How could they want anything more than Soviet Russia?) As a policy, the Soviet Union was against all forms of overt violent racial discrimination. They used propaganda against the US’s racism.

The poster to the right states, “Life and Freedom, Death to Colonialism” using Malcolm X’s image.

IMPACT ON EDUCATION

Early Bolsheviks realized the importance of having a modern socialist industrial society and the key to that was educated workers. There was a mass mobilization of for primary education with an equal opportunity for all in order to overcome the high rates of illiteracy. Schools were free, comprehensive and coed. At first, there was encouragement of creativity and individuality, and physical punishment was forbidden…

Under Stalin, secondary and higher education expanded. Funds were increased for education in 1927, as a result primary and secondary education grew from 7.9 million students to 9.7 million by 1933. By 1939 illiteracy had nearly been wiped out, 94% could read and write. Compare this today to the United States, where 14% of the adult population is illiterate.

YOUNG PEOPLE

From the beginning the Bolsheviks knew they needed to reach the young to keep their movement going. In 1918 they created a communist youth organization. At first it was radical

Stalin and separate of the Adult party consisting of ages 15-21. Membership was not forced and youths had to be sponsored by a communist adult. Another junior league was created for those 10 to 15 years of age, called the Pioneers. Most school children belonged to it.

During the power struggle of the 1920’s, radicalism and independence were ended (since many sections supported Trotsky). In 1926 it became the Communist Union of Youth (Komsomol) in 1939 it was directly affiliated with the party. Membership rose from 4 million in 1939 to 16 million in 1953.

There was a militaristic aspect to it (like the Nazi youth groups). There was an emphasis on national service. Unlike the Nazis, there was no separate group for girls and boys, equality made the organization coed. In the 1930’s Stalin insisted school become stricter, which is amusing, because as a student, Stalin was extremely disobedient. Liberal methods of the 1920’s were reversed. Stalin introduced school uniforms, report cards, test results and teaching became more formal. In 1943 coed was replaced with single-sex schools.

Education was geared towards the need of the state. They were there to create the new Socialist Citizen, who accepted conformity over individuality. As fear was increased, nationalism was stressed in history, particularly focusing on Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great as national heroes. Stalin arrested teachers who he thought opposed his principles.

There was some youthful freestyle rebellion, such as listening to “forbidden” music (especially jazz). Others simply avoided the Komsomol activities. There was a small secret organization, however they were arrested by the state security. One such was the Enlightened Communist Youth and the Communist Party of Youth (unofficial).

CULTURE

During the 1920’s art flourished in the Soviet Union. Lenin and Trotsky supported Avant-Garde artists. They allowed people to write and create what and how they liked, so long as it wasn’t counter-revolutionary. This ended under Stalin. All writers had to belong to the Union of Soviet Writers and write about aspects that supported the regime and society. This is called “Socialist Realism” - work that glorifies socialist accomplishments. If you were not in the Union your work would not be published. This impacted newspapers, magazines, novels, poems, and plays. Everything had to show support of Stalin, which helped to create his cult of personality. Work had to praise ordinary workers, and show how happy collective farmers were.

Stalin The Department of Agitation and Propaganda (Agitprop) was created to enforce nationalism in all aspects of art and culture. These controls ruled everything from writing, to art to music and dance. Those who did not comply were sent to gulags.