CONCERTACIONMASTERPROGAM CEDLA WAGENINGENUNIVERSITY

WATERANDSANITATIONTRAININGMETHODOLOGIES:ITSEFFECTSIN

GENDERRELATIONSAnalysisofRolePlayingGame andSARARMethodologyinperi

urbanareasofCochabambaBolivia

FranzQuiroz

25/04/2008

Course:GenderinLandandWaterDevelopment(IWE33806)

Prof.MargreetZwateveen

RegisterNumber:800401676100

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TABLEOFCONTENT

1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................3

2. GenderandParticipationapproachesinWaterandLandProjects...............................................4

2.1Bargainingapproachtounderstandgenderrelations..................................................................4

2.2Whatisparticipationwithintheframeofaproject?...................................................................4

2.3Trainingmethodologiesinthewaterandsanitationsector.........................................................5

3. NegowatandAguaTuyaProjects...................................................................................................7

4. Impactsofthetrainingmethodologiesingenderrelations...........................................................9

4.1Roleplayinggame:SOSTENICAP...................................................................................................9

4.2SARARforecologicalbathrooms................................................................................................10

5. Conclusions...................................................................................................................................11

Bibliography..........................................................................................................................................13

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1. Introduction

InthecityofCochabambaBoliviapoorfamiliesofperiurbanareasdonothaveappropriateservicesofdrinkingwaterandsanitation.Theresourcesneededtofacethisproblemare:financingsources,thedevelopmentofnewtechnologies,technicalassistance,accesstoinformation,andappropriatetrainingprograms.Intermsoftrainingmethodologies,therearefewpublicationsandcasessystematized;moreovertheapplicationofgenderapproachesarelessvisibledespitethemajorityofwomen,oldpeopleandchildrenhavetheirmainactivitiesaroundthehouseholdorthecommunity.

TherelevantcasesIfoundinperiurbanareasofCochabambaintermsofdesignandusetrainingmethodologiesaretheNegowatandAguaTuyaprojects.ThefirstoneintervenedinVillaOrurocommunity.Thisprojectdesignedamethodologytoimprovethemanagementofwaterorganizations.Withinthismethodologytheteamimplementedaroleplayinggame(SosteniCAP)tofacilitatethediscussionsandempowerdisadvantagedgroups.Ontheotherhand,AguaTuyaProgramimplementedapilotprojectofecologicalsanitationinChallacabacommunity.Thisprivatecompanydesignedandinstalledecologicalbathroomsforperiurbanareasasanalternativetothetraditionalsewersystemsinthecities.Attheendoftheconstructionstage,AguaTuyaimplementedatrainingmethodology,whichusetheSARARprinciples,toguaranteetheeffectiveuseofthebathrooms.

Inthiscontext,IwillanalyzetheimpactofSosteniCAPandSARARmethodologiesingenderrelationsathouseholdandcommunitylevel.AsastartingpointIwillclassifythesemethodologiesaccordingtothelevelsofparticipationtheypromote(apassiveparticipationorempowerment).ThenIwillanalyzeifthosemethodologiesareconsequentwiththeirobjectivesorprinciplesinpractice.IwillsupportthisanalysiswiththeapproachofpracticalandstrategicneedsraisedbyMoser(1989).ToanalyzegenderrelationsathouseholdandcommunitylevelIwillusethebargainingapproach,whichfacilitatestheunderstandingofthosearenasorspacesofunequalpowerrelationsbetweendifferentstakeholders.Finally,myanalysisdonotconsideronlyunequalrelationsbetweenwomenandmen,Itakeintoaccountotherlesspowerfulgroupsathouseholdandcommunitylevel,suchaschildren,youngandoldpeople,andpowerfulgroupsliketraditionalleaders.

InthisessayfirstIwillpresentthetendenciesofparticipationandgenderapproachesinwaterandlandprojects,anditseffectsintrainingmethodologies.Secondly,Iwillexplainthecontextofbothinterventions.ThenIwillanalyzetheimpactsofthosetrainingmethodologiesingenderrelations.Finally,Iwillpresentsomeconclusion.TodevelopthisessayImainlyusesecondarysourcesofinformation.

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2. GenderandParticipationapproachesinWaterandLandProjects

2.1Bargainingapproachtounderstandgenderrelations

Beforeaninterventiontakesplaceitisimportanttorecognizehouseholdsandcommunitiesasheterogeneousgroups.Householdandcommunitymembershavedifferentinterestsandparticularperceptionsofthebenefitsandcostofaspecificproject,whichnormallyrepresentabenefitformalesheadedhouseholdcouldbeconsideracostforwivesandchildren.

AccordingtoAgarwalthetermgenderrelationsreferstotherelationsofpowerbetweenwomenandmenwhicharerevealedinarangeofpractices,ideasandrepresentationswithinandoutsideofthehousehold.Theserelationsaresociallyconstructedratherthanbiologicallydeterminedandcouldtakepartindifferentarenas,suchashousehold,thecommunity,themarketandtheState(1994:51).

Thisauthorproposesthebargainingapproachtoanalyzegenderrelationswithinandoutsidethehousehold.Thisapproachisunderstoodasacomplexmatrixofrelationshipsinwhichthereisongoing(oftenimplicit)negotiation,subjecttotheconstraintssetbygender,age,typeofrelationship(kingship)andwhatcouldbetermedundisputedtradition[]Theoutputscouldbeaconsequenceofcooperationorconflict.Cooperationtakespartwhencooperativearrangementsmakeeachofthembetteroffthannoncooperation.Iftherearenoincentivesorappropriateconditionstocooperate,theoutputswillemergeddependsontherelativebargainingpowerofthehouseholdmembers.Mainlytwoaspectdefinethelevelofbargainingpower:i)personsfallbackpositions(theoutsideoptionswhichdeterminehowwelloffheorsheisifcooperationcease)andii)thedegreetowhichhis/herclaimisseenassociallyandlegallylegitimated(54).Intermsofwaterandlandtopics,ownershiporcontroloverthisresourcesandovertheproductiveactivitiesarecrucialelementstoreinforcethefallbackpositionofwomenormen.

Tousethebargainingapproachatcommunitylevel,Agarwaldistinguishtwodifferencesincomparisontothehousehold:i)thecommunityisbiggerthanthehousehold,andii)thecommunitydonotnecessaryisaunitofconsumption,productionorinvestment.Butwhywomen[anddisadvantagedgroups]haveaweakerbargainingpowerthanothersatcommunitylevel?Agarwalmentionthefollowcauseswhichcouldbeapplicabletodrinkingwatersupplyandsanitationprojects:i)theexclusionofwomenintraditionalpublicdecisionbodies;ii)theweakerpositionatintrahouseholdlevel,whichreproducethesameweakerpositionatcommunitylevel;andiii)lowvaluationofwomenlaborandrolesinthecommunityactivities(1994:77).

2.2Whatisparticipationwithintheframeofaproject?

Asastartingpointwhatisparticipation?Andhowthisconceptisusedinwaterandlandprojects?Aliteraturereviewsuggeststhatparticipationmeansdifferentthingstodifferentpeople(Botchway,2001:135);forthisreasonisdifficulttopresentagenericdefinitionofparticipation.Inmyopinion,participationmeansbepartandbeheardbutindifferentdegreesorlevels.Toabetterunderstandoftheselevels,participationisdichotomizedasameanoranend.AsameanparticipationisatooltoachievetheprojectgoalsAsanendparticipationisaprocesswhichenhancethecapacityofindividualstoimprovetheirownlivesandfacilitatessocialchangetotheadvantageofdisadvantagedormarginalizedgroups(Oakleyetal.,1991,

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NelsonandWright,1995;inCleaver,1999:598).Asameanparticipationisinstrumental,andtheinclusionisonlyjustifiedwithefficiencyarguments,ontheotherhandparticipationasanenduseargumentsofequityorempowerment.(Ibd.).

Empowermentorincreasethecapacityorinfluenceofdisadvantagedgroupsisacommonapproachusedinwaterandlandprojects.Withinagenderperspective,Moser(1989:1815)arguethenecessitytounderstandempowermentlessintermsofdominationoverothers[]andmoreintermsofthecapacityofwomentoincreasetheirownselfrelianceandinternalstrength.Althoughthepopularityofempowermentapproachesinwaterandlandprojects,isstillneededtoclarifyordiscussthefollowquestions:i)whoaregoingtobeempowered?theindividual,thecommunity,orcategoriesofpeoplesuchaswomen,thepoorestandsociallyexcluded(Cleaver,1999:599);ii)empowermenttowhomwomentomen,poorfarmerstorichfarmersorcommunitytopublicagencies;iii)whatistherealaimtoempowerdisadvantagedgroups?Korten(1990)arguepowershouldbeviewnotasaclubtobeusedintheserviceofpersonalaggrandizement,butratherasagifttobeheldinstewardshiptotheserviceofthecommunityandthehumanandspiritualfulfillmentofallpeople(InKardam,1995:21);andfinallyiv)howtoempower?

Todefineifprojectsempowerornotwomen,Moserproposesthepracticalorstrategicapproach,orinotherwords,iftheprojectresponsetopracticalorstrategicneedsintermsofwomen.Strategicneedsarethoseneedswhichareformulatedfromtheanalysisofwomenssubordinationtomen,andderivingoutofthisthestrategicgenderinterestidentifiedforanalternative,moreequalandsatisfactoryorganizationofsocietythanthatexistatpresent,intermsofboththestructureandthenatureofrelationshipsbetweenmenandwomenOntheotherhandpracticalneedsarethoseneedswhichareformulatedfromtheconcreteconditionswomenexperience,intheirengenderedpositionwithinthesexualdivisionoflabor,andderivingoutofthistheirpracticalgenderinterestforhumansurvivalItisaresponsetoanimmediateperceivednecessitywhichisidentifybywomenwithinaspecificcontext(1989:1803).Alsoitshouldbenotedthatpowerfulgroupsorthecommunityingeneralcanassimilateaspecificactivityaspractical,butinfactisstrategic.

2.3Trainingmethodologiesinthewaterandsanitationsector

Methodologyisalogicalprocedureofactionstoachieveaparticularaim,throughwhichweusedifferentmethodsandtools.Methodologyrefersalsototheanalysisandreflectionofthisprocedure(Stoetzek,1965;inMarridi,2002).Methodologiesinthewaterandsanitationsectorcanbeclassifiedaccordingtotheprojectstagesandtheformsofparticipationpromotedineachstage.

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Projectsusuallyarestructureaccordingtoasequenceofstagesassessment,construction,monitoring,trainingandevaluation.Ineachstageengineersorsocialscientistpromotedifferentlevelsofcommunityparticipation.Intheconstructionstage,communityparticipationismaterializedthroughworkforceandpaymentsofquotas.So,methodologiesusedmustguaranteeagoodunderstandingofO&Mtaskandcreateanappropriatediscussionprocesstodefinetheamountofquotasbetweendifferentbeneficiariesrespectively.Theelectionofmethodologiesisinfluencedbythelevelsofformaleducation,cultureandbygenderrelations.Finally,withinamethodologydesignersshoulddecidewhowillbeinvolved,whereandwhen,andhowtoguaranteeaneffectiveparticipation.

Whenparticipationisanendforaparticularproject,methodologieswillusestrategicmethodsortoolstoempowerwomenorlesspowerfulgroups.ThisisthecaseofSARAR(Box1),PHAST,PRA,PLAmethodologies(Maninofetal,2001andVanWijk,2001)ortheRolePlayingGamesRPG(Box2)(Faysseetal.,2006;PearrietaandFaysse,2006).

Trainingmethodologiesorientedtoempowerdisadvantagedgroupsencouragepeopletodiscovertheirownsolutionstoparticularproblems.Inthiscase,projectspromotersnormallyareconsiderasfacilitators,theyshouldhaveaneutralpositionandtheirmainroleistoguaranteethegenerationandexchangeoflocalknowledge.Nevertheless,otherpointsofviewrevealthatpromotersareotherstakeholderswithitsowninterestsandpositions(Boelens,2008:15).

Finally,therearesomedilemmaswhichmustbediscussedinwaterandsanitationtrainingmethodologies:i)thesemethodologiescouldbeapowerfultooltomanipulatepeopleandgeneratewrongstereotypes,ii)Thetrainingresultsarelessvisibleandveryquestionable,andiii)trainingactivitiesrepresenttimeandhighcosts(Nayaranetal.,1996andPearrietaandFaysse,2006)

Box1SARARApproach

Srinivasan(1990)developedtheSARARapproachorSelfesteem,Associativestrength,Resourcefulness,ActionPlanningandResponsibility.(InVanWijk,2001)Thisapproachcontainsasetofmethodsandtooltofacilitatethelearningofpeoplewithoutformaleducation(Adultlearning).Itisexpectedthatlocalpeopletakechargeoftheirowndevelopmentthroughtheuseofparticipatorymethodsandtools.InSARARiscommontheuseofdynamicssuchasgames,theaterplays,discussionboardsorlifestories.Thecommontoolsthatactivatethisdynamicsaredrawings,colorcards,toysortablegames.

Box2.RolePlayingGame

Althoughitisnotwidelyusedinthewaterandsanitationsector,theRolePlayingGame(RPG)isaspecificmethodologytosupportgroupsdiscussionsandfacilitatetheorganizationandimprovementofcollectiveactions(Faysseetal.,2006:199).RPGisasimplifiedrepresentationofaparticularreality,inwhichtheplayers(orthestakeholdersinthereality)candiscussspecificstopicsorproblemsofthatreality.ThemainstrengthofRPGisthereductionofunequalpowerrelationsduringthediscussion,solesspowerfulgroupscanbepartofthediscussioninthegame.IndirectlyRPGalsoempowerspeopleintermsofnegotiation.Butitsweaknessisthedifficultytoscalinguptheresultsachieveduponrealdecisionmakingspaces.

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3. NegowatandAguaTuyaProjects

InthecityofCochabambaBoliviapoorfamiliesofperiurbanareasorganizetoprovidedrinkingwaterthroughwatercommittees(orwaterorganizations).Approximatelythereare600watercommittees(LavrilleuxandCompre,2006).Someofthemconfrontalotofmanagementproblems,whichdonotreceivetheattentionofanygovernmentalagency.Thesanitationalternativesaretackledathouseholdlevel.Commonlypoorfamiliesimplementaseptictanktostoragetheexcretaandwastewater.Inothercases,thewasteisdiscardeddirectlytothestreets.Itisnecessarytoimprovethemanagementofthesewaterorganizationsandbringappropriatesanitarysolutions.Until2007,theresourcesneededtoachievetheseaimsare:i)financingsources,ii)thedevelopmentofnewtechnologies,iii)technicalassistance,iv)accesstoinformation,andiv)appropriatetrainingprograms.

Therearefewpublicationsandcasessystematizedintermsoftrainingmethodologiesinthedrinkingwaterandsanitationsectorthroughcommunityparticipation.Thegovernmentandprivateorganizationsimplementedprojectsonlyinurbanorruralareas.Themixofbothperiurbanareaswerecompletelyforgottenuntil2003.Moreovergenderapproachesintrainingmethodologiesarelessvisibledespitethemajorityofwomen,oldpeopleandchildrenhavetheirmainactivitiesaroundthehouseholdorthecommunity.

TherelevantcasesIfoundintermsofdesign,useandevaluationoftrainingmethodologiesinperiurbanareasofCochabambaaretheNegowatProjectandAguaTuyaProgram.ThefirstoneintervenedinVillaOrurocommunitywhichislocatedintheMunicipalityofTiquipaya(Fig.1).Thiscommunityhasapproximately445inhabitants(Ampueroetal.,2006).Itspopulationisunderthepovertyline(INE,2002)andtheirmainactivityisthetradeofusedclothes.Normallythemenandwomenheadedhouseholdspend60%oftheirtimeperweekoutofthecommunity.BothhusbandsandwivestravelallthetimetoselltheirclothesindifferentmarketsofBolivia.Duringtheirtravelperiodyoungandoldpeople(grandparents)aredirectresponsibleforthehousehold.

ThemainobjectiveofNegowatProjectwastodesignmethodologiesandtoolstofacilitatenegotiationsandreducethelevelsofconflictbetweendifferentstakeholdersinperiurbanareas.Inthiscontext,Negowattriedaspecificmethodologytoimprovethemanagementofdrinkingwaterorganizations.WithinthismethodologyitwasnotexplicittheuseofgenderapproachwhenintervenedinVillaOruro,butmadeinnovateddesignsandadeeperanalyzeofpowerrelationsbetweendifferentstakeholders.Theprocessstartedwithadiagnosticstage.Onesanalyzedthewatercommittee,thepromotersorganizedageneralworkshoptopresentthemainmanagementproblems.Thentheusersprioritizedfourproblemsandconformedfouruserscommissionstoresolveeachproblem.Afteronemonthofdiscussioneachusercommissionpresentedtheirsolutionalternativesforeachproblem.Onesapprovedthesolutionalternatives,themanagementboardproceededtomaterializethemwiththesupportoftheprojectpromoters.Onecommissionhadtheroletodefineanappropriatetariffforthedrinkingwaterservice.Paralleltothiscommission,thepromotersdesignedaspecificroleplayinggame(RPG)(Box2)togenerateawarenessinthecommunityabouttheimportancetorecoverallO&Mcostthroughacceptabletariffs.ThenameofthisgamewasSosteniCAP.Theteamorganized3sessionstryingtoinvolveallthepeoplefromthecommunity.Theoverallinterventionprocesslasted6months,inthesameperiodtheSosteniCAPweredesigned,implemented(1month)andevaluated.

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Source:Google,2008

Fig.1.VillaOruroandChallacabaCommunities

Fig.2.Posteruseofecologicalbathrooms

AguaTuyaProgramintervenedin

Challacabacommunity.Withinapilotproject,thisprivatecompanyinstalledecologicalbathroomsasanalternativetothetraditionalsewersystemsfromthecities1.ChallacabaislocatedintheDistrict9ofthecityofCochabamba(Fig1),inthiscommunitythereare380inhabitants,theyalsoareclassifiedaspoorpeople,wholiveunderthepovertyline(INE,2002).Themainincomegeneratingactivitiesofhouseholdsaredairy,theuseofsmallorchards.Alsotheyhaveinformalactivitiesortheyareinformalareemployeesin

thecity.Incaseswherethemalehouseholdheadworkinthecity,

wivesareresponsibleforthedairyandthesmallorchardsproduction.Malehouseholdheadalsocontributeintermsofworkforceintheseactivitiesduringitsfreetime(Heredia,2008).

Thispilotprojectwasimplementedin19moths.Theprojectstartedwithasanitarysurveytothecommunity;thenitwaspresentedinaworkshopthedifferentalternativesofecologicalbathrooms.Oncethecommunityacceptedaspecificdesign,theconstructionstagestarted.Almostattheendoftheconstruction,thepromotersimplementedatrainingprogramwiththebeneficiaries(36%ofthehouseholds).Finally,theprojectconcludedwithanevaluationprocess.WiththesupportofanInternationalNGOandTheNetherlandscooperation(SNV)thisprivatecompanydesignedatrainingmethodologybasedonSARARapproach(Box1).Thismethodologyconsistedintreeworkshopswiththefamilyinordertoguaranteetheeffectiveuseofthebathroom.Thefirstworkshopwasuseandmaintenanceofthebathroom.Thesecondoneconsistedinhygieneandsanitation,andthethirdonewasnamedthestrengtheningstagewiththeuseofaroleplayinggame(Heredia,2008).Eachworkshoplasted4hours.Duringtheworkshopswerecommonlyimplementedgroupdynamicswiththesupportofdrawings,colorcardswithkeymessagesandtablegames.Consideringthatallthemembersofthefamilywereinvitedtothesetrainingactivities,thepromotersdistinguishedbetweenchildrenandoldpeople.Becausechildrencouldnotbepartofmanyofthedynamics,thepromotersmotivatedthemtodrawdifferentscenariosrelatedtotheuseofthebathroom.Althoughtheywerenotusedinthetrainingprocess,AguaTuyapublishedtwousersmanuals(constructionandmanagement)andaposterfortheappropriateuseofthe

1Ecologicalbathroomsarealsonameddrybathroomsorecologicallatrines.Thesealternativesareconsideredaneconomicalsanitarysolutionwithouttheuseofwater.

Source:AguaTuya,2008

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Fig.3.NegowatandAguaTuyainterventionprocess

bathroom(Fig.2).Thosetoolsrespondtoperiurbancontexts,andparticularythedesignoftheposterconsideragenderapproach.

BelowIpresentasumaryofbothinterventions:

4. Impactsofthetrainingmethodologiesingenderrelations

4.1Roleplayinggame:SOSTENICAP

Accordingtothepointofviewoftheprojectteam,theresultsachievedbySosteniCAPwereunexpected(Ducrot,2007).Ingeneraltheparticipantsofthegamewerewomen,youngandoldpeople.Communityleadersalsoparticipated,butonlyforcommitmentwiththeprojectteam.TraditionalleadersorconflictivegroupsdidnotassisttoanysessionofSosteniCAP(Faysseetal.,2006).

Whataretheeffectsofthisgameingenderrelationsathouseholdlevel?Accordingtothepostevaluationstage,participantslearnedtomanagetheirownmonthlyandweeklybudgetduetothegamegenerateavirtualspaceoffamiliareconomyinthehousehold.Theteamgeneratedthisspaceonlytocreateanappropriatelinkofdiscussionbetweenthefamilyincomesandthepaymentofthedrinkingwaterservices.Theyneverthoughthisspacewillcontributetomanagethefamilybudget,especiallyforwomenandoldpeople.Thecontrolandbeawareabouttheamountofmoneyallocatedindifferentitemsofincomesandexpenditures,isanactionwhichcouldfacilitatethereallocationofincomesincommonneeds.Maybewivesdonotstrugglewiththeirhusbandaboutitspersonalexpenses,becausetheyarenotreallyawareabouttheamountofmoneythatrepresentsthispersonalsatisfaction.Ontheotherhand,malehouseholdheadsalsocangenerateawarenessaboutitspersonalexpenses.IdonothaveinformationtoaffirmthatSosteniCAPchangeunequalpowerrelationswithinhousehold,butatleasttheevaluationprocessrevealedawarenessandlearningintermsoffamiliareconomy(Faysseetal.,2006andDucrot,2007).Thegamecouldhavehadmoresuccesstoreduceunequalrelationsathousehold

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levelandincreasethefallbackpositionofwomen,ifmenhouseholdheadshadparticipatedinSosteniCAP.Anotherunexpectedimpactwasthespecifictrainingofyoungandoldpeopleinfamiliareconomyandthepaymentoftheservices.InthecaseofVillaOrurothosegroupsarepermanentactorsincomparisontohusbandsandwiveswhospendmostoftheirtimesellingclothesinregionalandnationalmarkets,andconsequentlypotentialpeoplefortrainingindomesticactivities.

Whathappenedatcommunitylevel?ThedecisionmakingmeetingsinVillaOruro(orGeneralAssemblies)revealedunequalpowerrelationsbetweendifferentstakeholders.Therewereformalandinformalsignsofdiscriminationintermofvoiceandvoteaccordingtothefollowaspects:i)propertyrightsoftheserviceregisteredatthemaneofthetitleholder(normallymalehouseholdhead),ii)newusersdidnothavethesamerightthanoldusers,andiii)Asanevangelicalwaterorganization,catholicuserswerenotwellaccepted.But,unlikeothermethods,SosteniCAPgenerateavirtualspacethroughwhichwomenandlesspowerfulgroups(oldpeopleandyoung)discussedandpresentedtheirideaswithoutthefeartobecriticizedordiscriminatedbytraditionalleaders,factthatnormallyoccurredduringthedecisionmakingmeetings.Intheevaluationsstage,someinterviewsrevealedthatsituation:Peopletreatedmeasequal,becauseinthegametheymentionedletsgivevoicetotheusersInthegameweareonlyonetypeofusers,peopledidntdistinguishbetweendifferenttypesofusers(Faysseetal,2006:227).Thissituationwaspossiblenotonlyforthevirtualspacegeneratedwithinthegame,butalsoduetotheabsenceand,atthesametime,theapprovalofpowerfulgroups.Itisimportanttorecognizethatempowermentactivitiescanbeviewedasatreatbytraditionalleadersandconsequentlygeneratesocialconflicts.Unexpectedlytheteamgeneratedaspecialspaceofempowermentinvitingthecommunitytobepartofagame.Theteamconsideredthisactionasamistake,becausereducedtheinteresttoparticipateinpowerfulgroups,andconsequentlytheysentwomen,oldpeopleandchildrentobepartofthisactivity.But,infact,Iconsiderthisactionasarealopportunitytoempowerwomenandotherdisadvantagedgroupsavoidingsocialconflicts.

4.2SARARforecologicalbathrooms

InthecaseofAguaTuyaIonlyidentifiedimpactsathouseholdlevel.ThisPilotProjectimplemented27bathrooms(35%ofthehouseholds).Herediaarguesthatalthoughallthebathroomswereconcluded,fewfamiliesstartedtousethem.SomebeneficiariesmentionedthatfamilymembersarenotaccustomedyettothebathroomItisamatteroftimewhentheraininundatestheoldlatrinesallofuswillusethenewbathroomImwaitingthattheseptictankiscompletelyfulltostartedtousethenewbathroom(2008:26).Thissituationrevealsthatthetrainingactivitieswerenotcompletelyefficientintermsoftheuseofthebathrooms.Iconsiderthatthemainweaknessofthetrainingmethodologywasthetimeofintervention.Althoughthemethodologywassuitabletoperiurbancontextsanduseagenderapproach,thetrainingprogramlastedonly12hours,whichisnotenoughtoguaranteeanappropriateuseofthebathroomwithintheframeofthewholefamily.Also,duringtheworkshopsnotallthefamilymembersassisted.

Ontheotherhand,somefamiliesinvestedinthebathroomsmorethanthepromotersexpected.Additionallytotheconventionaldesign,thesefamiliesinstalledshowers,sinksortraditionallaunderettes.Butwhodecidedthat?Theevaluationdocumentsmademeknowthattwowivesdecidedwhattoinstall,where,howtodecorateandfinallywhoisgoingtousethebathroom.Intheirownwords:Iwanttoputsinks,andashowerinthebathroom,Ialsousedthespaceofthebasetobuildalaundry.Ialsowillputsomeboxesandamirrorinthebathroom[]allofthisthinksmustbeofthesamecolorofthebathroom:whiteMychildrenwontenter,the

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bathroomisonlyformeandmyhusband,Idontwanttheyenterbecausetheywillgetmybathroomdirty(AguaTuyaProgram,2007internalsurveys).Bothcommentsfromdifferentwivesrevealarealappropriationofthebathroomwhichrepresentasymbolofstatusandincreasethesenseofcitizenship(Quiroz,2008).Butweshouldemphasizethattheeffectofappropriationwasaconsequenceofthedesignthesamebathroomofthecity,andnotforthetrainingprogramimplementedbytheteam.Withinthisintervention,Ialsoconcludethatsomewomenhavecontroloverthefamilybudgetanddecidewhoisgoingtousethebathroom,thismakethinkthatnotalwaysthereareunequalgenderrelationsinfavortomenandtheintroductionofanewtechnologyinthehousenotalwaysbenefitallfamilymembers.Aswecouldseeinthosetwocases,womenhaveastrongbargainingpowerbuttheydonotnecessarilyuseitinfavorofothermembersofthehousehold:inthesecondcasechildrenwerelimitedtousethenewbathroom.Farfromtheeffectsofthetrainingmethodologies,thishelpmetounderstandabouttheimportancetotackleagenderanalysisathouseholdlevelbeforetheinterventionprocessinsanitationprojects,speciallyifthealternativespromotedwillbemanagedandusedbyallthehouseholdmembers.

5. CONCLUSIONS

IngeneralSosteniCAPgenerateeffectivelyanequalspaceofdiscussion,freefromsocialtensions,andatthesametimeempowereddisadvantagedgroups.EmpowermentwasasecondarybutanexplicitaimwithinthegameandwithinNegowatprojectitself,becausefacilitatenegotiationsthroughmethodologiesmustincludeindirectlyanappropriateempowermentofdisadvantagedgroups.Initiallythegamewasdesignedtoincreasetheawarenessandthediscussionofappropriatetariffs.Accordingtothispointofview,thegameisamethodologytoachieveapracticalneedathouseholdlevel(goodqualityandquantityofdrinkingwater),buttheaspectconsideredamistakefortheteam,itwas,infact,astrategicactiontoachieveastrategicneed:reduceunequalpowerrelationsatcommunityandhouseholdlevelwiththeapprovalofpowerfulgroups.Idonothaveenoughinformationtosuggestthatunequalpowerrelationreduced,butatleast,accordingtotheinformationthatIanalyze,Icouldconcludethatsomemembersofthecommunitygenerateawarenessaboutpowerrelation.

ThetrainingmethodologyimplementedbyAguaTuyawassuitabletotheperiurbancontextand,aswecouldseeabove,itusedagenderapproachinthetrainingactivities(particularlywhentheteaminvolvedchildren),andinthedesignofmanualsandposters(Section2.3).Butthisdidnotguaranteetheeffectiveuseofthebathroom;thetimeofthetrainingactivitiesshouldbedoneinmoretime.Therewereimpactsingenderrelationsathouseholdlevelduetotheurbandesignofthebathroom,butnotforthetrainingintervention.ThismethodologywasasuitabilityofSARARapproach,whichinprinciplesshouldpromotetheempowermentofthecommunitysurpassingthelimitsofformaleducation.ButagainitisnotenoughuseorreplicateSARARtechniques,theempowermentobjectiveshouldbeexplicitintheprojectaimsandinthemindsoftheteamthatworksinthecommunity.AguaTuyamethodologywasusedtoachieveapracticalpropose:theeffectiveuseofthebathrooms,butneverwasexplicitthewordempowermentorequityinthedocumentsofthepilotproject.Moreoverthetrainingprogramwasclassifiedascomplementaryactivities(Heredia,2008:21).Theobjectiveofthisprojectwastoimplementworthybathrooms(welldesigned),andtheteamreallyachievethat,butwithlessvisibleresultsintermsofeffectiveuseorrealempowermentofwomenorlesspowerfulgroups.

Ontheotherhand,bothexperiencesrevealedthatgenderanalysisathouseholdlevelisanimportantactionbeforetheinterventionprocesstakesplace,especiallyinsanitaryprojectssuchasAguaTuyawhichofferappropriatetechnologiesmanagedandusedbyallthe

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householdmembers.Toreinforcethisposition,alsoweshouldrememberthecaseofVillaOruro,whichcontradicttheassumptionthatwivesarepermanentactorsinthecommunity;aswecouldsee,bothhusbandsandwivesspendmostoftheirtimeoutofthecommunity.

Ingeneralisnotenoughdesigntrainingmethodologieswithprinciplesofempowermentorequity,itisalsoneededanalyzetheactivitiesandprinciplesofthewholeinterventionprocessandguaranteethatalltheactivitiesfitcorrectlyinordertoachieveageneralaim.AsVanWijk(2001)notedthecommitmentandthelevelsofprofessionalismoftheteamarealsocrucialaspectstoimprovetheintervention.Moreoverweshouldconsiderdonorsandlocalpartnersasotherstakeholders.Theyhavetheirowninterestandaparticularpositionofwhatmeansdevelopmentforthem(Alnoor,2003andBoelens,2008).Intheorytheirpositioncanbestructuredwithwordsofgenderorempowerment,butmaybeinpracticetheyonlycanbeinterestedinmaterialresultsorpracticalneeds.Thisdoesnotmeantoexcludethemfromstrategicactions,projectsorprograms,infacttheycouldhaveanimportantrole,suchasthedesignorconstructionofworthybathroomsorfinancing,buttheirinterestshouldbeexplicitandthenfitcorrectlyinaproject.

Numberofwordswithoutbibliography:4800

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