WATER QUALITY CONTROL

WATER QUALITY CONTROLPart I. Introduction to water quality, hydrological circle, properties of water …

1

WATER QUALITY CONTROL

PART I.

Introduction to water quality,hydrological circle, properties of water,

sea environment, Baltic Sea


2

1. Introduction to Water Quality

Water is the most important and the most widespread chemical compound on the Earth. It is the

only compound found on earth in the liquid state in such a large quantities and the only

compound found on earth in all three states: solid, liquid and gaseous at the temperatures

normally found on the Earth.

Water is a crucial factor of life in the Earth. All known forms of life require water for their

existence. Water is a part of every living cell and it has the major impact on chemical, physical

and biological processes which take place. It is the living environment for many species of

plants, animals and microorganisms. It has also very strong influence on climate and geology.

There is an indissoluble tie of life between man and water. Water is not only the essential

commodity for man's survival on the planet, but it is also his ally in his struggle for continuous

amelioration of the quality of his life. It is one of the basic factors of agriculture and industry

development. Not only do we need water for everyday life, to drink and to wash, but it is also

important for many of the pleasant recreational aspects of life.

Being indispensable and desirable water, from among all components of natural environment, is

the most polluted and is the most subjected to pollution.

1.1. The Unique Properties of Water

Before presenting the more specific description of water physico-chemical properties it is worth

to enumerate properties of water that are familiar to all of us. Water can be characterized as

follows:

1. It's colourless;

2. It's tasteless;

3. It's odourless;

4. It feels wet;

5. It's distinctive in sound when dripping from a faucet or crashing as a wave;

6. It dissolves nearly everything;

7. It exists in three forms: liquid, solid, gas;

8. It can absorb a large amount of heat;

9. It sticks together into beads or drops;


3

10. It's part of every living organism on the planet.

1.1.1. The Structure of Water Molecule

The water molecule is relatively simple in structure. It is formed when two atoms of hydrogen

bond covalently with an atom of oxygen. The water molecule is shaped like an isosceles triangle,

with a slight bond angle of 104°27’ at the oxygen nucleus. The structure of water molecule is

shown in Fig.1.1.

Fig.1. 1. Simplified structure of water molecule [2].

In water molecule the electrons are shared between covalent bonded atoms and this sharing is not

equal. Oxygen is more electronegative than the hydrogen atoms so the oxygen atom attracts the

electrons more strongly than the hydrogen. This gives water an asymmetrical distribution of

charge. The oxygen side becomes more negative in charge, and the hydrogen atoms have a slight

positive charge. Such molecules, having ends with partial negative and positive charges, are

known as polar molecules [11].

There is also an electrostatic attraction between the polar water molecules. The slight positive

charged hydrogen atom is attracted to the slight negative charged oxygen atom of another water

molecule. This weak attraction is called a hydrogen bond, and is shown in Fig.1.2. Hydrogen

bonds, between neighbouring water molecules, are much

weaker than covalent bonds, inside each water molecule.

[15]. Every water molecule is hydrogen bonded to its four

nearest neighbours. Hydrogen bonds constantly form and

break. Each hydrogen bond lasts for a fraction of a second,

but the molecules continuously form new bonds with other

water molecules around them. At any time a large

percentage of water molecules are bonded to neighbouringFig.1.2.The structure of hydrogen bond.


4

water molecules which gives water more structure than most other liquids.

Chemically pure water is weak electrolyte and only a small amount of water molecules

dissociate. Dissociation reaction leads to formation of hydrogen cations H+ and hydroxide anions

OH- . Simplified scheme of reaction is the following:

H2O ∆ H+ + OH-

In fact hydrogen ions in water solutions exist in form of hydrated ions:

H+ + H2O ∆ H3O+

The total process can be presented in the following way:

2H2O ∆ H3O+ + OH-

Degree of dissociation of chemically pure water is equal to 1.628• 10-9, which means that only

one water molecule in every 614.25 million of water molecules undergoes dissociation [2].

The equilibrium state can be expressed with the following equation:

22

3

][][][

OHOHOH

K−+ •

=

where: K – dissociation constant of water[H3O+] – concentration of hydronium ions[OH-] – concentration of hydroxide ions[H2O] – water concentration

Water ionic product, at 24°C, is equal to:

231414 ]/[100,1

101][][ dmmolOHHK w

−−+ •==•=

and concentration of hydrogen ions (in fact – hydrated) and hydroxide ions in chemically pure

water is equal:

[H+] = [OH-] = 1 • 10-7 [mol/dm3]


5

which corresponds to value of 7 on pH scale, meaning that water dissociation reaction is neutral

[2].

1.1.2. Dissolving Power of Water

The polar property of water allows it to separate polar solute molecules and explains why water

can dissolve so many substances. Hydrogen bonding can break up the electrical attraction of

atoms of solids and dissolves them [11]. Water molecules are attracted by ions by electrostatic

forces and form a hydratation boarder around them [1].

Salts, such as sodium chloride (NaCl), dissolve in water by dissociating as each ion becomes

surrounded by the polar water molecules. The scheme of dissociation reaction of sodium chloride

in water is shown in Fig.1.3. Shielded by a shell of water molecules the ions of salt stay in

solution, because they are no longer affected by attractive forces from other ions [1].

Fig.1.3. Sodium chloride (salt) in the solid state (left) and salt in aqueous solution (right).

As water is an excellent solvent it is the basic transport medium for nutrients and waste products,

making biological processes possible in an aqueous medium.

1.1.3. The Density of Water and the Structure of Ice

Water is one of the few substances that are less dense as a solid than as a liquid. While most

substances contract when they solidify, water expands.


6

Water has the maximum density as a liquid at 4°C (exactly it is at 3.98°C). When water is above

4°C it behaves like other liquids - it expands as it warms and contracts when it cools. Water

density at 0°C is equal to 0.9998 kg/m3, while density of ice is 0.9168 kg/m3 [2]. The change in

water density with temperature is illustrated below (Fig.1.4).

Fig.1.4. Variation of water density with temperature [4].

This characteristic property of water is due to the hydrogen bonding. Water starts to freeze when

the temperature approaches 0°C and the molecules no longer move vigorously enough to break

their hydrogen bonds. At 0°C water molecules become locked into a crystalline lattice, and each

water molecule is bonded to the maximum of four partners. There are eleven different forms of

crystalline ice that are known. The hexagonal form known as ice 1h is the only one that is found

naturally. The lattice structure of ice 1h is shown

in Fig.1.5. In ice 1h, each molecule forms four

hydrogen bonds with O-O distances of 2.76

Angstroms to the nearest oxygen neighbour. The

O-O-O angles are 109°28’ (104°27’ in liquid

water), typical of a tetrahedrally coordinated

lattice structure [11].

Fig.1.5. The crystal lattice structure of ice.

When ice absorbs enough heat for its temperature to increase above 0°C, the hydrogen bonds can

be broken and allow the water molecules to slip closer together.


7

Ice, which forms when the surface temperature in a water body reaches 0°C, floats on top of the

water body as it has higher density. Ice becomes an insulating layer on the surface of the water

reservoir. It reduces heat loss from the water below and enables life to continue.

1.1.4. The Heat Capacity of Water

As water goes from ice to liquid or from liquid to gas, it undergoes an obvious change of state.

The amount of heat energy that is required to change the temperature of 1kg of 1°C in the same

state is referred to as the heat capacity. Water has a high heat capacity (4.19 kJ/kg•K) and

therefore changes temperature more slowly than other compounds that gain or lose energy.

The heat capacity of water stems directly from its hydrogen bonded structure. As heat is added to

ice or liquid water, the energy first breaks hydrogen bonds, which allows the molecules to move

freely. Since temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules (the rate at

which they move), the temperature of water rises slowly with the addition of heat. On the other

hand when the temperature of water drops slightly, many additional hydrogen bonds form and

release a considerable amount of energy in the form of heat.

Water’s heat capacity is higher of any other liquid except ammonia. This property is conducive

to stabilization of temperatures of organisms and geographical regions. It prevents sudden large

changes of temperature - protects aquatic organisms from the shock of abrupt temperature

variations. Also, because organisms consist mostly of water, they are more able to resist changes

in their own temperatures. The high specific heat can have profound effects on climatic

conditions of adjacent air masses. When it warms even a few degrees a large water body can

absorb and store a huge amount of heat emitted from the sun in the daytime and summer. At

night and during winter, the gradually cooling water can warm the air.

1.1.5. Water's Liquid Temperature Range

Water remains liquid over a wide temperature range, from 0 - 100°C. Most other substances

remain liquid over a narrower range. Since the chemical reactions of metabolism depend on

interactions between molecules moving about in liquid water, the limits of life are set by water's

freezing and boiling points. This property of water makes possible a wide variety of aquatic


8

habitats. Some fish species survive in temperatures at or near freezing while some bacteria and

algae survive in hot springs where the water temperature is near boiling.

1.1.6. The Heat of Evaporation and Cooling

Heat of evaporation is the energy required to convert liquid water into a gas (steam). Water has

an extremely high heat of vaporization (2260 kJ/kg) [1], higher of any other material. Because of

the energy needed to break the hydrogen bonds holding a water molecule to its neighbours, more

energy is required to evaporate liquid water than most other substances.

Water's high heat of evaporation determines transfer of heat and water molecules between

atmosphere and bodies of water. A considerable amount of energy from the sun is absorbed by

water reservoirs. As water evaporates, the remaining surface water cools. This evaporative

cooling occurs because the warmest molecules are those with the greatest kinetic energy and are

most likely to leave in the gaseous state.

1.1.7. The Dielectric Constant of Water

Dielectric constant describes the magnitude of interaction (attraction or repulsion) between two

electric charges. The value of dielectric constant indicates, how many times this interaction in

particular environment is weaker than in vacuum. In case of liquids it is compared with respect

to air media, for which dielectric constant is equal to 1.000594, at temperature equal to 273.16 K

and pressure 1013.25 hPa [6]. The

values of dielectric constant of water

are shown in Table.1.1.

Water has a very high dialectic

constant, highest of any common

liquid, making it an excellent solvent

for ionic substances. It causes the

dissolution of minerals, increasing their

mobility and aiding the delivery of

nutrients to plants [1].

Table 1.1. Water dielectric constant at different temperature [6].

Temperature [K] Dielectric constant [ε]273.16 88.0

283 84.11288 82.22291 81.10293 80.36298 78.54323 69.94353 60.76

373.16 55.33


9

1.1.8. Light Absorption and Transparency of Water

Electromagnetic radiation directly evoking optical impressions is called visible radiation. It is

established that visible wavelength is between 0.38 – 0.77 µm. Invisible radiation is infrared

radiation, which wavelength varies between 0.76 • 10-6, to 1 • 10-3 m and ultraviolet radiation

with wavelength between 0.39 • 10-6 to 1 • 10-8 m. Absorption of light consists in partial

transformation of radiation for different forms of energy, like heat, chemical energy, change in

direction of radiation (dispersion), etc [6].

Water absorbs infrared and ultraviolet radiation much stronger then visible radiation. Water

absorbs light with wavelength below 190 nm and above 1100 nm [6].

Water as chemical compound H2O in liquid state is the symbol of transparency. Water is

transparent to visible and longer wavelength [6]. As water is colourless this property allows the

light required for photosynthesis to reach depths. In the oceans light penetrates to about 200 m,

limiting photosynthesis to a relatively small upper layer of water [1].

1.1.9. The Surface Tension of Water

Surface tension is a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.

Water has greater surface tension than all other liquids except mercury. For most of the liquids

surface tension is equal to 0.02 to 0.05 N/m. Surface tension of water is 0.0728 N/m, for mercury

0.475 N/m. High value of surface tension is due to hydrogen bonds binding water molecules in

big associates. At the interface between water and air is an ordered arrangement of water

molecules which are hydrogen bonded to one another and the water molecules below.

Surface tension plays important role in the movement of insects and organisms on the water

surface. Surface tension decreases as the temperature increase [2].

1.1.10. Electrolytic Conductivity

Flow of electric current through water media is connected with movement of hydrogen cations

H+ and hydroxide anions OH- in electric field [6]. Pure water is rather weak electrolytic

conductor. Its conductivity is very small and is equal to 4.41 • 10-6 S/m at 18°C. Conductivity of

water increases with the increase of temperature and electrolytes content [2].


10

1.2. Hydrosphere

The water cover of the Earth is called hydrosphere. Hydrosphere includes all the earth's water

that is accumulated in oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, glaciers, snow layer, underground water

reservoirs and in the air and all together they occupy ¾ of the globe surface area. The

distribution of water around the globe varies significantly, as shown in table below (Table 1.2.).

1.2.1. Surface Waters

Surface waters are waters occurring on the surface of the Earth. The concentration of salt in the

water allows us to divide surface waters into two broad categories. Freshwater is distinguished

from saline water by its low salt content and is found in lakes, rivers, ponds, retention reservoirs,

streams. Saline water includes seas and oceans [4] and is characterized by high content of

sodium and chlorine ions (Na+, Cl-) [1]. Concentration of different ions in fresh, river, water in

comparison to marine water is shown in Table 1.3. It can be clearly observed that the most

significant difference in concentration of dissolved ions occurs in case of chlorine and sodium

ions.

Table 1.2. Earth’s water compartments [8].

Water Volume(thousands km3) % total water Average residence time

Oceans 1 370 000 97.6 3 000 years to 30 000 years1

Ice and snow 29 000 2.07 1 to 16 000 years1

Groundwater down to 1 km 4 000 0.28 From days to thousands of years1

Lakes and Reservoirs 125 0.009 1 to 100 years1

Atmosphere 113 0.008 8 to 10 daysSaline lakes 104 0.007 10 to 1 000 years1

Soil moisture 65 0.005 2 weeks to a yearBiological moisture

in plants and animals 65 0.005 1 week

Swamps and marshes 3.6 0.003 From moths to yearRiver and streams 1.7 0.0001 10 to 30 days

TOTAL 1 403 477 100 2 800 years

1 Depends on depth and other factors


11

Table 1.3. Chemical content of fresh and saline water. Average values [1].

ConcentrationDissolved ions River water

[mmol/dm3]Sea water

[mmol/dm3]Chlorine Cl- 0.16 550Sodium Na+ 0.23 470

Magnesium Mg2+ 0.14 53Calcium Ca2+ 0.33 10Potassium K+ 0.03 10Carbon HCO3

- 0.85 2Sulphur SO4

2- 0.09 28Silica Si 0.16 0.1

a. Seas and oceans

96.5% of world water cover belongs to oceans and seas. The density of pure water is 0.9998 kg •

m-3. Density of ocean water at the sea surface is about 1.027 g/dm3. Ocean water is denser

because of the salt content. There are two main factors that make ocean water more or less dense

than about 1.027 g/dm3:

• Temperature - ocean water gets more dense as temperature goes down,

• Salinity - increasing salinity also increases the density of sea water.

Salinity is the weight in grams of inorganic ions dissolved

in 1 kg of the water. Less dense water floats on top of

more dense water. Given two layers of water with the

same salinity, the warmer water will float on top of the

colder water. However, temperature has a greater effect

on the density of water than salinity does. So a layer of

water with higher salinity can actually float on top of

water with lower salinity if the layer with higher salinity

is quite a bit warmer than the lower salinity layer.

As illustrated on Fig.1.6. the temperature of the ocean

decreases going down to the bottom of the ocean. So, the

density of ocean water increases as going down to theFig.1.6. Salinity versus depth profile in typical ocean


12

bottom of the ocean. The deep ocean is layered with the densest water on bottom and the lightest

water on top. Circulation in the depths of the ocean is horizontal, which means that water moves

along the layers with the same density.

Ocean water has a salinity that is approximately 35 ppm. That is the same as saying ocean water

is about 3.5% salt. Sometimes, salinity is measured in different units. Another common unit is

the psu (practical salinity units). Ocean water has a salinity of approximately 35 psu. Scientists

measure salinity using a CTD instrument (CTD = conductivity, temperature, depth).

About 90% of that salt would be sodium chloride. Chlorine, sodium and other salts present on

ocean waters are listed in the table below (Table 1.4).

Table 1.4. Salts dissolved in the ocean water.

Dissolved ions insea water Content [%]

Chlorine Cl- 55.3 %

Sodium Na+ 30.8 %Magnesium Mg2+ 3.7 %

Sulphur SO42- 2.6 %

Calcium Ca2+ 1.2 %Potassium K+ 1.1 %

The pH value for sea water is 8.4. Changes in pH can alter different aspects of the water's

chemistry, usually to the detriment of native species. Also even small shifts in the water's pH can

affect the solubility of some metals such as iron and copper.

The colour of the ocean and sea water is determined by the interactions of incident light with

substances or particles present in water. The most significant constituents are free-floating

photosynthetic organisms (phytoplankton) and inorganic particulates. Phytoplankton contains

chlorophyll, which absorbs light at blue and red wavelengths and transmits in the green.

Particulate matter can reflect and absorb light, which reduces the clarity (light transmission) of

the water. Substances dissolved in water can also affect its colour themselves.


13

b. Estuaries

An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water formed in the place where freshwater from rivers

and streams flows into the ocean, mixing with the salty sea water. The change of water salinity

along the estuary illustrates Fig.1.7.

Fig.1.7. The salinity along a typical estuary [4].

Estuaries and the lands surrounding them are places of transition from land to sea, and from fresh

to salt water [10].

Freshwater and seawater come together in estuaries resulting in regions of intermediate salt

content. In a well-mixed estuary a salinity gradient occurs between the river and the estuary

mouth. Freshwater and seawater have different densities and in many poorly mixed estuaries the

less dense river water can lie on top of the incoming seawater for a large proportion of the

estuary. Such an estuary is said to be stratified. Estuaries are complex areas in which both

dissolved and particulate materials are subjected to often quite rapid changes in chemical and

physical environment. Most significant of the changes that occur are those involving pH and

salinity. If either of these changes significantly, it can induce the precipitation of dissolved

species or the redissolution of material from the sediments [4].

The tidal, sheltered waters of estuaries support unique communities of plants and animals,

specially adapted for life at the margin of the sea. Estuarine environments are among the most

productive on earth, creating more organic matter each year than comparably-sized areas of

forest, grassland, or agricultural land. The productivity and variety of estuarine habitats foster a

wonderful abundance and diversity of wildlife [10].


14

c. Rivers

River is a natural stream of water of fairly large size, flowing in a definite course or channel or

series of diverging and converging channels.

The content of surface water in rivers and streams is very changeable and depend on many

factors. In majority it is determined by quantity and quality of inflowing waters (precipitation

and surface waters), thus it depends on interactions with soil, transported solids (organics,

sediments), rocks, groundwater and the atmosphere. It may also be significantly affected by

agricultural, industrial, mineral and energy extraction, urban and other human actions, as well as

by atmospheric inputs. The bulk of the solutes in surface waters, however, are derived from soils

and groundwater base flow where the influence of water-rock interactions is important [6].

A River basin is the portion of land drained by a river and its tributaries. It encompasses the

entire land surface dissected and drained by many streams and creeks that flow downhill into one

another, and eventually into one river. The final destination is an estuary or an ocean. As a

bathtub catches all the water that falls within its sides, a river basin sends all the water falling on

the surrounding land into a central river and out to the sea [25].

d. Lakes

Physico-chemical composition of lake’s water depends on physical and geographical conditions,

on the composition of inflowing waters, on the size and shape of a lake and on winds directions

[6]. Lakes may be classified as oligotrophic, eutrophic, and dystrophic, an order that parallels the

life of the lake. Oligotrophic lakes are deep, generally clear, deficient in nutrients, and without

much biological activity. Eutrophic lakes have more nutrients, support more life, and are more

turbid. Dystrophic lakes are shallow, clogged with plant life, and normally contain coloured

water with a low pH [5].

Water's unique temperature-density relationship results in the formation of distinct layers within

nonflowing bodies of water, like lakes. During the summer a surface layer (epilimnion) is heated

by solar radiation and, because of its lower density, floats upon the bottom layer, or hypolimnion.

This phenomenon is called thermal stratification and is shown in Fig 1.8.


15

Fig.1.8. Stratification of a lake.

When an appreciable temperature difference exists between the two layers, they do not mix but

behave independently and have very different chemical and biological properties.

The epilimnion, which is exposed to light, may have a heavy growth of algae. As a result of

exposure to the atmosphere and (during daylight hours) because of the photosynthetic activity of

algae, the epilimnion contains relatively higher levels of dissolved oxygen and generally is

aerobic.

In the hypolimnion, bacterial action on biodegradable organic material may cause the water to

become anaerobic. As a consequence, chemical species in a relatively reduced form tend to

predominate in the hypolimnion. The shear-plane, or layer between epilimnion and hypolimnion,

is called the thermocline. During the autumn, when the epilimnion cools, a point is reached at

which the temperatures of the epilimnion and hypolimnion are equal. This disappearance of

thermal stratification causes the entire body of water to behave as a hydrological unit, and the

resultant mixing is known as overturn. An overturn also generally occurs in the spring. During

the overturn, the chemical and physical characteristics of the body of water become much more

uniform, and a number of chemical, physical, and biological changes may result. Biological

activity may increase from the mixing of nutrients. Changes in water composition during

overturn may cause disruption in water-treatment processes [3].


16

e. Wetlands

Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of the

soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing season.

Water saturation largely determines how the soil develops and the types of plant and animal

communities living in and on the soil. Wetlands may support both aquatic and terrestrial species.

The prolonged presence of water creates conditions that favour the growth of specially adapted

plants and promote the development of characteristic wetlands soils [8].

Wetlands vary widely because of regional and local differences in soils, topography, climate,

hydrology, water chemistry, vegetation, and other factors, including human disturbance. Indeed,

wetlands are found from the tundra to the tropics and on every continent except Antarctica [9].

f. Snow, ice and permafrost

Snow and ice on the surface has major influence on the hydrology. Melting and freezing

considerably determines runoff regimes. During winter, snow can accumulate on the ground until

the temperature rises above temperature of freezing. The amount of ice on lakes and rivers is

quite variable in comparison to sea-ice and glaciers and has quite a lot influence on the regional

climate. The rigid layers of ice that form in winter on northern rivers and lakes affect their

physical and biological characteristics.

Permafrost occurs in the polar and tundra regions on the Earth (e.g. Canada, Siberia). Permafrost

means a permanent frozen soil-layer persist under the surface, with exception of some lakes and

rivers. Thawing generally takes place in the summer to a certain depth. The ice in the soil and

rocks has major influence on the structure of the soil matrix and the hydrology. Subsequently

freezing and thawing can lead to weathering of rocks and erosion. Frozen soil is highly

impermeable, so water cannot drain easily in summer. The result is that a lot of swaps exist in the

permafrost regions [12].


17

1.2.2. Subsurface Water

Water beneath the surface can essentially be divided into three zones (Fig.1.9.):

• Soil water zone;

• Intermediate zone;

• Ground water zone.

Fig.1.9. Different zones of underground water.

The top two zones, the soil water and intermediate zones can be grouped into the zone of

aeration where during the year air occupies the pore spaces between earth materials. Sometimes,

especially during times of high rainfall, these pore spaces are filled with water. Beneath the zone

of aeration lies the zone of saturation or groundwater zone. Here water constantly occupies all

pore spaces. The water table divides the zone of aeration from the zone of saturation. The height

of the water table will fluctuate with precipitation, increasing in elevation during wet periods and

decreasing during dry. Groundwater and soil water together make up about 0.5% of all water (by

volume).

Groundwater is found in aquifers, bodies of earth material that have the ability to hold and

transmit water. It is replenished by percolation of water from the zone of aeration downward to

the zone of saturation, or in the recharge zone of a confined aquifer. The recharge zone is where

the confined aquifer is exposed at the surface and water can enter it. Groundwater moves

downward through the soil by percolation and then toward a stream channel or large body of

water.

Groundwater spends a significant time in contact with the underlying rock and this result in the

dissolution of minerals and nutrients. The chemical composition of the groundwater will


18

therefore reflect the underlying geology of the region. As it moves through the rock beds much

of the dissolved and particulate material, which has been picked up at the surface is removed by

filtration and adsorption but at the same time some of the rock material will dissolve [4].

Groundwater is an important source of water for human activities such as agriculture and

domestic drinking water. The chemistry of groundwater reflects inputs from the atmosphere,

from soil and water-rock reactions (weathering), as well as from pollutant sources such as

mining, land clearance, agriculture, and acid precipitation, domestic and industrial wastes.

1.2.3. Atmospheric Water

Water vapour content in troposphere is normally within a range of 1-3% by volume with a global

average of about 1%. However, air can contain as little as 0.1% or as much as 5% water. The

percentage of water in the atmosphere decreases rapidly with increasing altitude [3].

Atmospheric water occurs in different physical forms:

• In gaseous state, steam

• In liquid state, rain and dew

• In solid state, hail and white frost

• Colloidal form (aerosols), clouds and fog [3].

The content and character of atmospheric water depend on atmospheric pollution, which means

on the type and quantity of natural and municipal admixtures present in the atmospheric air. It

also depends on the type and intensity of precipitation, wind direction and clouds altitude.

Atmospheric waters contain considerable amounts of dissolved gases, first of all oxygen,

nitrogen and carbon dioxide. They contain also small amounts of noble gases, ammonium,

nitrogen oxides (originating from lightning), dissolved salts (e.g. NH4HCO3, NH4NO3,

NH4NO2), insoluble salts of calcium, magnesium, silica compounds (SiO2) and mechanical

admixtures (mineral and organic dust, soot, pollens, microorganisms etc.) [6]. The content of

insoluble substances is not constant and depends on industrialization of a region. In highly

industrialised regions water can contain heavy metals, products of combustion of fossil fuels and

compounds like sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide, hydrosulphide and nitrogen oxides [2].

Water vapour absorbs infrared radiation even more strongly than does carbon dioxide, thus

greatly influencing the Earth's heat balance. Clouds formed from water vapour reflect light from


19

the sun and have a temperature-lowering effect. On the other hand, water vapour in the

atmosphere acts as a kind of "blanket" at night, retaining heat from the Earth's surface by

absorption of infrared radiation [3].

Atmospheric water vapour has an important influence upon pollution-induced fog formation

under some circumstances. Water vapour interacting with pollutant particulate matter in the

atmosphere may reduce visibility to undesirable levels through the formation of aerosol particles

[5].

1.3. The Hydrological Cycle

Water on the Earth is in continuous circulation, called hydrological cycle (Fig.1.10.). It links the

atmosphere, oceans and continents and the circulation occurs mainly due to energy form solar

radiation and gravity [2]. The hydrological cycle is a closed system because water is neither

created nor destroyed on a large scale.

Fig.1.10. The hydrological cycle.

Water circulation between oceans, atmosphere and continents is called the great water cycle,

while circulation between oceans and atmosphere as well as continents and atmosphere is called


20

the small water cycle. They together determine climate, soils types and vegetation and the virtue

of man environment [2].

1.3.1. Evaporation

Evaporation is the process of returning moisture to the atmosphere. Evaporation is determined by

the incoming solar radiation, temperature, windspeed, soil type and roughness of the surface.

Water on any surface, especially the surfaces of mudholes, ponds, streams, rivers, lakes, and

oceans, is warmed by the sun's heat until it reaches the point at which water turns into the

vapour. The water vapour then rises into the atmosphere. A significant percentage of water in

surface water reservoirs can be lost through evaporation and this have the effect of increasing the

concentration of all dissolved material in the water body.

This is the driving force of the hydrological cycle. Without evaporation, there would be no

moisture flux to the atmosphere and eventually to the continents. Fortunately, most pollutants

and salts remain in the oceans and other surface water on land. The result is fresh water for

terrestrial life and mankind [12].

1.3.2. Transpiration

Transpiration is the process by which plants return moisture to the air. Vegetation consumes

water for its metabolic activities such as the very important photosynthesis. Plants take up water

through their roots and then lose some of the water through pores in their leaves. As hot air

passes over the surface of the leaves, the moisture absorbs the heat and evaporates into the air.

The amount of water stored in vegetation is negligible (comparable to the atmosphere-reservoir)

[12].

1.3.3. Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration is the combined net effect of two processes: evaporation and transpiration.

Evapotranspiration uses a larger portion of precipitation than the other processes associated with

the hydrologic cycle [12].


21

1.3.4. Condensation

Condensation is the cooling of water vapour until it becomes a liquid. As the dew point is

reached, water vapour forms tiny visible water droplets. This depends mainly on the air-

temperature and pressure which the vapour exerts (vapour pressure).

When these droplets form in the sky and other atmospheric conditions are present, clouds will

form. Forming clouds occurs by condensation of water vapour, mainly due to condensation

nuclei: salt, dust and other particles. As the droplets collide, they merge and form larger droplets

and eventually, precipitation will occur. Clouds can develop at different altitudes in the

troposphere. The different kinds of clouds that exist are grouped in families [12].

1.3.5. Precipitation

Precipitation is moisture that falls from the atmosphere as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Precipitation

varies in amount, intensity, and form by season and geographic location. These factors impact

whether water will flow into streams or infiltrate into the ground. In most parts of the world,

records are kept of snow and rainfall. This allows scientists to determine average rainfalls for a

location as well as classify rainstorms based on duration, intensity and average return period.

This information is crucial for crop management as well as the engineering design of water

control structures and flood control.

1.3.6. Infiltration

Infiltration is the entry of water into the soil surface. Infiltration constitutes the sole source of

water to sustain the growth of vegetation and it helps to sustain the ground water supply to wells,

springs and streams. The rate of infiltration is influenced by the physical characteristics of the

soil, soil cover (i.e. plants), water content of the soil, soil temperature and rainfall intensity. The

terms infiltration and percolation are often used interchangeably.

1.3.7. Percolation

Percolation is the downward movement of water through soil and rock. Percolation occurs

beneath the root zone. Ground water percolates through the soil much as water fills a sponge, and


22

moves from space to space along fractures in rock, through sand and gravel, or through channels

in formations such as cavernous limestone. The terms infiltration and percolation are often used

interchangeably.

1.3.8. Runoff

Precipitation may fall directly to the surface or be intercepted by plants, ultimately reaching the

ground. Once on the ground, water can infiltrate into the soil or move across the surface as

runoff. Runoff is the movement of water across the earth's surface towards stream channels,

lakes, oceans, or depressions or lowpoints in the earth's surface. The characteristics that affect

the rate of runoff include rainfall duration and intensity as well as the ground's slope, soil type

and ground cover. If the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil, or if the

soil has reached its field capacity, surface runoff occurs.

Almost all water that falls as precipitation on land will be transported back to the ocean-reservoir

by rivers. The local runoff is highly dependent on the precipitation, causes by water vapour

transport, consequent evaporation, cryosphere and infiltration (hydrogeology).

The residence time of water in each part of the hydrological cycle determines its impact on

climates. The short time spent by water in transit through the atmosphere results in short-term

fluctuations in regional weather patterns. By contrast the long residence times, of 3 000 to 10 000

years in deep-ocean circulations, groundwater aquifers, and glacial ice act to moderate

temperatures and climates. These slower parts of the water cycle work as a system memory,

which both store and release heat, buffering climate change. There are four main components to

the hydrological cycle: evaporation and transpiration, precipitation, surface water, and

atmospheric water. [15]


23

1.4. The Baltic Sea Environment

The Baltic Sea is a relatively shallow sea in

north-eastern Europe, surrounded by the

Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of

east and central Europe, and the Danish

isles. It drains into Kattegatt and the North

Sea through Öresund and the Great and

Little Belt of Denmark (Fig.1.11).

The Baltic Sea total area is about 370 000

km2, and its volume about 21 000km3. The

average depth of the whole Baltic Sea is

only 55 m. The deepest waters are in the

Landsort Deep in the Baltic Proper, where

depths of 459 m have been recorded [16].Fig.1.11.The Baltic Sea.

The northern part of the Baltic Sea is known as the Gulf of Bothnia out of which the

northernmost part is referred to as the Bay of Bothnia. Immediately to the south of it lies the Sea

of Åland. The Gulf of Finland is the eastern arm of the Baltic Sea and it connects the Baltic Sea

with St. Petersburg. The Northern Baltic lies between the Stockholm area, south-western

Finland, and Estonia. The Western and Eastern Gotland Basins form the major parts of the

central Baltic Sea, known as the Baltic Proper. The Gulf of Riga lies between Riga and Saaremaa

and Gdansk Basin lies east of the Hel peninsula on the Polish coast. Bornholm Basin is the area

east of Bornholm and Arkona Basin extends from Bornholm to the Danish isles of Falster and

Zealand. The westernmost part of the Baltic Sea is Kiel Bight. The Sound, the Belts, and the

Kattegat connect the Baltic Sea with the Skagerrak and the North Sea [18].

The countries, which have access to the Baltic Sea are: Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia,

Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Germany.


24

The Baltic Sea is almost totally enclosed by land, and only connected to the North Sea by narrow

and shallow straits around Denmark and Sweden. The outlet consists of a series of basins

separated by shallow sills which obstruct efficient water exchange with the open sea.

Consequently, it takes 25-35 years for all the water from the Baltic Sea to be replenished by

water from the North Sea and beyond [16].

Baltic Sea is a very young sea, it came into being after the most recent Ice Age about 12 000

years ago as the freshwater Baltic ice sea. Through openings to the North Sea, periods of varying

salt content followed. It was not until 1500 years ago that the present conditions were reached,

however, changes, particularly in coastal areas, still occur. Tides, with which we are acquainted

in the North Sea, play no role in the Baltic. This promotes the formation of stable water layers.

So it is possible for a low-salinity layer to lie over a more saline layer of deep water. Both zones

have great differences in density and are often separated by a discontinuity layer. This is the

reason why the vertical exchange of water is also very restricted.

1.4.1. Baltic Sea Drainage Basin

The total land area of the Baltic Drainage Basin (Fig.1.12.) covers approximately 1.7 million km2

and includes territories from altogether 14

nations (nine countries bordering the sea and

five other countries: Belarus, Czech Republic,

Slovak Republic, Norway, and Ukraine [19]).

Nearly 85 million people live in the Baltic

catchment area - 26% of them in large

metropolitan areas, 45% in smaller urban areas,

and 29% in rural areas. Population densities

vary from over 500 inhabitants per km2 in

urbanised regions of Poland, Germany and

Denmark to fewer than 10 inhabitants per km2

in northern parts of Finland and Sweden.

Almost 15 million people live within 10 km of

the coast [16].

Fig.1.12. The Baltic Sea Drainage Basin


25

More than 200 large rivers bring approximately 480 km3 freshwater annually into the Baltic,

making it the world's biggest brackish sea and that increasingly diluting the saline seawater of

the Baltic to the east and north. The catchment area covers 17 % of Europe. Total area is about

415 000 km2 and a volume of water of 21 700 km3. This means that activities within a land area

4.5 times as large as the area of the sea, and comprising parts of 14 countries, affect the

environment of the Baltic.

Of environmental significance are some major cities in the basin such as Saint Petersburg,

Helsinki, Tallinn, Riga, Vilnius, Warsaw, Copenhagen and Stockholm, among others.

The nature in the Baltic drainage basin is characterised by boreal forests in the north, agriculture

in the south and mountains on the western and southern divide. There is an abundance of lakes in

the northern half of the basin, some of them the largest in Europe, as Lake Ladoga, Onega and

Vanern. Altogether lakes cover 9 % of the land areas of Finland and Sweden. Big rivers are the

Neva (the largest river entering the Baltic), Vistula, Daugava, Kemijoki and LuleaTven Rivers,

among many others.

Due to its semi-enclosed character the Baltic Sea is very vulnerable to pollution and its

environmental status is a major concern [7].

1.4.2. Environmental Conditions

The environmental conditions of the Baltic Sea are defined by the fresh water input from rivers

and precipitation, and by the limited inflow of more saline water from the North Sea. Without the

constant, albeit small influx of saline water through the Danish straits, the Baltic Sea would have

been transformed into a gigantic fresh water lake long ago. A clear salinity gradient exists from

the almost oceanic conditions in the northern Kattegatt (30 g/dm3) to the almost fresh water

conditions in the Northern Bothnian Bay (2 g/dm3) [19].

A salinity barrier also exists between the surface and the seabed of the Baltic. Saline water,

naturally heavier than fresh water, flows along the bottom of the sea. The fresh water on the

surface of the sea does not mix appreciably with the saline water underneath. As a result, a

marked stratification of salinity exists throughout the Baltic Sea at a depth of about 40-70 m. The

salinity barriers prevent the exchange of substances, i.e. oxygen, nutrients, and pollutants,


26

between the two layers. The environmental conditions between the two layers are, thus, vastly

different [19].

Due to the limited water exchange, oxygen poor water predominates near the bottom of many

parts of the Baltic Sea. Bacteria growing in this oxygen deficient water break down organic

matter and release hydrogen sulphide, a toxic gas. Both the oxygen deficiency and the hydrogen

sulphide production combine to make the bottom of the Baltic Sea virtually lifeless. The size of

the seabed with impaired conditions varies from year to year and may reach 100 000 km2 (1/4 of

Baltic Sea) [19].

Only major deep-water inflows that bring large volumes of oxygen-rich water into the Baltic Sea

can improve the living conditions in the deeper bottom layers. These inflows are, unfortunately,

quite rare. Since 1976, only a few major inflows were observed and none were recorded between

1983 and 1992. Conditions in the deep water of the Baltic changed drastically and led to the most

significant and serious stagnation period ever observed. In January 1993, a major deep water

inflow occurred after 16 years of stagnation. But it was only an isolated event. No other major

inflows have occurred since then, and since 1995 the conditions in the deep water have again

started to stagnate [19].

Already natural conditions bring considerable stress to life in the Baltic. The present natural

conditions have existed for a few thousand years only. Thus an adapted biological community

has had just a little time to develop. Brackish bay water and surface water allow marine and fresh

water species to live just on the very edge of their limits of survival.

Baltic ecosystems must cope with marked natural fluctuations - periods of stagnation broken up

by sporadic inflows of saline water from the North Sea, which are the main source of oxygen for

the deep waters of the Baltic Proper, and very significant for nutrient cycles throughout the

Baltic Sea. The biodiversity of Baltic marine ecosystems is largely shaped by physical factors -

depth, the properties of the sea bed, light penetration, oxygen, and especially salinity.

Contaminants and nutrients enter the Baltic Sea in rivers, in runoff from coastal areas, through

exchange of water with the North Sea, through atmospheric deposition, and due to human

activities at sea [16].


27

1.4.3. Environmental Pollution Problems

As the Baltic Sea is almost landlocked sea and is almost totally surrounded by land it is then

more endangered by pollution than other marine areas. It is the common sea of over 85 million

people living within the large drainage area in 14 different countries. All the countries around the

Baltic Sea are well developed countries, with fairly large cities, a variety of industries, and

modern agriculture and forest management. More or less intensive agriculture and forestry is also

carried out over large areas in the riparian states. Ever since industrialisation started here in the

latter part of the 19th century, the Baltic Sea receives steadily increasing amounts of pollutants.

The Baltic is affected by human activities as well as natural processes within the entire drainage

area [16].

The environmental quality of the Baltic Sea is largely influenced by the inputs of pollutants

(Table1.5.), originating from point and nonpoint sources, particularly excessive nutrients, and

hazardous substances.

Nutrients can enter the sea in runoff from arable land, mainly via rivers and streams, but also

along coasts; or in the form of deposition from the air. Nutrient levels around the Baltic Sea are

today generally much higher than the natural background levels that prevailed until the 1950s.

The key nutrients affecting marine ecosystems are phosphorus and nitrogen [24].

Rivers and coastal point sources such as urban and industrial wastewater outlets account for most

of the nutrient load - in fact three times more nitrogen and ten times more phosphorus than the

atmospheric input. Just five rivers - the Neva, Daugava, Vistula, Oder and Nemunas - account

for almost half of all the nitrogen entering the Baltic Sea [24].

The inputs of phosphorus to the Baltic Sea are now much lower than in the 1980s, thanks to

improved wastewater treatment. But in recent years this decrease has slowed, and nutrient inputs

from rivers evidently did not decrease during the period 1994-98. Inputs of nitrogen, which

largely originate from diffuse sources such as farmland have been more difficult to reduce.

Annual atmospheric nitrogen deposition into the Baltic Sea decreased by nearly 40% between

1985 and 1997 [24].


28

The main pathways of hazardous substances to the marine environment are industrial and

municipal wastewater, and atmospheric deposition, but also leachate from deteriorating

stockpiles, as in the case of obsolete pesticides.

Although monitoring indicates that the loads of some hazardous substances have been reduced

considerably over the past ten years, problems still persist. The loads of many substances have

been reduced by at least 50% since the late 1980s - mainly due to the effective implementation of

environmental legislation, the substitution of hazardous substances with harmless or less

hazardous substances, and technological improvements. In Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland

and Russia, reductions have been mainly due to fundamental socio-economic changes [24].

The sea is surrounded by a considerable number of cities, towns and harbours. There is abundant

sea traffic of pleasure craft, ferries, tankers, cargo vessels carrying oil, chemicals and other

environmentally hazardous substances in almost all parts of the sea.

Table 1.5. The Baltic Sea pollution problems.

Nitrogen, nitrates (NHx), oxides (NOx), ammonia (NHa) nitrogen fixationPhosphorus, phosphates (POx)Sulphates (SOx), sulphur dioxide

Inorganic Substances

Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxideDichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DOT)Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)Polychlorinated triphenyls (PCTs), dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), and dibenzo-furans (PCDFs)Chlorophenols

Organic Substances

Hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs)Mercury (Hg)Cadmium (Cd)

Heavy Metals

Lead (Pb)Mineral oil spills from ships and off shore drilling platformsDilute oil discharges from coastal industries and municipalitiesAirborne volatile hydrocarbons from fossil fuel combustion and traffic exhaust

Oil and Shipping

Hydrocarbon vapours from oil terminals, and filling stationsAir, in the form of oxides (NOx, POx) from smokestacksIndustrySurface water runoff, through waste water discharges from the plantsLeaching of nitrogen and phosphorus from arable landLeaching of nitrogen and phosphorus from inappropriate storage of manure

Agriculture

Atmospheric emissions of ammonia from manure


29

Leaching of pesticides due to inappropriate application and storageInadequate treatment of waste water in rural areas

TrafficMunicipalitiesForestry and Energy

Sea traffic leads to oil pollution which is a major threat to Baltic ecosystems. Most years more

oil is spilled into the Baltic on purpose than is released accidentally. 20 000 - 70 000 tonnes of

oil enter the Baltic Sea every year and 10 % of this total comes from shipping. Most of the oil

comes from ships deliberately breaking international laws prohibiting the discharge of oily

wastes and contaminated water from machinery spaces and cargo holds.

Oil spills contaminate the surface water, smothering marine plants and animals. Many chemicals

in oil spills are toxic, and can have serious cumulative effects as they build up in ecosystems.

Spills can also have severe repercussions for tourism and fisheries, while the necessary clean-up

operations may themselves unavoidably harm marine life and coastal habitats [24].

Before environmental pollution measures were enacted on a large scale by the countries

surrounding the Baltic Sea several years ago, the situation in the sea was much worse.

Substantial reduction in pollution load from countries like Sweden, Finland, Denmark, and

Germany since then has helped to improve the condition of the Baltic Sea [20].

The HELCOM's 4th Periodic Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment of the Baltic

Sea, 1994-1998, shows that there have been significant improvements in many aspects of the

marine environment, largely thanks to environmental measures taken by HELCOM countries,

but continuing problems are also highlighted [17].

1.4.4. Polish Coastal Zone

The Baltic Sea forms 843 km of the Polish borderline, (15% of the total length of the country's

border) i.e. 102 km of the Vistula Lagoon, 241 km the Pomeranian Bay, 76 km the Hel Peninsula

and 424 km of remaining part of the coast. 99.7 % of the country is situated within the Baltic Sea

drainage area - it covers 311 900 km2 (Fig.1.12.).

Poland is one of the major countries that considerably influence the condition of the Baltic Sea.

Population of Poland constitutes 50% of whole population living in the basin of Baltic Sea. The


30

most part of Poland territory is located within two catchment areas of the two biggest rivers: the

Vistula River (54% of country area) and the Odra River (33.9 %). The hydrological network

covers also rivers of Pomeranian Region, which flow into the Baltic Sea, i.e. Pasłęka, Reda,

Łeba, Łupawa, Słupia, Wieprza, Grabowa, Parsęta, Rega.

A considerable amount of nutrients and toxic substances are discharged to the Baltic Sea from

Poland. The majority of the pollutants are carried by river flows. While increasing eutrophication

is a consequence of elevated nutrient inputs, some of the coastal waters are polluted also by toxic

substances, such as heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons and oil. The most polluted areas of

the Polish coastal waters are the Gulf of Gdańsk and the Pomeranian Bay, both of which absorb

significant pollution loads through river outflows. Along the more open Polish coast, the

problems are similar to those in the open Baltic Sea.

The decrease in fish catches along the entire Polish coast during the last decade has been

attributed to changes in living conditions for fish, but overexploitation of certain fish stocks may

have played an important role in these changes as well.

1.4.5. Gulf of Gdańsk and Puck Bay

The Gulf of Gdańsk straddles the border of Poland and the Kaliningrad Oblast (Russia) along

the southern coast of the Baltic. Excluding the Vistula Lagoon, the total surface area of the Gulf

of Gdańsk, south of 54°50' (calculated using bathymetry from the 200×200m Geological map of

the Baltic Sea bottom; Geological Map, State Geological Institute, Warsaw, 1993) is 4296 km2,

with land area 304.510 km2 and coastline 491 km, and the volume of Gulf of Gdańsk is 236 km3.

The area of the Gulf of Gdańsk is extremely heavy inhabited, with the population of 38.6 mln

(July 1999 estimate).

The Gulf of Gdańsk consists of several morphological subunits: the Vistula Lagoon, an almost

completely land-locked and anthropogenically stressed area, the semi-enclosed Bay of Puck and

the mouth of the Vistula. Along the southern coast of the Gulf of Gdańsk spreads the Gdansk-

Sopot-Gdynia metropolitan area with a total population exceeding 1 000 000 inhabitants. The

area of land draining into the Gulf of Gdańsk covers 194.424 km2, and land cover of the area is

distributed as follows: 27% forested lands, 63% agricultural lands, 3% urban areas, and 2%

water and wetlands.


31

Fig. 1.13. The Gulf of Gdańsk (18°22’ - 20°00’ E, 54°18’ - 54°50’ N) andThe Puck Bay (18°37’ E, 54°34’ N)

Maximum depth in the Gdańsk Deep is 118 m. The Gulf of Gdańsk is a rather shallow water

basin with a sandy bottom. It is separated from the Baltic Proper by the Hel peninsula, which

limits the exchange of water.

Annual freshwater discharge into Gulf of Gdańsk is 34.5 km3, of which the Vistula River

contributes approx. 30%. This is approx. 7% of the total input of freshwater.

About 5-10% time, the Vistula River water discharged into the Baltic flows waste - wards,

resulting in dispersion of pollutants onto the beaches of the Gulf of Gdańsk and Puck Bay.

As the map in Fig.1.13. illustrates the Puck Bay is a part of the Gulf of Gdańsk and it covers

about 520 km2 of water surface of the Gulf of Gdańsk. The most north-western part is called the

Puck Bay and is divided in two parts: to the west the Puck lagoon of the area of 104 km2 and

average depth of 3 m and to the east the much deeper part of the bay. The eastern border of the

site runs from the top of the Hel Peninsula to the city of Gdansk. This includes some coastal

meadows near Jastarnia (0.08 km2), Władyslawowo (0.3 km2), the Reda river mouth (2 km2) and

the area between Reda and Mechelinki (1.50 km2). These areas belong to remnants of coastal,

temporarily flooded halophilous meadows, which were formerly a common feature along the

Polish Baltic coast. The Puck Bay is surrounded by many small fish harbours and two large sea

harbours in Gdynia and Gdańsk.


32

The main threats in the region of Puck Bay are aquaculture/fisheries, disturbance,

drainage/canalization, recreation/tourism and unsustainable exploitation. Both tourism and

recreation within breeding and migration seasons disturb birds in the area. In addition, there is a

potential danger of oil spills from harbours and ships. Pollution by communal sewage is affecting

the whole bay. In recent years the level of pollutants has decreased. Gill nets used by fishermen

in the area pose a potential threat. Also hunting along the coast is an important factor affecting

birds, especially during migration.

1.4.4. Environmental Policy and Cooperation in the Baltic Region

By mid-1980s the extent of the anthropogenic impact on the Baltic Sea was alarming. Significant

quantities of pollutants were being discharged into the sea and transported through the

atmosphere. During last decades different organization have fought for clean Baltic and

sustainable development in the Baltic Region. A number of ventures, programs, and agreements

were established to support the common goals.

Co-operation between the Baltic Sea countries has resulted in some environmental improvements

in many areas and, therefore, has provided grounds for optimism that the increasing deterioration

of the Baltic Sea could be arrested and put under control.

Political change in Europe and common interests among the nine countries surrounding the

Baltic Sea coastal states opened up opportunities for broader and intensified cooperation in the

Baltic Sea area. Within a short time the region has become covered with a well-knit network of

regional, sub-regional, local and bilateral cooperation. The main achievements of programs

implementation was the development of the system of scientific, technological and

administrative co-operation in the region. In addition to supporting regional and local responses

to common challenges, the EU takes an active part in the work of various bodies in the region.

a. HELCOM

The Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (the

Helsinki Convention) was the first international agreement to cover all sources of marine

pollution - from land and from ships, as well as airborne. It was signed in March 1974 by the

coastal states, and entered into force in May 1980. By the mid-1980s the Helsinki Commission


33

had become an important example of international co-operation searching, in a spirit of shared

responsibility, unanimity and partnership, for solutions to common environmental problems. In

1992-1994 the Convention was acceded by the Baltic States - Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania -

and also by the European Community.

The Helsinki Commission, or HELCOM, is the governing body of the Convention on the

Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (Helsinki Convention).

HELCOM works to protect the marine environment of the Baltic Sea from all sources of

pollution and to restore and safeguard its ecological balance through intergovernmental co-

operation between Denmark, Estonia, the European Community, Finland, Germany, Latvia,

Lithuania, Poland, Russia and Sweden.

b. BALTIC 21

Baltic 21 is a term used for the initiative and the process to develop and implement a regional

Agenda 21 for the Baltic Sea Region in order to attain sustainable development in the region; and

the adopted document, “Agenda 21 for the Baltic Sea Region”.

Baltic 21 is a joint, long-term effort by the 11 countries of the Council of the Baltic Sea States

(CBSS). These countries differ widely as far as economic, social and environmental

preconditions are concerned, but they agree on the long-term goals they wish to attain for the

region as a whole. The emphasis is on regional co-operation, and the work is focused on seven

economic sectors, spatial planning and on education. An overall goal has been agreed for

sustainable development in the Baltic Sea Region. The essential objective of the Baltic Sea

Region co-operation is the constant improvement of the living and working conditions of their

peoples within the framework of sustainable development, sustainable management of natural

resources and protection of the environment. Sustainable development includes three mutually

interdependent dimensions - economic social and environmental [21].

c. VASAB 2010

VASAB 2010 programme (Vision & Strategies around the Baltic 2010) is an intergovernmental

programme of 10 countries of the Baltic Sea Region on multilateral cooperation in spatial

planning and development established in 1992.


34

VASAB is steered by the Committee on Spatial Development of the Baltic Sea Region

(CSD/BSR) and composed of representatives of respective ministries and regional authorities

(Germany, Russia). The objective of the program is implementation of Vision and Strategies on

Spatial Development of the Baltic Sea Region which were adopted by the Ministers responsible

for Spatial Planning and Development in the Baltic Sea Region countries in 1994 [22].

d. ELOISE

In order to provide an European contribution to international programmes on global change

research and with a view to facilitate, stimulate and coordinate European participation, several

pilot projects are being supported in the ENRICH ( European Network for Research on Global

Change) framework. The following projects are related to international programmes:

• Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems ( GCTE)

• Land Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone ( LOICZ )

• International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Project (IGAC), etc.

European Land-Ocean Interaction Studies (ELOISE) was initially prepared as a pilot project in

the framework of the European Commission initiative ENRICH. An ELOISE Science Plan was

published by the Commission late in 1994 in the Ecosystems Research Reports Series of the

Environment & Climate Research Programme. The ELOISE project plan was drafted by

representatives of the EU's Environment and MAST programmes in collaboration with the

Scientific Steering Committe of the IGBP Core Project on Land - Ocean Interactions in the

Coastal Zone (LOICZ).

The four ELOISE research focuses are: global cycles, human impacts, socio – economic

development and infrastructure.

ELOISE is a thematic network instigated by the Commission of the European Union where

coastal zone research is combined to focus on the important questions of how the land-ocean

interaction operates, and of how this is influenced by human activities.

By nurturing a coherent European coastal zone research network of high scientific value and of

direct relevance to society, it is intended that ELOISE can directly contribute to activities in the

fields of integrated coastal zone management and spatial planning.

Since inception, ELOISE has comprised a total of 55 projects, 26 of which are currently active.

This renders it the world's largest coastal research initiative. In addition to its support in the


35

development of European policy, ELOISE represents the coordinated official European Union

input to the LOICZ Core Project of the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP)

[23].

One can obtain all the necessary and required information on organisations acting in the Baltic

Region, their programs, aims, and achievements as well as on the policy, legislation, regulations

and their results visiting websites devoted to the Baltic Region. The most important and useful

are listed below, in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6. Sites for information on environment, policy and cooperation in the Baltic Sea Region.

Intergovernmental organisationsHELCOM the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission www.helcom.fiBaltic 21 The Baltic Agenda 21 for sustainable development www.ee/baltic21/IBSFC International Baltic Sea Fishery Commission www.ibsfc.orgCBSS Council of the Baltic Sea States www.cbss.stIMO International Maritime Organisation www.imo.org/home.aspVASAB 2010 Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea 2010 www.vasab.org.pl

ASCOBANS The Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Balticand North Seas www.ascobans.org

Environment NGOs

CCB Coalition Clean Baltic, Member organizations www.ccb.se/ccb/members.html

EEB Europe Environmental Bureau www.eeb.orgTRN Taiga Rescue Network www.snf.se/TRNTEIA Transboundary Environmental Information Agency www.teia.orgWWF World Wide Fund for Nature www.panda.orgSeas at Risk www.seas-at-risk.orgSwedish NGO Secretariat on Acid Rain www.acidrain.org

Other international organisationsIUCN World Headquarters www.iucn.orgMSC Marine Stewardship Council www.msc.orgUBC Union of the Baltic Cities www.ubc.netGIWA Global International Waters Assessment www.giwa.netWHO World Health organisation www.who.int/enBSP Baltic Sea Project www.b-s-p.orgBUP Baltic University Programme www.balticuniv.uu.seThe Global Water Partnership www.gwp.sida.se

EU Institutions

European Commission http://europa.eu.int/comm/index.htm


36

Directorate General for Environment http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/

Council of Ministers http://ue.eu.intEuropean Parliament www.europarl.eu.int/

Environment committee http://www.europarl.eu.int/committees/envi_home.htm

EEA; European Environment Agency www.eea.eu.intJoint Research Centre, European Commission www.ei.jrc.it

The Green Spider (informal network of EU environment Ministries) www.ubavie.gv.at/greenspider/

Implementation and enforcement of Environmental law, EU http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/impel/index.htm

Baltic Sea links

BALLERINA Baltic Sea Region on-line environmental information resourcesfor internet access www.baltic-region.net/

BALLAD virtual forum for networking in the Baltic Sea regionintended to facilitate the search for information www.ballad.org/

UNEP/GRID Arendal link page – various Baltic resources,United Nations Environment Programme www.grida.no/nordic.htm

BASICS Baltic Sea Region Statistical Database on Sustainable Development,Natural Resources and Environment

www.grida.no/basics/index.htm

SMF Stockholm Marine Research Centre www.smf.su.se/english/indexeng.htm

BALTEX Baltic Sea Experiment http://w3.gkss.de/baltex/baltex_home.html

Finnish Institute on Marine Research www2.fimr.fi/en.html

Baltic Marine Environment Bibliography http://otatrip.hut.fi/vtt/baltic/intro.html

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea www.ices.dkAgenda 21 for the Baltic Sea Region www.ee.baltic21Baltinfo´s search engine www.baltsearch.orgUnited Nations Environment Programme www.unep.org/Baltic Sea Research Institute, Warnemünde www.io-warnemuende.deBaltic Environment Database of Stockholm University http://data.ecology.su.seBaltic Sea drainage basin GIS, map and statistical database http://www.grida.no/baltic/


37

Appendix

UNITS OF MEASURE

Two basic sets of units are used by the engineering and science community. They are:

US-CS (United States Customary units) (e.g., pounds, inches, degrees Fahrenheit) SI (International System of Units) (e.g., grams, meters, degrees Celsius)

The typical units used depend on the matrix studied.For liquids concentrations of substances in a liquid (for CEE 1503, that will usually mean water) aregenerally given as mass of substance per unit volume of solution. Conventional units are mg/L, µg/L,ng/L (mg = milligram, L = liter, µg = microgram, ng = nanogram). Things get confusing when wehave to deal with ppm or ppb units. Part of the confusion originates from the definition of ppm or ppb.One should really define ppm (or ppb, ppt, etc.) in terms of whether the units are on a weight (w/w) orvolume (v/v) basis, or a combination of the two (w/v or v/w) basis.If we are dealing with ppm (or ppb, etc.) on a weight (w/w) basis, things get a little more complicated. Fordilute solutions, where 1 liter of solution weights approximately 1000 g (i.e., the specific gravity of thesolution is 1.0) the following set of equivalencies are true.Then: 1 mg/L = 1 g/m3 ≈ 1 ppm (w/w)

1 µ g/L = 1 mg/ m3 ≈ 1 ppb (w/w)In some situations, the solution is concentrated or we must deal with a non-aqueous liquid (such

as gasoline), the specific gravity may not be equal to 1.0 andmg/L = ppm (w/w) × Specific gravity of the solutionµ g/L = ppb (w/w) × Specific gravity of the solution

For example, a sediment – water mixture contains 1 µ g/L of PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls). Thespecific gravity of the sediment – water mixture is 1.06. What is the concentration of PCBs in ppm(w/w)?

Summary of concentration unitsMolarity moles/liter M moles solute / liter of solutionmolality moles/kg m moles solute / kg of solventPercent

Composition % % mass solute/mass solution x 100%vol solute / vol soution x 100 %

Parts per Million ppm ppm mass of solute/mass of solution x 106

Parts per Billion ppb ppb mass of solute/mass of solution x 109

Parts per trillion ppt ppt mass of solute/mass of solution x 1012


38

References:1. J.E. Andrews, P. Brimblecombe, T.D. Jickells, P.S. Liss “Wprowadzenie do chemii środowiska”, Wydawnictwa

Naukowo-Techniczne, Warszawa 19992. K. Lipkowaska – Grabowska, E. Faron – Lewandowska “Pracownia chemiczna. Analiza wody i ścieków”,

Warszawa 19983. Stanley E. Manahan “Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry”, Lewis Publishers, USA 19934. A.G.Howard “Aquatic Environmental Chemistry”, Oxford University Press, Oxford 19985. A.Bartoszek, K.Mędrzycka, W.Wardencki, B.Zygmunt “Environmental chemistry and biochemistry”,

Politechnika Gdańska, Centre of Environmental Studies, Cenvig, Gdańsk 19946. E.Gomółka, A.Szaynok “Chemia wody i powietrza”, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej,

Wrocław 19977. “Sustainable Water Management in the Baltic Sea Basin”, Book I “Water in Nature”, A Baltic University

Programme Publication, Uppsala University, Ditt Tryckeri i Uppsala AB, Uppsala 19998. http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/types/9. http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/what/definitions.html10. http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/estuaries/about1.htm11. http://www.nyu.edu/pages/mathmol/modules/water/info_water.html12. http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hall/5606/hydro.htm13. http://www.aquatic.uoguelph.ca/general/page34.htm14. http://www.aquadyntech.com/watermolecule.html15. http://www.sbu.ac.uk/water/hbond.html16. http://www.helcom.fi/environment/introduction.html17. http://www.helcom.fi/environment/4pa.html18. http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea19. http://www.envir.ee/baltics/geograph.htm20. http://www.envir.ee/baltics/present.htm21. http://www.ee/baltic21/facts/facts.htm22. http://www.vasab.org.pl/Public/front.shtml23. http://www.nilu.no/projects/eloise/default_main.htm24. http://www.helcom.fi/pollution.html25. http://www.ee.enr.state.nc.us/ecoadr/WhatIsARiverBasin.htm

Documents

WATER QUALITY CONTROL