What kinds of cloth had a large market in Europe?

Cotton and silk textiles had a large market in Europe. Indian textiles were famous for its fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship. Chintz, bandanna, jamdani etc were some varieties of cloths which were sold to the people in Europe. There was also the demand of Indian cotton textiles with printed floral designs in the European markets.What is jamdani?

Jamdaniis one of the finest muslin textiles on which decorative motifs are woven on the loom particularly in grey and white colures.They are woven generally with cotton and gold threads.What is bandanna?

The word "bandanna" originally referred to variety of brightly coloured cloth which was produced through a method of tying and dying. Currently, 'bandanna' refers to brightly coloured printed scarf for the neck or the head.Who are the Agarias?

The Agarias are an Indian community of iron smelters.What is an ‘ aurung ’?

Aurung is a Persian term for a warehouse - a place where goods are collected before being sold. The word also refers to a workshop for finished goodsWhat is a slag heap?

A slag heap is the waste left behind when smelting metal.Explain the process of smelting.

The process of smelting refers to the process of obtaining metal from rock or soil by heating it to a very high temperature, or of melting objects made from metal in order to use the metal to make something new.Why was the sword of Tipu Sultan very popular?

The swords had an incredibly hard and sharp edge that could easily rip through the opponent’s arm our.

This quality of swords came from a special type of high carbon steel called wootz which was produced all over South India. Wootz steel when made into swords produces a very sharp edge with a flowering water pattern.

What was the name of the industrial township established by TISCO on the banks of the river Subarnarekha? Jamshedpur

What was Britain called after its iron and steel industry started growing from the 1850s? Workshop of the world’

Which component was high in quantity in Wootz steel? Carbon

When did the Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) begin steel production? 1912

Fill in the blanks:

The word chintz comes from the word chhint.

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Tipu's sword was made of Wootz steel.India's textile exports declined in the nineteenth century.

Indian Wootz steel impressed the European scientist Michael Faraday . The word ‘muslin’ is derived from the Arabic language. The Europeans saw

this cloth for the first time in Mosul, a place in Iraq. Hence, they termed it as muslin.

In the Wootz steel production process, iron was mixed with Charcoal. The spinning jenny was invented in 1764 by John Kaye.

6. How do the names of different textiles tell us about their histories?

Tracing the origin of the names of certain textiles is interesting as it tells about the history of the textiles. Muslin: European traders first encountered fine cotton cloth from India carried by Arab merchants in Mosul in present-day Iraq. They began referring to all finely woven textiles as “muslin”.

Calico: When the Portuguese first came to India in search of spices they landed in Calicut on the Kerala coast in south-west India. They took back to Europe cotton textiles which they called “calico” (derived from Calicut) and subsequently calico became the general name for all cotton textiles.

Chintz: It is derived from the Hindi word chhint, a cloth with small and colourful flowery designs.

Bandanna: now refers to any brightly coloured and printed scarf for the neck or head. Originally, the term derived from the word “bandhna” (Hindi for tying), and referred to a variety of brightly coloured cloth produced through a method of tying and dying

Other cloth and textiles from India were named and ordered by their place of origin: Kasimbazar, Patna, Calcutta, Orissa, Charpoore.

The widespread use of these words shows how popular Indian textiles had become in different parts of the world.

7. Why did the wool and silk producers in England protest against the import of Indian textiles in the early eighteenth century?

Indian textiles were famous all over the world for its fine texture and exquisite craftsmanship. By the seventeenth century, the demand of Indian textiles dramatically increased in Europe. Wool and silk producers in England protested against the import of Indian textiles in the eighteenth century as these industries had

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just begun to develop in England and hence were not able to compete with the Indian textiles. They thus wanted to prevent the entry of Indian textiles in the English markets.

8. How did the development of cotton industries in Britain affect textile producers in India?

Effects of the development of cotton industries in Britain on the textile producers in India:→ Competition- Indian textiles had to compete with British textiles in European and American markets.→ High duties- Exporting textiles to England became increasingly difficult due to the very high duties imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain.→ Capture of foreign markets- By the beginning of the nineteenth century, English-made cotton textiles ousted Indian textiles from their traditional markets, thereby throwing thousands of Indian weavers out of employment. The English and European companies stopped buying Indian textiles and their agents no longer gave out advances to weavers to secure supplies.→ Capture of the Indian market- By the 1830s, British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets. By the 1880s, two-third of all cotton clothes worn by Indians were made of cloth produced in Britain. This greatly affected both the weavers and the spinners.Thus, Indian textiles declined in the nineteenth century, and thousands of Indian weavers and spinners lost their livelihood.

9. Why did the Indian iron smelting industry decline in the nineteenth century?

The Indian iron smelting industry began to decline due to the following reasons: The introduction of forest laws demarcated forests as protected and reserved. The

smelters now were not able to find wood for charcoal and iron ore for producing iron. Many smelters thus abandoned their work.

In forests where smelters obtained permission for obtaining iron ore, had to pay high taxes for each furnace that they used. This led to a substantial decline in their incomes.

By the nineteenth century, iron and steel began to be imported from Britain. Ironsmiths in India began to use steel imported by Britain for making various articles. Thus, the demand for iron produced by local smelters reduced.

Smelters also faced competition from the iron and steel industries that began to be set up in the country.

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In the late nineteenth century, a series of famines devastated the dry tracts of India. As a result, many of the local smelters stopped work, deserted their villages, and migrated, looking for some other work to survive the hard times.

10. What problems did the Indian textile industry face in the early years of its development?

In the early years of its development, Indian textile industry had to face competition from the textiles which were imported into the country. In its early years, the Indian textile industry found it difficult to compete with the cheap textiles imported from Britain. Unlike other countries where governments allowed local industries to grow by imposing heavy duties on imports, the colonial government in India did not protect and support the local textile industries in any such way .11. What helped TISCO expand steel production during the First World War?

→ In 1914 the First Would War broke out. → Steel produced in Britain now had to meet the demands of war in Europe. → So imports of British steel into India declined dramatically.→ The government turned to TISCO for the supply of rails. By 1919, the colonial government was purchasing about 90% of the steel that was manufactured by TISCO.→ Over time TISCO became the biggest steel industry within the British Empire. Why was the Calico Act passed by the British government in 1720?

In 1720, the British government enacted a legislation, banning the use of printed cotton textiles –chintz – in England. This Act was known as the Calico Act.It was passed for preventing the Indian textiles from entering the European markets. The Act aimed at securing the European textile market for the English producers by eliminating competition from India.

What were the various efforts made by the British to eliminate competition from Indian textiles?

In 1720, the British government enacted a legislation, banning the use of printed cotton textiles –chintz – in England. This Act was known as the Calico Act.It was passed for preventing the Indian textiles from entering the European markets. The Act aimed at securing the European textile market for the English producers by eliminating competition from India.

The invention of the spinning jenny by John Kaye in 1764 increased the textile production in Britain. The invention of steam engine by Richard Arkwright in 1786 further revolutionized textile weaving in England. Hence,

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the British increased their production capacity and limited the production of Indian goods.

They also dominated the markets by selling their goods at cheaper rates.

Mention the two technological innovations which revolutionized cotton productions.

· In 1764, the spinning jenny was invented by John Kaye which increased the productivity of the traditional spindles.

· The invention of the steam engine by Richard Ark Wright in 1786 revolutions cotton textile weaving.

During the 18 th century, in which four regions of India was textile production concentrated?

Bengal Dacca (Now in Bangladesh) Tamil Nadu Gujarat

Explain what is a Spinning Jenny?

A Spinning Jenny is a machine by which a single worker could operate several spindles on to which thread was spun. When the wheel was turned, all the spindles rotated. Why did Mahatma Gandhi urge people to boycott imported textiles?

Mahatma Gandhi urged the people of India to boycott imported textiles during the national movement. He encouraged people to use hand spun and hand-woven khadi. He did this to save the Indian textile industry from extinction and to encourage the spirit of nationalism among the people by drawing them closer to Indian goods.What is wootz steel?

Wootz steel was a good quality steel having high carbon content. It was primarily produced in South India. Tipu Sultan’s sword was made of this steel. The swords made from this steel had very sharp edges as small carbon crystals were embedded in iron.Name the famous weaving communities of India and the regions to which they belonged.

(1) Tanti weavers of Bengal (2) Julahas or Momin weavers of North India (3) Sale weavers of South India (4) Kaikollar weavers of South India (5) Devang weavers of South IndiaWhere was the Patola weave woven?

The Patola weave was woven in Surat, Ahmadabad and Patan in Gujarat.

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State whether true or false:(a) James Mill was a severe critic of the Orientalists. True

(b) The 1854 Despatch on education was in favour of English being introduced as a medium of higher education in India. True

(c) Mahatma Gandhi thought that promotion of literacy was the most important aim of education. False

(d) Rabindranath Tagore felt that children ought to be subjected to strict discipline. False

Who is a linguist?

A person who studies and knows several languages is known as a linguist.Who established the Serampore mission?

A Scottish missionary named William Corey established the Serampore mission.Write a short note on William Jones.

William Jones was a British judge at the supreme court of Calcutta. He was a linguist who studied Greek and Latin. He had deep interest in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit languages. He studied various Indian texts and established the Asiatic Society of Bengal for promoting the rich literature of India. He discovered many ancient Indian texts and translated them into English. He also started a journal called Asiatick Researches.What is a madrasa ?

A madrasa is an Arabic word for a place of learning or any type of school or college.Who is a munshi ?

A person who can read, write and teach Persian is called a munshi.Explain the term vernacular.

The term vernacular is generally used to refer to a local language or dialect as distinct from what is seen as the standard language. In colonies like India, the British

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used this particular term in order to ascertain the difference between the native languages and English, i.e. the language of the imperial masters.What do you understand by orientalism?

Orientalism stands for the study of oriental languages and literature characterised by the texts of the eastern countries of Asia. This term was used by the European colonial powers in the 19 th and 20 th centuries for describing the study of the texts, languages, literatures and cultures of the Asian countries. Those who supported the study of these vernacular languages were termed as orientalists.How was Indian regarded by orientalists?

1. Indian civilization was great though it deteriorated over the years. 2. They had deep respect for the ancient Indian culture. 3. They believed that the study of Sanskrit and Persian texts produced during the

rule of Hindu and Muslim monarchs could form the basis of the future development in India.

4. Hence, the orientalists laid great stress on learning Sanskrit and Persian languages and translating various Indian texts into English. They also established oriental societies for promoting oriental studies among the Europeans.

Why did the British promote the use of vernacular languages in India?

The British promoted the use of vernacular languages in India because they believed that by doing so they would be able to win a place in the hearts of the natives. They even learnt the language of the masses so as to administer India in a more efficient manner and strengthen their hold over the country.Why did William Jones feel the need to study Indian history, philosophy and law?

Orientalists like William Jones studied ancient Indian texts on law, philosophy, religion, politics, morality, arithmetic, medicine and the other sciences. This was for a reason. They felt that Indian civilisation had attained its glory in the ancient past, but had subsequently declined. In order to understand India, it was necessary to discover the sacred and legal texts that were produced in the ancient period. For only those texts could reveal the real ideas and laws of the Hindus and Muslims, and only a new study of these texts could form the basis of future development of IndiaWhy did James Mill and Thomas Macaulay think that European education was essential in India?

James Mill and Thomas Macaulay were critical of the Orientalist vision of learning. They believed that the knowledge of the East was full of errors and unscientific thought; that Eastern literature was non-serious and light-hearted; that no branch of Eastern knowledge could be compared to what had been produced in Europe, and especially in England; that the British government was wasting both effort and

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public money in promoting Oriental learning as it was of no practical use. They saw India as an uncivilised country that needed to be civilised. For them the aim of education was to teach what was useful and practical. European education was thus essential in India; English language education was essential in India. Indians needed to be made familiar with the scientific, technical and philosophical advances that the West had made; they needed to be exposed to the great poets and writers of the West; their tastes, values and culture needed to be changed. This, according to them, was the right way forward. What were the main features of Macaulay’s minute?

The following were the main features of Macaulay’s minute. 1. Macaulay’s minute was introduced by Thomas Macaulay in 1835. 2. It was a scheme of education to be imparted to Indians.3. It recommended making English the medium of instruction for higher

education. 4. For primary classes, vernacular languages were retained as the medium of

instruction. 5. It also suggested terminating the promotion of oriental institutions in India as

these were seen as temples of darkness.Why did Mahatma Gandhi want to teach children handicrafts?

Mahatma Gandhi believed that the aim of education should the development of a person's mind and soul. He felt that children needed to work with their hands, learn a useful handicraft and know how different things operated. This would develop their mind and their capacity to understand.Why did Mahatma Gandhi think that English education had enslaved Indians?

Gandhi believed that the colonial education filled Indians with the inferiority complex. It was because they were made to believe in the greatness and superiority of the western education. This destroyed their pride in their own culture. After receiving western education, Indians gradually begin to admire the British rule. Thus, he believed that English education had enslaved Indians.What was the Wood’s Despatch?

The Wood’s Despatch of 1854 was an educational Despatch introduced in India by Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control of the East India Company. It outlined the importance of English education in India and opposed oriental knowledge. English education was seen as a tool for making Indians understand the importance of trade and commerce. Thus, the Despatch used education as a tool for furthering British economic interests in India.

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What was unique about the way Indian pathshalas functioned during the 19 th century?

In the 19 th century, there were over one lakh pathshalas all over the country. These institutions were different from modernday schools.

1. In these pathshalas, There was no fixed fee 2. There were no printed books 3. There were no separate school buildings 4. There were no benches or chairs 5. There were no blackboards 6. There was no system of separate classes 7. There were no rollcall registers 8. There was no annual examination and no regular timetable 9. Classes were held under a tree or in the cover of a village temple 10.The fee depended on the income of parents 11. Teaching was oral and the guru decided what to teach

What is meant by the term ‘Santiniketan’? The abode of peace Which two prominent Indians protested against the increasing importance of Western education?

Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath TagoreThose with a scholarly knowledge of the language and culture of Asia were called OrientalistOn which point did Gandhi and Tagore differ on the question of national education?

Teaching of science and technologyMacaulay wanted to ban the promotion of oriental institutions like the Calcutta Madrasa and the Benaras Sanskrit CollegeThe Asiatic Society of Bengal was established in 1784; The Hindu College of Benaras was established in 1791; The Education Act was introduced in 1870 and The Calcutta Madrasa was established in 1781.Rabindranath Tagore established Santiniketan in the year 1901.Rabindranath Tagore emphasised the need to teach science and technology at Santiniketan along with art, music and dance.Asiatick Researches was the journal started by William Jones.The first three universities of India were established in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.William Carey, a Scottish missionary, established the Serampore Mission.

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(i) What is agriculture?

Agriculture is a primary activity that involves growing of crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock.(ii) Name the factors influencing agriculture.

Factors influencing agriculture are:1. Topography2. Climate3. Soil4. Technology5. Population

(iii) What is shifting cultivation? What are its disadvantages?

Shifting cultivation is a form of agriculture which involves clearing of a plot of land by cutting of trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with the soil and crops are grown. After the land has lost its fertility, it is abandoned. The farmers then move to a new place.Disadvantages:

1. Leads to deforestation2. Loss of fertility of a particular land3. Leads to Soil erosion4. Burning of trees – air pollution5. Insufficient cultivation of crops for a large population.

(iv) What is plantation agriculture?

Plantation agriculture is a type of farming that involves growing of one crop on large farms for profit. The crops could be either a cash crop or beverage crops such as coffee, tea, sugarcane, rubber, banana or cotton. This farming requires large amount of labour and capital. The produce is processed either on the farm or some nearby factories. This type of farming can be found in tropical regions of the world – India, Sri Lanka and Brazil.(v) Name the fibre crops and name the climatic conditions required

for their growth. Fibre crops - Jute and CottonJute requires the following conditions – High temperature Heavy rainfall Humid climateCotton requires the following conditions – High temperature Light rainfall Bright sunshine Two hundred and ten frost free days

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Give reasons.

(i) In India agriculture is a primary activity.

In India, agriculture is a primary activity because: Many regions in India have fertile land that is favourable for agriculture. Due to lack of literacy among the people, they prefer agriculture (skills for

these can be learnt from their ancestors.) Therefore, two-thirds of the Indian population still depends on it.

India being a densely populated country requires food production on a large scale to fulfil the people needs.

(ii) Different crops are grown in different regions.

Growing of the crops depends on a variety of factors such as:1. Type of Climate of a place/region2. Amount of rainfall in a particular place/ region3. Favourable topography of soil4. Demand of produce5. Labour and Technology level6. Different lifestyles of people staying at a particular place/region

Hence, different crops are grown in different regions.

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Explain subsistence farming.

Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficiency farming in which farmers grow only enough food to feed their families. The typical subsistence farm has a range of crops and animals needed by the family to eat during the year. Subsistence farming can be classified into the following categories: Intensive subsistence farming: It is practiced on a small plot of land using more labour and simple tools. Rice, wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds are cultivated by using this kind of farming. Primitive subsistence farming: It includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding.

Distinguish between the following.

(i) Primary activities and tertiary activities

(i) Difference between Primary and Secondary activities.

Primary activities Secondary activities

These are activities through which natural resources are obtained.

These are activities that support the primary and the secondary sector.

Examples: Mining, Fishing, AgricultureExamples: Communication, Transport, Services like Bank or Advertising.

(ii) Subsistence farming and intensive farming

Difference between Subsistence and Intensive farming.

Subsistence Farming Intensive Farming

It is a type of farming that is done by the farmer to cultivate crops for himself and his family, in order to meet their needs.

It is a type of farming that is done by the farmer to increase production of crops by involving tools and extra labour.

This farming is done for personal consumption. This farming is done for gaining profits.

Write a short note on nomadic herding.

Nomadic herding is a practice in which herdsmen keep migrating with their herd of animals for fodder and water. It is practiced in the following arid and semiarid regions: Central Asia Sahara Parts of India such as Jammu & Kashmir and Rajasthan

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Commonly reared animals include goats, yaks, camels and sheep. The herders and their families get meat, milk, hide and wool from these animals.

What kind of climatic condition is essential for coffee plantation? Which countries are the leading producers of coffee?

The necessary conditions for coffee plantation are as follows: Warm and wet climate Well-drained loamy soil Hilly slopes The major producers of coffee are Brazil, Colombia and India.

What kind of climate is essential for wheat plantation? Which countries are the leading producers of wheat?

The essential conditions for wheat production are as follows: Rainfall Moderate temperature during growing seasonBright sunshine at the time of harvest Well-drained loamy soil The major producers of wheat are USA, Argentina, Canada, Russia, Australia, Ukraine and India.

What do you understand by agricultural development?

Agricultural development refers to the efforts made towards increasing the farm production to meet the demands of the growing population. Agricultural development can be achieved in the following ways:

1. Increasing the crop area 2. Increasing the number of crops grown 3. Improving irrigation facilities 4. Using fertilizers 5. Using high yielding variety of seeds 6. Mechanising agriculture

What do you understand by mixed farming?

Mixed farming is a system of farming in which a farmer conducts different types of agricultural practices on a single farm with the view of increasing his income through different sources. In mixed farming, land is used for growing food crops and fodder crops apart from using it for rearing livestock. It is extensively practiced in eastern USA, Argentina, Europe, South Africa and New Zealand.

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Explain commercial farming.

Commercial farming could be defined as farming for profit, where food is produced and animals are reared using advanced technology for sale in the market. Most of the work is done by machines. Commercial farming includes the following: Commercial grain farming:

In commercial grain farming, crops are grown for commercial purpose. Wheat and maize are the major commercially grown crops. Major areas practicing commercial grain farming are the temperate grasslands of Asia, Europe and North America. Mixed farming:

In mixed farming, a piece of land is used for growing food, fodder crops and for rearing livestock. Plantation agriculture: In plantation agriculture, a single crop such as coffee, sugarcane, banana, cotton, rubber, tea, etc. is grown. This kind of farming requires a large amount of capital and labour.Where is mixed farming practiced?

It is practiced in Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, south east Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. What kind of climatic conditions are necessary for the production of rice? Which are the leading producers of rice in the world?

Rice is the major food crop in the world. It is considered as a staple diet in tropical and subtropical regions. The conditions necessary for the production of rice are as follows: High temperature Humidity Rainfall Alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water The leading producers of rice in the world are China, India, Egypt, Japan and Sri Lanka.

Primary activities include all those economic activities connected with extraction and production of natural resources.Examples of primary activities are agriculture, fishing and gathering. Secondary activities are those activities which involve the manufacturing of finished goods by processing the raw materials that are found in the nature. Examples: i. Manufacturing steel ii. Weaving cloth iii. Baking bread

The land for wheat should be Leveled and undulated.Subsistence type of farming is practiced to meet the needs of the farmer’s family.

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Rice is not a crop grown in shifting cultivation.

Loamy soil is best suitable for the growth of wheatName any four countries where wheat is grown extensively. USA, Canada, Argentina and Russia. Millet is known as coarse grain.

Jhumming is shifting cultivation known in North-East India.

The plantation of Rubber crop is abundantly found in Malaysia.

Name any three types of farming.

1. Commercial farming2. Mixed farming3. Dairy farming.

Briefly explain the climatic condition suitable for production of tea.

It requires a cool, frost-free climate with abundant rainfall, well distributed throughout the year for a good crop. It also needs well drained loamy soils and gentle slopes that can be terraced for cultivation. Tea was introduced to India by the British. Kenya, China and Sri Lanka produce some of the best quality tea in the world. Define the following:-a) Sericulture b) Pisciculture c) Viticulture d) Horticulture a) Sericulture- Commercial rearing of silk worms. It may supplement the income of the farmer.b) Pisciculture-Breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and ponds.c)Viticulture- Cultivation of grapes.d) Horticulture- Growing vegetables, flowers and fruits for commercial use.

Which crop is called ‘Golden fibre’? Write a short note on it.

Jute is also known as the ‘Golden fibre’. It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature, heavy rainfall and humid climate. This crop is grown in the tropical areas. India and Bangladesh are the leading producers of jute.

What do you mean by arable land?

The land on which the crops are grown is known as arable land.

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Write in your own words what you understand by the term the ‘rule of law’. In your response include a fictitious or real example of a violation of the rule of law.:

The “rule of law” implies that everyone, regardless of any discrimination, is equal before the law. In an independent and democratic India, all citizens from a rickshaw puller to the Prime Minister are to be judged equally before the law if they violate it by committing a crime. Every violation of a law or commitment of a criminal offence has a specific process to establish guilt and cite its punishment. The “rule of law” ensures that equality is maintained by passing the same judgment on a criminal regardless of his/her status or background. Violations of the “rule of law” are, sadly enough, aplenty in India. In our country, if one has power or “contacts” with influential people, then it is easy to get away with even gross violations of laws and rules. For example, most politicians today own property and wealth worth crores but they do not even file tax returns on the same. The assets they declare are probably not even half of what they originally own. However, an ordinary income tax official cannot dare to question them for fear of losing his job, because the former have “power” that this official does not possess.

State two reasons why historians refute the claim that the British introduced the rule of law in India.The two reasons why historians refute the claim that the British introduced the Rule of Law in India are

Colonial law was arbitrary, e.g. Sedition Act of 1870 Indian nationalists played a prominent role in the development of the legal sphere in

British India.

Re-read the storyboard on how a new law on domestic violence got passed. Describe in your own words the different ways in which women's groups worked to make this happen. The different ways in which women worked to pass the Bill of Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act are

Women collected various complaints of victims of domestic violence. They raised the issues of domestic violence in various forums such as campaigning. A group of lawyers, law students and activists took overall consultations from the nation, and

then took the lead in drafting the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Bill. Various meetings were held with different organisations. Several women’s organisations made submissions of the draft to the Parliamentary Standing

Committee. The bill was introduced to the Parliament in 2002. In December 2002, the recommendations of the Standing Committee were submitted to the

Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. The new bill was introduced in 2005. After the bill was passed by both the houses, it was sent for the President’s consent. Finally, the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act came into effect in 2006.

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Write in your own words what you understand by the following sentence on pages 44-45: They also began fighting for greater equality and wanted to change the idea of law from a set of rules that they were forced to obey to law as including ideas of justice.The line refers to the Indian nationalists feeling violated.

During their rule, the British arbitrated the Indians by introducing the Sedition Act in 1870. The Act stated that any person protesting or criticising the British government could be

arrested without due trial. Thus, the Indians felt the need to bring in changes to the law which were derogatory and forced

upon them. They started protesting and criticising the arbitrary use of authority by the British. Therefore, they fought for the greater equality and wanted to change the idea of law from a set

of rules that they were forced to obey, law as including ideas of justice.

What were the main demands of Indian nationalists with respect to

reforms in law? The main demands of Indian nationalists with respect to reforms in law were as follows:

1. They opposed the arbitrary laws imposed by the British on Indians. 2. They wanted equality and that laws be made more sensitive to their

circumstances. 3. Indian lawyers began joining the nationalist movement and demanded reforms

in the legal system. They also defended the legal rights of Indians in the law courts dominated by the British.

What do you understand by the rule of law?

The rule of law means that no one is above the law. The concept of the rule of law has been incorporated in the Constitution of India for the following reasons: It establishes the supremacy of law over all the citizens whether rich or poor. Law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender.

What was the process of dispensing justice in ancient India?

In ancient India, the Indian society was divided into numerous caste and class divisions. The process of dispensing justice was as follows:

1. There were innumerable laws and justice was dispensed according to one’s caste. The upper castes enjoyed leniency in laws whereas the lower castes were harshly punished for the same crime.

2. The rule of law or equality before law was an unknown concept during the ancient period.

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Why was the Sedition Act of 1870 criticised by Indians?

According to the Sedition Act of 1870, any person protesting or criticising the British Government could be arrested without trial. It was yet another instance of arbitrary use of authority by the British. The act was criticised and opposed by the Indian nationalists.

What do you mean by Hindu Succession Act 2005?

The Hindu Succession Act, 2005, stated that after the father’s death, sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share of family property.

What are the salient features of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act?

The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 is a novel legislation passed by the Indian government for the following reasons:

1. It protects women from physical or mental abuse within their households. 2. It provides a woman the right to secure housing. 3. It recognizes the right of women to live in a shared household and claim for

monetary relief to meet her expenses.

What are the various mediums through which citizens can communicate with the government?

The citizens can communicate with the government through the following means: 1. T. V. reports 2. Newspaper editorials 3. Radio broadcasts 4. Local meetings 5. Press conferences 6. Memorandums

Write a short note on the Rowlatt Act.

The Rowlatt Act was passed by the British government in 1919. The Act allowed the British government to imprison any Indian, even on the grounds of suspicion, without trial. The Act was vehemently opposed by the Indian nationalist leaders including Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal Malik.

What do you understand by domestic violence? What steps have been taken by the government of India to stop it?

Domestic violence refers to any injury or use of force or threat on women by an adult male member of her house. Both physical injury and emotional abuse come

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under the purview of domestic violence. The government of India passed the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act in 2005 for preventing women from being subject to violence by anyone in their households. The act has been very useful in protecting the rights of women and giving them a tool for their self-defense.

Why do certain laws made by the Parliament become controversial?

The Parliament passes laws for the general welfare of the people and for promoting the interests of the country. However, certain laws passed by the Parliament become controversial because of the following reasons:

1. Certain laws have unfriendly provisions. 2. A law fails to be accepted by the people if they feel that its provisions are not

for their benefit. 3. At times, a law made for the welfare of one section of the society may cause

resentment in the other sections. 4. The citizens of a democratic nation are free to express their opposition and

their unwillingness to accept a law which they consider repressive.

What is the role of citizens in the effective functioning of democracy?

Citizens are active players in a democratic system. They play the following roles: 1. It is they who elect their representatives to form the government. 2. They keep a constant vigil on the policies and laws framed by the government

and are at liberty to oppose laws which they find repressive. 3. They make the government accountable for all its actions. 4. The government that fails to fulfil the people’s expectations is usually not

elected to power in the next elections.

How are Laws Passed?

Laws are passed by the Parliament which represents the people of India.1. When people generally feel that the passing of a law is necessary to change

some exploitative norms which are existing in society, protests and rallies are first held to create awareness among people about the issue.

2. People of civil societies such as lawyers, teachers and law students may even draft the bill.

3. The bill is then sent to the Parliamentary Standing Committee. The bill is then moved into the Parliament. The members of the Parliament discuss each clause of the bill.

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4. After a bill is discussed and approved by two-thirds majority of the members of the House, it is sent to the other House for discussions. The same procedure takes place in the second House.

5. After it is passed in the second House, the bill goes to the President for his signature. The President may send the bill back to the House if he believes that certain provisions in the bill need review.

6. When the bill comes to the President with or without changes for the second time, he/she has to sign the bill.

7. After being signed by the President, the bill becomes a law.

Unpopular and Controversial Laws

The Parliament may pass some controversial and unpopular laws. When a set of laws favours one group at the expense of the other group, the law is said to be controversial.

1. When an unpopular law is passed, people may come together on a common platform to criticise the provisions of the law.

2. Holding of rallies and protests, writing in magazines and newspapers, holding debates in the television are some ways in which the Parliament may be pressurised into changing unpopular provisions of the law.

3. Unpopular and repressive laws may be challenged in the court by the people. The Supreme Court has the power to revoke the laws if the laws do not adhere to the Constitution of the country.

The Civil Rights Act

The Civil Rights Act was passed by the U.S.A. in 1964. It prohibited any sort of discrimination on the basis of colour. The aim of the Civil Rights Act was to put an end to the discrimination against African Americans.

The Sedition act of 1870 gave the British the freedom to arrest anybody without trial for protesting or criticising the British government.

The Jallianwala Bagh incident happened in the aftermath of the arrests of two prominent Indian leaders who were opposing the Rowlatt Act. Which of the following leaders was arrested during the opposition of the Rowlatt Act?Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, along with Dr. Satyapal Malik, was arrested during the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Column 1 Column 21. Local laws iii. Overlapping

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2. Process of development ii. Evolution3. Protection of women through domestic violence Act

i. A civil law

4. Controversial acts iv. Lead to conflict

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