Unit-IChapter-1Human Geography Nature and ScopeYou have already studied ‘Geography as a Discipline’ in Chapter I of the book, Fundamentals of Physical Geography (NCERT, 2006). Do you recall the contents? This chapter has broadly covered and introduced you to the nature of geography. You are also acquainted with the important branches that sprout from the body of geography. If you re-read the chapter you will be able to recall the link of human geography with the mother discipline i.e. geography. As you know geography as a field of study is integrative, empirical, and practical. Thus, the reach of geography is extensive and each and every event or phenomenon which varies over space and time can be studied geographically. How do you see the earth’s surface? Do you realise that the earth comprises two major components: nature (physical environment) and life forms includinghuman beings? Make a list of physical and human components of your surroundings. Physical geography studies physical environment and human geography studies “the relationship between the physical/natural and the human worlds, the spatial distributions of human phenomena and how they come about, the social and economic differences between different parts of the world”.1 You are already aware of the fact that the core concern of geography as a discipline is to understand the earth as home of human beings and to study all those elements which havesustained them. Thus, emphasis is on study of nature and human beings. You will realise thatgeography got subjected to dualism and the wide-ranging debates started whether geography as a discipline should be a law making/theorising (nomothetic) or descriptive (idiographic). Whether its subject matter should be organised and approach of the study should be regional or systematic? Whether geographical phenomena be interpreted theoretically or through historicinstitutional approach? These have been issues for intellectual exercise but finally you will appreciate that the dichotomy between physical and human is not a very valid one because nature and human are inseparable elements and should be seen holistically. It is interestingto note that both physical and human 1 Agnew J. Livingstone, David N. and Rogers, A.; (1996) Blackwell Publishing Limited, Malden, U.S.A. p. 1 and 2.2 Fundamentals of Human Geography phenomena are described in metaphors using symbols from the human anatomy. We often talk of the ‘face’ of the earth, ‘eye’ of the storm, ‘mouth’ of the river, ‘snout’ (nose) of the glacier, ‘neck’ of the isthmus and ‘profile’ of the soil. Similarly

regions, villages, towns have been described as ‘organisms’. German geographers describe the ‘state/country’ as a ‘living organism’. Networks of road, railways and water ways have often been described as “arteries of circulation”. Can you collect such terms and expressions from your own language? The basic questions now arises, can we separate nature and human when they are so intricately intertwined?Human Geography Defined• “Human geography is the synthetic study of relationship between human societies andearth’s surface”. RatzelSynthesis has been emphasised in the above definition.• “Human geography is the study of “the changing relationship between the unrestingman and the unstable earth.”Ellen C. SempleDynamism in the relationship is the keyword in Semple’s definition.• “Conception resulting from a more synthetic knowledge of the physical laws governing our earth and of the relations between the living beings which inhabit it”.Paul Vidal de la BlacheHuman geography offers a new conception of the interrelationships between earth andhuman beings.NATURE OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHYHuman geography studies the inter-relationship between the physical environment and socio cultural environment created by human beings through mutual interaction with each other. You have already studied the elements of physical environment in class XI in the book entitled Fundamentals of Physical Geography (NCERT2006). You know that these elements are landforms, soils, climate, water, natural vegetation and diverse flora and fauna. Can you make a list of elements which human beings have created through their activities on the stage provided by the physical environment? Houses, villages, cities, road-rail networks, industries, farms, ports, items of our daily use and all other elements of material culture have been created by human beings using the resources provided by the physical environment. While physical environment has been greatly modified by human beings, it has also, in turn, impacted human lives.Naturalisation of Humans and Humanisation of NatureHuman beings interact with their physical environment with the help of technology. It isnot important what human beings produce and create but it is extremely important ‘with thehelp of what tools and techniques do they produce and create’.

Technology indicates the level of cultural development of society. Human beings were able to develop technology after they developed better understanding of natural laws. For example, the understanding of concepts of friction and heat helped us discover fire. Similarly, understanding of the secrets of DNA and genetics enabled us to conquer many diseases. We use the laws of aerodynamics to develop faster planes. You can see that knowledge about Nature is extremely important to develop technology and technology loosens the shackles of environment on human beings. In the early stages of their interaction with their natural environment humans were greatly influenced by it. They adapted to the dictates of Nature. This is so because the level oftechnology was very low and the stage of human social development was also primitive. This type of interaction between primitive human society and strong forces of nature was termed as environmental determinism. At that stage of very low technological development we can imagine the presence of a naturalized human, who listened to Nature, was afraid of its fury and worshipped it.

Human Geography: Nature and Scope 3The Naturalisation of HumansBenda lives in the wilds of the Abujh Maad area of central India. His village consists ofthree huts deep in the wilds. Not even birds or stray dogs that usually crowd villages can be seen in these areas. Wearing a small loin cloth and armed with his axe he slowlysurveys the penda (forest) where his tribe practices a primitive form of agriculture calledshifting cultivation. Benda and his friends burn small patches of forest to clear them for cultivation. The ash is used for making the soil fertile. Benda is happy that the Mahua trees around him are in bloom. How lucky I am to be a part of this beautiful universe, he thinks as he looks up to see the Mahua, Palash and Sal trees that have sheltered him since childhood. Crossing the penda in a gliding motion, Benda makes his way to a stream. As he bends down to scoop up a palmful of water, he remembers to thank Loi-Lugi, the spirit of the forest for allowing him to quench his thirst. Moving on with his friends, Benda chews on succulent leaves and roots. The boys have been trying to collect Gajjhara and Kuchla, from the forest. These are special plants that Benda and his people use. He hopes the spirits of the forest will be kind and lead him to these herbs. These are needed to barter in the madhai or tribal fair coming up the next full moon. He closes his eyes and tries hard to recall what the elders had taught him about these herbs and the places they are found in. He wishes he had listened more carefully. Suddenly there is a rustling of leaves. Benda and his friends know it is the outsiders

who have come searching for them in the wilds. In a single fluid motion Benda and his friends disappear behind the thick canopy of trees and become one with the spirit of the forest. The story in the box represents the direct relationship of a household belonging to an economically primitive society with nature. Read about other primitive societies which live in complete harmony with their natural environment. You will realise that in all such cases nature is a powerful force, worshipped, revered and conserved. There is direct dependence of human beings on nature for resources which sustain them. The physical environment for such societies becomes the “Mother Nature”. The people begin to understand their environment and the forces of nature with the passage of time. With social and cultural development, humans develop better and more efficient technology. They move from a state of necessity to a state of freedom. They create possibilities with the resources obtained from the environment. The human activities create cultural landscape. The imprints of human activities are created everywhere; health resortson highlands, huge urban sprawls, fields, orchards and pastures in plains and rolling hills, ports on the coasts, oceanic routes on the oceanic surface and satellites in the space. The earlier scholars termed this as possibilism. Nature provides opportunities and human being make use of these and slowly nature gets humanised and starts bearing the imprints of human endeavour.Humanisation of NatureWinters in the town of Trondheim mean fierce winds and heavy snow. The skies are dark for months. Kari drives to work in the dark at 8 am. She has special tyres for the winter and keeps the headlights of her powerful car switched on. Her office is artificially heated at a comfortable 23 degrees Celsius. The campus of the university she works in s built under a huge glass dome. This dome keeps the snow out in winter and lets in the sunshine in the summer. The temperature is controlled carefully and there is adequate lighting. Even though fresh vegetables and plants don’t grow in such harsh weather, Kari keeps an orchid on her desk and enjoys eating tropical fruits like banana and kiwi. These are flown in from warmer areas regularly. With a click of the mouse, Kari can network with colleagues in New Delhi. She frequently takes a morning flight to London and returns in the evening in time to watch her favourite television serial. Though Kari is fifty-eight years old, she is fitter and looks younger than many thirtyyear- olds in other parts of the world. 4 Fundamentals of Human Geography Can you imagine what has made such a life style possible? It is technology that has allowed the people of Trondheim and others to overcome the constraints imposed by nature. Do you know about some other such instances?Such examples are not difficult to find. A geographer, Griffith Taylor introduced another concept which reflects a middle path (Madhyam Marg)

between the two ideas of environmental determinism and possibilism. He termed it as Neodeterminism or stop and go determinism. Those of you who live in cities and those who have visited a city, might have seen that traffic is regulated by lights on the cross-roads. Red light means ‘stop’, amber light provides a gap between red and green lights ‘to get set’ and green light means ‘go’. The concept shows that neither is there a situation of absolute necessity (environmental determinism) nor is there a condition of absolute freedom (possibilism). It means that human beings can conquer nature by obeying it. They have to respond to the red signals and can proceed in their pursuits of development when nature permits the modifications. It means that possibilities can be created within the limits which do not damage the environment and there is no free run without accidents. The free run which the developed economies attempted to take has already resulted in the green house effect, ozone layer depletion, global warming, receding glaciers and degrading lands. The neo-determinism conceptually attempts to bring a balance nullifying the ‘either’ ‘or’dichotomy. Human Geography through the Corridors of Time The process of adaptation, adjustment with and modification of the environment started with the appearance of human beings over the surface of the earth in different ecological niches. Thus, if we imagine the beginning of human geography with the interaction of environment and human beings, it has its roots deep in history. Thus, the concerns of human geography have a long temporal continuumthough the approaches to articulate them have changed over time. This dynamism in approaches and thrusts shows the vibrant nature of the discipline. Earlier there was little interaction between different societies and the knowledge about each other was limited. Travellers and explorers used to disseminate information about the areas of their visits. Navigational skills were not developed and voyages were fraught with dangers. The late fifteenth century witnessed attempts of explorations in Europe and slowly the myths and mysteries about countries and people started to open up. The colonial period provided impetus to further explorations in order to access the resources of the regions and to obtain inventorised information. The intention here is not to present an in-depth historical account but to make you aware of the processes of steady development of human geography. The summarised Table 1.1 will introduce you to the broad stages and the thrust of human geography as a sub-field of geography. • Welfare or humanistic school of thought in human geography was mainly concerned

with the different aspects of social well-being of the people. These included aspects such as housing, health and education. Geographers have already introduced a paper as Geography of Social well-being in the Post Graduate curriculum’. • Radical school of thought employed Marxian theory to explain the basic cause of poverty, deprivation and social inequality. Contemporary social problems were relatedto the development of capitalism.• Behavioural school of thought laid great emphasis on lived experience and also onthe perception of space by social categories based on ethnicity, race and religion, etc.Fields and Sub-fields of Human GeographyHuman geography, as you have seen, attempts to explain the relationship between all elementsof human life and the space they occur over. Thus, human geography assumes a highly inter-disciplinary nature. It develops close Human Geography: Nature and Scope 5Table 1.1: Broad Stages and Thrust of Human Geographyinterface with other sister disciplines in social sciences in order to understand and explain human elements on the surface of the earth. With the expansion of knowledge, new subfields emerge and it has also happened to human geography. Let us examine these fields and sub-fields of Human Geography (Table 1.2). You would have noticed that the list is large and comprehensive. It reflects the expanding realm of human geography. The boundaries between sub-fields often overlap. What follows in this book in the form of chapters will provide you a fairly widespreadcoverage of different aspects of human geography. The exercises, the activities and the case studies will provide you with some empirical instances so as to have a better understanding of its subject matter. Broad Features Imperial and trade interests prompted the discovery andexploration of new areas. An encyclopaedic description of the area formed an important aspect of the geographer’s account.Elaborate description of all aspects of a region were undertaken. The idea was that all the regions were part of a whole, i.e. (the earth); so, understanding the parts in totality would lead to an understanding of the whole. The focus was on identifying the uniqueness of any region and understanding how and why it was different from others. Marked by the use of computers and sophisticated statistical tools. Laws of physics were often applied to map and analyse human phenomena. This phase was called the quantitative revolution. The main objective was to identify mappable patterns for different human activities. Discontentment with the quantitative revolution and its dehumanised manner of doing geography led to the emergence of three new schools of thought of human geography in the

1970s. Human geography was made more relevant to the socio-political reality by the emergence of these schools of thought. Consult the box below o know a little bit more about these schools of thought. The grand generalisations and the applicability of universal theories to explain the human conditions were questioned. The importance of understanding each local context in its own right was emphasised. Approaches Exploration and description Regional analysis Areal differentiation Spatial organization Emergence of humanistic, radical and behavioural schools Post-modernism in geography Period Early Colonial period Later Colonial period 1930s through the inter-War period Late 1950s to he late 1960s 1970s 1990s Fields of Sub-fields Interface with Sister Human Disciplines of Social Sciences Geography Social — Social Sciences – Sociology Geography Behavioural Geography Psychology Geography of Social Welfare Economics Well-being Geography of Leisure Sociology Cultural eography Anthropology Gender Geography Sociology, Anthropology, Women’s Studies Historical Geography History Medical Geography Epidemology Urban — Urban Studies and lanning Geography Political — Political Science Geography Electoral Geography Psephology Military Geography Military Science Population — Demography Geography Settlement — rban/Rural Planning Geography Economic — Economics Geography Geography of Resources esource Economics Geography of Agriculture Agricultural Sciences Geography of Industries ndustrial Economics Geography of Marketing Business Studies, Economics, Commerce Geography of Tourism Tourism and Travel Management Geography of International nternational Trade TradeHuman Geography: Nature and Scope 76 Fundamentals of Human GeographyTable 1.2: Human Geography and Sister Disciplines of Social SciencesEXERCISES1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Which one of the following statements does not describe geography?(a) an integrative discipline(b) study of the inter-relationship between humans and environment(c) subjected to dualism(d) not relevant in the present time due to the development of technology.(ii) Which one of the following is not a source of geographical information?(a) traveller’s accounts(b) old maps(c) samples of rock materials from the moon(d) ancient epics

(iii) Which one of the following is the most important factor in the interactionbetween people and environment?(a) human intelligence (c) technology(b) people’s perception (d) human brotherhood(iv) Which one of the following is not an approach in human geography?(a) Areal differentiation (c) Quantitative revolution(b) Spatial organisation (d) Exploration and description2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Define human geography.(ii) Name some sub-fields of human geography.(iii) How is human geography related to other social sciences?3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.(i) Explain naturalisation of humans.(ii) Write a note on the scope of human geography.Unit-IIChapter-2The World Population Distribution, Density and GrowthThe people of a country are its real wealth. It is they who make use of the country’s resources and decide its policies. Ultimately a country is known by its people. It is important to know how any women and men a country has, how many children are born each year, how many people die nd how? Whether they live in cities or villages, can they read or write and what work do they do? Hese are what you will study about in this unit. The world at the beginning of 21st century recorded the presence of over 6 billion population. We shall discuss the patterns of their istribution and density here. Why do people prefer to live in certain regions and not in thers? The population of the world is unevenly distributed. The remark of George B. Cressey about the population of Asia that “Asia has many places where people are few and few place here people are very many” is true about the pattern of population distribution of the world also. PATTERNS OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD Patterns of population distribution and density help us to understand the demographic characteristics of any area. The term population distribution refers to the way people are spaced over the earth’s surface. Broadly, 90 per cent of the world population lives in about 10 per cent of its land area. The 10 most populous countries of the world contribute about 60 per cent of the orld’s population. Of these 10 countries, 6 are located in Asia. Identify these six countries of sia.IndiaJapan

Russian Fed.NigeriaBangladeshPakistanBrazilIndonesiaU.S.A.China0 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600Population in MillionCountries200Fig. 2.1: Most Populous CountriesNot gold but only (Wo)men can make a people great and strong. (Wo)men who for truth and honour’s sake, stand fast and suffer long (Wo)men who toil while others sleep – who dare while others flee – they build a nation’s pillars deep and lift it to the sky. Ralph Waldo Emerson DENSITY OF POPULATIONEach unit of land has limited capacity to support people living on it. Hence, it is necessary to understand the ratio between the numbers of people to the size of land. This ratio is the density of population. It is usually measured in persons per sq km PopulationDensity of Population = Area For example, area of Region X is 100 sq km and the population is 1,50,000 persons. The density of population is calculated as: 1,50,000 Density 100 = = 1,500 person/sq km What does this tell you about Region X? Look at the map given below: Do you bserve that some areas are really crowded? These are the densely populated parts of the world ith more than 200 persons on every sq km. These are the North –Eastern part of U.S.A., North- estern part of Europe, South, South-East and East Asia. Other areas like those near the North and South Poles, the hot and the cold deserts and high rainfall zones near the Equator have very low ensity of population. These are the sparsely populated regions of the world with less than 01 erson per sq km. In between these two types are the areas of medium density. There are 11 to 50 ersons per sq km in these areas. Western China, Southern India in Asia, Norway, Sweden in Europe are some examples. Look at the Fig. 2.2 and identify some other areas.FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATIONI. Geographical Factors(i) Availability of water: It is the most important factor for life. So, people prefer

Fig. 2.2: World Density of Population, 2001The World Population: Distribution, Density and Growth 910 Fundamentals of Human Geographyto live in areas where fresh water is easily available. Water is used for drinking,bathing and cooking – and also for cattle, crops, industries and navigation. It is because of this that river alleys are among the most densely populated areas of the world.(ii) Landforms: People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. This is because such areas re favourable for the production of crops and to build roads and industries. The mountainous and illy areas hinder the development of transport network and hence initially do not favour agricultural and industrial development. So, these areas tend to be less populated. The Ganga lains are among the most densely populated areas of the world while the mountains zones in the imalayas are scarcely populated. (iii) Climate: An extreme climate such as very hot or cold eserts are uncomfortable for human habitation. Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is ot much seasonal variation attract more people. Areas with very heavy rainfall or extreme and arsh climates have low population. Mediterranean regions were inhabited from early periods in istory due to their pleasant climate. (iv) Soils: Fertile soils are important for agricultural and llied activities. Therefore, areas which have fertile loamy soils have more people living on them as these can support intensive agriculture. Can you name some areas in India which are thinly populated due to poor soils? II. Economic Factors (i) Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits attract industries. Mining and industrial activities generate employment. So, skilled and semi– killed workers move to these areas and make them densely populated. Katanga Zambia copper elt in Africa is one such good example. (ii) Urbanisation: Cities offer better employment pportunities, educational and medical facilities, better means of transport and communication. ood civic amenities and the attraction of city life draw people to the cities. It leads to rural to urban migration and cities grow in size. Mega cities of the world continue to attract large number f migrants every year. Yet city life can be very taxing…. Think of some of the npleasant aspects of city life. (iii) Industrialisation: Industrial belts provide job pportunities and attract large numbers of people. These include not just factory workers but also ransport operators, shopkeepers, bank employees, doctors, teachers and other service providers. he Kobe-Osaka region of Japan is thickly populated because of the resence of a number of ndustries. III. Social and Cultural Factors Some places attract more people because they have eligious or cultural significance. In the same way – people tend to move away from

places where here is social and political unrest. Many a times governments offer incentives to people to live in parsely populated areas or move away from overcrowded places. Can you think of some examples from your region? POPULATION GROWTH The population growth or population hange refers to the change in number of inhabitants of a territory during a specific period of time. His change may be positive as well as negative. It can be expressed either in terms of absolute numbers or in terms of percentage. Population change in an area is an important indicator ofeconomic development, social upliftment and historical and cultural background of the region.Some Basic Concepts of Population Geography Growth of Population : Change of population in particular area between two points of time is known as growth f The World Population: Distribution, Density and Growth 11 population. For example, if we educt the population of India 2001 (102.70 crore) from population of 2011 (121.02 crore) hen we shall get the growth of population (18.15 crores) in actual numbers. Growth rate f Population : This is the change of population expressed in percentage. Natural growth of Population: This is the population increased by difference between births and deaths in a particular region between two points of time.Natural Growth = Births – Deaths Actual Growth of Population : This is Births – Deaths + In Migration – Out MigrationPositive Growth of Population: This happens when the birth rate is more than the death rate between two points of time or when people from other countries migrate permanently to a region.Negative Growth of Population: If the population decreases between two points of time it is known as negative growth of population. It occurs when the birth rate falls below the death rate or people migrate to other countries. Components of Population hange There are three components of population change – births, deaths and migration. The rude birth rate (CBR) is expressed as number of live births in a year per thousand of population. t is calculated as: Bi CBR 1000 P = ¥ Here, CBR = Crude Birth Rate; Bi = live births during the year; P=Mid year population of the area. Death rate plays an active role in population change. population growth occurs not only by increasing births rate but also due to decreasing death rate. rude Death Rate (CDR) is a simple method of measuring mortality of any area. CDR is expressed n terms of number of deaths in a particular year per thousand of population in a particular region. CDR is calculated as: D CDR 1000 P = ¥ Here, CDR=Crude Death Rate; D= umber of deaths; P=Estimated mid-year population of that year. By and large mortality rates are affected by the region’s demographic structure, social advancement and levels of its economic development. Migration Apart from birth and death there is another way by which the population size changes. When people move

from one place to another, the place they move from s called the Place of Origin and the place they move to is called the Place of Destination. The lace of origin shows a decrease in population while the population increases in the place of destination. Migration may be interpreted as a spontaneous effort to achieve a better balance between population and resources. Migration may be permanent, temporary or seasonal. It may take place from rural to rural areas, rural to urban areas, urban to urban areas and urban to rural areas. Do you realize that the same person is both an immigrant and an emigrant? Immigration: migrants who move into a new place are called Immigrants. Emigration: Migrants who move out of a place are called Emigrants. Can you think of reasons why people migrate? People migrate for a better economic and social life. There are two sets of factors that influence migration.The Push factors make the place of origin seem less attractive for reasons like unemployment, poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters, epidemics and socio-economic backwardness. The Pull factors make the place of destination seem more attractive than the place 12 Fundamentals of Human Geography Fig. 2.3: Resource, Technology and Population Growth of origin for reasons like better job opportunities and living conditions, peace and stability, security of life and property and pleasant climate. TRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTHThe population on the earth is more than six billion. It has grown to this size over centuries. In the early periods population of the world grew very slowly. It is only during the last few hundred years that population has increased at an alarming rate. Fig. 2.3 tells the story of population growth. After the evolution and introduction of agriculture about 8,000 to 12,000 years ago, the ize of population was small – roughly 8 million. In the first century A.D. it was below Observe he news items and think of some reasons why certain countries become attractive destinations for migrants. Migration to cities are traditionally age and sex selective i.e. ore men of working age groups move to cities. Can you think of some reason why 22 per cent of migrants to Mumbai are kids?The World Population: Distribution, Density and Growth 13300 million. The expanding world trade during the sixteenth and seventeenth century, set the stage for rapid population growth. Around 1750, at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution,the world population was 550 million. World population exploded in the eighteenth century after the Industrial Revolution. Technological advancement achieved so far helped in the reduction of birth rate and

provided a stage for accelerated population growth. How Science and technology helped Population Growth? The steam engine replaced human and animal energy and also provided mechanized energy of water and wind. This increased agricultural and industrial production. Inoculation against epidemics and other communicable diseases, improvement in medical facilities and sanitation contributed to rapid decline in death rates throughout the world. Human population increased more than ten times in the past 500 hundred years. In the twentieth century itself the population has increased four times.DOUBLING TIME OF WORLD POPULATIONIt took more than a million years for the human population to attain the one billion mark. But it took only 12 years for it to rise from 5 billion Table 2.1: Doubling Time of World Population Period Population Time in whichPopulation Doubles10,000 B.C. 5 million1650 A.D. 500 million 1,500 years1804 A.D. 1,000 million 154 years1927 A.D. 2,000 million 123 years1974 A.D. 4,000 million 47 years2025 A.D. 8,000 million projected figure 51 years to 6 billion. See the Table 2.1 carefully whichshows that doubling time of world population is reducing fast. There is a great variation among regions in doubling their population. Table 2.2 shows that developed countries are taking more time to double their population as compared to developing countries. Most of the populationgrowth is taking place in the developing world, where population is exploding. Why is this so?Table 2.2: Population Growth Rates (%) 1995-2000High LowYemen 2.6 Latvia –1.5Liberia* 8.2 Estonia –1.1Somalia* 4.2 Russia, Ukraine –0.6Saudi Arabia* 3.4 Albania, BulgariaOman* 3.3 CroatiaSlovania, Czech RepublicGermany, Portugal –0.1Spain, ItalyDenmark 0* Data pertaining to 1995-2000Source: Demographic Year Book, 2009–10.

SPATIAL PATTERN OF POPULATION CHANGEPopulation growth in different parts of the world can be compared. The growth of population islow in developed countries as compared to developing countries. There is negative correlation between economic development and population growth. Although the annual rate of populationchange (1.4 per cent) seems to be low (Table 2.3), it is actually not so. This is because:• When a small annual rate is applied to a very large population, it will lead to a largepopulation change. Source: Demographic Year Book, 2009 –1014 Fundamentals of Human Geography• Even if the growth rate continues to decline, the total population grows each year. Theinfant mortality rate may have increased as has the death rate during childbirth.Table 2.3: Growth of Population 2004-05 over 1990-95Growth RateRegion 1990-95 2004-05World 1.6 1.4Africa 2.4 2.6Europe 0.2 0.0North & Central America 1.4 1.1South America 1.7 1.4Asia 1.6 1.4Oceania 1.5 1.3(Australia, New Zealand and Fiji)Source: Demographic Year Book, 2009–2010.IMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGEA small increase in population is desirable in a growing economy. However, population growthbeyond a certain level leads to problems. Of these the depletion of resources is the mostserious. Population decline is also a matter of concern. It indicates that resources that hadsupported a population earlier are now insufficient to maintain the population. The deadly HIV/AIDS epidemics in Africa and some parts of the Commonwealth of IndependentStates (CIS) and Asia have pushed up death rates and reduced average life expectancy. This has

slowed down population growth.Population Growth RateThe annual population growth rate in Indiais 1.64 per cent. Some developed countrieswill take 318 years to double their populationwhereas some countries still do not showsymptoms of doubling their population.Fig. 2.4: Population Doubling Time The World Population: Distribution, Density and Growth 15DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITIONDemographic transition theory can be used todescribe and predict the future population ofany area. The theory tells us that population ofany region changes from high births and highdeaths to low births and low deaths as societyprogresses from rural agrarian and illiterate tourban industrial and literate society. Thesechanges occur in stages which are collectivelyknown as the demographic cycle.Rural,AgrarianUrban,IndustrialDemographicTransitionThe Fig. 2.5 explains the three-stagedmodel of Demographic Transition Theory:3515High FluctuatingStageIStageIIStageIIICBR/CDRNaturalIncrease inPopulation

BRDRBangladeshRainforesttribesPeru Sri LankaKenyaCanadaJapanUSATimePresentWorldexamplesLow FluctuatingExpandingFig. 2.5: Demographic Transition TheoryThe first stage has high fertility and highmortality because people reproduce more tocompensate for the deaths due to epidemicsand variable food supply. The populationgrowth is slow and most of the people areengaged in agriculture where large families arean asset. Life expectancy is low, people aremostly illiterate and have low levels oftechnology. Two hundred years ago all thecountries of the world were in this stage.Fertility remains high in the beginning ofsecond stage but it declines with time. This isaccompanied by reduced mortality rate.Improvements in sanitation and healthconditions lead to decline in mortality. Becauseof this gap the net addition to population ishigh.In the last stage, both fertility and mortalitydecline considerably. The population is eitherstable or grows slowly. The population becomesurbanised, literate and has high technical knowhowand deliberately controls the family size.This shows that human beings are

extremely flexible and are able to adjust theirfertility.In the present day, different countries areat different stages of demographic transition.POPULATION CONTROL MEASURESFamily planning is the spacing or preventingthe birth of children. Access to family planningservices is a significant factor in limitingpopulation growth and improving women’shealth. Propaganda, free availability ofcontraceptives and tax disincentives for largefamilies are some of the measures which canhelp population control.Thomas Malthus in his theory (1793)stated that the number of people wouldincrease faster than the food supply. Anyfurther increase would result in a populationcrash caused by famine, disease and war. Thepreventive checks are better than the physicalchecks. For the sustainability of our resources,the world will have to control the rapidpopulation increase16 Fundamentals of Human GeographyEXERCISES1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Which one of the following continents has the highest growth ofpopulation?(a) Africa (c) Asia(b) South America (d) North America(ii) Which one of the following is not an area of sparse population?(a) The Atacama (c) Equatorial region(b) South-east Asia (d) Polar regions(iii) Which one of the following is not a push factor ?(a) Water shortage (c) Unemployment(b) Medical/educational facilities (d) Epidemics(iv) Which one of the following is not a fact ?(a) Human population increased more than ten times during the past500 years.(b) It took 100 years for the population to rise from 5 billion to 6 billion.(c) Population growth is high in the first stage of demographic transition?

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Name three geographical factors that influence the distribution ofpopulation.(ii) There are a number of areas with high population density in the world.Why does this happen?(iii) What are the three components of population change?3. Distinguish between:(i) Birth rate and death rate.(ii) Push factors and pull factors of migration.4. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Discuss the factors influencing the distribution and density of populationin the world.(ii) Discuss the three stages of demographic transition.Map SkillOn the outline map of the world, show and name the following.(i) Countries of Europe and Asia with negative growth rate of population.(ii) African countries with growth rate of population more than three percent. (You may refer to Appendix 1).Project/Activity(i) Has someone in your family migrated? Write about her/his place ofdestination. What made her/him migrate?(ii) Write a brief report on the distribution and density of population inyour state.Unit-IIChapter-3People of any country are diverse in manyrespects. Each person is unique in her/his ownway. People can be distinguished by their age,sex and their place of residence. Some of theother distinguishing attributes of the populationare occupation, education and life expectancy.SEX COMPOSITIONThe number of women and men in a country isan important demographic characteristic. Theratio between the number of women and men inthe population is called the Sex Ratio. In somecountries it is calculated by using the formula:Male Population× 1000Female Population

or the number of males per thousandfemales.In India, the sex ratio is worked out using theformula:Female Population× 1000Male Populationor the number of females per thousand males.The sex ratio is an important informationabout the status of women in a country.In regions where gender discrimination isrampant, the sex ratio is bound to beunfavourable to women. Such areas are thosewhere the practice of female foeticide, femaleinfanticide and domestic violence against womenare prevalent. One of the reasons could be lowersocio-economic status of women in these areas.You must remember that more women in thepopulation does not mean they have a betterstatus. It could be that the men might havemigrated to other areas for employment.Natural Advantage v/sSocial DisadvantageFemales have a biological advantage overmales as they tend to be more resilient thanmales yet this advantage is cancelled outby the social disadvantages anddiscriminations that they face.PopulationComposition18 Fundamentals of Human GeographyOn an average, the world populationreflects a sex ratio of 102 males per 100 females.The highest sex ratio in the world has beenrecorded in Latvia where there are 85 males per100 females. In contrast, in Qatar there are 311males per 100 females.The world pattern of sex ratio does notexhibit variations in the developed regions ofthe world. The sex ratio is favourable for females

in 139 countries of the world and unfavourablefor them in the remaining 72 countries listedby the United Nations.In general, Asia has a low sex ratio.Countries like China, India, Saudi Arabia,Pakistan, Afghanistan have a lower sex ratio.On the other extreme is greater part ofEurope (including Russia) where males are inminority. A deficit of males in the populationsof many European countries is attributed tobetter status of women, and an excessivelymale-dominated out-migration to differentparts of the world in the past.Age StructureAge structure represents the number of peopleof different age groups. This is an importantindicator of population composition, since alarge size of population in the age group of 15-59 indicates a large working population. Agreater proportion of population above 60 yearsrepresents an ageing population which requiresmore expenditure on health care facilities.Similarly high proportion of young populationwould mean that the region has a high birthrate and the population is youthful.Age-Sex PyramidThe age-sex structure of a population refersto the number of females and males indifferent age groups. A population pyramidis used to show the age-sex structure of thepopulation.The shape of the population pyramidreflects the characteristics of the population.The left side shows the percentage of males whilethe right side shows the percentage of womenin each age group.Fig. 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 show different typesof population pyramids.Expanding PopulationsThe age-sex pyramid of Nigeria as you can see

is a triangular shaped pyramid with a widebase and is typical of less developed countries.These have larger populations in lower agegroups due to high birth rates. If you constructthe pyramids for Bangladesh and Mexico, itwould look the same.Source: Demographic Year Book, 2009-10Fig. 3.1: Expanding PopulationConstant PopulationAustralia’s age-sex pyramid is bell shaped andtapered towards the top. This shows birth anddeath rates are almost equal leading to a nearconstant population.Source: Demographic Year Book, 2009-10Fig. 3.2: Constant PopulationNigeriaPer centPer centPopulation Composition 19Declining PopulationsThe Japan pyramid has a narrow base and atapered top showing low birth and death rates.The population growth in developed countriesis usually zero or negative.Source: Demographic Year Book, 2009-10Fig. 3.3: Declining PopulationDraw a population pyramid of the children in your schooland describe its characteristics.Ageing PopulationPopulation ageing is the process by whichthe share of the older population becomesproportionally larger. This is a newphenomenon of the twentieth century. In mostof the developed countries of the world,population in higher age groups has increaseddue to increased life expectancy. With areduction in birth rates, the proportion ofchildren in the population has declined.RURAL URBAN COMPOSITIONThe division of population into rural and urban

is based on the residence. This division isnecessary because rural and urban life stylesdiffer from each other in terms of their livelihoodand social conditions. The age-sex-occupationalstructure, density of population and level ofdevelopment vary between rural and urban areas.The criteria for differentiating rural andurban population varies from country to country.In general terms rural areas are those wherepeople are engaged in primary activities and urbanareas are those when majority of the workingpopulation is engaged in non-primary activities.Fig. 3.4 shows rural urban sex compositionof selected countries. The rural and urbandifferences in sex ratio in Canada and WestEuropean countries like Finland are just theopposite of those in African and Asian countrieslike Zimbabwe and Nepal respectively. InWestern countries, males outnumber femalesin rural areas and females outnumber the malesin urban areas. In countries like Nepal, Pakistanand India the case is reverse. The excess offemales in urban areas of U.S.A., Canada andEurope is the result of influx of females fromrural areas to avail of the vast job opportunities.Farming in these developed countries is alsohighly mechanised and remains largely a maleoccupation. By contrast the sex ratio in Asianurban areas remains male dominated due tothe predominance of male migration. It is alsoworth noting that in countries like India, femaleparticipation in farming activity in rural area isfairly high. Shortage of housing, high cost ofliving, paucity of job opportunities and lack ofsecurity in cities, discourage women to migratefrom rural to urban areas.LiteracyProportion of literate population of a countryin an indicator of its socio-economicdevelopment as it reveals the standard of living,

social status of females, availability ofeducational facilities and policies ofgovernment. Level of economic development isboth a cause and consequence of literacy. InIndia – literacy rate denotes the percentage ofpopulation above 7 years of age, who is able toread, write and have the ability to do arithmeticcalculations with understanding.Occupational StructureThe working population (i.e. women and menof the age group – 15 to 59) take part in variousoccupations ranging from agriculture, forestry,20 Fundamentals of Human GeographyEXERCISES1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Which one of the following has caused the sex ratio of the United ArabEmirates to be low?(a) Selective migration of male working population(b) High birth rate of males(c) Low birth rate of females(d) High out migration of femalesfishing, manufacturing construction,commercial transport, services, communicationand other unclassified services.Agriculture, forestry, fishing and miningare classified as primary activitiesmanufacturing as secondary, transport,communication and other services as tertiaryand the jobs related to research and developingideas as quaternary activities. The proportionof working population engaged in these foursectors is a good indicator of the levels ofeconomic development of a nation. This isbecause only a developed economy withindustries and infrastructure canaccommodate more workers in the secondary,tertiary and quaternary sector. If the economyis still in the primitive stages, then theproportion of people engaged in primaryactivities world be high as it involves extraction

of natural resources.10271063 10719371085 1060 10499659001009989 951020040060080010001200Zimbabwe Canada Brazil Nepal Finland NewZealandCountryFemales per 1000 MalesUrbanRuralFig. 3.4: Rural Urban Sex Composition, 2003 (Selected Countries)* 2006 Data* *Source: Demographic Year Book, 2011Population Composition 21(ii) Which one of the following figures represents the working age group of thepopulation?(a) 15 to 65 years (c) 15 to 66 years(b) 15 to 64 years (d) 15 to 59 years(iii) Which one of the following countries has the highest sex ratio in the world?(a) Latvia (c) Japan(b) United Arab Emirates (d) France2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) What do you understand by population composition?(ii) What is the significance of age-structure?(iii) How is sex-ratio measured?

3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.(i) Describe the rural-urban composition of the population.(ii) Discuss the factors responsible for imbalances in the sex-age found indifferent parts of the world and occupational structure.Project/ActivityConstruct an age-sex pyramid for your district/state.Unit-IIChapter-4Human DevelopmentThe words ‘growth’ and ‘development’ are notnew to you. Look around you, almost everythingthat you can see (and many that you cannot)grows and develops. These may be plants, cities,ideas, nations, relationships or even youyourself! What does this mean?Do growth and development meanthe same thing?Do they accompany each other?This chapter discusses the concept ofhuman development as it pertains to nationsand communities.GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTBoth growth and development refer to changesover a period of time. The difference is thatgrowth is quantitative and value neutral. It mayhave a positive or a negative sign. This meansthat the change may be either positive (showingan increase) or negative (indicating a decrease).Development means a qualitative changewhich is always value positive. This means thatdevelopment cannot take place unless there isan increment or addition to the existingconditions. Development occurs when positivegrowth takes place. Yet, positive growth doesnot always lead to development. Developmentoccurs when there is a positive change inquality.For example, if the population of a citygrows from one lakh to two lakhs over a periodof time, we say the city has grown. However, if a

facilities like housing, provision of basic servicesand other characteristics remain the same, thenthis growth has not been accompanied bydevelopment.Can you think of a few more examples todifferentiate between growth and development?Write a short essay or draw a set of pictures illustratinggrowth without development and growth withdevelopment.For many decades, a country’s level ofdevelopment was measured only in terms of itseconomic growth. This meant that the biggerthe economy of the country, the more developedit was considered, even though this growth didnot really mean much change in the lives of mostpeople.The idea that the quality of life people enjoyin a country, the opportunities they have andfreedoms they enjoy, are important aspects ofdevelopment, is not new.These ideas were clearly spelt out for thefirst time in the late eighties and early nineties.The works of two South Asian economists,Mahbub-ul-Haq and Amartya Sen areimportant in this regard.The concept of human development wasintroduced by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq. Dr Haq hasdescribed human development as developmentthat enlarges people’s choices and improvestheir lives. People are central to all developmentunder this concept. These choices are not fixedbut keep on changing. The basic goal ofdevelopment is to create conditions wherepeople can live meaningful lives.A meaningful life is not just a long one. Itmust be a life with some purpose. This meansthat people must be healthy, be able to developtheir talents, participate in society and be freeto achieve their goals.

Do you know that cities can also grow negatively? Look at the photographs of this tsunamiaffected city. Are natural disasters the only reasons for negative growth in a city’s size?Band Aceh, June, 2004 Band Aceh, December, 2004Human Development 23Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq and Prof Amartya Sen were close friends and have worked together under the leadership of DrHaq to bring out the initial Human Development Reports. Both these South Asian economists have been able toprovide an alternative view of development.A man of vision and compassion, Pakistani economist Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq created the Human DevelopmentIndex in 1990. According to him, development is all about enlarging people’s choices in order to lead long,healthy lives with dignity. The United Nations Development Programme has used his concept of human developmentto publish the Human Development Report annually since 1990.Dr Haq’s flexibility of mind and ability to think out of the box can be illustrated from one of his speeches wherehe quoted Shaw saying, “‘You see things that are, and ask why? I dream of things that never were, and ask whynot?’Nobel Laureate Prof Amartya Sen saw an increase in freedom (or decrease in unfreedom) as the main objectiveof development. Interestingly, increasing freedoms is also one of the most effective ways of bringing aboutdevelopment. His work explores the role of social and political institutions and processes in increasing freedom.The works of these economists are path breaking and have succeeded in bringing people to the centre of anydiscussion on development.24 Fundamentals of Human GeographyWhat is a Meaningful Life?Which of these lives is a meaningful life?Who do you think leads more meaningful life? What makes one of these more meaningful than the other?Human Development 25Leading a long and healthy life, being ableto gain knowledge and having enough meansto be able to live a decent life are the most

important aspects of human development.Therefore, access to resources, health andeducation are the key areas in humandevelopment. Suitable indicators have beendeveloped to measure each of these aspects. Canyou think of some?Very often, people do not have thecapability and freedom to make even basicchoices. This may be due to their inability toacquire knowledge, their material poverty,social discrimination, inefficiency of institutionsand other reasons. This prevents them fromleading healthy lives, being able to get educatedor to have the means to live a decent life.Building people’s capabilities in the areasof health, education and access to resources istherefore, important in enlarging their choices.If people do not have capabilities in these areas,their choices also get limited.For example, an uneducated child cannotmake the choice to be a doctor because herchoice has got limited by her lack of education.Similarly, very often poor people cannot chooseto take medical treatment for disease becausetheir choice is limited by their lack of resources.Enact a five-minute play with your classmates showinghow choices are limited due to lack of capability in theareas of either income, education or health.THE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMANDEVELOPMENTJust as any building is supported by pillars,the idea of human development is supportedby the concepts of equity, sustainability,productivity and empowerment.Equity refers to making equal access toopportunities available to everybody. Theopportunities available to people must be equalirrespective of their gender, race, income andin the Indian case, caste. Yet this is very oftennot the case and happens in almost every

society.For example, in any country, it is interestingto see which group the most of the schooldropouts belong to. This should then lead to anunderstanding of the reasons for such behaviour.In India, a large number of women and personsbelonging to socially and economicallybackward groups drop out of school. This showshow the choices of these groups get limited bynot having access to knowledge.Sustainability means continuity in theavailability of opportunities. To havesustainable human development, eachgeneration must have the same opportunities.All environmental, financial and humanresources must be used keeping in mind thefuture. Misuse of any of these resources willlead to fewer opportunities for futuregenerations.A good example is about the importanceof sending girls to school. If a community doesnot stress the importance of sending its girlchildren to school, many opportunities will belost to these young women when they grow up.Their career choices will be severely curtailedand this would affect other aspects of their lives.So each generation must ensure the availabilityof choices and opportunities to its futuregenerations.Productivity here means human labourproductivity or productivity in terms of humanwork. Such productivity must be constantlyenriched by building capabilities in people.Ultimately, it is people who are the real wealthof nations. Therefore, efforts to increase theirknowledge, or provide better health facilitiesultimately leads to better work efficiency.Empowerment means to have the powerto make choices. Such power comes fromincreasing freedom and capability. Good

governance and people-oriented policies arerequired to empower people. The empowermentof socially and economically disadvantagedgroups is of special importance.Talk to the vegetable vendor in your neighbourhood andfind out if she has gone to school. Did she drop out ofschool? Why? What does this tell you about her choicesand the freedom she has? Note how her opportunitieswere limited because of her gender, caste and income.26 Fundamentals of Human GeographyAPPROACHES TO HUMANDEVELOPMENTThere are many ways of looking at the problemof human development. Some of the importantapproaches are: (a) The income approach; (b) Thewelfare approach; (c) Minimum needs approach;and (d) Capabilities approach (Table 4.1).MEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENTThe human development index (HDI) ranks thecountries based on their performance in the keyareas of health, education and access toresources. These rankings are based on a scorebetween 0 to 1 that a country earns from itsrecord in the key areas of human development.The indicator chosen to assess health isthe life expectancy at birth. A higher lifeexpectancy means that people have a greaterchance of living longer and healthier lives.The adult literacy rate and the grossenrolment ratio represent access to knowledge.The number of adults who are able to read andwrite and the number of children enrolled inschools show how easy or difficult it is to accessknowledge in a particular country.Access to resources is measured in termsof purchasing power (in U.S. dollars).Each of these dimensions is given aweightage of 1/3. The human developmentindex is a sum total of the weights assigned toall these dimensions.

The closer a score is to one, the greater isthe level of human development. Therefore, ascore of 0.983 would be considered very highwhile 0.268 would mean a very low level ofhuman development.The human development index measuresattainments in human development. It reflectswhat has been achieved in the key areas ofhuman development. Yet it is not the mostreliable measure. This is because it does notsay anything about the distribution.The human poverty index is related to thehuman development index. This indexmeasures the shortfall in human development.(a) Income Approach This is one of the oldest approaches to humandevelopment. Human development is seen as beinglinked to income. The idea is that the level of incomereflects the level of freedom an individual enjoys.Higher the level of income, the higher is the level ofhuman development.(b) Welfare Approach This approach looks at human beings as beneficiariesor targets of all development activities. The approachargues for higher government expenditure oneducation, health, social secondary and amenities.People are not participants in development but onlypassive recipients. The government is responsible forincreasing levels of human development bymaximising expenditure on welfare.(c) Basic Needs Approach This approach was initially proposed by theInternational Labour Organisation (ILO). Six basicneeds i.e.: health, education, food, water supply,sanitation, and housing were identified. The questionof human choices is ignored and the emphasis is onthe provision of basic needs of defined sections.(d) Capability Approach This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen.Building human capabilities in the areas of health,education and access to resources is the key toincreasing human development.

Table 4.1: Approaches to Human DevelopmentHuman Development 27It is a non-income measure. The probability ofnot surviving till the age of 40, the adult illiteracyrate, the number of people who do not haveaccess to clean water, and the number of smallchildren who are underweight are all taken intoaccount to show the shortfall in humandevelopment in any region. Often the humanpoverty index is more revealing than the humandevelopment index.Looking at both these measures of humandevelopment together gives an accurate pictureof the human development situation in acountry.The ways to measure human developmentare constantly being refined and newer ways ofcapturing different elements of humandevelopment are being researched. Researchershave found links between the level of corruptionor political freedom in a particular region. Thereis also a discussion regarding a politicalfreedom index and, a listing of the most corruptcountries. Can you think of other links to thelevel of human development?Since 1990, the United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP) has beenpublishing the Human Development Reportevery year. This report provides a rank-wiselist of all member countries according to thelevel of human development. The HumanDevelopment index and the Human Povertyindex are two important indices to measurehuman development used by the UNDP.Bhutan is the only country in the world toofficially proclaim the Gross NationalHappiness (GNH) as the measure of thecountry’s progress. Material progress andtechnological developments are approachedmore cautiously taking into consideration the

possible harm they might bring to theenvironment or the other aspects of culturaland spiritual life of the Bhutanese. This simplymeans material progress cannot come at thecost of happiness. GNH encourages us tothink of the spiritual, non-material andqualitative aspects of development.INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONSInternational comparisons of humandevelopment are interesting. Size of the territoryand per capita income are not directly relatedto human development. Often smaller countrieshave done better than larger ones in humandevelopment. Similarly, relatively poorer nationshave been ranked higher than richer neighboursin terms of human development.For example, Sri Lanka, Trinidad andTobago have a higher rank than India in thehuman development index despite havingsmaller economies. Similarly, within India,Kerala performs much better than Punjab andGujarat in human development despite havinglower per capita income.Countries can be classified into fourgroups on the basis of the human developmentscores earned by them (Table 4.2).Table 4.2: Human Development: Categories, Criteriaand CountriesLevel of Human Score in Number ofDevelopment Development CountriesIndexVery High above 0.793 47High between 0.698 47up to 0.793Medium between 0.522 47up to 0.698Low below 0.522 46Source: Human Development Report, 201128 Fundamentals of Human GeographyTry to find out the percentage of the

country’s income spent on these sectors. Canyou think of some other characteristics thatthese countries have in common?You will notice that many of these countrieshave been the former imperial powers. The degreeof social diversity in these countries is not veryhigh. Many of the countries with a high humandevelopment score are located in Europe andrepresent the industrialised western world. Yetthere are striking numbers of non-Europeancountries also who have made it to this list.Countries with medium levels of humandevelopment form the largest group. There are47 countries in the medium level of humandevelopment. Most of these are countries whichhave emerged in the period after the SecondWorld War. Some countries from this group wereformer colonies while many others have emergedafter the break up of the erstwhile Soviet Unionin 1990. Many of these countries have beenrapidly improving their human developmentscore by adopting more people-oriented policiesand reducing social discrimination. Most ofthese countries have a much higher socialdiversity than the countries with higher humandevelopment scores. Many in this group haveCountries with very high human developmentindex are those which have a score of over 0.793.According to the Human Development Reportof 2011, this group includes 47 countries. Table4.3 shows the countries in this group.Table 4.3: Top Ten Countries with High Value IndexSl. No. Country Sl. No. Country1. Norway 6. New Zealand2. Australia 7. Ireland3. United States 7. Sweden4. Netherlands 9. Switzerland5. Germany 10. JapanSource: Human Development Report, 2013Try to locate these countries on a map.

Can you see what these countries have incommon? To find out more visit the officialgovernment websites of these countries.High level of human development grouphas 47 countries. Providing education andhealthcare is an important government priority.Countries with higher human development arethose where a lot of investment in the socialsector has taken place. Altogether, a higherinvestment in people and good governance hasset this group of countries apart from the others.India was 126thin HumanDevelopmentIndex as perHumanDevelopmentReport, 2006.According toHDI, 2013,India’s rank hasfurther gonedown to 136.What could bethe reason forIndia to bebehind 135countries inHDI?

Human Development 29EXERCISES1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Which one of the following best describes development?(a) an increase in size (c) a positive change in quality(b) a constant in size (d) a simple change in the quality(ii) Which one of the following scholars introduced the concept of HumanDevelopment?(a) Prof. Amartya Sen (c) Dr Mahabub-ul-Haq(b) Ellen C. Semple (d) Ratzel

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) What are the three basic areas of human development?(ii) Name the four main components of human development?(iii) How are countries classified on the basis of human development index?3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.(i) What do you understand by the term human development?(ii) What do equity and sustainability refer to within the concept of humandevelopment?faced political instability and social uprisingsat some point of time in their recent history.As many as 46 countries record low levelsof human development. A large proportion ofthese are small countries which have been goingthrough political turmoil and social instabilityin the form of civil war, famine or a highincidence of diseases. There is an urgent needto address the human developmentrequirements of this group through wellthought out policies.International comparisons of humandevelopment can show some very interestingresults. Often people tend to blame low levelsof human development on the culture of thepeople. For example, X country has lowerhuman development because its people followY religion, or belong to Z community. Suchstatements are misleading.To understand why a particular regionkeeps reporting low or high levels of humandevelopment it is important to look at thepattern of government expenditure on thesocial sector. The political environment of thecountry and the amount of freedom peoplehave is also important. Countries with highlevels of human development invest more inthe social sectors and are generally free frompolitical turmoil and instability. Distributionof the country’s resources is also far moreequitable.On the other hand, places with low levels

of human development tend to spend more ondefence rather than social sectors. This showsthat these countries tend to be located in areasof political instability and have not been ableto initiate accelerated economic development.30 Fundamentals of Human GeographyProject/ActivityMake a list of the ten most corrupt countries and ten least corrupt countries.Compare their scores on the human development index. What inferences canyou draw?Consult the latest Human Development Report for this.Unit-IIIChapter-5Primary ActivitiesHuman activities which generate income areknown as economic activities. Economicactivities are broadly grouped into primary,secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities.Primary activities are directly dependent onenvironment as these refer to utilisation ofearth’s resources such as land, water,vegetation, building materials and minerals. It,thus includes, hunting and gathering, pastoralactivities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, andmining and quarrying.Why are the inhabitants of coastal andplain regions engaged in fishing andagriculture respectively? What are thephysical and social factors which affect thetype of primary activities in differentregions?People engaged in primary activities are called redcollarworkers due to the outdoor nature of their work.HUNTING AND GATHERINGThe earliest human beings depended on theirimmediate environment for their sustenance.They subsisted on: (a) animals which theyhunted; and (b) the edible plants which theygathered from forests in the vicinity.Primitive societies depended on wild

animals. People located in very cold andextremely hot climates survived on hunting. Thepeople in the coastal areas still catch fish thoughfishing has experienced modernisation due totechnological progress. Many species, now havebecome extinct or endangered due to illegalhunting (poaching). The early hunters usedprimitive tools made of stones, twigs or arrowsso the number of animals killed was limited.Why has hunting been banned in India?Gathering and hunting are the oldesteconomic activity known. These are carried outat different levels with different orientations.Gathering is practised in regions withharsh climatic conditions. It often involvesprimitive societies, who extract, both plants and32 Fundamentals of Human Geographyanimals to satisfy their needs for food, shelterand clothing. This type of activity requires asmall amount of capital investment andoperates at very low level of technology. Theyield per person is very low and little or nosurplus is produced.Fig. 5.1: Women Gathering Oranges in MizoramFig. 5.2: Areas of Subsistence GatheringGathering is practised in: (i) high latitudezones which include northern Canada, northernEurasia and southern Chile; (ii) Low latitudezones such as the Amazon Basin, tropicalAfrica, Northern fringe of Australia and theinterior parts of Southeast Asia (Fig. 5.2).In modern times some gathering is marketorientedand has become commercial. Gathererscollect valuable plants such as leaves, barks oftrees and medicinal plants and after simpleprocessing sell the products in the market. Theyuse various parts of the plants, for example,the bark is used for quinine, tanin extract andcork— leaves supply materials for beverages,drugs, cosmetics, fibres, thatch and fabrics;

nuts for food and oils and tree trunk yieldrubber, balata, gums and resins.The name of the part of the chewing gum after the flavouris gone? It is called Chicle — it is made from the milkyjuice of zapota tree.Gathering has little chance of becomingimportant at the global level. Products of such anPrimary Activities 33activity cannot compete in the world market.Moreover, synthetic products often of betterquality and at lower prices, have replaced manyitems supplied by the gatherers in tropical forests.PASTORALISMAt some stage in history, with the realisationthat hunting is an unsustainable activity,human beings might have thought ofdomestication of animals. People living indifferent climatic conditions selected anddomesticated animals found in those regions.Depending on the geographical factors, andtechnological development, animal rearingtoday is practised either at the subsistence orat the commercial level.Nomadic HerdingNomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is aprimitive subsistence activity, in which theherders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter,tools and transport. They move from one placeto another along with their livestock, dependingon the amount and quality of pastures andwater. Each nomadic community occupies awell-identified territory as a matter of tradition.Fig. 5.3: Nomads taking their sheep up to theMountains at the onset of summerA wide variety of animals is kept indifferent regions. In tropical Africa, cattle arethe most important livestock, while in Saharaand Asiatic deserts, sheep, goats and camelare reared. In the mountainous areas of Tibetand Andes, yak and llamas and in the Arctic

and sub Arctic areas, reindeer are the mostimportant animals.Pastoral nomadism is associated withthree important regions. The core regionextends from the Atlantic shores of North Africaeastwards across the Arabian peninsula intoMongolia and Central China. The second regionextends over the tundra region of Eurasia. Inthe southern hemisphere there are small areasin South-west Africa and on the island ofMadagascar (Fig. 5.4)Movement in search of pastures isundertaken either over vast horizontaldistances or vertically from one elevation toanother in the mountainous regions. Theprocess of migration from plain areas topastures on mountains during summers andagain from mountain pastures to plain areasduring winters is known as transhumance. Inmountain regions, such as Himalayas, Gujjars,Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas migrate fromplains to the mountains in summers and to theplains from the high altitude pastures inwinters. Similarly, in the tundra regions, thenomadic herders move from south to north insummers and from north to south in winters.The number of pastoral nomads has beendecreasing and the areas operated by themshrinking. This is due to (a) imposition ofpolitical boundaries; (b) new settlement plansby different countries.Commercial Livestock RearingUnlike nomadic herding, commercial livestockrearing is more organised and capital intensive.Commercial livestock ranching is essentiallyassociated with western cultures and is practisedon permanent ranches. These ranches coverlarge areas and are divided into a number ofparcels, which are fenced to regulate the grazing.When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals

are moved to another parcel. The number ofanimals in a pasture is kept according to thecarrying capacity of the pasture.This is a specialised activity in which onlyone type of animal is reared. Important animalsinclude sheep, cattle, goats and horses.Products such as meat, wool, hides and skinare processed and packed scientifically andexported to different world markets.Rearing of animals in ranching isorganised on a scientific basis. The main34 Fundamentals of Human GeographyFig. 5.4: Areas of Nomadic Herdingemphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement,disease control and health care of the animals.New Zealand, Australia, Argentina,Uruguay and United States of America areimportant countries where commercial livestockrearing is practised (Fig. 5.6).Fig. 5.5: Commercial Livestock RearingReindeer rearing in the northern regions of Alaska wheremost of the Eskimos own about two-third of the stock.AGRICULTUREAgriculture is practised under multiplecombinations of physical and socio-economicconditions, which gives rise to different types ofagricultural systems.Based on methods of farming, differenttypes of crops are grown and livestock raised.The following are the main agricultural systems.Subsistence AgricultureSubsistence agriculture is one in which thefarming areas consume all, or nearly so, of theproducts locally grown. It can be grouped intwo categories — Primitive SubsistenceAgriculture and Intensive SubsistenceAgriculture.Primitive Subsistence AgriculturePrimitive subsistence agriculture or shiftingcultivation is widely practised by many tribes

in the tropics, especially in Africa, south andcentral America and south east Asia (Fig. 5.7).Primary Activities 35Fig. 5.6: Areas of Commercial Livestock RearingFig. 5.7: Areas of Primitive Subsistence Agriculture36 Fundamentals of Human GeographyThe vegetation is usually cleared by fire,and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil.Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slashand burn agriculture. The cultivated patchesare very small and cultivation is done with veryprimitive tools such as sticks and hoes. Aftersometime (3 to 5 years) the soil looses its fertilityand the farmer shifts to another parts and clearsother patch of the forest for cultivation. Thefarmer may return to the earlier patch aftersometime. One of the major problems of shiftingcultivation is that the cycle of jhum becomesless and less due to loss of fertility in differentparcels. It is prevalent in tropical region indifferent names, e.g. Jhuming in North easternstates of India, Milpa in central America andMexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.Find out other areas and the names with whichshifting cultivation is done.Intensive Subsistence AgricultureThis type of agriculture is largely found indensely populated regions of monsoon Asia.Fig. 5.8: Areas of Intensive Subsistence FarmingBasically, there are two types of intensivesubsistence agriculture.(i) Intensive subsistence agriculturedominated by wet paddy cultivation: Thistype of agriculture is characterised bydominance of the rice crop. Land holdingsare very small due to the high density ofpopulation. Farmers work with the helpof family labour leading to intensive use ofland. Use of machinery is limited and mostof the agricultural operations are done by

manual labour. Farm yard manure is usedto maintain the fertility of the soil. In thistype of agriculture, the yield per unit areais high but per labour productivity is low.(ii) Intensive subsidence agriculturedominated by crops other than paddy:Due to the difference in relief, climate, soiland some of the other geographical factors,it is not practical to grow paddy in manyparts of monsoon Asia. Wheat, soyabean,barley and sorghum are grown in northernChina, Manchuria, North Korea and NorthJapan. In India wheat is grown in westernPrimary Activities 37parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains andmillets are grown in dry parts of westernand southern India. Most of thecharacteristics of this type of agricultureare similar to those dominated by wetpaddy except that irrigation is often used.The Europeans colonised many parts inthe world and they introduced some other formsof agriculture such as plantations which weremainly profit-oriented large scale productionsystems.Plantation AgriculturePlantation agriculture as mentioned above wasintroduced by the Europeans in coloniessituated in the tropics. Some of the importantplantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber,cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas andpineapples.The characteristic features of this type offarming are large estates or plantations, largecapital investment, managerial and technicalsupport, scientific methods of cultivation,single crop specialisation, cheap labour, anda good system of transportation which linksthe estates to the factories and markets for theexport of the products.

The French established cocoa and coffeeplantations in west Africa. The British set uplarge tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka,rubber plantations in Malaysia and sugarcaneand banana plantations in West Indies.Spanish and Americans invested heavily inFig. 5.9: Rice Transplantationcoconut and sugarcane plantations in thePhilippines. The Dutch once had monopolyover sugarcane plantation in Indonesia. Somecoffee fazendas (large plantations) in Brazil arestill managed by Europeans.Today, ownership of the majority ofplantations has passed into the hands of thegovernment or the nationals of the countriesconcerned.Fig. 5.10: Tea PlantationThe slopes of hills are used for tea plantations becauseof favourable geographical conditions.Extensive Commercial Grain CultivationCommercial grain cultivation is practised in theinterior parts of semi-arid lands of the midlatitudes.Wheat is the principal crop, thoughother crops like corn, barley, oats and rye arealso grown. The size of the farm is very large,therefore entire operations of cultivation fromploughing toharvesting aremechanised (Fig.5.11). There is lowyield per acre buthigh yield perperson. Why doesthis happen?Fig. 5.11: MechanisedGrain FarmingCombine crews arecapable of harvestinggrain over manyhectares in a single

day.38 Fundamentals of Human GeographyThis type of agriculture is best developedin Eurasian steppes, the Canadian andAmerican Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, theVelds of South Africa, the Australian Downs andthe Canterbury Plains of New Zealand. (Locatethese areas on the world map).Mixed FarmingThis form of agriculture is found in the highlydeveloped parts of the world, e.g. North-westernEurope, Eastern North America, parts ofEurasia and the temperate latitudes ofSouthern continents (Fig. 5.14).Mixed farms are moderate in size andusually the crops associated with it are wheat,barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops.Fodder crops are an important component ofmixed farming. Crop rotation and intercroppingplay an important role in maintaining soilfertility. Equal emphasis is laid on cropcultivation and animal husbandry. Animals likecattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the mainincome along with crops.Mixed farming is characterised by highcapital expenditure on farm machinery andFig. 5.12: Areas of Extensive Commercial Grain Farmingbuilding, extensive use of chemical fertilisersand green manures and also by the skill andexpertise of the farmers.Dairy FarmingDairy is the most advanced and efficient type ofrearing of milch animals. It is highly capitalintensive. Animal sheds, storage facilities forfodder, feeding and milching machines add tothe cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis islaid on cattle breeding, health care andveterinary services.Fig. 5.13: A Dairy Farm in AustriaPrimary Activities 39

Fig. 5.14: Areas of Mixed FarmingIt is highly labour intensive as it involvesrigorous care in feeding and milching. There isno off season during the year as in the case ofcrop raising.It is practised mainly near urban andindustrial centres which provideneighbourhood market for fresh milk and dairyproducts. The development of transportation,refrigeration, pasteurisation and otherpreservation processes have increased theduration of storage of various dairy products.There are three main regions of commercialdairy farming. The largest is North WesternEurope the second is Canada and the third beltincludes South Eastern Australia, New Zealandand Tasmania (Fig. 5.16).Mediterranean AgricultureMediterranean agriculture is highly specialisedcommercial agriculture. It is practised in thecountries on either side of the MediterraneanFig. 5.15 (a): A vineyard in Switzerland Fig. 5.15 (b): Collection ofgrapes in a collective farm of Kazakhstan40 Fundamentals of Human Geographysea in Europe and in north Africa from Tunisiato Atlantic coast, southern California, centralChile, south western parts of South Africa andsouth and south western parts of Australia.This region is an important supplier of citrusfruits.Viticulture or grape cultivation is aspeciality of the Mediterranean region. Bestquality wines in the world with distinctiveflavours are produced from high quality grapesin various countries of this region. The inferiorgrapes are dried into raisins and currants. Thisregion also produces olives and figs. Theadvantage of Mediterranean agriculture is thatmore valuable crops such as fruits andvegetables are grown in winters when there is

great demand in European and North Americanmarkets.Market Gardening and HorticultureMarket gardening and horticulture specialisein the cultivation of high value crops such asvegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for theurban markets. Farms are small and arelocated where there are good transportationlinks with the urban centre where high incomegroup of consumers is located. It is both labourand capital intensive and lays emphasis on theuse of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers,insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heatingin colder regions.This type of agriculture is well developedin densely populated industrial districts ofnorth west Europe, north eastern United Statesof America and the Mediterranean regions. TheNetherlands specialises in growing flowers andhorticultural crops especially tulips, which areflown to all major cities of Europe.The regions where farmers specialise invegetables only, the farming is know as truckfarming. The distance of truck farms from themarket is governed by the distance that a truckcan cover overnight, hence the name truckfarming.In addition to market gardening, a moderndevelopment in the industrial regions of WesternEurope and North America is factory farming.Livestock, particularly poultry and cattlerearing, is done in stalls and pens, fed onmanufactured feedstuff and carefullyFig. 5.16: Areas of Dairy FarmingPrimary Activities 41supervised against diseases. This requires heavycapital investment in terms of building,machinery for various operations, veterinaryservices and heating and lighting. One of theimportant features of poultry farming and cattle

rearing is breed selection and scientificbreeding.Types of farming can also be categorisedaccording to the farming organisation. Farmingorganisation is affected by the way in whichfarmers own their farms and various policies ofthe government which help to run these farms.Co-operative FarmingA group of farmers form a co-operative societyby pooling in their resources voluntarily formore efficient and profitable farming. Individualfarms remain intact and farming is a matter ofcooperative initiative.Co-operative societies help farmers, toprocure all important inputs of farming, sell theproducts at the most favourable terms and helpin processing of quality products at cheaperrates.Co-operative movement originated over acentury ago and has been successful in manywestern European countries like Denmark,Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. InDenmark, the movement has been so successfulthat practically every farmer is a member of aco-operative.Collective FarmingThe basic principle behind this types of farmingFigure 5.17 (a): Vegetables being grown in thevicinity of the cityFigure 5.17 (b): Vegetables being loaded into a truckand cycle carts for transporting to city marketsis based on social ownership of the means ofproduction and collective labour. Collectivefarming or the model of Kolkhoz wasintroduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to improveupon the inefficiency of the previous methodsof agriculture and to boost agriculturalproduction for self-sufficiency.The farmers used to pool in all theirresources like land, livestock and labour.

However, they were allowed to retain very smallplots to grow crops in order to meet their dailyrequirements.Yearly targets were set by the governmentand the produce was also sold to the state atfixed prices. Produce in excess of the fixedamount was distributed among the membersor sold in the market. The farmers had to paytaxes on the farm produces, hired machineryetc. Members were paid according to the natureof the work allotted to them by the farmmanagement. Exceptional work was rewardedin cash or kind. This type of farming wasintroduced in former Soviet Union under thesocialist regime which was adopted by thesocialist countries. After its collapse, these havealready been modified.MININGThe discovery of minerals in the history ofhuman development, is reflected in many stagesin terms of copper age, bronze age and iron age.The use of minerals in ancient times was largelyconfined to the making of tools, utensils andweapons. The actual development of miningbegan with the industrial revolution and itsimportance is continuously increasing.42 Fundamentals of Human GeographyFig. 5.18: Oil drilling operationin the Gulf of MexicoFactors Affecting Mining ActivityThe profitability of mining operations thus,depends on two main factors:(i) Physical factors include the size, grade andthe mode of occurrence of the deposits.(ii) Economic factors such as the demand forthe mineral, technology available and used,capital to develop infrastructure and thelabour and transport costs.Methods of MiningDepending on the mode of occurrence and the

nature of the ore, mining is of two types: surfaceand underground mining. The surface miningalso known as open-cast mining is the easiestand the cheapest way of mining minerals thatoccur close to the surface. Overhead costs suchas safety precautions and equipment isrelatively low in this method. The output is bothlarge and rapid.SHAFT MININGOPEN-CAST OR(STRIP MINING)Fig. 5.19: Methods of MiningWhen the ore lies deep below the surface,underground mining method (shaft method)has to be used. In this method, vertical shaftshave to be sunk, from where undergroundgalleries radiate to reach the minerals.Minerals are extracted and transported to thesurface through these passages. It requiresspecially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles,ventilation system for safety and efficientmovement of people and material. This methodis risky. Poisonous gases, fires, floods andcaving in lead to fatal accidents. Have you everread about mine fires and flooding of coalmines in India?The developed economies are retreatingfrom mining, processing and refining stages ofproduction due to high labour costs, while thedeveloping countries with large labour force andstriving for higher standard of living arebecoming more important. Several countriesof Africa and few of south America and Asiahave over fifty per cent of the earnings fromminerals alone.Primary Activities 43EXERCISES1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Which one of the following is not a plantation crop?(a) Coffee (c) Wheat

(b) Sugarcane (d) Rubber(ii) In which one of the following countries co-operative farming was the mostsuccessful experiment?(a) Russia (c) India(b) Denmark (d) The Netherlands(iii) Growing of flowers is called:(a) Truck farming (c) Mixed farming(b) Factory farming (d) Floriculture(iv) Which one of the following types of cultivation was developed by Europeancolonists?(a) Kolkoz (c) Mixed farming(b) Viticulture (d) Plantation(v) In which one of the following regions is extensive commercial grain cultivationnot practised?(a) American Canadian prairies (c) Pampas of Argentina(b) European Steppes (d) Amazon Basin(vi) In which of the following types of agriculture is the farming of citrus fruit veryimportant?(a) Market gardening (c) Mediterranean agriculture(b) Plantation agriculture (d) Co-operative farming(vii) Which one type of agriculture amongst the following is also called ‘slash andburn agriculture’?(a) Extensive subsistence agriculture(b) Primitive subsistence agriculture(c) Extensive commercial grain cultivation(d) Mixed farming(viii) Which one of the following does not follow monoculture?(a) Dairy farming (c) Plantation agriculture(b) Mixed farming (d) Commercial grain farming2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Future of shifting cultivation is bleak. Discuss.(ii) Market gardening is practised near urban areas. Why?(iii) Large scale dairy farming is the result of the development of transportationand refrigeration.44 Fundamentals of Human Geography

3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.(i) Differentiate between Nomadic Herding and Commercial Livestock Rearing.(ii) Discuss the important characteristic features of plantation agriculture. Namea few important plantation crops from different countries.Project/ActivityVisit a nearby village and observe the cultivation of some crops. Askthe farmers and list the various operations.Unit-IIIChapter-6Secondary ActivitiesAll economic activities namely primary,secondary, tertiary and quaternary, revolvearound obtaining and utilising resourcesnecessary for survival.Secondary activities add value to naturalresources by transforming raw materials intovaluable products. Cotton in the boll has limiteduse but after it is transformed into yarn,becomes more valuable and can be used formaking clothes. Iron ore, cannot be used;directly from the mines, but after beingconverted into steel it gets its value and can beused for making many valuable machines,tools, etc. The same is true of most of thematerials from the farm, forest, mine and thesea. Secondary activities, therefore, areconcerned with manufacturing, processing andconstruction (infrastructure) industries.MANUFACTURINGManufacturing involves a full array ofproduction from handicrafts to moulding ironand steel and stamping out plastic toys toassembling delicate computer components orspace vehicles. In each of these processes, thecommon characteristics are the application ofpower, mass production of identical productsand specialised labour in factory settings forthe production of standardised commodities.

Manufacturing may be done with modernpower and machinery or it may still be veryprimitive. Most of the Third World countries still‘manufacture’ in the literal sense of the term. Itis difficult to present a full picture of all themanufacturers in these countries. Moreemphasis is given to the kind of ‘industrial’activity which involves less complicated systemsof production.Characteristics of Modern Large ScaleManufacturingModern large scale manufacturing has thefollowing characteristics:Specialisation of Skills/Methods ofProductionUnder the ‘craft’ method factories produce onlya few pieces which are made-to-order. So thecosts are high. On the other hand, mass46 Fundamentals of Human Geographyproduction involves production of largequantities of standardised parts by each workerperforming only one task repeatedly.‘Manufacturing’ Industry and‘Manufacturing Industry’Manufacturing literally means ‘tomake by hand’. However, now itincludes goods ‘made by machines’.It is essentially a process whichinvolves transforming raw materialsinto finished goods of higher valuefor sale in local or distant markets.Conceptually, an industry is ageographically located manufacturingunit maintaining books of accountsand, records under a managementsystem. As the term industry iscomprehensive, it is also used assynonymous with ‘manufacturing’When one uses terms like ‘steelindustry’ and ‘chemical industry’ one

thinks of factories and processes.But there are many secondaryactivities which are not carried on infactories such as what is now calledthe ‘entertainment industry’ andTourism industry, etc. So for claritythe longer expression ‘manufacturingindustry’ is used.MechanisationMechanisation refers to using gadgets whichaccomplish tasks. Automation (without aid ofhuman thinking during the manufacturingprocess) is the advanced stage of mechanisation.Automatic factories with feedback and closedloopcomputer control systems where machinesare developed to ‘think’, have sprung up all overthe world.Technological InnovationTechnological innovations through researchand development strategy are an importantaspect of modern manufacturing for qualitycontrol, eliminating waste and inefficiency, andcombating pollution.Organisational Structure and StratificationModern manufacturing is characterised by:(i) a complex machine technology(ii) extreme specialisation and division oflabour for producing more goods with lesseffort, and low costs(iii) vast capital(iv) large organisations(v) executive bureaucracy.Uneven Geographic DistributionMajor concentrations of modern manufacturinghave flourished in a few number of places. Thesecover less than 10 per cent of the world’s landarea. These nations have become the centres ofeconomic and political power. However, in termsof the total area covered, manufacturing sitesare much less conspicuous and concentrated

on much smaller areas than that of agriculturedue to greater intensity of processes. Forexample, 2.5 sq km of the American corn beltusually includes about four large farmsemploying about 10-20 workers supporting50-100 persons. But this same area couldcontain several large integrated factories andemploy thousands of workers.Why do Large-scale Industries choosedifferent locations?Industries maximise profits by reducingcosts. Therefore, industries should be locatedat points where the production costs areminimum. Some of the factors influencingindustrial locations are as under:Access to MarketThe existence of a market for manufacturedgoods is the most important factor in the locationof industries. ‘Market’ means people who have ademand for these goods and also have thepurchasing power (ability to purchase) to be ableto purchase from the sellers at a place. Remoteareas inhabited by a few people offer smallmarkets. The developed regions of Europe, NorthAmerica, Japan and Australia provide largeglobal markets as the purchasing power of thepeople is very high. The densely populatedregions of South and South-east Asia alsoSecondary Activities 47provide large markets. Some industries, suchas aircraft manufacturing, have a global market.The arms industry also has global markets.Access to Raw MaterialRaw material used by industries should becheap and easy to transport. Industries basedon cheap, bulky and weight-losing material(ores) are located close to the sources of rawmaterial such as steel, sugar, and cementindustries. Perishability is a vital factor for theindustry to be located closer to the source of

the raw material. Agro-processing and dairyproducts are processed close to the sources offarm produce or milk supply respectively.Access to Labour SupplyLabour supply is an important factor in thelocation of industries. Some types ofmanufacturing still require skilled labour.Increasing mechanisation, automation andflexibility of industrial processes have reducedthe dependence of industry upon the labours.Access to Sources of EnergyIndustries which use more power are locatedclose to the source of the energy supply suchas the aluminium industry.Earlier coal was the main source of energy,today hydroelectricity and petroleum are alsoimportant sources of energy for manyindustries.Access to Transportation andCommunication FacilitiesSpeedy and efficient transport facilities to carryraw materials to the factory and to move finishedgoods to the market are essential for thedevelopment of industries. The cost of transportplays an important role in the location ofindustrial units. Western Europe and easternNorth America have a highly developed transportsystem which has always induced theconcentration of industries in these areas. Modernindustry is inseparably tied to transportationsystems. Improvements in transportation led tointegrated economic development and regionalspecialisation of manufacturing.Communication is also an important needfor industries for the exchange andmanagement of information.Government PolicyGovernments adopt ‘regional policies’ topromote ‘balanced’ economic development andhence set up industries in particular areas.

Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between IndustriesMany industries benefit from nearness to aleader-industry and other industries. Thesebenefits are termed as agglomerationeconomies. Savings are derived from thelinkages which exist between differentindustries.These factors operate together to determineindustrial location.Foot Loose IndustriesFoot loose industries can be locatedin a wide variety of places. They arenot dependent on any specific rawmaterial, weight losing or otherwise.They largely depend on componentparts which can be obtainedanywhere. They produce in smallquantity and also employ a smalllabour force. These are generally notpolluting industries. The importantfactor in their location is accessibilityby road network.Classification of Manufacturing IndustriesManufacturing industries are classified on thebasis of their size, inputs/raw materials,output/products and ownership (Fig. 6.1).Industries based on SizeThe amount of capital invested, number ofworkers employed and volume of productiondetermine the size of industry. Accordingly,industries may be classified into household orcottage, small-scale and large-scale.48 Fundamentals of Human GeographyFig. 6.1 : Classification of IndustriesSecondary Activities 49HOUSEHOLD INDUSTRIES ORCOTTAGE MANUFACTURINGIt is the smallest manufacturing unit. Theartisans use local raw materials and simple

tools to produce everyday goods in their homeswith the help of their family members or parttimelabour. Finished products may be forconsumption in the same household or, for salein local (village) markets, or, for barter. Capitaland transportation do not wield much influenceas this type of manufacturing has lowcommercial significance and most of the toolsare devised locally.Some common everyday productsproduced in this sector of manufacturinginclude foodstuffs, fabrics, mats, containers,tools, furniture, shoes, and figurines from woodlot and forest, shoes, thongs and other articles fromleather; pottery and bricks from clays and stones.Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver andbronze. Some artefacts and crafts are made out ofbamboo, wood obtained locally from the forests.Small Scale ManufacturingSmall scale manufacturing is distinguishedfrom household industries by its productiontechniques and place of manufacture (aworkshop outside the home/cottage of theproducer). This type of manufacturing useslocal raw material, simple power-drivenmachines and semi-skilled labour. It providesemployment and raises local purchasing power.Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesiaand Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensivesmall scale manufacturing in order to provideemployment to their population.Fig. 6.2 (a) : A man making pots in his courtyardexampleof household industry in NagalandFig. 6.2 (b) : A man weaving a bamboo basket by theroadside in Arunachal PradeshFig. 6.3: Products of cottage industry on salein AssamLarge Scale ManufacturingLarge scale manufacturing involves a largemarket, various raw materials, enormous

energy, specialised workers, advancedtechnology, assembly-line mass production andlarge capital. This kind of manufacturingdeveloped in the last 200 years, in the UnitedKingdom, north-eastern U.S.A. and Europe. Nowit has diffused to almost all over the world.50 Fundamentals of Human GeographyOn the basis of the system of large scalemanufacturing, the world’s major industrialregions may be grouped under two broad types,namely(i) traditional large-scale industrial regionswhich are thickly clustered in a few moredeveloped countries.(ii) high-technology large scale industrialregions which have diffused to lessdeveloped countries.Industries based on Inputs/Raw MaterialsOn the basis of the raw materials used, theindustries are classified as: (a) agro-based; (b)mineral based; (c) chemical based; (d) forestbased: and (e) animal based.(a) Agro based IndustriesAgro processing involves the processing of rawmaterials from the field and the farm into finishedproducts for rural and urban markets. Majoragro-processing industries are food processing,sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffeeand cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles(cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.Food ProcessingAgro processing includes canning, producingcream, fruit processing and confectionery. Whilesome preserving techniques, such as drying,fermenting and pickling, have been known sinceancient times, these had limited applications tocater to the pre-Industrial Revolution demands.Fig. 6.4 : Passenger car assembly hires at a plant ofthe Motor Company in JapanAgri-business is commercial farming

on an industrial scale often financedby business whose main interests lieoutside agriculture, for example, largecorporations in tea plantationbusiness. Agri-business farms aremechanised, large in size, highlystructured, reliant on chemicals, andmay be described as ‘agro-factories’.(b) Mineral based IndustriesThese industries use minerals as a raw material.Some industries use ferrous metallic mineralswhich contain ferrous (iron), such as iron andsteel industries but some use non-ferrousmetallic minerals, such as aluminium, copperand jewellery industries. Many industries usenon-metallic minerals such as cement andpottery industries.(c) Chemical based IndustriesSuch industries use natural chemical minerals,e.g. mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in petrochemicalindustry. Salts, sulphur and potashindustries also use natural minerals. Chemicalindustries are also based on raw materialsobtained from wood and coal. Synthetic fibre,plastic, etc. are other examples of chemical basedindustries.Fig. 6.5: Tea Garden and a Tea Factory in the NilgiriHills of Tamil NaduSecondary Activities 51(d) Forest based Raw Material usingIndustriesThe forests provide many major and minorproducts which are used as raw material.Timber for furniture industry, wood, bambooand grass for paper industry, lac for lacindustries come from forests.INDUSTRIES BASED ON OWNERSHIP(a) Public Sector Industries are owned andmanaged by governments. In India, therewere a number of Public Sector

Undertakings (PSUs). Socialist countrieshave many state owned industries. Mixedeconomies have both Public and Privatesector enterprises.(b) Private Sector Industries are owned byindividual investors. These are managedby private organisations. In capitalistcountries, industries are generally ownedprivately.(c) Joint Sector Industries are managed byjoint stock companies or sometimes theprivate and public sectors togetherestablish and manage the industries. Canyou make a list of such industries?Traditional Large-Scale Industrial RegionsThese are based on heavy industry, oftenlocated near coal-fields and engaged in metalsmelting, heavy engineering, chemicalmanufacture or textile production. Theseindustries are now known as smokestackindustries. Traditional industrial regions canbe recognised by:• High proportion of employment inmanufacturing industry._ High-density housing, often of inferiortype, and poor services._ Unattractive environment, for example,pollution, waste heaps, and so on.• Problems of unemployment, emigrationand derelict land areas caused by closureof factories because of a worldwide fall indemand.The Ruhr Coal-field, GermanyThis has been one of the major industrialregions of Europe for a long time. Coal and ironand steel formed the basis of the economy, butas the demand for coal declined, the industrystarted shrinking. Even after the iron ore wasexhausted, the industry remained, usingimported ore brought by waterways to the Ruhr.

The Ruhr region is responsible for 80 percent of Germany’s total steel production.(e) Animal based IndustriesLeather for leather industry and wool forwoollen textiles are obtained from animals.Besides, ivory is also obtained fromelephant’s tusks.Industries Based On Output/ProductYou have seen some machines and tools madeof iron or steel. The raw material for suchmachines and tools is iron and steel. Which isitself an industry. The industry whose productsare used to make other goods by using themas raw materials are basic industries. Can youidentify the links? Iron/steel machinesfor textile industry clothes for use byconsumers.The consumer goods industries producedgoods which are consumed by consumersdirectly. For example, industries producingbreads and biscuits, tea, soaps and toiletries,paper for writing, televisions, etc. are consumergoods or non-basic industries.Fig. 6.6: A pulp mill in the heart of the Ketchikan’stimber area of Alaska52 Fundamentals of Human GeographyChanges in the industrial structure have led tothe decay of some areas, and there are problemsof industrial waste and pollution. The futureprosperity of the Ruhr is based less on theproducts of coal and steel, for which it wasinitially famous, and more on the newindustries like the huge Opel car assemblyplant, new chemical plants, universities. Outof-town shopping centres have appearedresulting in a ‘New Ruhr’ landscape.Concept of High Technology IndustryHigh technology, or simply high-tech, is thelatest generation of manufacturing activities. Itis best understood as the application of

intensive research and development (R and D)efforts leading to the manufacture of productsof an advanced scientific and engineeringcharacter. Professional (white collar) workersmake up a large share of the total workforce.These highly skilled specialists greatlyoutnumber the actual production (blue collar)workers. Robotics on the assembly line,computer-aided design (CAD) andmanufacturing, electronic controls of smeltingand refining processes, and the constantdevelopment of new chemical andpharmaceutical products are notable examplesof a high-tech industry.Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed,office-plant-lab buildings rather than massiveassembly structures, factories and storageareas mark the high-tech industrial landscape.Planned business parks for high-tech start-upshave become part of regional and localdevelopment schemes.High-tech industries which are regionallyconcentrated, self-sustained and highlyspecialised are called technopolies. The SiliconValley near San Francisco and Silicon Forestnear Seattle are examples of technopolies. Aresome technopolies developing in India?Manufacturing contributes significantly tothe world economy. Iron and steel, textiles,automobiles, petrochemicals and electronicsare some of the world’s most importantmanufacturing industries.Iron and Steel IndustryThe iron and steel industry forms the base ofall other industries and, therefore, it is called abasic industry. It is basic because it providesraw material for other industries such asmachine tools used for further production. Itmay also be called a heavy industry because ituses large quantities of bulky raw materials and

its products are also heavy.Iron is extracted from iron ore by smeltingin a blast furnace with carbon (coke) andlimestone. The molten iron is cooled andmoulded to form pig iron which is used forconverting into steel by adding strengtheningmaterials like manganese.The large integrated steel industry istraditionally located close to the sources of rawmaterials – iron ore, coal, manganese andlimestone – or at places where these could beeasily brought, e.g. near ports. But in mini steelmills access to markets is more important thaninputs. These are less expensive to build andoperate and can be located near marketsbecause of the abundance of scrap metal, whichis the main input. Traditionally, most of the steelwas produced at large integrated plants, butmini mills are limited to just one-step process –steel making – and are gaining ground.Distribution : The industry is one of themost complex and capital-intensive industriesand is concentrated in the advanced countriesof North America, Europe and Asia. In U.S.A,most of the production comes from the northAppalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lakeregion (Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain,Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic Coast(Sparrows Point and Morisville). The industryhas also moved towards the southern state ofAlabama. Pittsburg area is now losing ground.It has now become the “rust bowl” of U.S.A. InEurope, U.K., Germany, France, Belgium,Luxembourgh, the Netherlands and Russia arethe leading producers. The important steelcentres are Scun Thorpe, Port Talbot,Birmingham and Sheffield in the U.K.;Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and Essenin Germany; Le Creusot and St. Ettiennein France; and Moscow, St. Petersburgh,

Lipetsk, Tula, in Russia and Krivoi Rog, andSecondary Activities 53Donetsk in Ukraine. In Asia, the importantcentres include Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohamain Japan; Shanghai, Tienstin and Wuhan inChina; and Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur,Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem,Visakhapatnam and Bhadravati in India.Consult your atlas to locate these places/centres.Cotton Textile IndustryCotton textile industry has three sub-sectorsi.e. handloom, powerloom and mill sectors.Handloom sector is labour-intensive andprovides employment to semi-skilled workers.It requires small capital investment. Why didMahatma Gandhi propagate Khadi as part ofthe independence movement? This sectorinvolves spinning, weaving and finishing of thefabrics. The powerloom sector introducesmachines and becomes less labour intensiveand the volume of production increases. Cottontextile mill sector is highly capital intensive andproduces fine clothes in bulk.Cotton textile manufacturing requires goodquality cotton as raw material. India, China,U.S.A, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Egypt producemore than half of the world’s raw cotton. TheU.K, NW European countries and Japan alsoproduce cotton textile made from importedyarn. Europe alone accounts for nearly half ofthe world’s cotton imports. The industry has toface very stiff competition with synthetic fibreshence it has now shown a declining trend inmany countries. With the scientific advancementand technological improvements the structureof industries changes. For example, Germanyrecorded constant growth in cotton textileindustry since Second World War till theseventies but now it has declined. It has shifted

to less developed countries where labour costsare low.EXERCISES1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Which one of the following statements is wrong?(a) Cheap water transport has facilitated the jute mill industry alongthe Hugli.(b) Sugar, cotton textiles and vegetable oils are footloose industries.(c) The development of hydro-electricity and petroleum reduced, to a greatextent, the importance of coal energy as a locational factor forindustry.(d) Port towns in India have attracted industries.(ii) In which one of the following types of economy are the factors of productionowned individually ?(a) Capitalist (c) Socialist(b) Mixed (d) None(iii) Which one of the following types of industries produces raw materialsfor other industries?(a) Cottage Industries (c) Basic Industries(b) Small-scale Industries (d) Footloose Industries54 Fundamentals of Human Geography(iv) Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched ?(a) Automobile industry … Los Angeles(b) Shipbuilding industry … Lusaka(c) Aircraft industry … Florence(d) Iron and Steel industry … Pittsburgh2. Write a short note on the following in about 30 words.(i) High-Tech industry(ii) Manufacturing(iii) Footloose industries3. Answer the following in not more than 150 words.(i) Differentiate between primary and secondary activities.(ii) Discuss the major trends of modern industrial activities especially inthe developed countries of the world.(iii) Explain why high-tech industries in many countries are being attractedto the peripheral areas of major metropolitan centres.(iv) Africa has immense natural resources and yet it is industrially the mostbackward continent. Comment.Project/Activity

(i) Carry out a survey in your school premises of the factory-made goodsused by students and the staff.(ii) Find out the meaning of the terms bio-degradable and nonbiodegradable.Which kind of material is better to use? Why?(iii) Look around and make a list of the global brands, their logos andproducts.Unit-IIIChapter-7Tertiary andQuaternary ActivitiesWhen you fall ill you go to your family doctoror you call a doctor. Sometimes your parentstake you to a hospital for treatment. While inschool, you are taught by your teachers. In theevent of any dispute, legal opinion is obtainedfrom a lawyer. Likewise, there are manyprofessionals who provide their services againstpayment of their fee. Thus, all types of servicesare special skills provided in exchange ofpayments. Health, education, law, governanceand recreation etc. require professional skills.These services require other theoreticalknowledge and practical training. Tertiaryactivities are related to the service sector.Manpower is an important component of theservice sector as most of the tertiary activitiesare performed by skilled labour, professionallytrained experts and consultants.In the initial stages of economicdevelopment, larger proportion of peopleworked in the primary sector. In a developedeconomy, the majority of workers getemployment in tertiary activity and a moderateproportion is employed in the secondary sector.Tertiary activities include both productionand exchange. The production involves the‘provision’ of services that are ‘consumed’. Theoutput is indirectly measured in terms of wagesand salaries. Exchange, involves trade,transport and communication facilities that are

used to overcome distance. Tertiary activities,therefore, involve the commercial output ofservices rather than the production of tangiblegoods. They are not directly involved in theprocessing of physical raw materials. Commonexamples are the work of a plumber, electrician,technician, launderer, barber, shopkeeper,driver, cashier, teacher, doctor, lawyer andpublisher etc. The main difference betweensecondary activities and tertiary activities is thatthe expertise provided by services relies moreheavily on specialised skills, experience andknowledge of the workers rather than on theproduction techniques, machinery and factoryprocesses.TYPES OF TERTIARY ACTIVITIESBy now you know that you purchase yourbooks, stationery from traders shop, travel by56 Fundamentals of Human GeographyFig. 7.1: Service SectorTertiary and Quaternary Activities 57bus or rail, send letters, talk on telephone andobtain services of teachers for studies anddoctors at the time of illness.Thus, trade, transport, communicationand services are some of the tertiary activitiesdiscussed in this section. The chart providesthe basis for classifying the tertiary activities.Trade and commerceTrade is essentially buying and selling of itemsproduced elsewhere. All the services in retailand wholesale trading or commerce arespecifically intended for profit. The towns andcities where all these works take place areknown us trading centres.The rise of trading from barter at the locallevel to money-exchange of international scalehas produced many centres and institutionssuch as trading centres or collection anddistribution points.

Trading centres may be divided into ruraland urban marketing centres.Rural marketing centres cater to nearbysettlements. These are quasi-urban centres.They serve as trading centres of the mostrudimentary type. Here personal andprofessional services are not well-developed.These form local collecting and distributingcentres. Most of these have mandis (wholesalemarkets) and also retailing areas. They are noturban centres per se but are significant centresfor making available goods and services whichare most frequently demanded by rural folk.Fig. 7.2: A Wholesale Vegetable MarketPeriodic markets in rural areas are foundwhere there are no regular markets and localperiodic markets are organised at differenttemporal intervals. These may be weekly, biweeklymarkets from where people from thesurrounding areas meet their temporallyaccumulated demand. These markets areheld on specified dates and move from oneplace to another. The shopkeepers thus,remain busy on all the days while a large areais served by them.Urban marketing centres have more widelyspecialised urban services. They provideordinary goods and services as well as many ofthe specialised goods and services required bypeople. Urban centres, therefore, offermanufactured goods as well as manyspecialised markets develop, e.g. markets forlabour, housing, semi or finished products.Services of educational institutions andprofessionals such as teachers, lawyers,consultants, physicians, dentists and veterinarydoctors are available.Fig. 7.3: Packed Food Market in U.S.A.Retail TradingThis is the business activity concerned with the

sale of goods directly to the consumers. Mostof the retail trading takes place in fixedestablishments or stores solely devoted toselling. Street peddling, handcarts, trucks,door-to-door, mail-order, telephone, automaticvending machines and internet are examplesof non-store retail trading.58 Fundamentals of Human GeographyMore on StoresConsumer cooperatives were the first ofthe large-scale innovations in retailing.Departmental stores delegate theresponsibility and authority to departmentalheads for purchasing of commodities andfor overseeing the sale in different sectionsof the stores.Chain stores are able to purchasemerchandise most economically, oftengoing so far as to direct the goods to bemanufactured to their specification. Theyemploy highly skilled specialists in manyexecutive tasks. They have the ability toexperiment in one store and apply theresults to many.Wholesale TradingWholesale trading constitutes bulk businessthrough numerous intermediary merchantsand supply houses and not through retailstores. Some large stores including chain storesare able to buy directly from the manufacturers.However, most retail stores procure suppliesfrom an intermediary source. Wholesalers oftenextend credit to retail stores to such an extentthat the retailer operates very largely on thewholesaler’s capital.TransportTransport is a service or facility by whichpeople, materials and manufactured goodsare physically carried from one location toanother. It is an organised industry created

to satisfy man’s basic need of mobility.Modern society requires speedy and efficienttransport systems to assist in the production,distribution and consumption of goods. Atevery stage in this complex system, the valueof the material is significantly enhanced bytransportation.Transport distance can be measured as:km distance or actual distance of route length;time distance or the time taken to travel on aparticular route; and cost distance or theexpense of travelling on a route. In selecting themode of transport, distance, in terms of time orcost, is the determining factor. Isochrone linesare drawn on a map to join places equal in termsof the time taken to reach them.Network and AccessibilityAs transport systems develop, differentplaces are linked together to form anetwork. Networks are made up of nodesand links. A node is the meeting point oftwo or more routes, a point of origin, a pointof destination or any sizeable town along aroute, Every road that joins two nodes iscalled a link. A developed network hasmany links, which means that places arewell-connected.Factors Affecting TransportDemand for transport is influenced by the sizeof population. The larger the population size,the greater is the demand for transport.Routes depend on: location of cities,towns, villages, industrial centres and rawmaterials, pattern of trade between them, natureof the landscape between them, type of climate,and funds available for overcoming obstaclesalong the length of the route.CommunicationCommunication services involve thetransmission of words and messages, facts

and ideas. The invention of writing preservedmessages and helped to make communicationdependent on means of transport. These wereactually carried by hand, animals, boat, road,rail and air. That is why all forms of transportare also referred to as lines of communication.Where the transport network is efficient,communications are easily disseminated.Certain developments, such as mobiletelephony and satellites, have madecommunications independent of transport. Allforms are not fully disassociated because of thecheapness of the older systems. Thus, veryTertiary and Quaternary Activities 59large volumes of mail continue to be handledby post offices all over the world.Some of the communication services arediscussed below.TelecommunicationsThe use of telecommunications is linked to thedevelopment of modern technology. It hasrevolutionised communications because of thespeed with which messages are sent. The timereduced is from weeks to minutes. Besides, therecent advancements like mobile telephonyhave made communications direct andinstantaneous at any time and from anywhere.The telegraph, morse code and telex have almostbecome things of the past.Radio and television also help to relaynews, pictures, and telephone calls to vastaudiences around the world and hence they aretermed as mass media. They are vital foradvertising and entertainment. Newspapers areable to cover events in all corners of the world.Satellite communication relays information ofthe earth and from space. The internet has trulyrevolutionised the global communicationsystem .Services

Services occur at many different levels. Someare geared to industry, some to people, and someto both industry and people, e.g. the transportsystems. Low-order services, such as groceryshops and laundries, are more common andwidespread than high-order services or morespecialised ones like those of accountants,consultants and physicians. Services areprovided to individual consumers who canafford to pay for them. For example, thegardener, the launderers and the barber doprimarily physical labour. Teacher, lawyers,physicians, musicians and others performmental labour.Many services have now been regulated.Making and maintaining highways andbridges, maintaining fire fighting departmentsand supplying or supervising education andcustomer -care are among the importantservices most often supervised or performed bygovernments or companies. State and unionlegislation have established corporations tosupervise and control the marketing of suchservices as transport, telecommunication,energy and water supply. Professional servicesare primarily health care, engineering, law andmanagement. The location of recreational andentertainment services depends on the market.Multiplexes and restaurants might find locationwithin or near the Central Business District(CBD), whereas a golf course would choose asite where land costs are lower than in the CBD.Personal services are made available to thepeople to facilitate their work in daily life. Theworkers migrate from rural areas in search ofemployment and are unskilled. They areemployed in domestic services ashousekeepers, cooks, and gardeners. Thissegment of workers is generally unorganised.One such example in India is Mumbai’s

dabbawala (Tiffin) service provided to about1,75,000 customers all over the city.Fig. 7.4: Dabbawala Service in MumbaiPEOPLE ENGAGED INTERTIARY ACTIVITIESToday most people are service workers. Servicesare provided in all societies. But in moredeveloped countries a higher percentage ofworkers is employed in providing services ascompared to less developed countries. Thetrend in employment in this sector has been60 Fundamentals of Human Geographyincreasing while it has remained unchanged ordecreasing in the primary and secondaryactivities.SOME SELECTED EXAMPLESTourismTourism is travel undertaken for purposes ofrecreation rather than business. It has becomethe world’s single largest tertiary activity in totalregistered jobs (250 million) and total revenue(40 per cent of the total GDP). Besides, manylocal persons, are employed to provide serviceslike accommodation, meals, transport,entertainment and special shops serving thetourists. Tourism fosters the growth ofinfrastructure industries, retail trading, andcraft industries (souvenirs). In some regions,tourism is seasonal because the vacation periodis dependent on favourable weather conditions,but many regions attract visitors all the yearround.Fig. 7.5: Tourists skiing in the snow cappedmountain slopes of SwitzerlandTourist RegionsThe warmer places around the MediterraneanCoast and the West Coast of India are some ofthe popular tourist destinations in the world.Others include winter sports regions, foundmainly in mountainous areas, and various

scenic landscapes and national parks, whichare scattered. Historic towns also attracttourists, because of the monument, heritagesites and cultural activities.Factors Affecting TourismDemand : Since the last century, the demandfor holidays has increased rapidly.Improvements in the standard of living andincreased leisure time, permit many morepeople to go on holidays for leisure.Transport : The opening-up of touristareas has been aided by improvement intransport facilities. Travel is easier by car, withbetter road systems. More significant in recentyears has been the expansion in air transport.For example, air travel allows one to travelanywhere in the world in a few hours of flyingtimefrom their homes. The advent of packageholidays has reduced the costs.Tourist AttractionsClimate: Most people from colder regions expectto have warm, sunny weather for beachholidays. This is one of the main reasons forthe importance of tourism in Southern Europeand the Mediterranean lands. TheMediterranean climate offers almost consistentlyhigher temperatures, than in other parts ofEurope, long hours of sunshine and low rainfallthroughout the peak holiday season. Peopletaking winter holidays have specific climaticrequirements, either higher temperatures thantheir own homelands, or snow cover suitablefor skiing.Landscape: Many people like to spendtheir holidays in an attractive environment,which often means mountains, lakes,spectacular sea coasts and landscapes notcompletely altered by man.History and Art: The history and art of anarea have potential attractiveness. People visit

ancient or picturesque towns andarchaeological sites, and enjoy exploringcastles, palaces and churches.Culture and Economy: These attracttourists with a penchant for experiencing ethnicand local customs. Besides, if a region providesfor the needs of tourists at a cheap cost, it islikely to become very popular. Home-stay hasemerged as a profitable business such asTertiary and Quaternary Activities 61Organise an informal debate session in your class about how could theemerging medical industry of our country become a boom as well as doom?heritage homes in Goa, Madikere and Coorgin Karnataka.Medical Services for Overseas Patients in IndiaAbout 55,000 patients from U.S.A. visited Indiain 2005 for treatment. This is still a smallnumber compared with the millions of surgeriesperformed each year in the U.S. healthcaresystem. India has emerged as the leadingcountry of medical tourism in the world. Worldclass hospitals located in metropolitan citiescater to patients all over the world. Medicaltourism brings abundant benefits to developingcountries like India, Thailand, Singapore andMalaysia. Beyond medical tourism, is the trendof outsourcing of medical tests and datainterpretation. Hospitals in India, Switzerlandand Australia have been performing certainmedical services – ranging from readingradiology images, to interpreting MagneticResonance Images (MRIs) and ultrasound tests.Outsourcing holds tremendous advantages forpatients, if it is focused on improving quality orproviding specialised care.Medical TourismWhen medical treatment is combined withinternational tourism activity, it lends itselfto what is commonly known as medicaltourism.

QUATERNARY ACTIVITIESWhat do a CEO of an MNC in Copenhagen, atNew York and a medical transcriptionist atBangalore have in common? All these peoplework in a segment of the service sector that isknowledge oriented. This sector can be dividedinto quaternary and quinary activities.Quaternary activities involve some of thefollowing: the collection, production anddissemination of information or even theproduction of information. Quaternary activitiescentre around research, development and maybe seen as an advanced form of services involvingspecialised knowledge and technical skills.The Quaternary SectorThe Quaternary Sector along with the TertiarySector has replaced most of the primary andsecondary employment as the basis foreconomic growth. Over half of all workers Indeveloped economies are in the ‘KnowledgeSector’ and there has been a very high growthin demand for and consumption of informationbasedservices from mutual fund managersto tax consultants, software developers andstatisticians. Personnel working in officebuildings, elementary schools and universityclassrooms, hospitals and doctors’ offices,theatres, accounting and brokerage firms allbelong to this category of services.Like some of the tertiary functions,quaternary activities can also be outsourced.They are not tied to resources, affected bythe environment, or necessarily localised bymarket.62 Fundamentals of Human GeographyQUINARY ACTIVITIESThe highest level of decision makers or policymakers perform quinary activities. These aresubtly different from the knowledge basedindustries that the quinary sector in general

deals with.Quinary activities are services that focus onthe creation, re-arrangement andinterpretation of new and existing ideas; datainterpretation and the use and evaluation ofnew technologies. Often referred to as ‘goldcollar’ professions, they represent anothersubdivision of the tertiary sector representingspecial and highly paid skills of seniorbusiness executives, government officials,research scientists, financial and legalconsultants, etc. Their importance in thestructure of advanced economies faroutweighs their numbers.Outsourcing has resulted in the openingup of a large number of call centres in India,China, Eastern Europe, Israel, Philippines andCosta Rica. It has created new jobs in thesecountries. Outsourcing is coming to thosecountries where cheap and skilled workers areavailable. These are also out-migratingcountries. With the work available thoughoutsourcing, the migration in these countriesmay come down. Outsourcing countries arefacing resistance from job-seeking youths intheir respective countries. The comparativeadvantage is the main reason for continuingoutsourcing. New trends in quinary servicesinclude knowledge processing outsourcing(KPO) and ‘home shoring’, the latter as analternative to outsourcing. The KPO industryis distinct from Business Process Outsourcing(BPO) as it involves highly skilled workers. It isinformation driven knowledge outsourcing.KPO enables companies to create additionalbusiness opportunities. Examples of KPOsinclude research and development (R and D)activities, e-learning, business research,intellectual property (IP) research, legalprofession and the banking sector.

OutsourcingOutsourcing or contracting out is giving workto an outside agency to improve efficiencyand to reduce costs. When outsourcinginvolves transferring work to overseaslocations, it is described by the term off -shoring, although both off - shoring andoutsourcing are used together. Businessactivities that are outsourced includeinformation technology (IT), humanresources, customer support and call centreservices and at times also manufacturingand engineering.Data processing is an IT related serviceeasily be carried out in Asian, EastEuropean and African countries, In thesecountries IT skilled staff with good Englishlanguage skills are available at lower wagesthan those in the developed countries. Thus,a company in Hyderabad or Manila doesWhere Will it All Lead to?Tertiary and Quaternary Activities 63work on a project based on GIS techniquesfor a country like U.S.A or Japan. Overheadcosts are also much lower making itprofitable to get job-work carried outoverseas, whether it is in India, China oreven a less populous country like Botswanain Africa.Describe the nature of work against each colour-nameColour of the collar Nature of workRed ?Gold ?White ?Grey ?Blue ?Pink ?EXERCISES1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Which one of the following is a tertiary activity?

(a) Farming (c) Weaving(b) Trading (d) Hunting(ii) Which one of the following activities is NOT a secondary sector activity?(a) Iron Smelting (c) Making garments(b) Catching fish (d) Basket Weaving(iii) Which one of the following sectors provides most of the employment in Delhi,Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.(a) Primary (c) Secondary(b) Quaternary (d) Service(iv) Jobs that involve high degrees and level of innovations are known as:(a) Secondary activities (c) Quinary activities(b) Quaternary activities (d) Primary activities(v) Which one of the following activities is related to quaternary sector?(a) Manufacturing computers (c) University teaching(b) Paper and Raw pulp production (d) Printing booksTHE DIGITAL DIVIDEOpportunities emerging from the Informationand Communication Technology baseddevelopment is unevenly distributed acrossthe globe. There are wide ranging economic,political and social differences amongcountries. How quickly countries can provideICT access and benefits to its citizens is thedeciding factor. While developed countries ingeneral have surged forward, the developingcountries have lagged behind and this isknown as the digital divide. Similarly digitaldivides exist within countries. For example,in a large country like India or Russia, it isinevitable that certain areas like metropolitancentres possess better connectivity andaccess to the digital world versus peripheralrural areas.64 Fundamentals of Human Geography(vi) Which one out of the following statements is not true?(a) Outsourcing reduces costs and increases efficiency.(b) At times engineering and manufacturing jobs can also be outsourced.(c) BPOs have better business opportunities as compared to KPOs.(d) There may be dissatisfaction among job seekers in the countries that

outsource the job.2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Explain retail trading service.(ii) Describe quaternary services.(iii) Name the fast emerging countries of medical tourism in the world.(iv) What is digital divide?3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.(i) Discuss the significance and growth of the service sector in moderneconomic development.(ii) Explain in detail the significance of transport and communicationservices.Project/Activity(i) Find out the activities of BPO.(ii) Find out from a travel agent the documents you need to travel abroad.Unit-IIIChapter-8Transport andCommunicationNatural resources, economic activities andmarkets are rarely found in one place.Transport, communication and trade establishlinks between producing centres andconsuming centres. The system of massproduction and exchange is complex. Eachregion produces the items for which it is bestsuited. Trade or the exchange of suchcommodities relies on transportation andcommunication. Likewise, the high livingstandards and quality of life depend on efficienttransportation, communications and trade. Inearlier days, the means of transport andcommunication were the same. But today bothhave acquired distinct and specialised forms.Transport provides the network of links andcarriers through which trade takes place.TRANSPORTTransport is a service or facility for the carriageof persons and goods from one place to the otherusing humans, animals and different kinds ofvehicles. Such movements take place over land,

water and air. Roads and railways form part ofland transport; while shipping and waterwaysand airways are the other two modes. Pipelinescarry materials like petroleum, natural gas, andores in liquidified form.Moreover, transportation is an organisedservice industry created to satisfy the basicneeds of society. It includes transport arteries,vehicles to carry people and goods, and theorganisation to maintain arteries, and to handleloading, unloading and delivery. Every nationhas developed various kinds of transportationfor defence purposes. Assured and speedytransportation, along with efficientcommunication, promote cooperation andunity among scattered peoples.What is a Transport Network ?Several places (nodes) joined together by aseries of routes (links) to form a pattern.MODES OF TRANSPORTATIONThe principal modes of world transportation,as already mentioned are land, water, air and66 Fundamentals of Human Geographypipelines. These are used for inter-regional andintra-regional transport, and each one (exceptpipelines) carries both passengers and freight.The significance of a mode depends on the typeof goods and services to be transported, costsof transport and the mode available.International movement of goods is handled byocean freighters. Road transport is cheaper andfaster over short distances and for door-todoorservices. Railways are most suited for largevolumes of bulky materials over long distanceswithin a country. High-value, light andperishable goods are best moved by airways.In a well-managed transport system, thesevarious modes complement each other.Land TransportMost of the movement of goods and services

takes place over land. In early days, humansthemselves were carriers. Have you ever seen abride being carried on a palanquin (palki/doli)by four persons (Kahars in north India). Lateranimals were used as beasts of burden. Haveyou seen mules, horses and camels, carryingloads of cargo in rural areas? With the inventionof the wheel, the use of carts and wagonsbecame important. The revolution in transportcame about only after the invention of the steamengine in the eighteenth century. Perhaps thefirst public railway line was opened in 1825between Stockton and Darlington in northernEngland and then onwards, railways becamethe most popular and fastest form of transportin the nineteenth century. It opened upcontinental interiors for commercial grainfarming, mining and manufacturing in U.S.A.The invention of the internal combustion enginerevolutionised road transport in terms of roadquality and vehicles (motor cars and trucks)plying over them. Among the newerdevelopments in land transportation arepipelines, ropeways and cableways. Liquids likemineral oil, water, sludge and sewers aretransported by pipelines. The great freightcarriers are the railways, ocean vessels, barges,boats and motor trucks and pipelines.In general, the old and elementary formslike the human porter, pack animal, cart orwagon are the most expensive means oftransportation and large freighters are thecheapest. They are important in supplementingmodern channels and carriers which penetratethe interiors in large countries. In the denselypopulated districts of India and China, overlandtransport still takes place by human porters orcarts drawn or pushed by humans.Pack AnimalsHorses are used as a draught animal even

in the Western countries. Dogs andreindeer are used in North America, NorthEurope and Siberia to draw sledges oversnow-covered ground. Mules are preferredin the mountainous regions; while camelsare used for caravan movement in deserts.In India, bullocks are used for pulling carts.Fig. 8.2: A horse cart in a village Tefki,in EthiopiaFig. 8.1: Ropeway and Cable cars in AustriaThis means of transport is usually found on steepmountain slopes and mines which are not suitable forbuilding roads.

Transport and Communication 67RoadsRoad transport is the most economical for shortdistances compared to railways. Freighttransport by road is gaining importancebecause it offers door-to-door service. Butunmetalled roads, though simple inconstruction, are not effective and serviceablefor all seasons. During the rainy season thesebecome unmotorable and even the metalledones are seriously handicapped during heavyrains and floods. In such conditions, the highembankment of rail-tracks and the efficientmaintenance of railway transport service, is aneffective solution. But the rail kilometrage beingsmall cannot serve the needs of vast anddeveloping countries at a low cost. Roads,therefore, play a vital role in a nation’s tradeand commerce and for promoting tourism.The quality of the roads varies greatlybetween developed and developing countriesbecause road construction and maintenancerequire heavy expenditure. In developedcountries good quality roads are universal andprovide long-distance links in the form ofmotorways, autobahns (Germany), and inter–

state highways for speedy movement. Lorries,of increasing size and power to carry heavyloads, are common. But unfortunately, theworld’s road system is not well developed.The world’s total motorable road lengthis only about 15 million km, of which NorthAmerica accounts for 33 per cent. The highestroad density and the highest number ofvehicles are registered in this continentcompared to Western Europe.Table 8.1: Length of the RoadsSl. Countries For everyNo. 100 km2area1. India 1052. Japan 3273. France 1644. U.K. 1625. U.S.A. 676. Spain 687. Sri Lanka 151Source : Encyclopedia Britannica – Year Book, 2005.Traffic Flows: Traffic on roads hasincreased dramatically in recent years. Whenthe road network cannot cope with the demandsof traffic, congestion occurs. City roads sufferfrom chronic traffic congestion. Peaks (highpoints) and troughs (low points) of traffic flowcan be seen on roads at particular times of theday, for example, peaks occurring during therush hour before and after work. Most of thecities in the world have been facing the problemof congestion.Think on these lines for abetter tomorrow . . .URBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONSHigher Parking FeeMass Rapid Transit (MRT)Improved Public Bus ServiceExpressways

HighwaysHighways are metalled roads connecting distantplaces. They are constructed in a manner forunobstructed vehicular movement. As suchthese are 80 m wide, with separate traffic lanes,bridges, flyovers and dual carriageways tofacilitate uninterrupted traffic flow. In developedcountries, every city and port town is linkedthrough highways.Fig. 8.3 : Dharmavaram Tuni National Highway,India68 Fundamentals of Human GeographyIn North America, highway density is high,about 0.65 km per sq km. Every place is within20 km distance from a highway. Cities locatedon the Pacific coast (west) are well-connectedwith those of the Atlantic Coast (east). Likewise,the cities of Canada in the north are linked withthose of Mexico in the south. The Trans-Canadian Highway links Vancouver in BritishColumbia(west coast) to St. John’s City inNewfoundland (east coast) and the AlaskanHighway links Edmonton (Canada) toAnchorage (Alaska).The Pan-American Highway, a largeportion of which has been constructed, willconnect the countries of South America, CentralAmerica and U.S.A.-Canada. The Trans-Continental Stuart Highway connects Darwin(north coast) and Melbourne via Tennant Creekand Alice Springs in Australia.Europe has a large number of vehicles anda well-developed highway network. Buthighways face a lot of competition from railwaysand waterways.In Russia, a dense highway network isdeveloped in the industrialised region west ofthe Urals with Moscow as the hub. Theimportant Moscow-Vladivostok Highway servesthe region to the east. Due to the vast

geographical area, highways in Russia are notas important as railways.In China, highways criss-cross the countryconnecting all major cities such as Tsungtso(near Vietnam boundary), Shanghai (centralChina), Guangzhou (south) and Beijing (north).A new highway links Chengdu with Lhasa inTibet.In India, there are many highwayslinking the major towns and cities. Forexample, National Highway No. 7 (NH 7),connecting Varanasi with Kanya Kumari, isthe longest in the country. The GoldenQuadrilateral (GQ) or Super Expressway isunderway to connect the four metropolitancities — New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore,Chennai, Kolkata and Hyderabad.In Africa, a highway joins Algiers in thenorth to Conakry in Guinea. Similarly, Cairois also connected to Cape Town.Border RoadsRoads laid along international boundaries arecalled border roads. They play an importantrole in integrating people in remote areas withmajor cities and providing defence. Almost allcountries have such roads to transport goodsto border villages and military camps.RailwaysRailways are a mode of land transport forbulky goods and passengers over longdistances. The railway gauges vary in differentcountries and are roughly classified as broad(more than 1.5 m), standard (1.44 m), metregauge (1 m) and smaller gauges. The standardgauge is used in the U.K.Commuter trains are very popular in U.K.,U.S.A, Japan and India. These carry millionsof passengers daily to and fro in the city. Thereare about 13 lakh km of railways open for trafficin the world.

Fig. 8.4: Tube Train in ViennaTable 8.2: Total Length of Railways in SelectedCountries (in 100 sq km)Sl. Countries For everyNo. 100/km2 area1. U.S.A. 278.32. Russia 160.83. India 144.74. Canada 93.55. Germany 90.86. China 70.17. Australia 40.08. U.K. 37.99. France 34.510. Brazil 30.1Source : Encyclopaedia Britanica – Year Book, 2005.Transport and Communication 69Europe has one of the most dense railnetworks in the world. There are about4,40,000 km of railways, most of which isdouble or multiple-tracked. Belgium has thehighest density of 1 km of railway for every 6.5sq kms area. The industrial regions exhibitsome of the highest densities in the world. Theimportant rail heads are London, Paris,Brussels, Milan, Berlin and Warsaw. Passengertransport is more important than freight inmany of these countries. Underground railwaysare important in London and Paris. ChannelTunnel, operated by Euro Tunnel Groupthrough England, connects London with Paris.Trans-continental railway lines have now losttheir importance to quicker and more flexibletransport systems of airways and roadways.In Russia, railways account for about 90per cent of the country’s total transport with avery dense network west of the Urals. Moscowis the most important rail head with major linesradiating to different parts of the country’s vastgeographical area. Underground railways and

commuter trains are also important in Moscow.North America has one of the mostextensive rail networks accounting for nearly40 per cent of the world’s total? In contrast tomany European countries, the railways areused more for long-distance bulky freight likeores, grains, timber and machinery than forpassengers. The most dense rail network isfound in the highly industrialised andurbanised region of East Central U.S.A. andadjoining Canada.In Canada, railways are in the publicsector and distributed all over the sparselypopulated areas. The transcontinental railwayscarry the bulk of wheat and coal tonnage.Australia has about 40,000 km ofrailways, of which 25 per cent are found in NewSouth Wales alone. The west-east AustralianNational Railway line runs across the countryfrom Perth to Sydney. New Zealand’s railwaysare mainly in the North Island to serve thefarming areas.In South America, the rail network is themost dense in two regions, namely, the Pampasof Argentina and the coffee growing region ofBrazil which together account for 40 per centof South America’s total route length. Only Chile,among the remaining countries has aconsiderable route length linking coastal centreswith the mining sites in the interior. Peru, Bolivia,Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela have shortsingle-track rail-lines from ports to the interiorwith no inter-connecting links.There is only one trans-continental railroute linking Buenos Aires (Argentina) withValparaiso (Chile) across the Andes Mountainsthrough the Uspallatta Pass located at a heightof 3,900 m.In Asia, rail network is the most dense inthe thickly populated areas of Japan, China and

India. Other countries have relatively few railroutes. West Asia is the least developed in railfacilities because of vast deserts and sparselypopulated regions.Africa continent, despite being thesecond largest, has only 40,000 km ofrailways with South Africa alone accountingfor 18,000 km due to the concentration ofgold, diamond and copper mining activities.The important routes of the continent are: (i)the Benguela Railway through Angola toKatanga-Zambia Copper Belt; (ii) the TanzaniaRailway from the Zambian Copper Belt toDar-es-Salaam on the coast; (iii) the Railwaythrough Botswana and Zimbabwe linking thelandlocked states to the South Africannetwork; and (iv) the Blue Train from CapeTown to Pretoria in the Republic of SouthAfrica. Elsewhere, as in Algeria, Senegal,Nigeria, Kenya and Ethiopia, railway linesconnect port cities to interior centres but donot form a good network with other countries.70 Fundamentals of Human GeographyTrans–Continental RailwaysTrans–continental railways run across thecontinent and link its two ends. They wereconstructed for economic and political reasonsto facilitate long runs in different directions.The following are the most important of these:Trans–Siberian RailwayThis is a trans–siberian Railways major railroute of Russia runs from St. Petersburg in thewest to Vladivostok on the Pacific Coast in theeast passing through Moscow, Ufa, Novosibirsk,Irkutsk, Chita and Khabarovsk. It is the mostimportant route in Asia and the longest (9,332km) double-tracked and electrified trans–continental railway in the world. It has helpedin opening up its Asian region to West Europeanmarkets. It runs across the Ural Mountains Ob

and Yenisei rivers Chita is an important agro-Fig. 8.5: Trans–Siberian Railwaycentre and Irkutsk, a fur centre. There areconnecting links to the south, namely, to Odessa(Ukraine), Baku on the Caspian Coast,Tashkent (Uzbekistan), Ulan Bator (Mongolia),and Shenyang (Mukden) and Beijing in China.Trans–Canadian RailwaysThis 7,050 km long rail-line in Canada runs fromHalifax in the east to Vancouver on the PacificCoast passing through Montreal, Ottawa,Winnipeg and Calgary (Fig. 8.6). It wasconstructed in 1886, initially as part of anagreement to make British Columbia on the westcoast join the Federation of States. Later on, itgained economic significance because itconnected the Quebec-Montreal IndustrialRegion with the wheat belt of the Prairie Regionand the Coniferous Forest region in the north.Thus each of these regions becamecomplementary to the other. A loop line fromTransport and Communication 71Winnipeg to Thunder Bay (Lake Superior)connects this rail-line with one of the importantwaterways of the world. This line is the economicartery of Canada. Wheat and meat are theimportant exports on this route.The Union and Pacific RailwayThis rail-line connects New York on the AtlanticCoast to San Francisco on the Pacific Coastpassing through Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha,Evans, Ogden and Sacramento. The mostvaluable exports on this route are ores, grain,paper, chemicals and machinery.The Australian Trans–ContinentalRailwayThis rail-line runs west-east across the southernpart of the continent from Perth on the westcoast, to Sydney on the east coast. passingthrough Kalgoorlie, Broken Hill and Port

Augusta (Fig. 8.7).Another major north-south line connectsAdelaide and Alice Spring and to be joinedfurther to the Darwin–Birdum line.The Orient ExpressThis line runs from Paris to Istanbul passingthrough Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna,Budapest and Belgrade. The journey time fromLondon to Istanbul by this Express is nowreduced to 96 hours as against 10 days by thesea-route. The chief exports on this rail-routeare cheese, bacon, oats, wine, fruits, andmachinery.There is a proposal to build a Trans–AsiaticRailway linking Istanbul with Bangkok viaIran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh andMyanmar.WATER TRANSPORTOne of the great advantages of watertransportation is that it does not require routeconstruction. The oceans are linked with eachFig. 8.6: Trans–Canadian Railway

72 Fundamentals of Human Geographyother and are negotiable with ships of varioussizes. All that is needed is to provide portfacilities at the two ends. It is much cheaperbecause the friction of water is far less than thatof land. The energy cost of water transportationis lower. Water transport is divided into searoutes and inland waterways.Fig. 8.8: The view of Seine River from the EiffelTower (One can see how the river has become animportant Inland waterway)Sea RoutesThe oceans offer a smooth highway traversablein all directions with no maintenance costs. Itstransformation into a routeway by sea-goingvessels is an important development in humanadaptation to the physical environment.

Compared to land and air, ocean transport is acheaper means of haulage (carrying of load) ofbulky material over long distances from onecontinent to another.Modern passenger liners (ships) and cargoships are equipped with radar, wireless and othernavigation aids. The development of refrigeratedchambers for perishable goods, tankers andspecialised ships has also improved cargotransport. The use of containers has made cargohandling at the world’s major ports easier.Important Sea RoutesMajor sea routes are shown in the Fig. 8.9. Someimportant routes have been discussed in thefollowing pages.Fig. 8.7: Australian Trans–Continental RailwayTransport and Communication 73The Northern Atlantic Sea RouteThis links North-eastern U.S.A. and NorthwesternEurope, the two industrially developedregions of the world. The foreign trade over thisroute is greater than that of the rest of the worldcombined. One fourth of the world’s foreigntrade moves on this route. It is, therefore, thebusiest in the world and otherwise, called theBig Trunk Route. Both the coasts have highlyadvanced ports and harbour facilities.Find out some of the important ports on the coast ofU.S.A. and Western Europe in your atlas.The Mediterranean–Indian Ocean SeaRouteThis sea route passes through the heart of theOld World and serves more countries and peoplethan any other route. Port Said, Aden, Mumbai,Colombo and Singapore are some of theimportant ports on this route. The constructionof Suez canal has greatly reduced the distanceand time as compared to the earlier routethrough the Cape of Good Hope.This trade route connects the highly

industrialised Western European region with WestAfrica, South Africa, South-east Asia and thecommercial agriculture and livestock economiesof Australia and New Zealand. Before theconstruction of the Suez Canal this was theroute connecting Liverpool and Colombo whichwas 6,400 km longer than the Suez Canalroute. The volume of trade and traffic betweenboth East and West Africa is on the increasedue to the development of the rich naturalresources such as gold, diamond, copper, tin,groundnut, oil palm, coffee and fruits.The Cape of Good Hope Sea RouteThis sea route is another important one acrossthe Atlantic Ocean which connects WestEuropean and West African countries withBrazil, Argentina and Uruguay in SouthAmerica. The traffic is far less on this routeFig. 8.9: Major Sea Routes and Sea Ports

74 Fundamentals of Human Geographybecause of the limited development andpopulation in South America and Africa. Onlysoutheastern Brazil and Plata estuary andparts of South Africa have large-scale industries.There is also little traffic on the route betweenRio de Janeiro and Cape Town because bothSouth America and Africa have similarproducts and resources.Trade across the vast North Pacific Oceanmoves by several routes which converge atHonolulu. The direct route on the Great Circlelinks Vancouver and Yokohama and reducesthe travelling distance (2,480 km) by half.The North Pacific Sea RouteThis sea route links the ports on the west-coastof North America with those of Asia. These areVancouver, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco andLos Angeles on the American side andYokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila

and Singapore on the Asian side.The South Pacific Sea RouteThis sea route connects Western Europe andNorth America with Australia, New Zealand andthe scattered Pacific islands via the PanamaCanal. This route is also used for reaching HongKong, Philippines and Indonesia. The distancecovered between Panama and Sydney is12,000 km. Honolulu is an important port onthis route.Coastal ShippingIt is obvious that water transport is a cheapermode. While oceanic routes connect differentcountries, coastal shipping is a convenientmode of transportation with long coastlines,e.g. U.S.A, China and India. Shenzhen Statesin Europe are most suitably placed for coastalshipping connecting one member’s coast withthe other. If properly developed, coastal shippingcan reduce the congestion on the land routes.Shipping CanalsThe Suez and the Panama Canals are two vitalman-made navigation canals or waterwayswhich serve as gateways of commerce for boththe eastern and western worlds.The Suez CanalThis canal had been constructed in 1869 inEgypt between Port Said in the north and PortSuez in the south linking the MediterraneanSea and the Red Sea. It gives Europe a newgateway to the Indian Ocean and reduces directsea-route distance between Liverpool andColombo compared to the Cape of Good Hoperoute. It is a sea-level canal without lockswhich is about 160 km and 11 to 15 m deep.About 100 ships travel daily and each shiptakes 10-12 hours to cross this canal. The tollsare so heavy that some find it cheaper to go bythe longer Cape Route whenever theconsequent delay is not important. A railway

follows the canal to Suez, and from Ismailiathere is a branch line to Cairo. A navigablefresh-water canal from the Nile also joins theSuez Canal in Ismailia to supply fresh-water toPort Said and Suez.The Panama CanalThis canal connects the Atlantic Ocean in theeast to the Pacific Ocean in the west. It has beenFig. 8.10 : Suez Canalcompared to that of the North Atlantic RouteTransport and Communication 75constructed across the Panama Isthmusbetween Panama City and Colon by the U.S.government which purchased 8 km of area oneither side and named it the Canal Zone. TheCanal is about 72 km. long and involves a verydeep cutting for a length of 12 km. It has a sixlocksystem and ships cross the different levels(26 m up and down) through these locks beforeentering the Gulf of Panama.It shortens the distance between New Yorkand San Francisco by 13,000 km by sea.Likewise the distance between Western Europeand the West-coast of U.S.A.; and North-easternand Central U.S.A. and East and South-eastAsia is shortened. The economic significance ofthis Canal is relatively less than that of theSuez. However, it is vital to the economies ofLatin America.Inland WaterwaysRivers, canals, lakes and coastal areas havebeen important waterways since timeimmemorial. Boats and steamers are used asmeans of transport for cargo and passengers.The development of inland waterways isdependent on the navigability width and depthof the channel, continuity in the water flow,and transport technology in use. Rivers arethe only means of transport in dense forests.Very heavy cargo like coal, cement, timber and

metallic ores can be transported through inlandwaterways. In ancient times, riverways were themain highways of transportation as in the caseof India. But they lost importance because ofcompetition from railways, lack of water due todiversion for irrigation, and their poormaintenance.Fig. 8.12: Inland waterways are a major sourceof transport wherever the river is wide, deepand free of siltFig. 8.11 : The Panama CanalCan you think of the impact on traffic in Panamacanal after the Nicaraguan canal opens up?76 Fundamentals of Human GeographyThe significance of rivers as inlandwaterways for domestic and internationaltransport and trade has been recognisedthroughout the developed world. Despiteinherent limitations, many rivers have beenmodified to enhance their navigability bydredging, stabilising river banks, and buildingdams and barrages for regulating the flow ofwater. The following river waterways are someof the world’s important highways of commerce.The Rhine WaterwaysThe Rhine flows through Germany and theNetherlands. It is navigable for 700 km fromRotterdam, at its mouth in the Netherlands toBasel in Switzerland. Ocean-going vessels canreach up to Cologne. The Ruhr river joins theRhine from the east. It flows through a richcoalfield and the whole basin has become aprosperous manufacturing area. Dusseldorf isthe Rhine port for this region. Huge tonnagemoves along the stretch south of the Ruhr. Thiswaterway is the world’s most heavily used. Eachyear more than 20,000 ocean-going ships and2,00,000 inland vessels exchange their cargoes.It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland,Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands

with the North Atlantic Sea Route.The Danube WaterwayThis important inland waterway serves EasternEurope. The Danube river rises in the BlackForest and flows eastwards through manycountries. It is navigable up to Taurna Severin.The chief export items are wheat, maize, timber,and machinery.The Volga WaterwayRussia has a large number of developedwaterways, of which the Volga is one of the mostimportant. It provides a navigable waterway of11,200 km and drains into the Caspian Sea.The Volga-Moscow Canal connects it with theMoscow region and the Volga-Don Canal withthe Black Sea.The Great Lakes – St. Lawrence SeawayThe Great Lakes of North America Superior,Huron Erie and Ontario are connected by SooCanal and Welland Canal to form an inlandwaterway. The estuary of St. Lawrence River,along with the Great Lakes, forms a uniquecommercial waterway in the northern part ofNorth America. The ports on this route likeDuluth and Buffalo are equipped with allfacilities of ocean ports. As such large oceangoingvessels are able to navigate up the riverdeep inside the continent to Montreal. But heregoods have to be trans-shipped to smallervessels due to the presence of rapids. Canalshave been constructed up to 3.5 m deep toavoid these.Fig. 8.13: The Rhine WaterwayFig. 8.14 : Rhine WaterwayTransport and Communication 77At present no place in the world is morethan 35 hours away. This startling fact has beenmade possible due to people who build and flyairplanes. Travel by air can now be measuredby hours and minutes instead of years and

months. Frequent air services are available tomany parts of the world. Although, U.K.pioneered the use of commercial jet transport,U.S.A. developed largely post-War internationalcivil aviation. Today, more than 250commercial airlines offer regular services todifferent parts of the world. Recentdevelopments can change the future course ofair transport. Supersonic aircraft, cover thedistance between London and New York withinthree and a half hours.Inter-Continental Air RoutesIn the Northern Hemisphere, there is a distincteast-west belt of inter-continental air routes.Dense network exists in Eastern U.S.A., WesternEurope and Southeast Asia. U.S.A. aloneaccounts for 60 per cent of the airways of theworld. New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam,Frankfurt Rome, Moscow, Karachi, New Delhi,Mumbai, Bangkok, Singapore, Tokyo, SanFrancisco, Los Angeles and Chicago are thenodal points where air routes converge orradiate to all continents.Africa, Asiatic part of Russia and SouthAmerica lack air services. There are limited airservices between 10-35 latitudes in theSouthern hemisphere due to sparserpopulation, limited landmass and economicdevelopment.PIPELINESPipelines are used extensively to transportliquids and gases such as water, petroleumand natural gas for an uninterrupted flow.Water supplied through pipelines is familiarto all. Cooking gas or LPG is supplied throughpipelines in many parts of the world. Pipelinescan also be used to transport liquidified coal.In New Zealand, milk is being supplied throughpipelines from farms to factories.In U.S.A. there is a dense network of oil

pipelines from the producing areas to theThe Mississippi WaterwaysThe Mississippi-Ohio waterway connects theinterior part of U.S.A. with the Gulf of Mexicoin the south. Large steamers can go throughthis route up to Minneapolis.AIR TRANSPORTAir transport is the fastest means oftransportation, but it is very costly. Being fast,it is preferred by passengers for long-distancetravel. Valuable cargo can be moved rapidly ona world-wide scale. It is often the only meansto reach inaccessible areas. Air transport hasbrought about a connectivity revolution in theworld. The frictions created by mountainoussnow fields or inhospitable desert terrains havebeen overcome. The accessibility has increased.The airplane brings varied articles to theEskimos in Northern Canada unhindered bythe frozen ground. In the Himalayan region, theroutes are often obstructed due to landslides,avalanches or heavy snow fall. At such times,air travel is the only alternative to reach a place.Airways also have great strategic importance.The air strikes by U.S. and British forces in Iraqbears testimony to this fact. The airwaysnetwork is expanding very fast.Fig. 8.15: An Aeroplane at Salsburg AirportThe manufacturing of aircrafts and theiroperations require elaborate infrastructure likehangars, landing, fuelling, and maintenancefacilities for the aircrafts. The construction ofairports is also very expensive and has developedmore in highly industrialised countries wherethere is a large volume of traffic.78 Fundamentals of Human Geographyconsuming areas. Big Inch is one such famouspipeline, which carries petroleum from the oilwells of the Gulf of Mexico to the North-easternStates. About 17 per cent of all freight per

tonne-km. is carried through pipelines in U.S.A.Fig. 8.17: Pipelines transporting natural gasin UkraineIn Europe, Russia, West Asia and Indiapipelines are used to connect oil wells torefineries, and to ports or domestic markets.Turkmenistan is central Asia has extendedpipelines to Iran and also to parts of China.The proposed Iran-India via Pakistaninternational oil and natural gas pipeline willbe the longest in the world.COMMUNICATIONSHuman beings have used different methodslong-distance communications of which thetelegraph and the telephone were important.The telegraph was instrumental in thecolonisation of the American West. During theearly and mid-twentieth century, the AmericanTelegraph and Telephone Company (AT&T)enjoyed a monopoly over U.S.A.’s telephoneindustry. In fact, the telephone became a criticalfactor in the urbanisation of America. Firmscentralised their functioning at cityheadquartersand located their branch officesin smaller towns. Even today, the telephone isthe most commonly used mode. In developingcountries, the use of cell phones, made possibleby satellites, is important for rural connectivity.Today there is a phenomenal pace ofdevelopment. The first major breakthrough isthe use of optic fiber cables (OFC). Faced withmounting competition, telephone companies allFig. 8.16: Major AirportsTransport and Communication 79over the world soon upgraded their copper cablesystems to include optic fiber cables. Theseallow large quantities of data to be transmittedrapidly, securely, and are virtually error-free.With the digitisation of information in the 1990s,telecommunication slowly merged with

computers to form integrated networks termedas Internet.Satellite CommunicationToday Internet is the largest electronic networkon the planet connecting about 1,000 millionpeople in more than 100 countries.Satellites touch human lives in manyways. Every time you use a cell phone tocall a friend, send an SMS or watch apopular programme on cable television. Youare using satellite communication.Communication through satellitesemerged as a new area in communicationtechnology since the 1970s after U.S.A. andformer U.S.S.R. pioneered space research.Artificial satellites, now, are successfullydeployed in the earth’s orbit to connect eventhe remote corners of the globe with limited onsiteverification. These have rendered the unitcost and time of communication invariant interms of distance. This means it costs the sameto communicate over 500 km as it does over5,000 km via satelliteIndia has also made great strides insatellite development. Aryabhatt was launchedon 19 April 1979, Bhaskar-I in 1979 andRohini in 1980. On 18 June 1981, APPLE(Arian Passenger Payload Experiment) waslaunched through Arian rocket. Bhaskar,Challenger and INSAT I-B have made longdistancecommunication, television and radiovery effective. Today weather forecastingthrough television is a boon.Cyber Space – InternetCyberspace is the world of electroniccomputerised space. It is encompassed by theInternet such as the World Wide Web (www).In simple words, it is the electronic digitalworld for communicating or accessinginformation over computer networks without

physical movement of the sender and thereceiver... It is also referred to as the Internet.Cyberspace exists everywhere. It may be inan office, sailing boat, flying plane and virtuallyanywhere.The speed at which this electronic networkhas spread is unprecedented in humanhistory. There were less than 50 millionInternet users in 1995, about 400 million in2000 A.D. and over two billion in 2010. In thelast few years there has been a shift amongglobal users from U.S.A. to the developingcountries. The percentage share of U.S.A. hasdropped from 66 in 1995 to only 25 in 2005.Now the majority of the world’s users arein U.S.A., U.K., Germany, Japan, Chinaand India.As billions use the Internet each year,cyberspace will expand the contemporaryeconomic and social space of humans throughe-mail, e-commerce, e-learning ande-governance. Internet together with fax,television and radio will be accessible to moreand more people cutting across place and time.It is these modern communication systems,more than transportation, that has made theconcept of global village a reality.80 Fundamentals of Human GeographyEXERCISES1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) The Trans–Continental Stuart Highway runs between(a) Darwin and Melbourne(b) Edmonton and Anchorage(c) Vancouver and St. John’s City(d) Chengdu and Lhasa(ii) Which country has the highest density of railway network?(a) Brazil (c) Canada(b) U.S.A (d) Russia(iii) The Big Trunk Route runs through(a) The Mediterranean – Indian ocean

(b) The North Atlantic Ocean(c) The South Atlantic Ocean(d) The North Pacific Ocean(iv) The Big Inch pipeline transports(a) Milk (c) Water(b) Liquid petroleum gas (LGP) (d) Petroleum(v) Which one pair of the following places is linked by Channel Tunnel?(a) London – Berlin (c) Berlin – Paris(b) Paris – London (d) Barcelona – Berlin2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) What are the problems of road transport in mountainous, desert andflood prone regions?(ii) What is a trans–continental railway?(iii) What are the advantages of water transport?3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.(i) Elucidate the statement– “In a well managed transport system, variousmodes complement each other”.(ii) Which are the major regions of the world having a dense network ofairways.(iii) What are the modes by which cyber space will expand the contemporaryeconomic and social space of humans. Unit-IIIChapter-9International TradeYou are already familiar with the term “trade”as a tertiary activity which you have studied inChapter 7 of this book. You know that trademeans the voluntary exchange of goods andservices. Two parties are required to trade. Oneperson sells and the other purchases. In certainplaces, people barter their goods. For both theparties trade is mutually beneficial.Trade may be conducted at two levels:international and national. International tradeis the exchange of goods and services amongcountries across national boundaries.Countries need to trade to obtain commodities,they cannot produce themselves or they canpurchase elsewhere at a lower price.The initial form of trade in primitivesocieties was the barter system, where direct

exchange of goods took place. In this system ifyou were a potter and were in need of a plumber,you would have to look for a plumber whowould be in need of pots and you couldexchange your pots for his plumbing service.Fig. 9.1: Two women practising barter system inJon Beel MelaEvery January after the harvest season Jon Beel Melatakes place in Jagiroad, 35 km away from Guwahatiand it is possibly the only fair In India, where bartersystem is still alive. A big market is organised duringthis fair and people from various tribes and communitiesexchange their products.The difficulties of barter system wereovercome by the introduction of money. In theolden times, before paper and coin currency82 Fundamentals of Human Geographycame into being, rare objects with very highintrinsic value served as money, like,flintstones, obsidian, cowrie shells, tiger’spaws, whale’s teeth, dogs teeth, skins, furs,cattle, rice, peppercorns, salt, small tools,copper, silver and gold.The word salary comes from the Latin word Salariumwhich means payment by salt. As in those timesproducing salt from sea water was unknown and couldonly be made from rock salt which was rare andexpensive. That is why it became a mode of payment.HISTORY OF INTERNATIONALTRADEIn ancient times, transporting goods over longdistances was risky, hence trade was restrictedto local markets. People then spent most of theirresources on basic necessities – food andclothes. Only the rich people bought jewellery,costly dresses and this resulted in trade ofluxury items.The Silk Route is an early example of longdistance trade connecting Rome to China –along the 6,000 km route. The traders

transported Chinese silk, Roman wool andprecious metals and many other high valuecommodities from intermediate points in India,Persia and Central Asia.After the disintegration of the RomanEmpire, European commerce grew duringtwelfth and thirteenth century with thedevelopment of ocean going warships tradebetween Europe and Asia grew and theAmericas were discovered.Fifteenth century onwards, the Europeancolonialism began and along with trade of exoticcommodities, a new form of trade emergedwhich was called slave trade. The Portuguese,Dutch, Spaniards, and British captured Africannatives and forcefully transported them to thenewly discovered Americas for their labour inthe plantations. Slave trade was a lucrativebusiness for more than two hundred years tillit was abolished in Denmark in 1792, GreatBritain in 1807 and United States in 1808.Figure 9.2 : Advertisement for Slave Auction, 1829This American slave auction advertised slaves for saleor temporary hire by their owners. Buyers often paid asmuch as $2,000 for a skilled, healthy slave. Such auctionsoften separated family members from one another,many of whom never saw their loved ones again.After the Industrial Revolution the demandfor raw materials like grains, meat, wool alsoexpanded, but their monetary value declinedin relation to the manufactured goods.The industrialised nations importedprimary products as raw materials andexported the value added finished productsback to the non-industrialised nations.In the later half of the nineteenth century,regions producing primary goods were no moreimportant, and industrial nations became eachother’s principle customers.During the World Wars I and II, countries

imposed trade taxes and quantitativerestrictions for the first time. During the postwarperiod, organisations like GeneralAgreement for Tariffs and Trade (which laterbecame the World Trade Organisation), helpedin reducing tariff.Why Does International Trade Exist?International trade is the result of specialisationInternational Trade 83in production. It benefits the world economy ifdifferent countries practise specialisation anddivision of labour in the production ofcommodities or provision of services. Each kindof specialisation can give rise to trade. Thus,international trade is based on the principle ofcomparative advantage, complimentarity andtransferability of goods and services and inprinciple, should be mutually beneficial to thetrading partners.In modern times, trade is the basis of theworld’s economic organisation and is relatedto the foreign policy of nations. With welldevelopedtransportation and communicationsystems, no country is willing to forego thebenefits derived from participation ininternational trade.Basis of International Trade(i) Difference in national resources: Theworld’s national resources are unevenlydistributed because of differences in theirphysical make up i.e. geology, relief soiland climate.(a) Geological structure: It determinesthe mineral resource base andtopographical differences ensurediversity of crops and animalsraised. Lowlands have greateragricultural potential. Mountainsattract tourists and promotetourism.

(b) Mineral resources: They areunevenly distributed the world over.The availability of mineral resourcesprovides the basis for industrialdevelopment.(c) Climate: It influences the type of floraand fauna that can survive in a givenregion. It also ensures diversity inthe range of various products, e.g.wool production can take place incold regions, bananas, rubber andcocoa can grow in tropical regions.(ii) Population factors: The size, distributionand diversity of people between countriesaffect the type and volume of goodstraded.(a) Cultural factors: Distinctive forms ofart and craft develop in certaincultures which are valued the worldover, e.g. China produces the finestporcelains and brocades. Carpets ofIran are famous while North Africanleather work and Indonesian batikcloth are prized handicrafts.(b) Size of population: Denselypopulated countries have largevolume of internal trade but littleexternal trade because most of theagricultural and industrialproduction is consumed in the localmarkets. Standard of living of thepopulation determines the demandfor better quality imported productsbecause with low standard of livingonly a few people can afford to buycostly imported goods.(iii) Stage of economic development: Atdifferent stages of economic developmentof countries, the nature of items tradedundergo changes. In agriculturally

important countries, agro products areexchanged for manufactured goodswhereas industrialised nations exportmachinery and finished products andimport food grains and other rawmaterials.(iv) Extent of foreign investment: Foreigninvestment can boost trade in developingcountries which lack in capital requiredfor the development of mining, oil drilling,heavy engineering, lumbering andplantation agriculture. By developingsuch capital intensive industries indeveloping countries, the industrialnations ensure import of food stuffs,minerals and create markets for theirfinished products. This entire cycle stepsup the volume of trade between nations.(v) Transport: In olden times, lack ofadequate and efficient means of transportrestricted trade to local areas. Only highvalue items, e.g. gems, silk and spiceswere traded over long distances. Withexpansions of rail, ocean and airtransport, better means of refrigerationand preservation, trade has experiencedspatial expansion.84 Fundamentals of Human GeographyImportant Aspects of InternationalTradeInternational trade has three very importantaspects. These are volume, sectoral compositionand direction of trade.Volume of TradeThe actual tonnage of goods traded makes upthe volume. However, services traded cannot bemeasured in tonnage. Therefore, the total valueof goods and services traded is considered tobe the volume of trade. Table 9.1 shows thatthe total volume of world trade has been steadily

rising over the past decades.Why do you think that the volume of trade has increasedover the decades? Can these figures be compared?What has been the growth in the year 2010 over theyear 1955?Composition of TradeThe nature of goods and services imported andexported by countries have undergone changesduring the last century.Trade of primary products was dominantin the beginning of the last century. Latermanufactured goods gained prominence andcurrently, though the manufacturing sectorcommands the bulk of the global trade, servicesector which includes travel, transportation andother commercial services have been showingan upward trend. Table 9.1 shows that thevolume of imports and exports of the worldmerchandise has been growing consistentlyover the years.Looking at the Table 9.2, we find thatagricultural products, fuels and miningproducts, fuels, manufactures, iron and steel,chemicals, office and telecom equipment,automotive products, textiles and clothing aremajor merchandise which are traded over theworld. Trade in the service sector is quiteTable 9.1: World Imports and Exports (in millions of U.S. $)1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2010Exports 95000 190000 877000 1954000 5162000 10393000 14850565Total MerchandiseImports 99000 199000 912000 2015000 5292000 10753000 15076522Total MerchandiseSource: www.wto.org (May 2012)Table 9.2: World Merchandise Exports by Major Product Group, 2010(Billion dollars and percentage)Value Share Annual Percentage ChangeIn World 1980- 1985- 1990- 1995- 2000- 2005- 2008 2009 2010Merchandise 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010Trade

Agricultural Products 1362 9.2 -2 9 7 -1 9 10 19 -12 15Fuels and Mining 3026 20.4 -5 3 2 10 16 11 33 -36 33ProductsFuels 2348 15.8 -5 0 1 12 17 10 41 -37 30Manufactures 9962 67.1 2 15 9 5 9 6 10 -20 20Iron and Steel 421 2.8 -2 9 8 -2 17 6 22 -45 29Chemicals 1705 11.5 1 14 10 4 13 9 13 -14 18International Trade 85different from trade in the products of primaryand manufacturing sectors as the services canbe expanded infinitely, consumed by many, areweightless and once produced, can be easilyreplicated and thus, are capable of generatingmore profit than producing goods.Direction of TradeHistorically, the developing countries of thepresent used to export valuable goods andartefacts, etc., which were exported to Europeancountries. During the nineteenth century therewas a reversal in the direction of trade.European countries started exportingmanufactured goods for exchange of foodstuffsand raw materials from their colonies. Europeand U.S.A. emerged as major trade partners inthe world and were leaders in the trade ofmanufactured goods. Japan at that time wasalso the third important trading country. Theworld trade pattern underwent a drastic changeduring the second half of the twentieth century.Europe lost its colonies while India, China andother developing countries started competingwith developed countries. The nature of thegoods traded has also changed.Balance of TradeBalance of trade records the volume of goodsand services imported as well as exported by acountry to other countries. If the value ofimports is more than the value of a country’sexports, the country has negative orunfavourable balance of trade. If the value of

exports is more than the value of imports, thenthe country has a positive or favourable balanceof trade.Balance of trade and balance of paymentshave serious implications for a country’seconomy. A negative balance would mean thatthe country spends more on buying goods thanit can earn by selling its goods. This wouldultimately lead to exhaustion of its financialreserves.Types of International TradeInternational trade may be categorised into twotypes:(a) Bilateral trade: Bilateral trade is doneby two countries with each other. Theyenter into agreement to trade specifiedcommodities amongst them. Forexample, country A may agree to tradesome raw material with agreement topurchase some other specified item tocountry B or vice versa.(b) Multi-lateral trade: As the term suggestsmulti-lateral trade is conducted withmany trading countries. The samecountry can trade with a number ofother countries. The country may alsogrant the status of the “Most FavouredNation” (MFN) on some of the tradingpartners.Case for Free TradeThe act of opening up economies for trading isknown as free trade or trade liberalisation. Thisis done by bringing down trade barriers liketariffs. Trade liberalisation allows goods andservices from everywhere to compete withdomestic products and services.Globalisation along with free trade canadversely affect the economies of developingcountries by not giving equal playing field byimposing conditions which are unfavourable.

With the development of transport andcommunication systems goods and services cantravel faster and farther than ever before. Butfree trade should not only let rich countriesenter the markets, but allow the developedOffice and Telecom 1603 10.8 9 18 15 10 6 5 3 -15 21EquipmentAutomotive Products 1092 7.4 5 14 8 5 10 3 3 -31 29Textiles 251 1.7 -1 15 8 0 5 4 5 -16 19Clothing 351 2.4 4 18 8 5 7 5 5 -13 11Source: www.wto.org86 Fundamentals of Human Geographycountries to keep their own markets protectedfrom foreign products.Countries also need to be cautious aboutdumped goods; as along with free tradedumped goods of cheaper prices can harm thedomestic producers.DumpingThe practice of selling a commodity in twocountries at a price that differs for reasonsnot related to costs is called dumping.World Trade OrganisationIn1948, to liberalise the world from highcustoms tariffs and various other types ofrestrictions, General Agreement for Tariffs andTrade (GATT) was formed by some countries.In 1994, it was decided by the membercountries to set up a permanent institution forlooking after the promotion of free and fair tradeamongst nation and the GATT was transformedinto the World Trade Organisation from 1stJanuary 1995.WTO is the only international organisationdealing with the global rules of trade betweennations. It sets the rules for the global tradingsystem and resolves disputes between itsmember nations. WTO also covers trade inservices, such as telecommunication andbanking, and others issues such as intellectual

rights.The WTO has however been criticised andopposed by those who are worried about theeffects of free trade and economic globalisation.It is argued that free trade does not makeordinary people’s lives more prosperous. It isactually widening the gulf between rich andpoor by making rich countries more rich. Thisis because the influential nations in the WTOfocus on their own commercial interests.Moreover, many developed countries have notfully opened their markets to products fromdeveloping countries. It is also argued thatissues of health, worker’s rights, child labourand environment are ignored.WTO Headquarters are located in Geneva, Switzerland.149 countries were members of WTO as on December2005.India has been one of the founder member of WTO.Regional Trade BlocsRegional Trade Blocs have come up in order toencourage trade between countries withgeographical proximity, similarity andcomplementarities in trading items and to curbrestrictions on trade of the developing world.Today, 120 regional trade blocs generate 52 percent of the world trade. These trading blocsdeveloped as a response to the failure of the globalorganisations to speed up intra-regional trade.Though, these regional blocs remove tradetariffs within the member nations andThink of some reasons why dumping is becoming aserious concern among trading nations?International Trade 87encourage free trade, in the future it could getincreasingly difficult for free trade to take placebetween different trading blocs. Some majorregional trade blocs have been listed in Table 9.3.Table 9.3: Major Regional TradeRegional

BlocsASEAN(Association ofSouth East AsianNations)CIS(Commonwealthof IndependentStates)EU(European Union)LAIA(Latin AmericanIntegrationAssociation)NAFTA(North AmericanFree TradeAssociation)OPEC(Organisation ofPetroleumExportingCountries)SAFTA(South AsianFree TradeAgreement)HeadQuarterJakarta,IndonesiaMinsk,BelarusBrussels,BelgiumMontevideo,UruguayVienna,Austria

MembernationsBrunei,Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore,Thailand,VietnamArmenia,Azerbaijan,Belarus, Georgia,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Moldova, Russia,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Ukraine andUzbekistan.Austria, Belgium,Denmark,France, Finland,Ireland, Italy, theNetherlands,Luxemburg,Portugal, Spain,Sweden and U.K.Argentina, Bolivia,Brazil, Columbia,Ecuador, Mexico,Paraguay, Peru,Uruguay andVenezuelaU.S.A., Canadaand MexicoAlgeria,Indonesia, Iran,Iraq, Kuwait,Libya, Nigeria,Qatar, SaudiArabia, U.A.E.

and VenezuelaBangladesh,Maldives, Bhutan,Nepal, India,Pakistan and SriLankaOriginAug, 1967—EECMarch1957EU - Feb. 1992196019941949Jan-2006CommoditiesAgro products,rubber, palm oil,rice, copra,coffee, minerals –copper, coal,nickel andtungsten. Energy– petroleum andnatural gas andSoftwareproductsCrude oil, naturalgas, gold, cotton,fibre, aluminiumAgro products,minerals,chemicals, wood,paper, transportvehicles, opticalinstruments,clocks - works ofart, antiques—

Agro products,motor vehicles,automotive parts,computers,textilesCrude petroleum—Other AreasofCooperationAccelerateeconomicgrowth,culturaldevelopment,peace andregionalstabilityIntegrationandcooperation onmatters ofeconomics,defence andforeign policySingle marketwith singlecurrency——Coordinateand unifypetroleumpolicies.Reduce tariffson interregionaltrade88 Fundamentals of Human GeographyConcerns Related to InternationalTrade

Undertaking international trade is mutuallybeneficial to nations if it leads to regionalspecialisation, higher level of production, betterstandard of living, worldwide availability ofgoods and services, equalisation of prices andwages and diffusion of knowledge and culture.International trade can prove to bedetrimental to nations of it leads to dependenceon other countries, uneven levels ofdevelopment, exploitation, and commercialrivalry leading to wars. Global trade affectsmany aspects of life; it can impact everythingfrom the environment to health and well-beingof the people around the world. As countriescompete to trade more, production and the useof natural resources spiral up, resources getused up faster than they can be replenished.As a result, marine life is also depleting fast,forests are being cut down and river basins soldoff to private drinking water companies. Multinationalcorporations trading in oil, gas mining,pharmaceuticals and agri-business keepexpanding their operations at all costs creatingmore pollution – their mode of work does notfollow the norms of sustainable development.If organisations are geared only towards profitmaking, and environmental and healthconcerns are not addressed, then it could leadto serious implications in the future.GATEWAYS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEPortsThe chief gateways of the world of internationaltrade are the harbours and ports. Cargoes andtravellers pass from one part of the world toanother through these ports.The ports provide facilities of docking,loading, unloading and the storage facilities forcargo. In order to provide these facilities, theport authorities make arrangements formaintaining navigable channels, arranging tugs

and barges, and providing labour andmanagerial services. The importance of a portis judged by the size of cargo and the numberof ships handled. The quantity of cargo handledby a port is an indicator of the level ofdevelopment of its hinterland.Fig. 9.5: San Francisco, the largest land-lockedharbour in the worldTypes of PortGenerally, ports are classified according to thetypes of traffic which they handle.Types of port according to cargo handled:(i) Industrial Ports: These ports specialise inbulk cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil,chemicals and similar materials.(ii) Commercial Ports: These ports handlegeneral cargo-packaged products andmanufactured good. These ports alsohandle passenger traffic.Fig. 9.6: Leningrad Commercial Port(iii) Comprehensive Ports: Such ports handlebulk and general cargo in large volumes.

International Trade 89Most of the world’s great ports areclassified as comprehensive ports.Types of port on the basis of location:(i) Inland Ports: These ports are located awayfrom the sea coast. They are linked to thesea through a river or a canal. Such portsare accessible to flat bottom ships orbarges. For example, Manchester is linkedwith a canal; Memphis is located on theriver Mississippi; Rhine has several portslike Mannheim and Duisburg; andKolkata is located on the river Hoogli, abranch of the river Ganga.(ii) Out Ports: These are deep water ports builtaway from the actual ports. These servethe parent ports by receiving those ships

which are unable to approach them dueto their large size. Classic combination,for example, is Athens and its out portPiraeus in Greece.Types of port on the basis of specialisedfunctions:(i) Oil Ports: These ports deal in theprocessing and shipping of oil. Some ofthese are tanker ports and some arerefinery ports. Maracaibo in Venezuela,Esskhira in Tunisia, Tripoli in Lebanon aretanker ports. Abadan on the Gulf of Persiais a refinery port.(ii) Ports of Call: These are the ports whichoriginally developed as calling points onmain sea routes where ships used toanchor for refuelling, watering and takingfood items. Later on, they developed intocommercial ports. Aden, Honolulu andSingapore are good examples.(iii) Packet Station: These are also known asferry ports. These packet stations areexclusively concerned with thetransportation of passengers and mailacross water bodies covering shortdistances. These stations occur in pairslocated in such a way that they face eachother across the water body, e.g. Dover inEngland and Calais in France across theEnglish Channel.(iv) Entrepot Ports: These are collection centreswhere the goods are brought from differentcountries for export. Singapore is anentrepot for Asia. Rotterdam for Europe,and Copenhagen for the Baltic region.(v) Naval Ports: These are ports which haveonly strategic importance. These portsserve warships and have repair workshopsfor them. Kochi and Karwar are examplesof such ports in India.

EXERCISES1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Most of the world’s great ports are classified as:(a) Naval Ports (c) Comprehensive Ports(b) Oil Ports (d) Industrial Ports(ii) Which one of the following continents has the maximum flow of globaltrade?(a) Asia (c) Europe(b) North America (d) Africa90 Fundamentals of Human Geography(iii) Which one of the following South American nation, is a part of OPEC?(a) Brazil (c) Venezuela(b) Chile (d) Peru(iv) In which of the following trade blocs, is India an associate member?(a) SAFTA (c) ASEAN(b) OECD (d) OPEC2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words:(i) What is the basic function of the World Trade Organisation?(ii) Why is it detrimental for a nation to have negative balance of payments?(iii) What benefits do nations get by forming trading blocs?3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words:(i) How are ports helpful for trade? Give a classification of ports on the basisof their location.(ii) How do nations gain from International Trade?Unit-IVChapter-10Human SettlementsWe all live in clusters of houses. You may call ita village, a town or a city, all are examples ofhuman settlements. The study of humansettlements is basic to human geographybecause the form of settlement in any particularregion reflects human relationship with theenvironment. A human settlement is defined asa place inhabited more or less permanently. Thehouses may be designed or redesigned,buildings may be altered, functions may changebut settlement continues in time and space.There may be some settlements which aretemporary and are occupied for short periods,

may be a season.CLASSIFICATION OF SETTLEMENTSRURAL URBAN DICHOTOMYIt is widely accepted that settlements can bedifferentiated in terms of rural and urban, butthere is no consensus on what exactly definesa village or a town. Although population size isan important criterion, it is not a universalcriterion since many villages in denselypopulated countries of India and China havepopulation exceeding that of some towns ofWestern Europe and United States.At one time, people living in villagespursued agriculture or other primary activities,but presently in developed countries, largesections of urban populations prefer to live invillages even though they work in the city. Thebasic difference between towns and villages isthat in towns the main occupation of the peopleis related to secondary and tertiary sectors,while in the villages most of the people areengaged in primary occupations such asagriculture, fishing, lumbering, mining, animalhusbandry, etc.Sub UrbanisationIt is a new trend of people moving away fromcongested urban areas to cleaner areasoutside the city in search of a better qualityof living. Important suburbs develop aroundmajor cities and everyday thousands ofpeople commute from their homes in thesub urbs to their work places in the city.92 Fundamentals of Human GeographyDifferentiations between rural and urbanon the basis of functions are more meaningfuleven though there is no uniformity in thehierarchy of the functions provided by rural andurban settlements. Petrol pumps are consideredas a lower order function in the United Stateswhile it is an urban function in India. Even

within a country, rating of functions may varyaccording to the regional economy. Facilitiesavailable in the villages of developed countriesmay be considered rare in villages of developingand less developed countries.The census of India, 1991 defines urbansettlements as “All places which havemunicipality, corporation, cantonment boardor notified town area committee and have aminimum population of 5000 persons, atleast 75 per cent of male workers areengaged in non-agricultural pursuits and adensity of population of at least 400 personsper square kilometers are urban.TYPES AND PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTSSettlements may also be classified by theirshape, patterns types. The major typesclassified by shape are:(i) Compact or Nucleated settlements:These settlements are those in whichlarge number of houses are built veryclose to each other. Such settlementsdevelop along river valleys and in fertileplains. Communities are closely knitand share common occupations.(ii) Dispersed Settlements: In thesesettlements, houses are spaced farapart and often interspersed with fields.A cultural feature such as a place ofworship or a market, binds thesettlement together.Fig. 10.2: Dispersed SettlementsRural SettlementsRural settlements are most closely and directlyrelated to land. They are dominated by primaryactivities such as agriculture, animalhusbandary, fishing etc. The settlements sizeis relatively small. Some factors affecting thelocation of rural settlements are :Fig.10.1 : Compact Settlements

Fig. 10.3 : Siting near waterWater SupplyUsually rural settlements are located near waterbodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs wherewater can be easily obtained. Sometimes theneed for water drives people to settle in otherwisedisadvantaged sites such as islandssurrounded by swamps or low lying riverbanks. Most water based ‘wet point’ settlementshave many advantages such as water forHuman Settlements 93drinking, cooking and washing. Rivers andlakes can be used to irrigate farm land. Waterbodies also have fish which can be caught fordiet and navigable rivers and lakes can be usedfor transportation.LandPeople choose to settle near fertile lands suitablefor agriculture. In Europe villages grew up nearrolling country avoiding swampy, low lyingland while people in south east Asia chose tolive near low lying river valleys and coastalplains suited for wet rice cultivation. Earlysettlers chose plain areas with fertile soils.UplandUpland which is not prone to flooding waschosen to prevent damage to houses and lossof life. Thus, in low lying river basins peoplechose to settle on terraces and levees which are“dry points”. In tropical countries people buildtheir houses on stilts near marshy lands toprotect themselves from flood, insects andanimal pests.Building MaterialThe availability of building materials- wood,stone near settlements is another advantage.Early villages were built in forest clearings wherewood was plentiful.DefenceDuring the times of political instability, war,

hostility of neighbouring groups villages werebuilt on defensive hills and islands. In Nigeria,upstanding inselbergs formed good defensivesites. In India most of the forts are located onhigher grounds or hills.Planned SettlementsSites that are not spontaneously chosen byvillagers themselves, planned settlements areconstructed by governments by providingshelter, water and other infrastructures onacquired lands. The scheme of villagisation inEthiopia and the canal colonies in IndiraGandhi canal command area in India are somegood examples.Rural Settlement PatternsPatterns of rural settlements reflect the way thehouses are sited in relation to each other. Thesite of the village, the surrounding topographyand terrain influence the shape and size of avillage.Rural settlements may be classified on thebasis of a number of criteria:(i) On the basis of setting: The main typesare plain villages, plateau villages,coastal villages, forest villages anddesert villages.(ii) On the basis of functions: There maybe farming villages, fishermen’s villages,lumberjack villages, pastoral villages etc.(iii) On the basis of forms or shapes of thesettlements: These may be a numberof geometrical forms and shapes suchas Linear, rectangular, circular starlike, T-shaped village, double village,cross-shaped village etc.(a) Linear pattern: In such settlementshouses are located along a road,railway line, river, canal edge of a valleyor along a levee.(b) Rectangular pattern: Such patterns of

rural settlements are found in plainareas or wide inter montane valleys.The roads are rectangular and cut eachother at right angles.In loess areas of China, cave dwellings wereimportant and African Savanna’s buildingmaterials were mud bricks and the Eskimos, inpolar regions, use ice blocks to construct igloos.Fig. 10.4 : House on stilts94 Fundamentals of Human Geography(c) Circular pattern: Circular villagesdevelop around lakes, tanks andsometimes the village is planned in sucha way that the central part remains openand is used for keeping the animals toprotect them from wild animals.(d) Star like pattern: Where several roadsconverge, star shaped settlements developby the houses built along the roads.(e) T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped orcrucifor m settlements: T -shapedsettlements develop at tri-junctions ofthe roads ( ) while -shapedsettlements emerge as the places wheretwo roads converge on the third oneand houses are built along these roads.Cruciform settlements develop on thecross-roads and houses extend in allthe four direction.Fig.10.6 : Linear pattern settlement Fig.10.7 : Y shape settlementRailwayBridgeRoadTempleRiverVillageCanalPondWellTree

Fig. 10.5: Rural Settlement Patterns

Human Settlements 95(f) Double village: These settlementsextend on both sides of a river wherethere is a bridge or a ferry.Identify these patterns on any topographical sheet whichyou have studied in Practical Work in Geography, PartI (NCERT, 2006) in Class XIProblems of Rural SettlementsRural settlements in the developing countriesare large in number and poorly equipped withinfrastructure. They represent a great challengeand opportunity for planners.Supply of water to rural settlements indeveloping countries is not adequate. Peoplein villages, particularly in mountainous andarid areas have to walk long distances to fetchdrinking water. Water borne diseases such ascholera and jaundice tend to be a commonproblem. The countries of South Asia faceconditions of drought and flood very often. Cropcultivation sequences, in the absence ofirrigation, also suffer.The general absence of toilet and garbagedisposal facilities cause health related problems.The design and use of building materialsof houses vary from one ecological region toanother. The houses made up of mud, woodand thatch, remain susceptible to damageduring heavy rains and floods, and requireproper maintenance every year. Most housedesigns are typically deficient in properventilation. Besides, the design of a houseincludes the animal shed along with its fodderstorewithin it. This is purposely done to keepthe domestic animals and their food properlyprotected from wild animals.Unmetalled roads and lack of moderncommunication network creates a unique

problem. During rainy season, the settlementsremain cut off and pose serious difficulties inproviding emergency services. It is also difficultto provide adequate health and educationalinfrastructure for their large rural population.The problem is particularly serious whereproper villagisation has not taken place andhouses are scattered over a large area.Urban SettlementsRapid urban growth is a recent phenomenon.Until recent times, few settlements reached thepopulation size of more than a few thousandinhabitants. The first urban settlement to reacha population of one million was the city ofLondon by around. A.D. 1810 By 1982approximately 175 cities in the world hadcrossed the one million population mark.Presently 48 per cent of the world’s populationlives in urban settlements compared to only 3per cent in the year 1800 (Table 10.1).Classification of Urban SettlementsThe definition of urban areas varies from onecountry to another. Some of the common basisof classification are size of population,occupational structure and administrativesetup.Population SizeIt is an important criteria used by most countriesto define urban areas. The lower limit of thepopulation size for a settlement to be designatedas urban is 1,500 in Colombia, 2,000 inArgentina and Portugal, 2,500 in U.S.A. andThailand, 5,000 in India and 30,000 in Japan.Besides the size of population, density of 400persons per sq km and share of non-agriculturalworkers are taken into consideration in India.Countries with low density of population maychoose a lower number as the cut-off figurecompared to densely populated countries. InDenmark, Sweden and Finland, all places with

a population size of 250 persons are calledurban. The minimum population for a city isYear Percentage1800 31850 61900 141950 301982 372001 48Table 10.1: Percentage of World’s Population Livingin Urban Areas96 Fundamentals of Human Geography300 in Iceland, whereas in Canada andVenezuela, it is 1,000 persons.Occupational StructureIn some countries, such as India, the majoreconomic activities in addition to the size of thepopulation in designating a settlement as urbanare also taken as a criterion. Similarly, in Italy, asettlement is called urban, if more than 50 percent of its economically productive populationis engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. Indiahas set this criterion at 75 per cent.AdministrationThe administrative setup is a criterion forclassifying a settlement as urban in somecountries. For example, in India, a settlementof any size is classified as urban, if it has amunicipality, Cantonment Board or NotifiedArea Council. Similarly, in Latin Americancountries, such as Brazil and Bolivia, anyadministrative centre is considered urbanirrespective of its population size.LocationLocation of urban centres is examined withreference to their function. For example, thesitting requirements of a holiday resort are quitedifferent from that of an industrial town, amilitary centre or a seaport. Strategic townsrequire sites offering natural defence; mining

towns require the presence of economicallyvaluable minerals; industrial towns generallyneed local energy supplies or raw materials;tourist centres require attractive scenery, or amarine beach, a spring with medicinal wateror historical relics, ports require a harbour etc.Locations of the earliest urban settlementswere based on the availability of water, buildingmaterials and fertile land. Today, while theseconsiderations still remain valid, moderntechnology plays a significant role in locatingurban settlements far away from the source ofthese materials. Piped water can be suppliedto a distant settlement, building material canbe transported from long distances.Apart from site, the situation plays animportant role in the expansion of towns. Theurban centres which are located close to animportant trade route have experienced rapiddevelopment.Functions of Urban CentresThe earliest towns were centres ofadministration, trade, industry, defence andreligious importance. The significance of defenceand religion as differentiating functions hasdeclined in general, but other functions haveentered the list. Today, several new functions,such as, recreational, residential, transport,mining, manufacturing and most recentlyactivities related to information technology arecarried on in specialised towns. Some of thesefunctions do not necessarily require the urbancentre to have any fundamental relationshipwith their neighbouring rural areas.What would be the effects of Informationand Communication Technology (ICT) asa function on the development of existingand new settlements?Prepare a list of cities where earlier functions have beenreplaced by newer ones.

In spite of towns performing multiplefunctions we refer to their dominant function.For example, we think of Sheffield as anindustrial city, London as a port city,Chandigarh as an administrative city and soon. Large cities have a rather greater diversityof functions. Besides, all cities are dynamic andover a period of time may develop new functions.Most of the early nineteenth-century fishingports in England have now developed tourism.Many of the old market towns are now knownfor manufacturing activities. Towns and citiesare classified into the following categories.Administrative TownsNational capitals, which house the administrativeoffices of central governments, such as New Delhi,Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, WashingtonD.C., and London etc. are called administrativeHuman Settlements 97towns. Provincial (sub-national) towns can alsohave administrative functions, for example,Victoria (British Columbia), Albany (New York),Chennai (Tamil Nadu).Trading and Commercial TownsAgricultural market towns, such as, Winnipegand Kansas city; banking and financial centreslike Frankfurt and Amsterdam; large inlandcentres like Manchester and St Louis; andtransport nodes such as, Lahore, Baghdad andAgra have been important trading centres.Cultural TownsPlaces of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca,Jagannath Puri and Varanasi etc. areconsidered cultural towns. These urbancentres are of great religious importance.Additional functions which the citiesperform are health and recreation (Miami andPanaji), industrial (Pittsburgh andJamshedpur), mining and quarrying (BrokenHill and Dhanbad) and transport (Singapore

and Mughal Sarai).Urbanisation means the increase in the proportionpopulation of a country who live in urban areas.The most important cause of urbanisation is rural-urbanmigration. During the late 1990s some 20 to 30 millionpeople were leaving the countryside every year andmoving into towns and cities.Developed countries experienced rapid urbanisationduring the nineteenth century.Developing counties experienced rapid urbanisationduring the second half of the twentieth century.CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS ON THEBASIS OF FORMSAn urban settlement may be linear, square, staror crescent shaped. In fact, the form of thesettlement, architecture and style of buildingsand other structures are an outcome of itshistorical and cultural traditions.Towns and cities of developed anddeveloping countries reflect marked differencesin planning and development. While most citiesin developed countries are planned, mosturban settlements of developing countries haveevolved historically with irregular shapes. Forexample, Chandigarh and Canberra areplanned cities, while smaller town in India haveevolved historically from walled cities to largeurban sprawls.Addis Ababa (The New Flower)The name of Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, asthe name indicates (Addis-New, Ababa-Flower)is a ‘new’ city which was established in 1878.The whole city is located on a hill-valleytopography. The road pattern bears the influenceFig. 10.8: Morphology of Addis AbabaFig. 10.9: Skyline of Addis Ababa98 Fundamentals of Human Geographyof the local topography. The roads radiate fromthe govt headquarters Piazza, Arat and AmistKilo roundabouts. Mercato has markets which

grew with time and is supposed to be the largestmarket between Cairo and Johannesburg. Amulti-faculty university, a medical college, anumber of good schools make Addis Ababa aneducational centre. It is also the terminal stationfor the Djibouti-Addis Ababa rail route. Boleairport is a relatively new airport. The city haswitnessed rapid growth because of its multifunctionalnature and being a large nodal centrelocated in the centre of Ethiopia.CanberraCanberra was planned as the capital ofAustralia in 1912 by American landscapearchitect, Walter Burley Griffin. He hadenvisaged a garden city for about 25,000 peopletaking into account the natural features of thelandscape. There were to be five main centres,each with separate city functions. During thelast few decades, the city has expanded toaccommodate several satellite towns, whichhave their own centres. The city has wide-openspaces and many parks and gardens.Types of Urban SettlementsDepending on the size and the services availableand functions rendered, urban centres aredesignated as town, city, million city,conurbation, megalopolis.TownThe concept of ‘town’ can best be understoodwith reference to ‘village’. Population size is notthe only criterion. Functional contrasts betweentowns and villages may not always be clearcut,but specific functions such as,manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, andprofessional services exist in towns.CityA city may be regarded as a leading town, whichhas outstripped its local or regional rivals. Inthe words of Lewis Mumford, “ the city is in factthe physical form of the highest and most

complex type of associative life”. Cities aremuch larger than towns and have a greaternumber of economic functions. They tend tohave transport terminals, major financialinstitutions and regional administrative offices.When the population crosses the one millionmark it is designated as a million city.ConurbationThe term conurbation was coined by PatrickGeddes in 1915 and applied to a large area ofurban development that resulted from themerging of originally separate towns or cities.Greater London, Manchester, Chicago andTokyo are examples. Can you find out anexample from India?MegalopolisThis Greek word meaning “great city”, waspopularised by Jean Gottman (1957) andFig. 10.10 : Morphology of a planned city – Canberra signifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending,Human Settlements 99as union of conurbations. The urbanlandscape stretching from Boston in the northto south of Washington in U.S.A. is the bestknown example of a megalopolis.Million CityThe number of million cities in the world hasbeen increasing as never before. Londonreached the million mark in 1800, followed byParis in 1850, New York in 1860, and by 1950there were around 80 such cities. The rate ofincrease in the number of million cities has beenthree-fold in every three decades – around 160in 1975 to around 438 in 2005.Table 10.2: Continent–wise Distributionof Million CitiesContinent Early Mid Mid1950 1970s 2000Europe 23 30 58Asia 32 69 206

North and Central America 16 36 79South America 8 17 43Africa 3 8 46Australia 2 2 6World Total 84 162 438Source: www.citypopulation.de/World.htmlDistribution of Mega CitiesA mega city or megalopolis is a general termfor cities together with their suburbs with apopulation of more than 10 million people.New York was the first to attain the status ofa mega city by 1950 with a total populationof about 12.5 million. The number of megacities is now 25. The number of mega citieshas increased in the developing countriesduring the last 50 years vis-à-vis thedeveloped countries.Problems of Human Settlementsin Developing CountriesThe settlements in developing countries, sufferfrom various problems, such as unsustainableconcentration of population, congested housingand streets, lack of drinking water facilities.They also lack infrastructure such as,electricity, sewage disposal, health andeducation facilities.Rural/Urban ProblemsCan you identify the problems faced by your city/town/village in terms of any one of the following?Availability of potable water.Electricity supply.Sewerage system.Transportation and communication facilities.Health and educational infrastructure.Water and air pollution.Can you think of solutions to these problems?Source: www.citypopulation.de/World.htmlTable 10.3: Mega Cities of the World(as on 01. 04. 2012)Rank English Country Population Population

(in millions)1 Tokyo Japan 34,500,000 34.52 Canton China 25,800,000 25.83 Jakarta Indonesia 25,300,000 25.34 Seoul Korea (South) 25,300,000 25.35 Shanghai China 25,300,000 25.36 Mexico City Mexico 23,200,000 23.27 Delhi India 23,000,000 23.08 New York United States 21,500,000 21.5of America9 São Paulo Brazil 21,100,000 21.110 Bombay India 20,800,000 20.811 Manila Philippines 20,700,000 20.712 Karachi Pakistan 17,400,000 17.413 Los Angeles United States 17,000,000 17.0of America14 Osaka Japan 16,800,000 16.815 Beijing China 16,400,000 16.416 Moscow Russia 16,200,000 16.217 Cairo Egypt 15,700,000 15.718 Calcutta India 15,700,000 15.719 Buenos Argentina Aires 14,300,000 14.320 Dacca Bangladesh 14,000,000 14.021 Bangkok Thailand 13,800,000 13.822 Tehran Iran 13,500,000 13.523 Istanbul Turkey 13,400,000 13.424 Lagos Nigeria 12,700,000 12.725 Rio de Brazil 12,700,000 12.7Janeiro26 London Great Britain 12,600,000 12.627 Paris France 10,600,000 10.6100 Fundamentals of Human GeographyProblems of Urban SettlementsPeople flock to cities to avail of employmentopportunities and civic amenities. Since mostcities in developing countries are unplanned,it creates severe congestion. Shortage ofhousing, vertical expansion and growth ofslums are characteristic features of moderncities of developing countries. In many cities

an increasing proportion of the populationlives in substandard housing, e.g. slums andsquatter settlements. In most million pluscities in India, one in four inhabitants lives inillegal settlements, which are growing twice asfast as the rest of the cities. Even in the AsiaPacific countries, around 60 per cent of theurban population lives in squatter settlements.Fig. 10.11: SlumsEconomic ProblemsThe decreasing employment opportunities inthe rural as well as smaller urban areas of thedeveloping countries consistently push thepopulation to the urban areas. The enormousmigrant population generates a pool of unskilledand semi-skilled labour force, which isalready saturated in urban areas.Socio-cultural ProblemsCities in the developing countries suffer fromseveral social ills. Insufficient financial resourcesfail to create adequate social infrastructurecatering to the basic needs of the hugepopulation. The available educational andhealth facilities remain beyond the reach of theurban poor. Health indices also, present agloomy picture in cities of developing countries.Lack of employment and education tends toaggravate the crime rates. Male selectivemigration to the urban areas distorts the sexratio in these cities.Environmental ProblemsThe large urban population in developingcountries not only uses but also disposes off ahuge quantity of water and all types of wastematerials. Many cities of the developingcountries even find it extremely difficult toprovide the minimum required quantity ofpotable water and water for domestic andindustrial uses. An improper sewerage systemcreates unhealthy conditions. Massive use of

traditional fuel in the domestic as well as theindustrial sector severely pollutes the air. Thedomestic and industrial wastes are either letinto the general sewerages or dumped withouttreatment at unspecified locations. Hugeconcrete structures erected to accommodatethe population and economic play a veryconducive role to create heat islands.Urban StrategyThe United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP) has outlined thesepriorities as part of its ‘Urban Strategy’.What is a Healthy City?World Health Organisation (WHO) suggeststhat, among other things, a ‘healthy city’must have:A ’Clean’ and ‘Safe’ environment.Meets the ‘Basic Needs’ of ‘All’ itsinhabitants.Involves the ‘Community’ in localgovernment.Provides easily accessible ‘Health’ service.Human Settlements 101Increasing ‘Shelter’ for the urban poor.Provision of basic urban services such as‘Education’, ‘Primary Health care’, ‘CleanWater and Sanitation’.Improving women’s access to ‘BasicServices’ and government facilities.Upgrading ‘Energy’ use and alternative‘Transport’ systems.Reducing ‘Air Pollution’.Cities, towns and rural settlements are linkedthrough the movements of goods, resources andpeople. Urban-rural linkages are of crucialimportance for the sustainability of humanEXERCISES1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Which one of the following forms of settlement develops along either side of

roads, rivers or canals?(a) circular (c) cross-shaped(b) linear (d) square(ii) Which one of the following types of economic activities dominates in all ruralsettlement?(a) primary (c) secondary(b) tertiary (d) quaternary(iii) In which of the following regions has the oldest well-documented urbansettlement found?(a) Huang He Valley (c) Nile Valley(b) Indus Valley (d) Mesopotamia(iv) How many of the following cities in India have attained the million status at thebeginning of 2006?(a) 40 (c) 41(b) 42 (d) 43(v) Sufficiency of which type of resources can help to create adequate socialinfrastructure catering to the needs of the large population in the developingcountries?(a) financial (c) natural(b) human (d) socialsettlements. As the growth of rural populationhas outpaced the generation of employment andeconomic opportunities, rural-to-urban migrationhas steadily increased, particularly in thedeveloping countries, which has put an enormouspressure on urban infrastructure and servicesthat are already under serious stress. It is urgentto eradicate rural poverty and to improve thequality of living conditions, as well as to createemployment and educational opportunities inrural settlements. Full advantage must be takenof the complementary contributions and linkagesof rural and urban areas by balancing theirdifferent economic, social and environmentalrequirements.102 Fundamentals of Human Geography2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) How would you define a settlement?

(ii) Distinguish between site and situation.(iii) What are the bases of classifying settlements?(iv) How would you justify the study of human settlements in humangeography?3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.(i) What are rural and urban settlements? Mention theircharacteristics.(ii) Discuss the problems associated with urban settlements indeveloping countries.Project/Activity(i) Do you live in a city? If not, do you live nearby? Is your lifesomehow linked to a city?(a) What is its name?(b) When was it first settled?(c) Why was the site chosen?(d) What is its population?(e) What are the functions it performs?(f) On a sketch of the city, try to identify the areas wherethese functions are performed.Each student should make a list of five things associated with the selected city;things that cannot be found elsewhere. This is a mini definition of the city as eachstudent sees it. The lists should be shared with the class. How much agreement isthere between the lists?(ii) Can you think of some ways by which you can singlehandedly help reduce pollution levels of your settlementHints :(a) Proper garbage disposal(b) Using public transport(c) Better management of domestic water consumption(d) Planting trees in the neighborhood

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