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Foreword
In an effort to help meet growing demands being placed
on available water supplies, many communities throughout the U.S. and the world are turning to water reclamation and reuse. Water reclamation and reuse offer an
effective means of conserving our limited high-qualityfreshwater supplies while helping to meet the ever grow
ing demands for water.
For many years, effluent discharges have been accepted
as an important source for maintaining minimum streamflows. The investment in treatment technologies required
to meet restrictive discharge limits has lead an increasing number of industries and communities to consider
other uses for their treated wastewater effluents as ameans to recover at least a part of this investment.Further, as sources of water supplies have become lim
ited, there has been greater use and acceptance of reclaimed wastewater effluents as an alternative source
of water for a wide variety of applications, including landscape and agricultural irrigation, toilet and urinal flush
ing, industrial processing, power plant cooling, wetlandhabitat creation, restoration and maintenance, andgroundwater recharge. In some areas of the country,
water reuse and dual water systems with purple pipefor distribution of reclaimed water have become fully
integrated into local water supplies.
The 2004 Guidelines for Water Reuseexamines oppor
tunities for substituting reclaimed water for potable water supplies where potable water quality is not required.
It presents and summarizes recommended water reuseguidelines, along with supporting information, as guid
ance for the benefit of the water and wastewater utilities and regulatory agencies, particularly in the U.S. Thedocument updates the 1992 Guidelinesdocument by
incorporating information on water reuse that has beendeveloped since the 1992 document was issued. This
revised edition also expands coverage of water reuseissues and practices in other countries. It includes many
new and updated case studies, expanded coverage ofindirect potable reuse and industrial reuse issues, new
information on treatment and disinfection technologies,
emerging chemicals and pathogens of concern, economics, user rates and funding alternatives, public involvement and acceptance (both successes and fail
ures), research activities and results, and sources offurther information. It also includes as an updated ma
trix of state regulations and guidelines, and a list of state
contacts. This information should be useful to states indeveloping water reuse standards, and revising or expanding existing regulations. It should also be useful toplanners, consulting engineers and others actively in
volved in the evaluation, planning, design, operation ormaintenance of water reclamation and reuse facilities.
Benjamin H. GrumblesAssistant Administrator for Water U.S. EPA
Paul Gilman
Assistant Administrator for Research & DevelopmentU.S. EPA
Jacqueline E. SchaferDeputy Assistant Administrator
Bureau for Economic Growth, Agriculture and TradeU.S. Agency for International Development
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ContentsChapter Page
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 11.1 Objectives of the Guidelines ............................................................................................ 11.2 Water Demands and Reuse .............................................................................................. 11.3 Source Substitution .......................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Pollution Abatement ......................................................................................................... 31.5 Treatment and Water Quality Considerations ................................................................... 31.6 Overview of the Guidelines .............................................................................................. 41.7 References ....................................................................................................................... 5
2 TYPES OF REUSE APPLICATIONS ......................................................................................................... 72.1 Urban Reuse .................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.1 Reclaimed Water Demand ................................................................................... 82.1.2 Reliability and Public Health Protection ............................................................... 92.1.3 Design Considerations ....................................................................................... 10
2.1.3.1 Water Reclamation Faciliities ............................................................... 102.1.3.2 Distribution System .............................................................................. 10
2.1.4. Using Reclaimed Water for Fire Protection ........................................................ 122.2 Industrial Reuse ............................................................................................................. 13
2.2.1 Cooling Water .................................................................................................... 132.2.1.1 Once-Through Cooling Water Systems ................................................. 132.2.1.2 Recirculating Evaporative Cooling Water Systems ............................... 132.2.1.3 Cooling Water Quality Requirements .................................................... 15
2.2.2 Boiler Make-up Water ........................................................................................ 162.2.3 Industrial Process Water ................................................................................... 17
2.2.3.1 Pulp and Paper Industry ....................................................................... 172.2.3.2 Chemical Industry ................................................................................ 172.2.3.3 Textile Industry .................................................................................... 172.2.3.4 Petroleum and Coal .............................................................................. 20
2.3 Agricultural Reuse .......................................................................................................... 202.3.1 Estimating Agricultural Irrigation Demands ........................................................ 21
2.3.1.1 Evapotranspiration ................................................................................ 212.3.1.2 Effective Precipitation, Percolation and Surface Water
Runoff Losses ...................................................................................... 212.3.2 Reclaimed Water Quality ................................................................................... 222.3.2.1 Salinity ................................................................................................. 232.3.2.2 Sodium ................................................................................................. 232.3.2.3 Trace Elements .................................................................................... 242.3.2.4 Chlorine Residual .................................................................................. 242.3.2.5 Nutrients ............................................................................................... 24
2.3.3 Other System Considerations ........................................................................... 262.3.3.1 System Reliability ................................................................................ 26
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