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Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-1
Invitation To Psychology
Carol Wade and Carol TavrisPowerPoint Presentation by
H. Lynn BradmanMetropolitan Community College-Omaha
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-2
Memory
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Memory
• Reconstructing the Past• Memory and the Power of Suggestion• In Pursuit of Memory• The Three-Box Model of Memory• How We Remember• Why We Forget• Autobiographical Memories
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-4
Reconstructing the Past
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Reconstructing the Past
• The Manufacture of Memory• The Fading Flashbulb• The Conditions of Confabulation
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-6
The Manufacture of Memory
• Memory is selective.• Recovering a memory is not playing a
videotape– Memory involves inferences that fill in gaps
in recall.– We are often unaware we have made such
inferences.• Source Amnesia: The inability to distinguish
what you originally experienced from what you heard or were told later about an event.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-7
The Fading Flashbulb
• Even flashbulb memories, emotionally powerful memories that seem particularly vivid, are often embellished or distorted and tend to become less accurate over time.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-8
The Conditions of Confabulation
• Confabulation: Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you, or a belief that you remember something when it never actually happened.
• Confabulation is most likely when:– you have thought about the event many times;– the image of the event contains many details;– the event is easy to imagine;– you focus on emotional reactions to the event rather
than what actually happened.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-9
Memory and the Power of Suggestion
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Memory and the Power of Suggestion
• The Eyewitness on Trial• Children’s Testimony• Memory Under Hypnosis
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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The Eyewitness on Trial
• The reconstructive nature of memory makes memory vulnerable to suggestion.
• Eyewitness testimony is especially vulnerable to error when:– the suspects ethnicity differs from that of the
witness; – when leading questions are put to witnesses;
– when the witnesses are given misleading
information.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-12
Misleading Information Study
• Misleading information from other sources can alter what witnesses report.
• Students were shown a picture of a man with straight hair, but heard a description that mentioned curly hair.
• When the students were asked to reconstruct the face, a third added curly hair.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-13
Children’s Testimony
• If asked if a visitor committed acts that had not occurred, few 4-6 year olds said yes.– 30% of 3-year olds
said yes• When investigators used
techniques taken from real child-abuse investigations, most children said yes.
Social Pressure, False Allegations
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Memory Under Hypnosis
• Hypnosis: A procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behavior of the subject, who cooperates by altering his or her normal cognitive functioning.
• Errors and pseudomemories are so common under hypnosis that the APA opposes use of hypnosis-based testimony in courts of law; few courts allow it.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-15
In Pursuit of Memory
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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In Pursuit of Memory
• Measuring Memory• Models of Memory
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Measuring Memory
• Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or of an item of information.
• Implicit Memory: Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Explicit Memory
• Recall: The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously encountered material.
• Recognition: The ability to identify previously encountered material.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Implicit Memory
• Priming: A method for measuring implicit memory in which a person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether the information affects performance on another type of task.
• Relearning: A method for measuring retention that compares the time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of the material.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-20
The Three-Box Modelof Memory
Sensory Memory: Fleeting ImpressionsShort-term Memory: Memory’s Scratch Pad
Long-term Memory: Final Destination
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Three-Box Model of Memory
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Sensory Memory:Fleeting Impressions
• Sensory Memory: A memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information.
• Pattern Recognition: The identification of a stimulus on the basis of information already contained in long-term memory.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Short-term Memory:Memory’s Scratch Pad
• Short-Term Memory (STM): In the three-box model of memory, a limited capacity memory system involved in the retention of information for brief periods; it is also used to hold information retrieved from long-term memory for temporary use.
• Chunk: A meaningful unit of information; it may be composed of smaller units.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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The Value of Chunking
• You have 5 seconds to memorize as much as you can
• Then, draw an empty chess board and reproduce the arrangement of pieces
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Long-term Memory:Final Destination
• Procedural memories:– Memories for
performance of actions or skills.
– “Knowing how”• Declarative memories:
– Memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events; includes semantic and episodic memory.
– “Knowing that”
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-26
Long-term Memory:Final Destination
• Semantic memories:– General knowledge,
including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions.
• Episodic memories:– Personally experienced
events and the contexts in which they occurred.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-27
Conceptual Grid
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Serial-Position Effect
• The tendency for recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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How We Remember
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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How We Remember
• Effective Encoding• Rehearsal• Mnemonics
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Encoding
• In order to remember material well, we must encode it accurately in the first place.
• Some kinds of information, such as material in a college course, require effortful, as opposed to automatic, encoding.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Rehearsal
• Rehearsal of information keeps it in short-term memory and increases the chances of long-term retention.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Rehearsal
• Maintenance Rehearsal: Rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory.
• Elaborative Rehearsal: Association of new information with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Mnemonics
• Mnemonics can also enhance retention by promoting elaborative encoding and making material meaningful.
• However, for ordinary memory tasks, complex memory tricks are often ineffective or even counterproductive.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Why We Forget
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Why We Forget
• Decay• Interference• Cue-dependent Forgetting• Psychogenic Amnesia
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Decay
• Decay Theory: The theory that information in memory eventually disappears if it is not accessed; it applies more to short-term than to long-term memory.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Forgetting Curve
• Herman Ebbinghaus tested his own memory for nonsense syllables.
• Forgetting was rapid at first and then tapered off.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Remembering Over Years
• Marigold Linton tested her own memory for personal events over a period of several years.
• Retention fell at a gradual but steady rate.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Interference
• Retroactive Interference: Forgetting that occurs when recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar material stored previously.
• Proactive Interference: Forgetting that occurs when previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
8-41
Cue-dependent Forgetting
• Cue-Dependent Forgetting: The inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall.
• State-Dependent Memory: The tendency to remember something when the rememberer is in the same physical or mental state as during the original learning or experience.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Psychogenic Amnesia
• The partial or complete loss of memory (due to non-organic causes) for threatening information or traumatic experiences.
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Autobiographical Memories
Childhood Amnesia: The Missing YearsMemory and Narrative: The Stories of
Our Lives
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Childhood Amnesia: The Missing Years
• Childhood Amnesia: The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life.
• Cognitive explanations:– Lack of sense of self– Impoverished encoding– A focus on the routine– Different ways of thinking about the world
Wade and Tavris © 2005 Prentice Hall
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Memory and Narrative: The Stories of Our Lives
• A person's narrative 'life story' organizes the events of his or her life and gives them meaning.
• Narratives change as people build up a store of episodic memories, and life stories are, to some degree, works of interpretation and imagination.
• The central themes of our stories can guide recall and influence our judgments of people and events.