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ZONDERVAN

Four Portraits, One JesusCopyright © 2007 by Mark L. Strauss

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Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49530

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Strauss, Mark L. Four portraits, one Jesus : a survey of Jesus and the Gospels / Mark L. Strauss. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-310-22697-0 1. Bible N.T. Gospels — Criticism, interpretations, etc. 2. Jesus Christ — Person and offices. I. Title. BS2555.52.S86 2007 266’.061 — dc22 2005034280

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ContentsList of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE FOUR GOSPELS

1. What Are the Gospels? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2. Exploring the Origin and Nature of the Gospels: Historical-Critical Methods of Gospel Research . . . 43 3. Reading and Hearing the Gospel Stories: Literary-Critical Methods of Gospel Research . . . . . . . . . . . 67

PART TWO: THE SETTING OF THE GOSPELS

4. The Historical Setting of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 5. The Religious Setting: First-Century Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 6. The Social and Cultural Setting of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

PART THREE: THE FOUR GOSPELS

7. Mark: The Gospel of the Suffering Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 8. Matthew: The Gospel of the Messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 9. Luke: The Gospel of the Savior for All People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 10. John: The Gospel of the Son Who Reveals the Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

PART FOUR: THE HISTORICAL JESUS

11. Searching for the Real Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 12. The Historical Reliability of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 13. The Contours and Chronology of Jesus’ Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 14. Jesus’ Birth and Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 15. The Beginning of Jesus’ Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 16. The Message of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 17. The Miracles of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 18. The Messianic Words and Actions of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 19. The Death of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 20. The Resurrection of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

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ContentsList of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE FOUR GOSPELS

1. What Are the Gospels? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Four Gospels, One Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 The Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 The Gospel Genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

The Gospels Are Historical Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 The Gospels Are Narrative Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 The Gospels Are Theological Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Why Were the Gospels Written? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 The Gospel Audiences: To Whom Were the Gospels Written? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Why Four Gospels? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Why Only Four Gospels? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Reading the Gospels Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Reading “Vertically”: Following the Storyline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Reading “Horizontally”: Comparing Their Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 When Is a Harmony Legitimate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Addendum: Sources for Information about Jesus outside of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 The Letters of Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Greco-Roman Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Flavius Josephus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Later Jewish Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Apocryphal Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

2. Exploring the Origin and Nature of the Gospels: Historical-Critical Methods of Gospel Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

How the Gospels Came to Be: The Development of the Gospel Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Source Criticism and the Synoptic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Why Are the Three Synoptic Gospels So Similar? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Traditional Solutions to the Synoptic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Markan Priority and the Two- and Four-Source Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Matthean Priority: The Griesbach or Two-Gospel Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Conclusion: Some Observations and Cautions on the Synoptic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54


Form Criticism: Seeking the Spoken Word behind the Written Word . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Method of Form Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Assessment of Form Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Redaction Criticism: Studying the Evangelists as Purposeful Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

The Method of Redaction Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Assessment of Redaction Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3. Reading and Hearing the Gospel Stories: Literary-Critical Methods of Gospel Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Narrative Criticism: The Gospels as Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 The Storyteller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Narrative World and Evaluative Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 The Story Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Plot: The Progress of the Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Rhetoric: Narrative Patterns and Literary Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Assessment of Narrative Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Other Literary Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Rhetorical Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Canon Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Structuralism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Reader-Response Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Liberationist and Feminist Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Deconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 The Approach of This Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

PART TWO: THE SETTING OF THE GOSPELS

4. The Historical Setting of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

The Persian Period (539 – 334 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 The Greek Period (334 – 166 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Alexander the Great and the Hellenization of Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Ptolemaic Domination of Israel (323 – 198 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Seleucid Domination of Palestine (198 – 166 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

The Maccabees and Jewish Independence (166 – 63 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 The Maccabean Revolt (166 – 135 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 The Hasmonean Dynasty (135 – 63 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

The Roman Period (63 BC – AD 135) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Herod the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 The Herodian Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108


Roman Rule and the Pax Romana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 The Jewish Revolt of AD 66 – 73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 After the War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5. The Religious Setting: First-Century Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Core Jewish Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Monotheism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 The Covenant: Israel as God’s Chosen People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 The Law (Torah): Standards for Covenant Faithfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Temple, Priesthood, and Sacrifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 One Temple for the One True God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Levites and Priests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 The High Priest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 The Sanhedrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Synagogues, Scribes, and the Study of Torah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Synagogue Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Scribes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Groups within Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Sadducees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Pharisees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Essenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Zealots, Social Bandits, and Other Revolutionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Herodians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 People of the Land (Am-ha-Eretz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Trends in First-Century Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Apocalypticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Messianic Expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Literary Sources for First-Century Jewish Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Josephus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Philo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 The Dead Sea Scrolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 The Apocrypha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 The Pseudepigrapha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Rabbinic Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

6. The Social and Cultural Setting of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Daily Life in New Testament Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 The Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Food and Meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Clothing and Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Villages, Towns, and Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Work, Trades, and Professions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157


Commerce, Transportation, and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Entertainment and Leisure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Social Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Group Rather Than Individual Mentality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Honor and Shame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Family and Kinship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Hospitality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Social Status and Position in Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Patronage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

PART THREE: THE FOUR GOSPELS

7. Mark: The Gospel of the Suffering Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Literary Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 Literary Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Topical Ordering of Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Intercalation or “Sandwiching” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Triads or Sets of Threes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Irony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

The Plot of Mark’s Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 The Beginning of the Gospel: The Preparation of the Son of God (1:1 – 13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 The Authoritative Ministry of the Son of God (1:14 – 8:26) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 The Suffering of the Son of God as Servant of the LORD (8:27 – 16:8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Mark’s Portrait of Jesus: The Suffering Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193Other Characters in Mark’s Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

The Antagonists: Satan’s Forces and the Religious Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 The Disciples: Antagonists or Protagonists? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 “Minor” Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Theological Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 The Kingdom of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Jesus the Servant-Messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Discipleship: Following the Servant’s Suffering Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Narrative Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 The Historical Setting of Mark’s Gospel: Author and Life Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Setting and Occasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Reading Mark Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

8. Matthew: The Gospel of the Messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Literary Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Concise Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Fulfillment Formulas and Old Testament Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216


Topical Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Structural Signals and Matthew’s “Outline” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 The Plot of Matthew’s Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Prologue: The Genealogy and Birth Narrative (Chaps. 1 – 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 The Appearance of the Messiah (3:1 – 4:11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 The Ministry of the Messiah to Israel (4:12 – 11:1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 The Responses to the Messiah: Rejection by Israel, Acceptance by the Disciples (11:2 – 20:34) . . . . . . . . . . 230 The Messiah Confronts Jerusalem (21:1 – 26:1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 The Messiah Is Rejected: Arrest, Trial, and Crucifixion (Chaps. 26 – 27) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 The Messiah Is Vindicated: The Resurrection and the Great Commission (Chap. 28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Matthew’s Portrait of Jesus: The Messiah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Jesus the Messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Immanuel: The Presence and Wisdom of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Jesus the Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Other Characters in Matthew’s Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 The Disciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Peter among the Disciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 The Religious Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 The Crowds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Theological Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Promise-Fulfillment and the Climax of Salvation History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 The Kingdom of Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Jesus and the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Narrative and Theological Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 The Historical Setting of Matthew’s Gospel: Author and Life Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Audience and Occasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Place and Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Reading Matthew Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

9. Luke: The Gospel of the Savior for All People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Literary Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 The Unity of Luke and Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Luke’s Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Literary Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 The Travel Narrative or Journey to Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 The Plot of Luke’s Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 The Prologue (1:1 – 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 The Birth of the Savior (1:5 – 2:52) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 The Preparation of the Savior (3:1 – 4:13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 The Galilean Ministry of the Savior (4:14 – 9:50) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 The Mission of the Savior: The Journey to Jerusalem (9:51 – 19:27) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273


The Savior in Jerusalem: Conflict and Controversy (19:28 – 21:38) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 The Passion of the Savior in Jerusalem (22:1 – 23:56) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 The Resurrection and Ascension of the Savior (24:1 – 53) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Luke’s Portrait of Jesus: The Savior for All People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Prophet Like Moses, Mighty in Word and Deed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Christ the Lord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Other Characters in Luke’s Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Apostles in Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 The Religious Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Theological Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Promise-Fulfillment: The Salvation of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 The Dawn of Salvation and the Coming of the Spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Divine Sovereignty and the Purpose of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Salvation for Outsiders: A New Age of Reversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Jerusalem and the Temple: Settings of Rejection and Salvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Joy, Praise, and Celebration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Prayer and Intimate Fellowship with the Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 The Historical Setting of Luke’s Gospel: Author and Life Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Occasion and Narrative Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Reading Luke Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

10. John: The Gospel of the Son Who Reveals the Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Literary Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Unique Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Unique Literary Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 The Relationship of John to the Synoptics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Two Historical Settings, Two Levels of Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Teaching Types: Personal Interviews, Public Debate, and Private Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 The “Signs” of the Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Metaphor and Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Irony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 The Plot of John’s Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 The Prologue (1:1 – 18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 The Book of Signs (1:19 – 12:50) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 The Book of Glory (13:1 – 20:31) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Epilogue (21:1 – 25) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327John’s Portrait of Jesus: The Son Who Reveals the Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Other Characters in John’s Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 The Disciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329


The Antagonists: The Religious Leaders, “the World,” and Satan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Minor Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

Theological Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 The Revelation of the Father through the Son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Salvation as Knowing God, Eternal Life in the Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 The Paraclete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Narrative Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 The Historical Setting of John’s Gospel: Author and Life Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 The Composition of the Gospel: A Johannine Community? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Place, Occasion, and Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

Reading John Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

PART FOUR: THE HISTORICAL JESUS

11. Searching for the Real Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

The Historical Quests for Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 The First Quest: The Nineteenth-Century Quest for the Historical Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 No Quest: Rudolf Bultmann and the End of the First Quest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 The New (Second) Quest and the Post-Bultmannians (1953 – 1970s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

The Contemporary Scene: A Third Quest? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Questions of Method and Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 The Results: Contemporary Portraits of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

12. The Historical Reliability of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

The Role of Presuppositions in Historical Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Were the Gospel Writers Biased? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 The Burden of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Luke-Acts and Ancient History Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 A Generally Reliable Gospel Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

The Testimony of the Eyewitnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 The Faithful Transmission of the Gospel Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 The Church’s Willingness to Preserve Difficult Sayings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 The Distinction between the Words of Jesus and of Chris tian Prophets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 The Absence of Discussion on Key Issues in the Later Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 The Ethical Argument: Were the Disciples Deceivers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

Contradictions between the Gospels? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Paraphrasing and Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Abbreviation and Omission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Reordering of Events and Sayings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390


Reporting Similar Events and Sayings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 The Historical Reliability of John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 The Author as Eyewitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Alleged Contradictions with the Synoptics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 John’s Style and the Words of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 The Christology of John. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Conclusion: The Gospels as History and Theology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

13. The Contours and Chronology of Jesus’ Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

Basic Contours of Jesus’ Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 A Portrait of Jesus from Afar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 The General Progress of Jesus’ Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 A Chronology of Jesus’ Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 The Date of Jesus’ Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 The Date of Jesus’ Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 The Date of Jesus’ Crucifixion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

14. Jesus’ Birth and Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

The Genre of the Birth Narratives: History or Fiction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 The Ancestry of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 The Virginal Conception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Bethlehem Birthplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 The Census . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 The Birth of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Jesus’ Family Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

15. The Beginning of Jesus’ Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

John the Baptist, Herald of Messianic Salvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 The Baptism of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 The Temptation of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

16. The Message of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

Jesus the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Jesus’ Central Message: The Kingdom of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 The Jewish Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Jesus and the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Jesus and the Law: The Ethics of the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 The True Essence of the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Jesus as Fulfillment of the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 The Greatest Commandment and the Character of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Grace and Works: The Free Gift and the Cost of Discipleship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445


Social Justice: The Rich and the Poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 The Parables of the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 The Nature of Parables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 The Purpose of the Parables: To Reveal and to Conceal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 Interpreting the Parables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

17. The Miracles of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

The Question of Miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Philosophical Objections to Miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Miracles and the Historical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Did Jesus Perform Miracles? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 Ancient Parallels to Jesus’ Miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 The Significance of Jesus’ Miracles: The Power and Presence of the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Exorcisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Healings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 Raising the Dead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 Nature Miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

18. The Messianic Words and Actions of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

The Authority of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 Announcing and Inaugurating the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 Authority over Demons and Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 Authority to Speak for God: Jesus’ Use of Ame μn (“Truly” I Say to You) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Authority over the Law and the Sabbath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Authority to Forgive Sins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Authority at the Final Judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 The Aims of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Calling Disciples: A New Community of Faith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Dining with Sinners: The Universal Offer of the Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Jesus and the Gentiles: Salvation for All Humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 The “Triumphal Entry” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Cleansing the Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 The Messianic Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Christ (Messiah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Son of Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 Lord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 Jesus as God? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

19. The Death of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

Historical Circumstances of the Death of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494


Pilate and the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Jewish Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Jesus’ Perspective on His Coming Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Did Jesus Foresee His Death? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 The Significance of Jesus’ Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

20. The Resurrection of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Rationalistic Explanations for the Resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 The Swoon Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 The Wrong Tomb Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 The Theft Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 Visionary and Legendary Development Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Historical Evidence for the Resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Jesus Was Crucified by the Romans around AD 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Jesus Was Buried in the Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 The Tomb Was Discovered Empty on the Third Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Many Credible Witnesses Saw Jesus Alive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 The Transformed Lives of the Disciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 The Significance of the Resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 The Jewish Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 The Significance of the Resurrection for Jesus and the Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541


PART ONEIntroduction to the Four Gospels



23

CHAPTER 1What Are the Gospels?

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1. Four Gospels, One Jesus 2. The Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John 3. The Gospel Genre 4. Why Were the Gospels Written? 5. The Gospel Audiences: To Whom Were the Gospels Written? 6. Why Four Gospels? 7. Why Only Four Gospels? 8. Reading the Gospels Today Addendum: Sources for Information about Jesus outside of the Gospels

OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • Describe the genre of the Gospels as history, narrative, and theology. • Explain why there are four Gospels. • Explain what it means to read “vertically” and “horizontally” through the Gospels. • Discuss the benefits and potential liabilities of harmonizing the Gospels.


24 Par t One:Introduction to the Four Gospels

FOUR GOSPELS, ONE JESUSWhen my oldest son was two years old, we took him to a portrait studio to have his picture taken. Two-year-olds are a bundle of emotions, and getting them to sit still through a photo shoot is a real challenge. During that short session, my son went through a range of moods,

from contentment, to laughter, to pouting, to anger, to tears. I remember get-ting the proofs afterward. The first showed him serenely content, smiling at the camera. In the second, he was laughing delightedly as the photographer waved a stuffed animal in his face. In the next, he was beginning to get bored and had put on a cute little pout. The fourth showed him downright angry, with a defiant “just try to make me smile” look on his face. By the last shot, he had dissolved into tears. The poor little guy had had enough. Which of these pictures captured my son’s personality? The answer, of course, is all of them! Each one caught a different side of his multifaceted personality. Together they give us an insightful glimpse into who he is.

This little story is a good analogy for the New Testament Gospels. Each of the four Gospels — Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John — paints a unique por-trait of Jesus Christ. Each provides special insight into who he is and what he accomplished. The Gospels exhibit both unity and diversity, bearing witness to the same Jesus (unity) but viewing him from unique perspectives (diversity).

What are these four unique portraits? At the risk of oversimplifying, we may say that Mat-thew presents Jesus as the Jewish Messiah, the fulfillment of Old Testament hopes; Mark portrays him as the suffering Son of God, who offers himself as a sacrifice for sins; Luke’s Jesus is the Savior for all people, who brings salvation to all nations and people groups; and in John, Jesus is the eternal Son of God, the self-revelation of God the Father. These are not contradictory portraits but complementary ones. Having four Gospels gives us a deeper, more profound understanding of Christology — the nature of Jesus’ person and work.

Not only are the Gospels unique in their portraits of Jesus, they are also unique in their presentations. Mark is the most dramatic of the four, a powerful and vivid story which grips the reader from beginning to end. Matthew is the most structured of the Gospels, crafted

Figure 1.1—Four Portraits of the One JesusMatthew Mark Luke John

The Gospel of the Messiah

The Gospel of the suffering Son of

God

The Gospel of the Savior for all people

The Gospel of the divine Son who

reveals the Father

Most structured Most dramatic Most thematic Most theological

The four unique

Gospels testify to

the one gospel —

the good news of

salvation available

through Jesus the

Messiah.


25Chapter One:What Are the Gospels?

around five carefully ordered teaching sections. Luke is the most thematic, with themes like God’s love for the lost, the role of the Spirit, and Jerusalem’s role in God’s plan resurfacing again and again. John’s is the most theological of the four, with more explicit statements concerning Jesus’ identity and purpose. We should add that all of the Gospels are all of these things — dramatic, structured, thematic, and theological — but there are important differences in emphasis.

THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS AND THE GOSPEL OF JOHNThere are also degrees of diversity among the Gospels. The first three — Matthew, Mark, and Luke — are known as the Synoptic Gospels (from the Greek synopsis, meaning “viewed together”) because they view the life and ministry of Jesus from a similar perspective, follow the same general outline, and record a great deal of common material. The Gospel of John presents a strikingly different perspective. The author of the Fourth Gospel omits much material found in the Synoptics and includes much unique material. John also writes with a different style and dwells more on the theological significance of Jesus’ words and deeds. Scholars debate whether the author knew the Synoptic Gospels and supplemented them or was writing independently of them. We will discuss this issue in more detail in our intro-duction to the Fourth Gospel.

THE GOSPEL GENREThe first question readers must ask when approaching any literature is, What am I reading? This is the question of genre, or type of literature. If I pick up a newspaper and read, “The President prepares to address Congress,” I recognize this as a news report and expect to read factual information. On the other hand, if I pick up a book and read, “Once upon a time,

THE GOSPEL GENRE

Figure 1.2—The Synoptics and John

Synoptic Gospels(Matthew, Mark, Luke)

Gospel of John

1. Emphasize the Galilean setting of the first part of Jesus’ ministry

1. Considerable movement between Galilee and Judea

2. Little information given to determine the length of Jesus’ ministry; material could fit into a single year

2. Mentions at least three different Passover feasts (2:13; 6:4; 13:1), and so a ministry of 2½ to 3½ years

3. Jesus teaches mostly in parables, short sayings, and epigrams

3. Relates long speeches by Jesus, dialogues with his opponents, and interviews with individuals

4. Teaching focuses on the kingdom of God; healings and exorcisms demon-strate the power of the kingdom and the dawn of eschatological salvation

4. Teaching focuses on Jesus himself and the Son’s revelation of the Father. Signs or miracles reveal Jesus’ identity and glorify the Father; no exorcisms



there were three bears,” I know I am reading a fairy tale. I am not concerned about whether these bears actually existed, what country they were from, or whether they were griz-zlies or brown bears. I read to be entertained and, perhaps, to look for moral lessons. In cases like these, we identify genre easily. But identification is not always so easy, and it is possible to misidentify literary genres. One person standing in a grocery-store checkout line may read the National Enquirer head-line “Aliens Invade Los Angeles” and fear that they are in mortal danger. Another identifies the genre as entertainment tabloid and chuckles. Identifying genre is essential for both interpretation and application.

there were three bears,” I know I am reading afairy tale I am not concerned about whether

Figure 1.3—The Background to the Term Gospel

The English term gospel comes from the Old English godspell, a translation of the Greek noun euangelion, meaning “good tidings” or “good news.” Euangelion was used in the Greek world for the announcement of good news, such as victory in battle, or for the enthronement of a Roman

ruler. An inscription for the birthday of the Roman emperor Augustus reads, “Good news [euangelia] to the world!”

In the Old Testament, the announcement of God’s end-time deliverance of his people is sometimes referred to as “good news.” Isaiah 52:7 reads, “How beautiful on the mountains are the feet of those who bring good news . . . who proclaim salvation, who say to Zion, ‘Your God reigns!’ ” (cf. Isa. 40:9; 61:1; Ps. 96:2). Jesus probably drew from this Old Testament background when he began preaching that God’s day of salvation had arrived: “The time has come. . . . The kingdom of God is near. Repent and believe the good news!” (Mark 1:15; cf. Luke 4:18).

Though Jesus was probably speaking Aramaic, the early church translated his words into Greek and euangelion soon became a technical term for the good news about Jesus Christ. In 1 Thes salo nians, one of the earliest New Testament letters (c. AD 50 – 51), Paul writes that “our gospel came to you not simply with words, but also with power, with the Holy Spirit and with deep conviction” (1 Thess. 1:5, emphasis added). Here Paul uses euangelion of the spoken word, the oral proclamation of the good news about Jesus Christ.

In time, euangelion came to be applied not only to the oral preaching but also to the written versions of the good news about Jesus Christ. Mark introduces his work with the words, “The beginning of the gospel about Jesus Christ, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1, emphasis added), and the church soon came to call these works Gospels. This tells us something about the way they viewed them. These were not dry historical accounts of the life of Christ but written versions of the oral proclamation. The Gospels have a living and dynamic quality, calling people to faith in Jesus. The Gospels were meant to be proclaimed . . . and to be believed.

Different kinds of literature (genres) require different reading strategies.

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Different kinds of literature (genres) require different reading strategies


27Chapter One:What Are the Gospels?

To understand the Gospels, we must first ask, What are we reading? What kind of documents are these and what sort of information are they meant to convey? Are they his-torical accounts meant to pass on factual information, or are they theological documents meant to teach spiritual truths? Or are they both? The identification of genre enables us to answer these questions. The genre of the Gospels may be examined under three headings: history, narrative, and theology.

Th e Gospels Are Historical LiteratureThe Gospels are historical in at least three ways. First, they have a history of composition. The authors drew on traditions and sources available to them to compile their works. The methods used to determine how the Gospels came to be are collectively known as histori-cal criticism, or the historical-critical method. In the next chapter, we will examine types of historical criticism: source criticism, form criticism, and redaction criticism.

Second, the Gospels are historical in that they are set in a specific historical context. This setting is first-century Palestine during the period of Roman occupation. To understand the Gospels, we must enter into the world in which they were written, a world very different than our own. In part 2 (chaps. 4 – 6), we will examine the historical, religious, and cultural settings of the Gospels.

Third, the Gospels are historical in that they are meant to convey accurate historical information. This is implicit in all four Gospels and is explicitly stated by John (21:24) and Luke. Luke leaves no doubt that he intends to write history:

Many have undertaken to draw up an account of the things that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed down to us by those who from the first were eyewitnesses and servants of the word. Therefore, since I myself have carefully investigated everything from the beginning, it seemed good also to me to write an orderly account for you, most excel-lent Theophilus, so that you may know the certainty of the things you have been taught.

— Luke 1:1 – 4

Notice the author’s piling up of terms of historical veracity. Luke certainly claimed to be writing accurate history. Of course, one could question whether Luke was a reliable historian or whether his sources were reliable. We will examine these questions in part 4. The point here is that Luke’s intentions were historical.

The fact that the Gospels are historical in this third sense has profound implications for Chris tian ity as a religion. The faith of the Gospel writers is based not on the esoteric teachings of a first-century philosopher nor on religious myths with symbolic meaning. It is based on the historical person and work of Jesus Christ. The Gospels claim to be the record of God’s actions in human history, his entrance into human history in the person of his Son. As an essentially historical religion, Chris tian ity rises or falls on the historicity of core Gospel events: (1) Jesus’ words and deeds, (2) his death on the cross, and (3) his resurrection, the vindication of his claims. As the apostle Paul wrote with reference to Jesus’ resurrection, “If Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith” (1 Cor. 15:14). For Paul, as for the Gospel writers, the historicity of these events confirms the truth of Chris tian ity.



Th e Gospels Are Narrative LiteratureAlthough historical in nature, the Gospels are not merely collections of reports or sayings of the historical Jesus. They are also narratives with features typical of stories, including plot, characters, and setting. While all four Gospels are concerned with the same historical events — the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ — they present different versions of these events. They present characters from different perspectives. They develop plot in dif-ferent ways. They emphasize different settings. Viewing the Gospels as narratives provides important insights into their literary and theological distinctions. In chapter 3, we will examine narrative criticism and other literary approaches to the Gospels.

ur Gospels

Figure 1.4—The Gospel GenreAncient Biographies?

A vigorous debate has taken place over the last century concerning the Gospel genre and its relationship to other ancient literature. Some scholars have held that the Gospels are unique in the ancient world, a genre created by the early

Chris tians. This view was particularly popular among the form critics (we will discuss them in the next chapter), who considered the Gospels to be nonliterary collections of oral traditions, or folk literature. The Gospels were treated as products of the Chris-tian community rather than of individual authors.

The last quarter century has seen much greater emphasis on the Gospels as literary works. It is recognized that the Gospel writers were not merely collectors of traditions but literary artists crafting their narratives. This has generated renewed interest in the literary features of the Gospels and their relationship to other ancient genres.

There is a consensus growing among scholars today that while the Gospels have many unique features, they also have much in common with Greco-Roman works, es-pecially the broad category of writings known as “biographies” (bioi), or “lives.” These writings were written to preserve the memory and celebrate the virtues, teachings, or exploits of famous philosophers, statesmen, or rulers. Examples of this category are Plutarch’s Parallel Lives, Suetonius’s Lives of the Caesars, and Jewish philosopher Philo’s Life of Moses. Since the Gospels arose in the Greco-Roman world of the first century, it is profitable to compare them with other writings of this era, identifying common literary features and narrative techniques.

At the same time, the uniqueness of the Gospels must be kept in mind. They arose in the context of the needs and concerns of the early Chris tian communities, and in the preaching and teaching of the good news. The Gospels were not meant simply to preserve the memory or pass on the teachings of a great leader. They were written to proclaim the good news of salvation and to call people to faith in Jesus Christ, the risen Lord and Savior.

For more details, see Richard A. Burridge, What Are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004).


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