volume3-issue9(2)-2014

Volume 3, Issue 9(2), September 2014 International Journal of Multidisciplinary

Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr. Victor Babu Koppula Faculty Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam -530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. A.B.S.V.Rangarao Department of Social Work Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof.S.Prasanna Sree Department of English Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. P.Sivunnaidu Department of History Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam

Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Department Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of the UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Swami Maheshwarananda Founder and President Shree Vishwa Deep Gurukul Swami Maheshwarananda Ashram Education & Research Center Rajasthan, India Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Head Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram

Dr. Momin Mohamed Naser Department of Geography Institute of Arab Research and Studies Cairo University, Egypt I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. G.Veerraju Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.G.Subhakar Department of Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University –Visakhapatnam N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.Ch.Prema Kumar Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator AP State Resource Center Visakhapatnam

Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Dr.K.Chaitanya Postdoctoral Research Fellow Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam Dr R Dhanuja PSG College of Arts & Science Coimbatore Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta Calcutta Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Dr. H.N. Vidya Government Arts College Hassan, Karnataka Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Prof. Chanakya Kumar University of Pune PUNE

© Editor-in-Chief, IJMER

Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in

IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.

C O N T E N T S

Volume 3 Issue 9(2) September 2014

S. No Page

No 1. Marine Wood Borer Diversity in Machilipatnam Port

Waters Vijay Kumar, P.P.N, M. V. Rao and M. Balaji

1

2. Relationship Between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of B.Ed., College Students in Chennai City

Nalamotu Venkateswarlu

16

3. Post Amalgamation: Picture of Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh

N.P.S.V.N.Murthy and M.Sarada Devi

24

4. A Study Report on the Personnel Management Practices of the SSI Units in North Coastal Districts of Andhra Pradesh

Kosaraju Ravi Kumar and G.Chandra Mouli

40

5. Energy Security Being a State Security Nisar Ahmad Meer

56

6. Discovering Synonym Finder Primarily Based Approach for Various Domain Opinion Analysis

Pramod D. Sinare, Syed A.H and Kadam S.H

59

7. Women and Education in India Bheemsha D Sagar

88

8. Women and Politics in India Bheemsha D Sagar

95

9. Finding the Optimal Number of Ticketing Counters at Mumbai Suburban Railway Stations Using Queuing Theory

R Arvind Srivatsan, R Abhishiekh and Koilakuntla Maddulety

109

10. An Evaluation of Public Distribution System in Punjab A Study of Mansa District

Gurdeep Kaur Ghumaan and Pawan Kumar Dhiman

134

11. An Over-View Discussion & Conservation of Wetlands in Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh, India

S.Mukunda Rao

151

12. Design, Engineering and Analysis of Utility Scale Solar PV Power Plant

M. Srinu and S. Khadarvali

166

13. Time Constrained Self-Destructing Data System (SeDaS) for Data Privacy

S. Savitha and D. Thilagavathy

193

14. Analysis on Packet Size Optimization Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks

P. Venkatesh and M. Prabu

202

15. Compressed Air Vehicle (CAV) (A Practical Approach with Design)

Sai Chakradhar. Kommuri

213

16. Design of an Optimised Low Power Full Adder Using Double Gated MOSFET at 45nm Technology

T Nithyoosha and M.Rajeswara Rao

222

17. An MTCMOS Technique for Optimizing Low Power Flip-Flop Designs

S.Roja and C.Vijaya Bhaskar

236

18. Security and Privacy Enhancement Using Jammer in Downlink Cellular Networks

S.Shafil Mohammad and T.Prasad

251

19. Secure Data Dissemination Based on Merkle Hash Tree for Wireless Sensor Networks

Udatha Hariprasad and K Riyazuddin

266

20. Enhancement Scheme low Power Pulse Triggered Flip Flop with Conditional Pulse

S.Sruthi and V.Viswanath

279

21. Significance of Stator Winding Insulation Systems of Low-Voltage Induction Machines Aiming on Turn Insulation Problems : Testing and Monitoring

A. Deeti Sreekanth

293

22. Degraded Document image Enhancing in Spatial Domain Using Adaptive Contrasting and Thresholding

P V Ramaraju, G.Nagaraju and V.Rajasekhar

318

23. Power Capture Safe Test Pattern Determination for At-Speed Scan Based Testing

P.Praveen Kumar,B.Naresh Babu and N.Pushpalatha

332

24. Versatile Bicycle (An Amphibious Vehicle) Shyam.C,Santhosh.P,Saravana Muthu.K

and S.Lakshmanan

342

25. Analytical Study of General Failure in Prominent Components

Balaji V.R,Amitesh Jain, A.Kirthivasan and D.Ananthapadmanaban

355

26. A Novel Approach to Assess The Quality of Tone Mapped Images P.Manjulamma,B.Sreenivasan and N.Pushpalatha

366

Editorial ……..

Provoking fresh thinking is certainly becoming the prime purpose of International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER). The new world era we have entered with enormous contradictions is demanding a unique understanding to face challenges. IJMER’s contents are overwhelmingly contributor, distinctive and are creating the right balance for its readers with its varied knowledge.

We are happy to inform you that IJMER got the high Impact Factor 2.735, Index Copernicus Value 5.16 and IJMER is listed and indexed in 34 popular indexed organizations in the world. This academic achievement of IJMER is only author’s contribution in the past issues. I hope this journey of IJMER more benefit to future academic world.

In the present issue, we have taken up details of multidisciplinary issues discussed in academic circles. There are well written articles covering a wide range of issues that are thought provoking as well as significant in the contemporary research world.

My thanks to the Members of the Editorial Board, to the readers, and in particular I sincerely recognize the efforts of the subscribers of articles. The journal thus receives its recognition from the rich contribution of assorted research papers presented by the experienced scholars and the implied commitment is generating the vision envisaged and that is spreading knowledge. I am happy to note that the readers are benefited.

My personal thanks to one and all.

(Dr.Victor Babu Koppula)

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.735; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 3, ISSUE 9(2), SEPTEMBER 2014

MARINE WOOD BORER DIVERSITY IN MACHILIPATNAM PORT WATERS

Vijay Kumar, P.P.N Department of Zoology

Andhra University Visakhapatnam, India

M. V. Rao

Wood Biodegradation Centre (Marine) Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Visakhapatnam

M. Balaji

Wood Biodegradation Centre (Marine) Institute of Wood Science and Technology

Visakhapatnam

Introduction

Marine wood boring organisms are an economically important group of pests mainly occurring in coastal waters and mangal wetlands causing enormous damage to timber installations and wooden craft as well as live and dead mangrove vegetation (Rao et al., 2007). Compared to that on agriculture, forest and land pests, studies on these menace makers in India are not commensurate with the vast seaboard of 8000 km. it possesses and 4663 km2 of mangals (AR 2012-13). Research on marine wood biodeterioration has been carried out in the country for the last six decades, but the dedicated working group has been very tiny mainly concentrating its efforts on marine fouling formations, wood borer fauna, timber durability and wood preservation at five major ports, viz., Visakhapatnam, Chennai, Kochi, Goa and Mumbai. Certain

national institutes and marine universities have also been taking up similar work elsewhere rather discretely. All these attempts together resulted in finding out the occurrence of the said group of pests at 32 stations along the west coast and 26 localities along the east coast still leaving numerous places for exploration. A few recent publications in the line are that of Pachu et al. (2008), Pati et al. (2013) and Rao et al. (2008, 2010 and 2013). Given the scenario, a maiden effort was put at

1



Machilipatnam minor port and the baseline information so generated is

being disseminated through this communication.

Study area

Being strategically located (16o08’33”N and 81o11’58”E), almost at the centre of the Coromandel coast on the eastern edge of the Indian subcontinent along Bay of Bengal, Machilipatnam port carries quite a long history as a flourishing center of trade right from 1st Century AD till 17th Century under several native and colonial rules. Though served as a gateway of India during its heydays, the port was subsequently relegated to back stage due to natural calamities and other disasters. Never the less, the port continued its sea trade in a humble way besides serving as an important fish landing centre with over 1535 country craft, 406 motorized boats and 230 mechanized vessels, all made mainly of wood. During the last couple of years, the port has been under active consideration by the Government of Andhra Pradesh for expansion and modernization in the wake of increasing marine traffic.

Test station

The test station is a reinforced cement concrete jetty situated to the southwest of the port administrative building on the northern bank, where Krishna Canal joins the main creek of the backwater

network at a distance of about 7.5 km from Bay of Bengal (Fig. 1). The backwater network supports a vast extent of luxurious mangal wetlands all around.

Material and methods

Wooden coupons of size 150 x 80 x 20 mm of Semul (Bombax ceiba L.) in six replications were secured into vertical ladders at an intervening gap of 100 mm with the aid of a 3 mm nylon rope through 4 mm Φ holes drilled in wood. One such ladder each was planted well below the lowest low tide mark in the port waters during the beginning

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of each month and retrieved at the end of the same month regularly for

two years to monitor monthly occurrence of wood borers. At the same time, eleven such ladders were also installed at the beginning of each year and one ladder each out of them was removed either at the end of each of the subsequent eleven months or at a prior date in case severe destruction of the panels to understand the progress in the intensity of borer attack. On removal of the ladders from field, each panel was scrapped free of all fouling accumulations, cleaned with sea water, brought to the laboratory, all possible number of borers present in it extracted and preserved in 70% alcohol. Subsequently, each whole specimen in the case of sphaeromatids and pholadids and the unique structures namely, pallets too in the instance of teredinids were examined under a stereo zoom binocular microscope and identified based on the keys of Krishna Pillai (1961) and Turner (1971). Important water parameters were also measured or estimated during each field collection following Parsons et al. (1984). Data pertaining to

water parameters was summarized as means followed by standard deviation, while date on the community structure of borers was transformed into ecological indices through PAST software (Hammer et al., 2011). Beginning in January 2009, the total trial period lasted for 21 months.

Results

Port water characteristics

Machilipatnam port waters were characterized by annual mean temperature of 29.2 oC ± 1.82 within a range of 26.0 oC to 32.0 oC; pH of 7.8 ± 0.19 within a range of 7.2 to 8.1; salinity of 17.30 ‰ ± 14.18 with a range of 0.55 ‰ to 36.01 ‰ ; dissolved oxygen of 3.76 mg.l-1 ±

1.57 within a range of 0.44 mg.l-1 to 6.51 mg.l-1; total suspended solids of 81.63 mg.l-1 ± 71.35 within a range of 6.2 mg.l-1 to 220.0 mg.l-1; nitrates of 3.03 µmol.l-1 ± 3.08 within a range of 0.242 µmol.l-1 to 12.584 µmol.l-1;

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nitrites of 2.88 µmol.l-1 ± 2.54 within a range of 0.09 µmol.l-1 to 10.26

µmol.l-1 and silicates of 58.01 µmol.l-1 ± 48.26 within a range of 9.408 µmol.l-1 to 17.952 µmol.l-1 (Table-1).

Marine wood borer composition

Marine wood boring community abounding the port waters was composed of two sphaeromatids represented by Sphaeroma terebrans (Bate) and S. annandalei Stebbing; one pholadid, namely, Martesia striata (Linnaeus) and eighteen teredinids, viz., Lyrodus massa (Lamy), L. affinis (Deshayes), L. takanoshimensis Roch, L. pedicellatus

(Quatrefages), L. bipartitus (Jeffreys), Teredo parksi (Bartsch), T. furcifera von Martens, T. bartschi Clapp, T. clappi Bartsch, Bankia campanellata Moll and Roch, B. carinata (Gray), B. brevis (Deshayes), B. gouldi (Bartsch), B. gracilis Moll and B. destructa Clench and Turner. However, this composition differed slightly between short and long-term panels as well as first and second years (Tables-2 and 3).

Seasonal incidence of marine wood borers

Seasonal incidence of marine wood boring organisms at Machilipatnam port waters varied from month to month with the occurrence of lowest number (2) of species represented by B. carinata and B. brevis in September and October months of first year and highest number (12) of taxa in February (L. takanoshimensis, L. pedicellatus, L. bipartitus, T. bartschi, T. clappi, B. carinata, B. campanellata, B. brevis, B. gouldi, B. destructa, M. striata and S.

terebrans) of the same year (Tables-2 and 3). Similarly, while L. massa, B. gracilis and B. destructa appeared during only one month each, T. bartschi and B. brevis recurred during as many as 14 months each during the test span.

4



Abundance of marine wood borers

Abundance of marine wood boring organisms belonging to different groups varied from 833 in first year August to 53032 in first

year January in the case of teredinids and 628 in second year May to 1518 in second year February in the instance of pholadids among various months of their occurrence on monthly coupons while sphaeromatids were completely absent on this category of panels throughout the test span (Table-4). In the same way, borer abundance ranged from 1508 in first year June to 65467 in first year November in the case of teredinids, 166 in July first year to 18292 in second year January in the instance of pholadids and 82 in first year February to 402 in second year May in the case of sphaeromatids among different months of their occurrence on long-term panels.

Numerical strength of individual species varied from 46 in the instance of B. carinata in first year February to 27572 in the case of B.

campanellata in first year January and 628 in second year May to 4518 in second year February in the instance of M. striata among various months of their occurrence on monthly coupons. Similarly, species count of the borers ranged from 84 in the case of L. pedicellatus in first year January to 46920 in the instance of B. carinata in first year October, 82 in first year February to 18292 in first year January in the

case of M. striata and 82 in first year February to 282 in second year May in the instance of S. annandalei among the months of their occurrence on long-term panels (Tables-2 to 4).

Discussion

An analysis of water characteristics of Machilipatnam port waters reveal that they remained in brackishwater or near freshwater conditions during most part of the year and assumed saline nature normally from April to July (summer months) mainly because of Krishna canal water input added with seclusion of the site from sea

5



water source in the bay. Generally, the ambient also presented

relatively cool nature due to limited annual variation in temperature besides being slightly alkaline and fairly oxygen rich during most of the months. Total suspended solids and nutrients were also found to be within normal limits of variation except occasional high values that perhaps resulted from wastewater ingredient brought by Krishna canal waters.

Wood boring community in the region is usually dominated by Bankia spp. followed by Lyrodus spp. and Teredo spp. that mostly dwell in mangal biotopes as the test site is abutted all around by mangrove vegetation. Sphaeromatids invaded the test timber only during long-term exposure owing to their preferential colonization of conditioned timber.

Numerical abundance of these marine borers was generally high

all through the test period despite limited count of species (5 to 6 on an average) both in monthly and long-term panels chiefly due to prevalence of favourable hydrographical regime in the locality (Fig.-2).

Diversity of the borers as revealed by Shannon’s index (H) was lowest (0.45) in second year January and highest (1.89) in March the same year in monthly coupons while the same was lowest (0.36) in first year September and highest (2.11) in February during the same year in long-term panels (Fig.-2 and 3). Species richness as indicated by Marglef index (d) was least (0.10) in first year October and second year January and highest (0.83) in first year May in monthly material whereas the same varied from 0.09 in first year September to 1.25 in first year February in long-term coupons. Evenness of borer species as represented by Jackard index (J) was a minimum of 0.65 in second year January and maximum of 0.99 in first year November in monthly

timber pieces in contrast to that ranging from 0.34 in first year July to 0.99 in November the same year in long-term material.

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Conclusion

Due to varied combination of diversity and evenness factors supported by numerical abundance, marine wood boring community

prevailing in Machilipatnam port waters showed vigorous activity in the introduced transient habitat despite generally low species richness imparting thorough destruction to timber coupons usually within two months unlike that at many other ports.

References

1. AR 2012-13. Annual Report 2012-13. Environmental Information System, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi. 464 pp.

2. Pachu, A. V., M. V. Rao and M. Balaji, 2008. Marine wood borer fauna in mangroves of the Krishna estuary, East Coast, India. In: A. J. Solomon Raju (Ed), Bioresources conservation and management. Today and Tommorrow’s Printers and

Publishers, New Delhi: 41-51.

3. Parsons, T. R., M. Yoshiaki and C. M. Lalli, 1984. A manual of chemical and biological methods for seawater analysis. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 173 pp.

4. Pati, S.K., M.V. Rao and M. Balaji, 2013. Marine wood borer communities of Visakhapatnam harbour, India: Spatiotemporal patterns and environmental drivers. International Journal of

Research in Marine Sciences, 2(1): 13-25. Available online at http://www. urpjournals.com .

5. Rao, M. V., M. Balaji and A. V. Pachu, 2008. Marine wood borers of Bhimunipatnam- Visakhapatnam coast, Bay of Bengal, India. J. Timb. Dev. Assoc. India, 54(1 & 2): 59-75.

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6. Rao, M. V., M. Balaji, V. Kuppusamy K. Satyanarayana Rao and

L. N. Santhakumaran. 2007. Biodeterioration of timber and its prevention in Indian coastal waters: Third progress report: 1982-2005. Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore: 198 pp.

7. Rao, M.V., A.V. Pachu and M. Balaji, 2010. Marine wood borers of Chippada-Pudimadaka-Rambilli coast, Bay of Bengal, India. J. Timb. Dev. Assoc. of India, 56 (1-4): 40-44.

8. Rao, M.V., M. Balaji and A.V. Pachu, 2013. Marine wood borers at Kothakoduru and Bangarammapalem mangroves east coast of India. In: J. R. Bhatt, Ramakrishna, Sanjappa M., Remadevi O. K., Nilaratna B. P. and Venkataraman K. (Eds.), Mangroves of India: Their biology and uses. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata: 325-332.

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Table-1: Hydrography of Machilipatnam Port Waters

Month pH Temperature

(oC) Salinity (PSU)

D. O (mg/l)

TSS (mg/l)

Nitrite (µmol/l)

Phosphate (µmol/l)

Silicate (µmol/l)

Jan-09 8.00 27.90 26.22 5.28 --- 0.440 1.125 43.056

Feb-09 8.10 29.50 4.39 4.07 100.00 --- --- ---

Mar-09 7.70 29.50 4.93 3.03 28.00 2.002 2.655 20.304

Apr-09 7.90 29.00 35.34 0.56 148.00 0.297 0.315 9.624

May-09 7.90 28.00 35.50 0.44 210.00 0.242 0.090 179.520

Jun-09 7.90 30.00 28.16 6.51 65.60 2.068 2.880 136.600

Jul-09 7.80 27.00 34.98 5.06 208.60 3.718 6.525 34.992

Aug-09 7.90 28.00 1.07 2.92 50.00 3.542 3.645 32.400

Sep-09 7.80 28.00 10.91 4.38 68.00 2.228 6.030 32.640

Oct-09 7.80 30.00 4.39 1.11 60.00 2.464 3.105 22.800

Nov-09 7.70 30.00 0.73 2.92 71.40 7.260 4.995 13.824

Dec-09 7.70 26.00 11.26 4.04 37.92 1.716 1.890 78.430

Jan-10 7.80 26.50 14.85 4.06 24.40 6.864 4.185 85.872

Feb-10 8.00 28.50 32.20 4.72 6.20 0.616 0.810 84.384

Mar-10 7.80 31.50 10.90 3.82 64.72 12.584 10.260 116.450

Apr-10 8.00 31.00 36.01 4.83 220.00 1.122 2.610 17.424

May-10 7.80 27.00 30.45 5.16 --- 2.024 0.810 9.408

Jun-10 7.80 31.00 33.94 4.71 --- 1.078 0.855 9.984

Jul-10 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

Aug-10 8.10 32.00 1.10 4.94 --- 5.874 1.755 60.096

Sep-10 7.20 32.00 0.55 3.26 --- 3.960 2.610 62.832

Oct-10 7.70 31.00 5.48 3.15 --- 0.528 0.540 109.530

Minimum 7.20 26.00 0.55 0.44 6.20 0.242 0.090 9.408

Maximum 8.10 32.00 36.01 6.51 220.00 12.584 10.260 179.520

Mean 7.83 29.21 17.30 3.76 81.63 3.031 2.885 58.009

Stdev 0.19 1.82 14.18 1.57 71.35 3.08 2.54 48.26

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Table-2: Seasonality of marine wood boring organisms (No.) on monthly panels in Machilipatnam Port

Sl.

No.

Sp

ecie

s

Jan

-09

Feb

-09

Mar

-09

May

-09

Ju

n-0

9

Ju

l-09

Au

g-09

Sep

-09

Oct

-09

Pholadids

1 Martesia striata (Linnaeus) 0 0 1313 1448 1331 0 0 0 0

Teredinids

2 Lyrodus massa (Lamy) 0 0 0 240 0 0 0 0 0

3 L. affinis (Deshayes) 0 0 0 1928 0 0 0 0 0

4 L. takanoshimensis Roch 0 0 0 1440 120 0 0 0

5 L. pedicellatus (Quatrefages) 0 0 0 0 845 812 0 0 0

6 L. bipartitus (Jeffreys), 0 0 0 248 0 0 0 0 0

7 Teredo parksi Bartsch 0 0 0 482 240 813 0 0 0

8 T. furcifera von Martens 0 0 543 484 1210 0 0 0

9 T. bartschi Clapp 0 0 816 6720 3630 4875 0 0 0

10 T. clappi Bartsch 0 0 1358 2166 0 0 0 0

11 B. campanellata Moll and Roch 27572 360 1630 0 0 0 454 0 0

12 Bankia carinata (Gray) 3180 46 0 0 0 0 227 0 18833

13 B. brevis (Deshayes) 21220 594 1086 0 121 152 0 9417

14 B. gouldi (Bartsch) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

15 B. gracilis Moll 1060 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

17 B. destructa Clench and Turner 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

10



S

l. N

o.

Spe

cies

Nov

-09

Dec

-09

Jan

-10

Feb

-10

Mar

-10

Ap

r-10

May

-10

Ju

n-1

0

Pholadids

1 Martesia striata (Linnaeus) 0 0 0 4518 2410 2008 628 0

Teredinids

2 Lyrodus massa (Lamy) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 L. affinis (Deshayes) 0 0 0 0 736 0 0 1625

4 L. takanoshimensis Roch 0 1992 0 0 735 0 0 0

5 L. pedicellatus (Quatrefages) 0 0 0 0 735 0 0 0

6 L. bipartitus (Jeffreys), 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3250

7 Teredo parksi Bartsch 0 2985 0 0 735 0 0 542

8 T. furcifera von Martens 0 0 0 0 3673 0 0 0

9 T. bartschi Clapp 6307 3980 0 2218 2203 2161 869 0

10 T. clappi Bartsch 0 0 0 369 1469 617 1159 0

11 B. campanellata Moll and Roch 9459 3483 2694 8121 0 1853 2896 0

12 Bankia carinata (Gray) 0 1989 0 5537 0 926 0 0

13 B. brevis (Deshayes) 7567 2238 13473 7380 0 1235 1159 0

14 B. gouldi (Bartsch) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

15 B. gracilis Moll 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

17 B. destructa Clench and Turner 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Table-3: Seasonality of marine wood boring organisms (No.) on long-term panels in Machilipatnam Port

Sl.

No.

Sp

ecie

s

Jan

-09

Feb

-09

Ju

n-0

9

Ju

l-09

Sep

-09

Oct

-09

Nov

-09

Sphaeromatids

1 Sphaeroma annandalei Stebbing 166 82 180 0 0 0 0

2 S. terebrans Bate 250 0 191 0 0 0 0

Pholadids

3 Martesia striata (Linnaeus) 272 1415 1706 166 0 0 0

Teredinids

4 Lyrodus massa (Lamy) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

5 L. affinis (Deshayes) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

6 L. takanoshimensis Roch 0 166 0 0 0 0 0

7 L. pedicellatus (Quatrefages) 0 84 0 0 0 0 0

8 L. bipartitus (Jeffreys), 0 666 362 0 0 0 0

9 Teredo parksi Bartsch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

10 T. furcifera von Martens 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 T. bartschi Clapp 11124 1249 241 3246 0 0 0

12 T. clappi Bartsch 927 254 0 0 0 0 0

13 Bankis campanellata Moll and Roch 13905 250 482 0 0 0 18186

14 B.carinata (Gray) 8343 666 0 0 15210 46920 25459

15 B. brevis (Deshayes) 7417 1166 362 170 2054 15956 21822

16 B. gouldi (Bartsch) 0 416 61 0 0 0 0

17 B. gracilis Moll 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

18 B. destructa Clench and Turner 0 83 0 0 0 0 0

12



Sl.

No.

Sp

ecie

s

Jan

-10

Feb

-10

Mar

-10

Ap

r-10

May

-10

Ju

n-1

0

Au

g-10

Sphaeromatids

1 Sphaeroma annandalei Stebbing 166 0 107 0 282 0 0

2 S. terebrans Bate 0 0 280 0 120 0 0

Pholadids

3 Martesia striata (Linnaeus) 18292 2560 4418 0 19.5 191 0

Teredinids

4 Lyrodus massa (Lamy) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

5 L. affinis (Deshayes) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

6 L. takanoshimensis Roch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

7 L. pedicellatus (Quatrefages) 936 0 0 0 0 713 0

8 L. bipartitus (Jeffreys), 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

9 Teredo parksi Bartsch 0 0 3950 0 1240 0 0

10 T. furcifera von Martens 936 8284 987 0 0 0 0

11 T. bartschi Clapp 1874 4143 2963 4389 3722 4991 0

12 T. clappi Bartsch 1872 12427 1975 0 1861 0 0

13 Bankis campanellata Moll and Roch 3744 8285 0 4096 8684 713 0

14 B.carinata (Gray) 936 0 0 2340 7443 0 0

15 B. brevis (Deshayes) 2808 0 0 2925 4962 0 0

16 B. gouldi (Bartsch) 936 0 0 0 0 0 0

17 B. gracilis Moll 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

18 B. destructa Clench and Turner 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

13



Table-4: Recruitment of marine wood boring organisms (No.) at Machilipatnam Port

Month Monthly coupons Long-term coupons

Teredinids Pholodids Sphaeromatids Teredinids Pholodids Sphaeromatids

Jan-09 53032 --- 0 41716 272 416

Feb-09 1000 --- 0 5000 1415 82

Mar-09 5433 1313 0 α α α

Apr-09 α α α α α α

May-09 13708 1448 0 α α α

Jun-09 6166 1331 0 1508 1706 371

Jul-09 6500 --- 0 3416 166 ---

Aug-09 833 --- 0 --- --- ---

Sep-09 0 --- 0 17264 0 0

Oct-09 28250 --- 0 62876 0 0

Nov-09 23333 --- 0 65467 0 0

Dec-09 16667 --- 0 α α α

Jan-10 16167 --- 0 14042 18292 166

Feb-10 23625 4518 0 33139 2560

Mar-10 10286 2410 0 9875 4418 387

Apr-10 6792 2008 0 13750 5975

May-10 6083 628 0 27912 1905 402

Jun-10 5417 0 0 6417 191 0

Jul-10 --- --- 0 --- --- ---

Aug-10 0 0 0 0 0 0

Sep-10 0 0 0 --- --- ---

α Panels destroyed beyond salvation

14



Fig.-1: Machilipatnam Port

Fig.-2: Diversity of marine wood borers on monthly panels in

Machilipatnam Port waters

Fig.-3: Diversity of marine wood borers on long-term panels in

Machilipatnam Port waters

15



RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HOME ENVIRONMENT AND

EMOTIONAL MATURITY OF B.Ed., COLLEGE STUDENTS IN CHENNAI CITY

Dr. Nalamotu Venkateswarlu

Principal PDRV College of Education

Harur, Darmapuri District, Tamil Nadu

The purpose of the study was to study the relationship between Home Environment of students and their Emotional Maturity. Home Environment has been conceptualized as the quality of human interactions from the point of view of the child. It includes those aspects which foster growth and development, such as family trust and confidence, sharing of ideas, making discussions, parental approval, affection, and approval of peer activities. A qualitative approach on the above lines to measure Home Environment was developed by Watson,

1957; William and Wilson, 1961. Childrearing attitudes, mother-child relationship and parental behavior are important factors involved in the Home Environment. Walter D Smithson (1974) Emotional Maturity is a process in which the personality is continuously striving for greater sense of emotional health, both intra-physically and intra-personally, Seoul (1951). Emotional Maturity is the ability to bear tension; other signs are an indifference towards certain kinds of stimuli that affect the child or adult and he develops moodiness and sentimentally.

Review of Related Literature

Mohite (1990) Home Environment includes language, stimulation, physical environment, encouraging of social maturity and disciplinary practices. Goel (2004) found that girls had much higher educational aspiration than boys. Boys felt more deject with the

16



autocratic atmosphere at home in comparison to girls, Kusumalata(1997) conducted a study on parental environment upon the educational development of students and found that the parents should encourage to their daughters in comparison to their sons. Geeta S Pastey and Vijayalaxmi A Aminbhavi (2006) studied the impact of Emotional Maturity on stress and self-confidence of adolescents and found that the adolescents who were highly emotional in their dealings need to be studied. R.John LOvis Manoharan and I Christic Doss (2007) studied Emotional Maturity of P.G students and found that the level of Emotional Maturity postgraduate students was low due to some components. Leung Jupan & Sand Margeret (2000) studied self-esteem and Emotional Maturity in college students and found that the students high in esteem were found to be nore emotionally mature than

students who were low in self-esteem.

Objectives

The following objectives were formulated for the present study.

i) To investigate the relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of boys and girls.

ii) To investigate the relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of urban and rural students

iii) To investigate the relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of students studying in government and private colleges.

iv) To investigate the relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of students with high and low socioeconomic status.

v) To investigate the relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of students who were less than 25 years old and more than 25 years old.

17



Hypotheses

In pursuance of the objectives 1-5 the following Null Hypotheses were formulated.

i) There is no significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of boys and girls.

ii) There is no significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of students studying in urban and rural areas.

iii) There is no significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of students studying in government and private colleges.

iv) There is no significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of students with high and low socioeconomic status.

v) There is no significant relationship between Home

Environment and Emotional Maturity of students who were less than 25 years old and more than 25 years old.

Methodology

Normative survey method was used for the present study as it was concerned with the conditions or relationships that exist, practices that prevail and views or attitudes that were held.

Sample

The study was conducted on a total sample of 200 students from B.Ed., colleges of Chennai City in Tamil Nadu. For selecting the students from each college the random sampling method was used.

Tools

The following tools were used for the collection of required data.

18



Data relating to Home Environment was collected using Family

Climate Scale (FCS) developed by Beena Shaha (1990).

Emotional Maturity Scale developed by Yeshvivsing and Mahesh

Baragava (1999).

Data collection

The Family Climate Scale and Emotional Maturity Scale were administered on college students to obtain the required data. The investigator personally visited each college to collect duly filled tools. Personal data relating to name, age, sex, location, type of college and socioeconomic status were also collected through a personal data specially prepared for the purpose.

Statistical Analysis

In order to study the relationship scores of Home Environment

with the scores of students’ Emotional Maturity, Persons’ correlation coefficients were computed and tested for significance as shown in Table 1.

19



TABLE-1 Correlation Coefficient between Home Environment and Attitude Scores of

Students with relation to Gender, Location, Type of College, Socioeconomic status and Age (N=200)

Variables Scores Mean SD Correlation Coefficient

t' value p' value Significant

Boys Home Environment 172.5200 13.3160

0.4876 3.8692 <0.01 S Emotional Maturity 320.7800 27.3923

Girls Home Environment 169.4000 16.3931


Urban Home Environment 200.8696 24.2559

0.1468 1.2145 >0.05 NS Emotional Maturity 312.8986 23.0869

Rural Home Environment 175.1000 12.0835


Government College

Home Environment 191.0000 20.4512 0.1049 0.4081 >0.05 NS

Emotional Maturity 299.8235 18.0043 Private Colleges

Home Environment 173.0625 15.7887 0.2947 2.0910 <0.05 S

Emotional Maturity 318.4375 30.5593 High Socio-

Economic status Home Environment 199.7903 23.2253

0.2185 1.7340 >0.05 NS Emotional Maturity 311.4859 26.7126

Low Socio-Economic status


Emotional Maturity 314.3400 32.5987 Less than 25 years of Age

Home Environment 204.6744 26.1495 0.3579 2.4541 >0.05 NS

Emotional Maturity 311.4419 25.6258 more than 25 years of age


Emotional Maturity 316.6847 38.5242

20



Major Findings

There is a positive and significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity among boys and girls. This indicates that the Home Environment scores are closely related with Emotional Maturity scores. Therefore, the Null hypothesis is rejected.

There is no positive and significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of urban students where as there is positive and significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of rural students.

There is no positive and significant relationship between Home

Environment and Emotional Maturity of students studying in government colleges. In case of students studying in private colleges, it is found that there is a positive and significant relationship.


Environment and Emotional Maturity of students belonging to high socioeconomic status. The students belonging to low socioeconomic status had positive and significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity.


Environment and Emotional Maturity of students less than 25 years old but there is positive and significant relationship in case of students more than 25 years old.

Discussion and Conclusion

From the results obtained in the present study is found that there is a positive and significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of college students. Bernard (1983), Myers Norman k (1992), R.K.Nalanda and R.K.Chawla (2000)

21



and Mohsin, S.M.(1960) have shown a positive and significant relationship in their respective studies. The results of all these studies had supported the findings of this study. In addition, similar studies carried out by Rekha Agnihotri (1987). Nelson J.R. (2000) and Sing Y. (1962) have revealed similar conclusion. Hence, there is a negative and significant correlation between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity of college students.

There is a positive and significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity with respect to boys and girls, rural students, students studying in private colleges, those belonging to low socioeconomic status and students more than 25 years old. There is no positive and significant relationship between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity among the urban, government college, those

belonging to high socioeconomic status and those less than 25 years old.

References

1. Benard,H.W. (1965). Psychology of learning and teaching, New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.

2. John Louis Rand Doss Manoharan I. Christie (2007). Experiments in Education Vol.XXXV, No.8. Emotional Maturity of Post Graduate Students in Pondicherry region.

3. Landau Erika (1998). The Self- the global factor of Emotional Maturity. Journal article by Erika Landau; Roeper Review, Vol.20, 1998.

4. Pastey Geeta S. and Aminbhavi Vijayalaxmi A.(2006). Impact of Emotional Maturity on Stress and Self-Confidence of Adolescents, Karnatak University, Dharwad. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, Vol.32, No.1, 66-70.

5. Goel, S.P., (2004). Effect of Gender, Home and Environment on Educational Aspirations. Journal of Community Guidance and Research, 21 (1): 77-81.

22



6. Kusumalata,A. (1997). A comparative study of the effect of parental

environment upon the education development of students on the basis of sex. Indian psychological Review 148(4): 193-196.

7. Jupian Leung,J. Margaret Sand C. (1981). Self-Esteem and Emotional Maturity in College Students. Journal of College Student Personnel.

8. Mayer, J.D., (1992). Emotional Intelligence meets traditional standards for intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267-298.

9. Mohite, P. (1990). National Psychological Corporation U/230 Kachari Ghat, Agra, U/230, Bhargaw Bhavan, U.P, India.

10. Mohsin, S.M. (1960). A measure of Emotional Maturity Psychological studies 5(2), 78-83.

11. Nelson, J.R., & Roberts, M.L. (2000). Ongoing reciprocal teacher student interactions involving disruptive behaviors in general education classrooms. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral of Emotional and behavioral Disorders, 8(1), 27-37.

12. Nalanda R.K. and Chawla. (2001). Does emotional intelligence meet traditional standards for intelligence? Some new data and conclusions. Emotion, 1196-231.

13. Seoul, L.J.(1951). Emotional Maturity. The development and dynamic of personality. London: J.B.Lippincott.

14. Singh, Y. (1965). A comparative study of emotional stability of mentally superior and average children, unpublished master’s Thesis, Agra University.

15. Walter. D.Smitson (1974). The Psychology of adjustment current concepts and application, New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.

16. Watson, & Williams. (2002, July). Ready or not? Results of an orientation week survey of education students. Paper presented at the 6th Pacific Rim Conference of First Year in Education, Christchurch, New Zealand.

23



POST AMALGAMATION: PICTURE OF REGIONAL RURAL

BANKS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

N.P.S.V.N.Murthy Dr. M.Sarada Devi Research Scholar Professor

Dept. of Commerce and Mgt. Studies Dept. of Commerce and Mgt. Studies Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

Introduction:

The amalgamation of Regional Rural Banks has been completed. This paper builds up a case against it. Amalgamation would be a death blow to the credit starved rural poor, small and marginal farmers, agricultural and landless labourers and artisans. The process of amalgamation commenced in September 2005 and it is expected to be completed by March 2008. As a result of the amalgamation, the number of RRBs was reduced from 196 to 133 as on 31st March, 2006 to 96 as on 30th April 2007 and to 82 RRBs as on September 2009. Now 82 RRBs are working in the country. The RRBs have plays an important role in agricultural financing. Regional Rural Banks were established under the provisions of an ordinance promulgated on the 26th September 1975and the RRB Act, 1976 with an objective to ensure sufficient institutional credit for agriculture and other rural sectors. The RRBs moblise financial resources from rural/semi-urban areas and grant

loans and advances mostly to small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers and rural artisans. The area of operation of RRBs is limited to the areas as notified by Government of India covering one or more districts in the state. Government of India initiated the process of structural consolidation of RRBs by amalgamating RRBs sponsored by the same bank within a state as per the recommendations of the Vyas Committee (2004). The Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh have had a long standing of nearly four decades. The RBI and NABARD

24



undertook a bailout programme through the sponsor bankers. Added to

this, they were subject to amalgamation that means 196 banks were reduced to 82 in India and in Andhra Pradesh itself 16 RRBs were reduced to five banks.

AMALGAMATION

The Internal Working Group on RRBs has recommended the route of merger/amalgamation mainly to: 1. Improve the operational viability of RRBs; and 2. Taking advantages of the economies of scale (by reducing transaction cost).

The Group views that the merged entities would have a large area of operation and the merger process would help in strengthening some of the weak RRBs. A two-phase restricting was suggested by the group.

i) Merger between RRBs of the same sponsor bank in the same state; and

ii) Merger of RRBs sponsored by different banks in the same state.

Review of Literature

NABARD (1986) published “A study on RRBs viability”, which was conducted by Agriculture Finance Corporation in 1986 on behalf of NABARD. The study revealed that viability of RRBs was essentially

dependent upon the fund management strategy, margin between resources mobility and their deployment and on the control exercised on current and future costs with advances. The proportion of the establishment costs to total cost and expansion of branches were the critical factors, which affected their viability. The study further concluded that RRBs incurred losses due to defects in their systems as such, there was need to rectify these and make them viable. The main suggestions of the study included improvement in the infrastructure

25



facilities and opening of branches by commercial banks in such areas

where RRBs were already in function.

The Kelkar Committee (1986) made comprehensive recommendations covering both the organizational and operational aspects. Several of these were incorporated as amendments to the RRB Act, 1976 such as:

a) Enhancement of authorized capital of RRBs from Rs. One crore to Rs. Five crore and paid-up share capital from Rs. 25 lakhs Rs. One crore.

b) Provision for amalgamation of RRBs in consultation with all the concerned parties.

c) Empowering the sponsor banks to monitor the progress of RRBs and also to arrange for their inspection, internal audit etc.

Chandrakanth K. Sonara (1998) assessed the performance of five gramin banks in Gujarat for a decade from 1985 to 1994. The results indicated that out of the five RRBs only one had made a negligible profit of 0.55 lakhs in the year 1985. He had suggested for restructuring of RRBs in order to provide economies of scale and by deploying their financial assets in such a manner, so as to provide them substantial additional income without diverting the focus from agriculture and rural development aimed at the weaker sections.

Advisory Committee on flow of credit to agriculture and related activities, 2004 (Dr. Vyas Committee) recommended for the RRBs in the North Eastern States be merged into a Zonal Bank or standalone basis. A two-step amalgamation of RRBs for the rest of the country. Under first step, all RRBs of a sponsor bank in a state be amalgamated into a single unit. Under second phase, to form a state level rural bank

by amalgamating all RRBs in that state.

The Internal Working Group on RRBs, 2005 (Sardesai Committee) viewed that to improve the operational viability of RRBs and take advantage of the economies of scale, the route of merger/amalgamation

26



of RRBs may be considered taking into account the views of the various

stakeholders. The Group has put forth two options: merger between RRBs of the same sponsor bank in the same state and merger of RRBs sponsored by different banks in the same state.

Thingalaya N.K. (2006) in his book “Karnataka: Fifty years of Development”, reveals that Grameena Banks in Karnataka compared to those operating in other states proved to be viable rural credit agencies accessible to the weaker sections of the society. He stressed the need for adopting modern practices by the Grameena Banks and has suggested for evolving RRBs as the retail outlets of financial supermarkets, selling the fast moving products such as insurance and mutual funds at competitive prices and have a strong door-delivery wing for the special customers i.e., SHGs and also merger of Grameena Banks as a move towards revitalisation.

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

1. To study amalgamated picture of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh. 2. To analyze the key performance indicators of RRBs in Andhra

Pradesh. 3. To offer suggestions helpful in improving functions on the basis

of conclusion. PROBLEMS OF STUDY

1. First and important problem of the research work is analysis of financial data.

2. Information from the RRBs in Andhra Pradesh was difficult to be obtained as it a government organization and members were not interested to provide information.

3. Frequent number of visit was made to RRBs to collecting data. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The research study is significant to evaluate financial performance of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh. The results/findings of the present study are useful to the policy planners in their efforts to improve the working of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh.

27



SCOPE OF STUDY

1. The study is based on the performance of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh. Therefore, study covers state of Andhra Pradesh to the fulfillment of objectives of the study.

2. The study covers of the secondary data on financial performance of the RRBs in Andhra Pradesh year 2011-12 was taken as the reference period.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The amalgamated picture of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh has been analysed with the help of key performance indicators. Analytical Techniques Employed – key performance indicators analysis was undertaken with a view to studying financial performance of the Regional Rural Banks.

The present study is empirical in character based on the analytical method. The study is mainly based on secondary data which is collected from annual reports of NABARD and concerned Regional Rural Bank of Andhra Pradesh. Other related information collected from journals and websites.

Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh

The Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh has actively contributed to the growth of the rural sector. The development of the rural business and economy has been dependent largely on the investment and financial aids provided by the Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh. Earlier in Andhra Pradesh there were total 16 RRBs covering 23 districts in the state. After amalgamation of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh during 2006, all RRBs have been amalgamated into five RRBs will be covering 23 districts, comprising of 1505 branches with a staff strength of 6459 employees. The picture of Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh presented in Table 1.

28



Table 1: Picture of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh during Pre and Post Merger: Detailed

Introduction of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh

Sl. No. Pre merger RRBs in AP

No of district covered

Sponsoring banks

Sl. No. Post merger RRBs in AP

Est. Date (post merger)

No of district covered

Sponsoring banks

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Nagarjuna Grameena Bank Kakathiya Grameena Bank Manjira Grameena Bank Sangameswara Grameena Bank Sri Visakha Grameena Bank Sri Anantha Grameena Bank Pinakini Grameena Bank Rayalaseema Grameena Bank Chaithanya Grameena Bank Godavari Grameena

02 01 01 01 03 01 02 02 01 02 01 01 01 01

SBI SBI SBI SBI SBI Syndicate Bank Syndicate Bank Syndicate Bank Andhra Bank Andhra Bank SBH SBH

1. 2. 3. 4.

Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank Andhra Pragathi Grameena Bank Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank Deccan Grameena Bank

31.03.2006 01.06.2006 01.03.2006 24.03.2006

08 05 03 05

SBI Syndicate Bank Andhra Bank SBH Indian Bank

29



11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Bank Sri Saraswathi Grameena Bank Sri Satavahana Grameena Bank Sri Rama Grameena Bank Golconda Grameena Bank Kanaka Durga Grameena Bank Sri Venkateswara Grameena Bank

01 01

SBH SBH Indian Bank Indian Bank

5. Saptagiri Grameena Bank

01.07.2006 02

Source: Reports of NABARD and concerned RRBs in Andhra

30



1. ANDHRA PRADESH GRAMEENA VIKAS BANK

Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank (APGVB) has been established on 31.03.2006 with the amalgamation of erstwhile

Nagarjuna Grameena Bank, Kakathiya Grameena Bank, Manjira Grameena Bank, Sangameswara Grameena Bank and Sri Visakha Grameena Bank in terms of provisions of Regional Rural Banks. The authorized share capital of the Bank is Rs. 500.00 Lakh. This Bank is sponsored by State Bank of India (SBI). The share holders of the Bank are Government of India (50 percent), State Bank of India (35 percent) and Government of Andhra Pradesh (15 percent). The Bank is operating 8 districts of Andhra Pradesh State with Head Office at Warangal. Total branch network of the bank as on 31st March 2012 reached 574 includes 435 rural, 101 semi-urban and 35 urban branches.

2. ANDHRA PRAGATHI GRAMEENA BANK

Andhra Pragathi Grameena Bank (APGB) has been established on 01.06.2006, after amalgamation of erstwhile three Regional Rural Banks, which are Rayalaseema Grameena Bank, Sree Anantha Grameena Bank and Pinakini Grameena Bank. This bank is sponsored by Syndicate Bank. The authorized share capital Bank is Rs. 300.00 lakh. The shareholders of the Bank are Government of India (50

percent), Syndicate Bank (35 percent) and Government of Andhra Pradesh (15 percent). The Bank is operating five districts of Andhra Pradesh state with its Head Office at YSR (CUDDAPPHA) district. Total branch network of the bank as on 31.03.2012 reached 421 includes 281 branches, semi-urban branches 95 and remaining branches of urban is 45.

3. CHAITHANYA GODAVARI GRAMEENA BANK

Government of India has announced the amalgamation of Chaithanya Grameena Bank and Godavari Grameena Bank sponsored by Andhra Bank into a single Regional Rural Bank. The Chaithanya

31



Godavari Grameena Bank (CGGB) has emerged as a new entity from

01.03.2006. The Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank is operating three districts, which are located in the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh and Head Office at Guntur district. The authorized share capital Bank is Rs. 200.00 lakh. The shareholders of the Bank are Government of India (50 percent), Andhra Bank (35 percent) and Government of Andhra Pradesh (15 percent). As on March 31st, 2012 the total number of branches of Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank is 116. According to the total branches covered rural branches 73, semi-urban branches 31 and remaining branches of urban is 12.

4. DECCAN GRAMEENA BANK

Deccan Grameena Bank (DGB) established by amalgamating four RRBs sponsored by State Bank of Hyderabad (SBH), which Sri Saraswathi Grameena Bank, Sri Satavahana Grameena Bank and Golconda Grameena Bank effected from 24.03.2006. The operating area is four districts; these all districts are located in Telangana Region of Andhra Pradesh. Head Office of Deccan Grameena Bank in Hyderabad. The authorized share capital Bank is Rs. 400.00 lakh. The

shareholders of the Bank are Government of India (50 percent), State Bank of Hyderabad (35 percent) and Government of Andhra Pradesh (15 percent). As on March 31st, 2012 the total number of branches of Deccan Grameena Bank is 230. According to the total branches covered rural branches 168, semi-urban branches 42 and remaining branches of urban is 20.

5. SAPTAGIRI GRAMEENA BANK

Saptagiri Grameena Bank (SGB) has been formed with the merger of Sri Venkateswara Grameena Bank Chittor, Chittor district and Kanakadurga Grameena Bank Gudivada, Krishna district from 01.07.2006. This bank is sponsored by Indian Bank. Saptagiri Grameena Bank covered Chittor and Krishna districts, which located

32



the Krishna coastal area Kosthandhra region and Chittor district in

Rayalaseema region. SGB’s Head Office at Chittor, Chittor district. The authorized share capital Bank is Rs. 200.00 lakh. The shareholders of the Bank are Government of India (50 percent), Indian Bank (35 percent) and Government of Andhra Pradesh (15 percent). As on March 31st, 2012 the total number of branches of Saptagiri Grameena Bank is 151. According to the total branches covered rural branches 103, semi-urban branches 36 and remaining branches of urban is 12.

Key Performance Indicators of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh

Table 2 presents the key performance indicators of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh of year 2011-12.

Table 2: Key Performance Indicators of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh

Items/ Indicators

APGVB APGB CGGB DGB SGB

Sponsored Bank SBI Syndicate Bank

Andhra Bank

SBH Indian Bank

District Covered 8 5 3 5 2

Rural Branches 435 281 73 168 103

Semi Urban Branches

101 95 31 42 36

Urban Branches 38 45 12 20 12

Total Branches 574 421 116 230 151

No. of Staff 2354 2010 437 1021 637

Share Capital 500.00 300.00 200.00 400.00 200.00

Share Capital Deposit

8908.50 3934.26 544.22 1407.23 1577.05

Reserves 53911.73 94784.62 8662.18 23478.56 15041.24

Total Owned 63320.23 99018.88 9406.40 25285.79 16818.29

33



Funds

Borrowings 217033.95 227882.24 51684.64 70940.71 95712.99

Deposits 514666.64 451274.60 94941.16 292066.47 185229.45

Loans 553271.19 549025.14 114872.95 236236.65 221356.31

CD Ratio 107.50 121.66 120.99 80.88 119.50

Recovery Percentage

81.91 80.76 70.19 76.32 87.06

Net Profit after Tax

12010.30 15043.64 1031.98 3624.10 3812.13

Net NPA Percent 5.08 1.24 1.58 4.86 0.84

Productivity Per Branch

1860.52 2376.01 1808.74 2174.09 2692.62

Productivity Per Staff

453.67 497.66 480.12 517.44 638.28

Source: Reports of NABARD and concerned RRBs in Andhra Pradesh

FINDINGS:

The post amalgamated key performance indicators of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh are presented Table 2. Followings are major observation and findings:

1. The Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank is largest district covered bank in Andhra Pradesh among all RRBs. The smallest district covered bank is Saptagiri Grameena Bank.

2. The Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank is largest bank in branch network in Andhra Pradesh. The smallest branch network bank is Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank.

3. When the position of funds of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh is considered, Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank is able to maintain its top position in the year 2012. Last and fifth

34



position held by Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank in

Andhra Pradesh.

4. The Andhra Pragathi Grameena Bank provided maximum borrowings in borrowings in comparison of other RRBs.

5. Based on the total deposits, Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank holds first position and last position is occupied by Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank.

6. The main purpose of RRBs is to extend financial help to the needy people mainly agriculture. But it is found that Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank has been in the last position in lending.

7. It was observed that low Credit Deposit ratio is held by Deccan Grameena Bank, which is the least position among all the other RRBs in Andhra Pradesh.

8. The Andhra Pradesh, the recovery performance of all the RRBs is above 70 percent which is a good sign. The recovery

performance of Saptagiri Grameena Bank is highest and the Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank performed low in recoveries.

9. From this study it was clearly understood that Andhra Pragathi Grameena Bank holds first position in net profit performance. Least position is held by Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank in Andhra Pradesh.

10. When Non-performing Assets (NPAs) were concerned, Andhra Pragathi Grameena Vikas Bank holds maximum gross NPA percentage. It is clearly evident that Andhra Pragathi Grameena Vikas Bank has very low performance in terms of gross NPA percentage among the all other RRBs.

35



11. When productivity is concerned per branch and per staff,

Saptagiri Grameena Bank holds maximum performance.

12. The productivity is concerned per branch Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank holds low performance and Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank holds low performance when productivity with per staff.

13. The Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank is largest regional rural bank of Andhra Pradesh in district coverage and branch network but the productivity of Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank is low in comparison of all other RRBs.

SUGGESTIONS:

1. Saptagiri Grameena Bank is limited restricted to small area in two districts. There is a huge necessity to expand its business activities.

2. There is a need for Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank to increase number of branches and capture more business opportunities and focus on rural, semi urban and urban areas.

3. There is need for Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank to work

hard and see that there should be an increase in number of accounts and deposits or loans among all other RRBs.

4. Proper insight and analysis should be carried out by Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank to fulfill the main objective of its existing and concentrate on priority sector lending.

5. Deccan Grameena Bank’s credit deposit ratio is very low and it is clearly evident that bank is not able to utilize deposits effectively. Hence, the bank should increase its CD ratio by offering more credit to economy and increase performance.

36



6. Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank was poor in per staff

productivity the bank should train their employees by conducting various training programmes to increase their performance.

7. The management of each RRB has to maintain the current recovery performance and increase simultaneously by the decreasing NPAs.

8. Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank holds highest gross NPA, it should come out with various strategies to overcome NPAs and try to maintain gross NPA as low as possible.

9. Government should encourage and support banks to take appropriate steps in rural areas development and Efforts should be made to ensure that the non-interest cost of credit to small borrowers is kept as low as possible.

10. Policy should be made by government for opening more branches in weaker and remote areas of state. Since it is found

that no of branches are low in some areas.

11. Government should take firm action against the defaulters and should not make popular announcements like waiving of loans.

12. The RRBs have to be very careful and reduce the operating expenses, because it has been found from our study that these expenses have increased the total expenditure of the banks.

13. The RRBs have to give due preference to the micro-credit scheme and encourage in the formation of self help groups.

14. Cooperative societies may be allowed to sponsor or co-sponsor with commercial banks in the establishment of the RRB.

15. A uniform pattern of interest rate structure should be devised for the rural financial agencies.

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16. The RRB must strengthen effective credit administration by

way of credit appraisal, monitoring the progress of loans and their efficient recovery.

17. The credit policy of the RRB should be based on the group approach of financing rural activities.

18. The RRB may relax their procedure for lending and make them easier for village borrowers.

CONCLUSION

Government of India promoted Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) through the RRBs Act of 1976 to bridge the gap in the flow of credit to the rural poor. The RRBs were established “with a view to developing the rural economy by providing, for the purpose of development of agriculture, trade, commerce, industry and other productive activities in the rural areas, credit and other facilities, particularly to small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers, artisans and small entrepreneurs, and for matters connected therewith and incidental thereto”. Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh are an integral part of the rural credit structure of the state. As we analyze the data it

shows that RRBs in Andhra Pradesh are working for the 360 degree development of rural area of state. In short we can stay that it providing rural Andhra Pradesh all round assistance and proved to be an institution where “Growth with Social Justice” exists.

References

1. A review of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh, BIRD, Lucknow. Various Issues.

2. Annual Reports of APGVB, APGB, CGGB, DGB and SGB.

3. Financial Statements of RRBs. NABARD.

4. Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India. Various issues.

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5. The Report of Internal Working Group on RRBs, June, 2005.

6. The Report of the committee on Financial Inclusion, January 2008.

7. N.K. Thingalaya, Karnataka: Fifty Years of Development, Publisher: Justice K.S. Hedge Institute of Management. Source: Hindu Business Line, Nov. 19, 2006.

8. Chandrakanth. K. Sonara, Regional Rural Banks in India, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1998.

39



A STUDY REPORT ON THE PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES OF THE SSI UNITS IN NJORTH COASTAL DISTRICTS OF ANDHRA PRADESH

LT.CDR.Kosaraju Ravi Kumar Ph.D Scholar

Mewar University Chittorghar, Rajasthan & HOD and Vice-Principal

Dr.VS.KrishnaGovt.Degree& PG (A) College

Visakhapatnam

Dr.G.ChandraMouli Research Guide

Mewar University Chittorghar

Rajasthan and Reader in Commerce

Dr.VSK.Govt Degree and PG (A) College, Visakhapatnam

He SSIs occupy an important place in both the developing countries and the developed nations .In spite of the many advantages of large scale industrial units, such as the economies of production, managerial, financial, marketing, and personnel the SSI has urged forward due to its features found in the finished items in the form of low production costs and higher quality. The small scale units will utilize the skilled labor of high accuracy, location factors and the costs of transfer, designable technical excellence, innovation of specialized products and a close personal relationship with the customers. From the human resource angle, employing very few employees, inability to attract, hold and retain the smart and bright professionals, following the old and the obsolete methods of recruitment, following the mostly

inappropriatehuman resource policies of performance appraisal, training and transfers improper manpower planning are some of the major deceases to be ameliorated. Many of the SSIs fail in managing the resistance for change from their strength.

Soon after our independence, SSIs have been given special andprominent berths as they are instrumental in generating extra

40



employment in rural and urban areas through a meager capital investment. It has powerful strong linkages. Hence research and study on this are thought to be significant. All the activities of SSIs need to be closely watched and monitored to initiate immediately needed remedial measures, since the problems arespecific to the region and to the organization. There are several research studies on SSIs but basically most of them dealt with the general problems and the industrial sickness.Studies on SSIs overall managerial Practices are very much limited. In the state of Andhra Pradesh, studies of this nature and type

are even less and the North Coastal Districts of Andhra Pradesh are not an exception to this.

SSI units are less conscious &less cautious towards the well-established principles &the doctrines of functional management, but the knowledge of these principles& the doctrines of functional management is very muchessential to run the organization smoothly and profitably over a long period of time by focusing on the functional management practices of SSI are. Since poor financial HR, managerial practicesare the major causes for the industrial sickness; this study would help as a guide to adopt suitable functional management practices by the SSIs.

1.2 Significance of the Study

Organizations are formed to achieve the predetermined objectives and goals of an enterprise, like increasingin sales volume,

market share, and return on investment. Process of managerial activities ensures the quickand timely achievement of the laid down organizational goals. The basic task of management is to generate surplus out of their operations over the cost of their production. Profit is an essential element for the growth and survival of any business. The Industrial unit can undertake more expansion and diversification

41



programs when the profits are ploughed back to a great extent. And thus profits and growth are interlinked and interwoven..

The managers, through their effective functional management practices, utilize the scarce resources of the organization efficiently in such a manner to cause positive effects to the society in terms of better standard of living and social development.

Excellent management practices make sure the proper discharge of social responsibilities of an enterprise by satisfying the interests of all the stake holders, and society at large. They thus help to create

effective andpositive relations with the internal as well as the external environment and create good business ecology in terms of the differences of Culture, Science and Technology and Peace.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

The objectives of the study are as follows:

1) To determine the understandings and the viewsof the persons responsible for formulating and implementing policies in respect of functional especially the personnel management in the sample SSIs.

2) To access the human resources practices followed by the select sample SSI Units in connection with a. Preparation of Job description and specificationsb. Pay fixation c. Man power planningd. Section and Recruitment procedures ande. Promotion policies of the staff.

1.4: STUDY AREA – A BRIEF PROFILE

The study is limited to select SSI units in the north coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh, namely Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam. These districts are located in coastal belt separating the State of Andhra Pradesh from the State of Orissa. These districts are located at fag end of the boundary and also back ward in many aspects.

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Srikakulam district located in the north eastern part of Andhra Pradesh is one of the backward districts of the state. It is bound on the North by Orissa State, on the West and South by Vizianagaram Districts and on the East by the Bay of Bengal. The total area of the district is 5837 sq, kms and its population according to 2010-11 censuses, is 26, 99,471.

Vizianagaram District was formed on 1st June 1979, with portions carved from Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam Districts. The District is bounded on the East by Srikakulam District, on the West

and South by Visakhapatnam Districts, and on the North by Bay of Bengal. The total area of the district is 6539 sq, kms and its population according to 2010-11 censuses, is 23, 42,868.

Visakhapatnam District is bounded partly by Orissa State and partly by Vizianagaram District on the North, on the South by East Godavari District, on the West by Orissa State and on the East by the Bay of Bengal. The total area of the district is 11,161 sq, kms and its population according to 2010-11 censuses, is 42, 88,113.

1.5 SAMPLE DESIGN

For the purpose of the present study, SSI and Tiny units registered in the District Industries Centers at Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam constitute the total population. As per the latest records available i.e., as per 2008-2009, the number of units registered with the respective District Industry Centers of the three Districts are as follows. There are 4,837 units in Srikakulam providing an employment to 43,147 persons with an investment of

Rs.15010 lakh, 2023 units in Vizianagaram providing an employment to 5,321 persons with an investment of the Rs. 10,017 lakhs and 10,746 units in Visakhapatnam providing an employment to 94,067 with an investment of Rs. 64,687 lakhs. Thus as per the records of 2008-09, the total number of units registered in the study area comes to 17,606.

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An attempt has been made in this study to cover 1.28% of the units [sample size 227]. The investigator personally visited the units along with his team.

1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY:

The following are the limitations of this study.

1. The units that are not registered with DICs are not included because of non availability the required recorded data.

2. The units covered under the study restricted to only manufacturing, processing units and few service units and other categories have not been covered to draw meaningful information.

3. The differently varied nature of SSIs in this region allowed considering only some selected categories of business units for the study.

4. The focus of this study is strictly limited to functional management practices of select SSIs units but not on comprehensive performance parameters since owners of many SSI units had not come forward to state the quantitative data to measure the actual performance.

1.7 SOURCES OF DATA

For the purpose of the study data from primary and secondary sources have been used.

1.7. a. Collection of primary data:

Primary data from sample units was collected by the researcher and his team through personal interview on the basis of a schedule & questionnaire. Researches studies have been conducted in several districts of different states were referred before designing the schedule. Discussions were held with the officers of the District Industries Centers and various 1.7. b. Collection of Secondary Data:

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1.8. STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED:

1. Majority of the analysis is tabular based and Bi-variate analysis is applied in several places.

2. To discriminate the entrepreneurs adopting the management practices from others; Discriminate Analysis is used frequently. It is felt very much useful

i. for detecting the variables that allow the researcher to discriminate between different groups and

ii. For classifying the cases into different groups with a better degree of accuracy.

TABLE – 1 DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO CATEGORY

OF BUSINESS &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE

Sl. No. Category Of Business

Units having indentified the jobs

Units not-having indentified the jobs

Total Number of Units

1. Agro Based & Edibles 48(80) 12(20) 60(100) 2. Engineering 39(84.78) 7(15.22) 46(100) 3. Chemical & Pharmacy 33(75.00) 11(25) 44(100) 4. Automobile & Services 25(75.75) 8(24.25) 33(100) 5. Construction 21(67.74) 10(32.26) 31(100) 6. Textiles & Garments 12(92.31) 1(7.69) 13(100) Total 178(78.41) 49(21.58) 227(100) Note: Figures in brackets indicate % to the row total.

From the above table 1 it can be observed that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their

organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their job the textile units are dominating with 92.31% followed by the engineering units with 84.78%, the agro base units with 80%, the automobile and

45



service units with 75.75% , the chemical and pharmacy units with 75%and the construction units with 67.74%.

In case of the units that had not identified their jobs , the construction units are dominating with 32.26%,followed by the chemical and the pharmacy units with 25%, the automobile and service units with 24.25% and the agro based units with 20% followed by the engineering units with 15.22% and the textile units with 7.69%.

From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their job the

textile units followed by the engineering units lead. In case of the total units that did not have identified their jobs, the construction units followed by the chemical units lead.

Table 2 deals with the data of the TABLE – 2DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO TYPE OF ORGANIZATION & UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE

Table – 2 DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO TYPE OF

ORGANIZATION &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE

Sl. No. Type Of Business




1. Proprietary 90(70.31) 38(29.69) 128(100) 2. Firm 54(84.37) 10 (15.63) 64(100) 3. Company 20(95.23) 1(4.77) 21(100) 4. Cooperative Society/Trust 14(100) – 14(100) Total 178(78.41) 49(21.58) 227(100) Note: Figures in brackets indicate % to the row total.

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From the above table 2 it can be observed that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs, thesocieties and the trusts category is dominating with 100% followed by the, companies with 95.23%,, the firms with 84.37%,and the proprietary concerns with 70.31%.

In case of the units that had not identified their jobs, the proprietary concerns are ahead with 29.69% followed by the firms with 15.63% and

the companies with 4.77%.

From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their job the societies followed by the companies lead. Out of the total units, that did not have identified their jobs, the proprietary units followed by the firms lead.

Table 3 deals with the data of the distribution of SSI units according to location of the unit & units having and not-having identified the jobs of the enterprise

TABLE – 3 DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO LOCATION

OF THE UNIT &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE

Sl. No. Location of the unit




1. Rural 82(80.39( 20(19.61) 102(100) 2. Urban 96{76.80) 29(23.20) 125(100) Total 178(78.41) 49(21.58) 227(100)

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Note: Figures in brackets indicate % to the total number of units.

From the above table 3it can be observed that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs, the rural category of units; dominate with 80.39% while the urban units are with 76.80%.

In case of the units that had not identified their jobs, the urban units are dominating with 23.20% followed by the rural units with

19.61%.From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in

their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their

job the rural units lead over the urban units. Out of the total units that had not identified their jobs, the urban units lead.

Table 4 deals with the data of the distribution of SSI units according to gender of the entrepreneur & units having and not-having identified the jobs of the enterprise

TABLE – 4

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO GENDER OF THE ENTREPRENEUR &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING

IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE

Sl. No. Gender of the entrepreneur




1. Male 131(79.39) 34(20.61) 165(100) 2. Female 47(75.80) 15(24.20) 62(100) Total 178(78.41) 49(21.58) 227(100) Note: Figures in brackets indicate % to the row total.

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From the above table 4it can be observed that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs; the Male group is dominating with 79.39% while the female group is with 75.80%.In case of the units that had not identified their jobs, the female group is dominating with 24.20% while the male group is with 20.61%.From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in

their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the female group leads.

In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the male group leads over the male group.

In case of the total units that had not identified their jobs, the female group leads.

Table5 deals with thedistribution of SSI units according to level of education of the entrepreneur & units having and not-having identified the jobs of the enterprise

TABLE – 5

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO LEAVEL OF EDUCATION OF THE ENTREPRENEUR &UNITS HAVING

AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE

Sl. No.

Level of Education of the entrepreneur




1. Below 10th class 5(45.45) 6(54.55) 11(100)

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2. 10th class 8(61.54) 5(38.46) 13(100)

3. Inter Mediate 23(71.87) 9(28.13) 32(100)

4. Graduate 59(80.82) 14(19.18) 73(100)

5. Technical 34(91.89) 3(8.11) 37(100)

6. Post Graduate& above 9(75) 3(25) 12(100)

7. Technical diploma holders 40(81.63) 9(18.37) 49(100)

Total 178 (78.41) 49(21.58) 227(100)

Note: Figures in brackets indicate % to the row total.

From the above table 5it can be observed that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs, the Technical graduate group is dominating with 91.89% followed by the technical diploma group with 81.63%, the graduate group with

80.82%, the post graduate and above group with 75%, the intermediate group width 71.87%, the 10th class group with 61.54% and the below 10th class group with 45.45%.

In case of the units that had not identified their Jobs category, the below 10th class group is dominating with 54.55% followed by the 10th class group with 38.46%, the intermediate group width 28.13%, the pg and above group with 25%,the graduate group with 19.18%, the technical diploma holder group with 18.37%, and the technical graduate group with 8.11%.

From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs, the least qualified followed by the less qualified groups lead..

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In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the technically qualified graduate group followed by the technically qualified diploma group leads.

In case of the total units, that had not identified their jobs, the least qualified groups followed by the relatively less qualified groups lead.

Table 6 deals with the data of the

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO AGE GROUP OF THE ENTREPRENEUR & UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE

TABLE – 6

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO AGE GROUP OF THE ENTREPRENEUR &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE

Sl. No.

Age Group Of the entrepreneur




1. Below 30 years 9(52.94) 8(47.06) 17(100)

2. 30 to 40 years 50(78.12) 14(21.88) 64(100)

3. 40 to 50 years 84(82.35) 18(17.65) 102(100)

4. Above 50 years 35(79.55) 9(20.45) 44(100)

Total 178(78.41) 49(21.58) 227(100)


From the above table 6it can be observed that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of

the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs,

51



the Technical graduate group is dominating with 91.89% followed by the 40 to 50 years group is dominating with 82.35% followed by the above 50 years age group with 79.55% ,the 30-40 years age group with 78.12%, the below 30 years age group with 52.94%.

In case of the units that had not identified their Jobs category, the below 10tb class group is dominating with 47.06% followed by the 30-40 years age group width 21.88%, the above 50 years age group width 20.45% and the 40-50 years age group with 17.65%.

From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs the

units with the least followed by the relatively lesser aged entrepreneur groups lead. In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the units with the entrepreneurs with the higher and the highest aged groups lead.

Table 6 deals with the data of the distribution of SSI units according to the entrepreneur having & units having and not-having identified the jobs of the enterprise

TABLE – 7

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO THE ENTREPRENEUR HAVING & UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE

Sl. No.

Experience Status of the entrepreneur




1. Entrepreneur with some previous Experience

69(38.76) 15(61.24) 84(100)

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2. Entrepreneur without any previous Experience

109(76.22) 34(23.78) 143(100)

Total 178(78.41) 49(21.58) 227(100)


From the above table 7it can be observed that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs, the Entrepreneur without any previous Experience are dominating with 76.22% while the Entrepreneur with some previous Experience are with 38.76%

In case of the units that had not identified their Jobs category, theEntrepreneur with some previous Experience dominates with 61.24% while the Entrepreneur without any previous Experience is with 23.78%.

From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs. Out of the total units that had not identified their jobs, the units with Entrepreneur with some previous Experience, leads. In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the Entrepreneur without any

previous Experience leads.

Table 8 deals with the data of the DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL OF THE INVESTMENT IN PLANT AND MACHINERY & UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE

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T ABLE – 8

DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL OF THE INVESTMENT IN PLANT AND MACHINERY &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE

ENTERPRISE

Sl. No.

THE LEVEL OF THE INVESTMENT IN PLANT AND MACHINERY




1. below 25 lakhs 117(75.48) 38(24.52) 155(100)

2. 25 to 50 lakhs 37(80.43) 9(19.57) 46(100)

3. 50 to 75 lakhs 11(100) – 11(100)

4. 75lakhs & above 13(86.66) 2(13.34) 15(100)

Total 178(78.41) 49(21.58) 227(100)


From the above table 8it can be observed that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs,

the 50lakh to 75 lakh investment level group is at the top with 100% followed by the 75 lakh and above investment level group is dominating with86.66%, 25 lakh to 50 lakh investment group with 80.43% and the below d25 lakh rupee investment group with 75.48%.In case of the units that had not identified their Jobs category, the below 25 lakh rupee investment group is dominating with 24.52% followed by the 25 lakh to 50 lakh group with 19.57% and the above 75 lakh investment group with 13.34%.From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified

54



their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs. Out of the total units that had not identified their jobs, the units with the least followed by the lesser investment groups lead.

In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the units with the higher and the highest investment groups lead.

Table 9 deals with the data of the distribution of SSI units according to the level of turnover & units having and not-having identified the jobs of the enterprise

References:

1. James E.Waltrt,”Determination of Technical insolvency”

Journal of business, January 2011

2. Simon, HA.(1960) “The new science of Management Decision” ,New York, Harper &Row

3. Mc. Greg or, D (1960)” The Human Side OF Enterprise” New York, MC Graw Hills

4. ILO (1961) Services for small industry, Geneva

55



ENERGY SECURITY BEING A STATE SECURITY

Dr Nisar Ahmad Meer Lecturer

Political Science Govt. Degree College Boys

Anantnag, J & K

INTRODUCTION The European commission defines energy security as, “The ability to ensure that future essential energy needs can be met, both by means of adequate domestic resources worked under economically acceptable condition or maintained as strategic resources, and by calling upon accessible and stable external sources supplemented where appropriate by strategic stocks”. Bartan Redge Well Ronne, and Zilman defines it

“As a condition which a nation and all most of its citizens businesses have access to sufficient energy resources at reasonable prices for the Foreseeable future free from serious risk of major disruption of service”. Although in the developed world the usual definition of energy security is simply the availability of inefficient supplies at affordable prices, different countries interpret what the concept means for them differently. Energy exporting countries focus and maintaining the security of demand for their export which after all generates the overwhelming share of their government revenues. Thus the usual definition varies from country to country. For Russia, the aim is to reassert state control over “strategic resources” and gain primary over the main pipelines market channels through its ships hydrocarbons to international markets. The concern for developing countries is about

how changes in energy prices affect their balance of payments. For china and India, energy security lies in their ability to rapidly adjust to

56



their new dependence on global markets, which represents a major shift away from their former commitments to self sufficiency. For Japan, it means offsetting its stark scarcity of domestic resources through diversification, trade and investment. In Europe, the major debate centers on how to manage dependence an imported natural gas and in most countries, a side from France and Finland, whether to build new power plants and perhaps to return to coal. And United States must face the uncomfortable fact that its goal of “energy

independence” a phrase that has become a mantra since it was first articulated by Richard Nixen. STATE SECURITY AND ITS CHANING NATURE For civilization energy has fundamental value. Energy security and even energy independency are critical to all countries energy security means sufficient depends on sustainable development of energy sphere. Together energy production and energy consumption, distribution, transformation and exchange. The energy sphere covers the fuel energy complex power net works, power plants and energy consumers.

It is extremely difficult to ensure energy security and independence in the modern world. In the last 100 years world energy consumption has increased 12 times and has grown twice as fast as the earth population. Today one is focused with many serious problems. The energy sphere keeps growing at a pace that is incompatible with the health of the government, lead to an exhaustion of fossil-fuel resources. The growing

demand energy can not be satisfied by further development of conventional energy technologies in the existing model of economy, based an fossil fuels, can not provide less developed countries, because the rates of growth of oil pumping in the world, is expected to slow down sharply. According to estimate, energy consumption will increase

57



from the present 14 billion TCF (trillion cubic feet) up to 37 billion TCF by the end of the 21st century. Civilization faces a real threat to its existence coming not so much from political factors, but from contradictions between the level of economic development and the standards of material well being organized efforts for sustainable development and energy production and use are required from all national governments and the international organizations from all over world, as a whole. In many countries development programmes for

energy industries, to cover next few decades, are being worked out. However, they do not take enough account of the global energy balance structure and the role of innovative technologies of the future. References

1. S.K. Chopra, Energy Policy for India:“Towards sustainable energy security in India in twenty-first century” Oxford & IBH publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, and pp. 1342004.

2. Mikhail Y Pavlov, “A New Energy Paradigm for the third Millennium” world affairs, 2006 Vol 10, No. 1,pp.3.

3. Daniel yergin 2006, “Ensuring Energy security”. Foreign affairs 2006 vol. 85 No.2, pp 69.

4. Michael Field, A Hundred million dollars a day, sidge wick & Jack Sew, landow 1975.

5. John Baglas. “International and global security in the post cold war era” ,in 2008

6. Morgenthau. H., Politics among nations: The struggle for power

and peace, 5th edition Newyark Alford Knopt 1978 7. Michael Y Pavlov, “A New Energy Paradigm for the third

Millennium” World Affaries,2006 vol 10,

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DISCOVERING SYNONYM FINDER PRIMARILY BASED APPROACH FOR VARIOUS DOMAIN OPINION ANALYSIS

Mr.Pramod D.Sinare PG Scholar

Dept. of Computer Engineering Aditya College of Engineering, Beed

Prof. Syed A.H Assistant Professor

Dept. of Computer Engineering Aditya College of Engineering, Beed

Prof.Kadam S.H. Assistant Professor

Department of Computer Engineering Aditya College of engineering, Beed

I INTRODUCTION

Graphs and networks actually rank among one amongst the

foremost in style knowledge representation models because of their universal relevancy to various application domains. the necessity to research and mine interesting knowledge from graph and network structures has been long recognized, however solely recently the advances in info systems have enabled the analysis of graph structures at immense scales. Analysis of graph and network structures gained new momentum with the arrival of social networks. whereas the analysis of social networks has been a field of intensive analysis, significantly within the domains of social sciences and scientific discipline, economy or chemistry, it's the emergence of big social networking services over the online that spawned the analysis into large-scale structural properties of social networks.. Social networks exhibit a really clear community structure. Such community structure part stems from objective limitations (e.g., internal structure structure of a corporation will be closely drawn by the ties among a selected social

network) or, to some extent, might result from subjective user actions

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and activities (e.g., bonding with others who share one’s interests and hobbies). Social networks area unit extremely effective in bolstering

cluster formation of similar people. groups of nodes that share common properties tend to induce connected within the social network. Opinion mining is that the domain of language process and text analytics that aims at the invention and extraction of subjective qualities from matter sources. Opinion mining tasks will be usually classified into 3 varieties. the primary task is named as sentiment analysis and aims at the institution of the polarity of the given supply text (e.g., identifying between negative, neutral and positive opinions). The second task consists in characteristic the degree of judgment and sound judgment of a text (i.e., the identification of factual knowledge as critical opinions).

This task is usually named as opinion extraction. The third task is aims at the invention and/or summarisation of specific opinions on elect options of the assessed product. Some authors visit the this task as sentiment analysis. All 3 categories of opinion mining tasks will greatly

take pleasure in extra knowledge which will be provided from the social network. extra information might include: a node’s spatial relation indexes, a node’s cluster membership, terminology utilised among the cluster, average cluster opinion on elect merchandise, group’s coherence and cohesion, etc. of these variables enrich opinion mining algorithms and supply extra instructive capabilities to created models.

II OBJECTIVE

Example:

allow us to think about the reviews shown in Table one for the 2 domains: books and room appliances. Table one shows 2 positive and one negative reviews from every domain. we've got stressed the words that specific the sentiment of the author in an exceedingly review victimization previous face. From Table one we tend to see that the words wonderful, broad, top quality, attention-grabbing, and well

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researched area unit wont to specific a positive sentiment on books, whereas the word unsuccessful indicates a negative sentiment. On the

opposite hand, within the room appliances domain the words excited, top quality, skilled, energy saving, lean, and delicious specific a positive sentiment, whereas the words rust and unsuccessful specific a negative sentiment. though words like top quality would specific a positive sentiment in each domains, and unsuccessful a negative sentiment, it's unlikely that we might encounter words like well researched for room appliances or rust or delicious in reviews on books. Therefore, a model that's trained solely exploitation reviews on books won't have any weights learnt for delicious or rust, that makes it troublesome to accurately classify reviews on kitchen appliances exploitation this model.

One answer to the present feature pair drawback is to use a synonym finder that groups totally different words that specific an equivalent sentiment. as an example, if we all know that each

wonderful and delicious are positive sentiment words, then we can use this information to expand a feature vector that contains the word delicious exploitation the word wonderful, thereby reducing the pair between features during a test instance and a trained model. There are two necessary queries that has to be addressed during this approach: the way to automatically construct a synonym finder that's sensitive to the sentiments expressed by words?, and the way to use the synonym finder to expand feature vectors during coaching and classification?. the first question is mentioned in Section 4, wherever we have a tendency to propose a spatial arrangement approach to construct a sentiment sensitive synonym finder exploitation each labeled and unlabeled information from multiple domains. The second question is addressed in Section 5, wherever we have a tendency to propose a ranking score to pick the candidates from the synonym finder to expand a given feature vector.

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III LITERATURE SURVEY

3.1 Related work done:

Supervised learning algorithms that need labelled knowledge are successfully used to build sentiment classifiers for a given domain [1]. However, sentiment is expressed otherwise in numerous domains, and it's pricey to annotate information for every new domain within

which we would prefer to apply a sentiment classifier. as an example, within the electronics domain the words “durable” and light” are wont to specific positive sentiment, whereas “expensive” and “short battery life” usually indicate negative sentiment. On the opposite hand, if we have a tendency to contemplate the books domain the words exciting” and “thriller” expresses positive sentiment, whereas the words “boring” and “lengthy” sometimes specific negative sentiment. A classifier trained on one domain may not perform well on a unique domain as a result of it fails to be told the sentiment of the unseen words. The cross-domain sentiment classification drawback [7], [8] focuses on the challenge of coaching a classifier from one or additional domains (source domains) and applying the trained classifier on a special domain (target domain). A cross-domain sentiment arrangement should overcome 2 main challenges.

This is what makes the spatial arrangement synonym finder sentiment sensitive. unlabeled knowledge is cheaper to gather compared to labelled knowledge and is usually out there in massive quantities. the {use|the utilization|the employment} of unlabeled knowledge permits us to accurately estimate the distribution of words in supply and target domains. The planned method will learn from an oversized quantity of unlabeled knowledge to leverage a strong cross-domain sentiment classifier. In our projected technique, we have a tendency to use the automatically created synonym finder to expand feature vectors during a binary classifier at train and check times by

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introducing connected lexical parts from the synonym finder. we have a tendency to use L1 regularized provision regression because the

classification algorithmic program.

IV PROBLEM STATEMENT

4.1 Problem Statement:

We outline a domain D as a category of entities within the world or a linguistics conception. as an example, differing kinds of product like books, DVDs, or vehicles are thought of as completely different domains. Given a review written by a user on a product that belongs to a specific domain, the target is to predict the sentiment expressed by the author within the review regarding the product. we have a tendency to limit ourselves to binary sentiment classification of entire reviews. we tend to denote a supply domain by Dsrc and a target domain by Dtar. The set of labelled instances from the source domain, L(Dsrc), contains pairs (t, c) wherever a review, t, is assigned a sentiment label, c. Here, c ∈ , and also the sentiment labels +1 and −1 severally denote positive and negative sentiments. additionally to positive and negative sentiment reviews, there can even be neutral and mixed reviews in

sensible applications. If a review discusses each positive and negative aspects of a specific product, then such a review is taken into account as a mixed sentiment review. On the opposite hand, if a review doesn't contain neither positive nor negative sentiment concerning a specific product then it's thought of as neutral. though this paper solely focuses on positive and negative sentiment reviews, it's not laborious to increase the planned methodology to deal with multi-category sentiment classification issues.

However, the projected methodology is agnostic to the properties of the classifier and might be accustomed expand feature vectors for any binary classifier. As shown later within the experiments, L1 regularization allows us to pick out alittle set of

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options for the classifier. Our contributions during this work will be summarized as follows.

• we tend to propose a totally automatic methodology to form a synonym finder that's sensitive to the sentiment of words expressed in several domains. we tend to utilize each labeled and unlabeled information on the market for the source domains and unlabeled knowledge from the target domain.

• we tend to propose a technique to use the created synonym finder to expand feature vectors at train and check times during a binary classifier.

• we tend to compare the sentiment classification accuracy of our projected methodology against varied baselines and previously projected cross-domain sentiment classification strategies for each single supply and multi-source adaptation settings.

• we tend to study the flexibility of our methodology to accurately predict the polarity of words victimization SentiWordNet, a lexical

resource within which every WordNet synset is related to a polarity score.

V SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

5.1 Dataset

We use the cross-domain sentiment classification dataset1 ready by Blitzer et al. [7] to match the proposed technique against previous work on cross-domain sentiment classification. This dataset consists of Amazon product reviews for four completely different product types: books, DVDs, electronics and kitchen appliances. every review is assigned with a rating (0-5 stars), a reviewer name and location, a product name, a review title and date, and also the review text. Reviews with rating > 3 ar labelled as positive, whereas those with rating < 3 ar labelled as negative. the general structure of this benchmark

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dataset is shown in Table 6.1. for every domain, there ar 1000 positive and 1000 negative examples, a similar balanced composition because

the polarity dataset created by Pang et al. [1]. The dataset additionally contains some unlabeled reviews for the four domains. This benchmark dataset has been utilized in a lot of previous work on cross-domain sentiment classification and by evaluating on that we are able to directly compare the projected technique against existing approaches. Following previous work, we tend to at random choose 800 positive and 800 negative labelled reviews from every domain as coaching instances (total range of coaching instances are 1600×4 = 6400), and also the remainder is used for checking (total range of test instances ar 400×4 = 1600). In our experiments, we tend to choose every domain successively because the target domain, with one or a lot of alternative domains as sources.

Note that {when we tend to|once we|after we} mix quite one supply domain we limit the overall range of supply domain labelled

reviews to 1600, balanced between the domains. as an example, if we tend to mix two supply domains, then we tend to choose 400 positive and 400 negative labelled reviews from every domain giving (400 + 400) × a pair of = 1600. this permits us to perform a good analysis once combining multiple supply domains. we tend to produce a sentiment sensitive synonym finder exploitation labelled knowledge from the supply domain and unlabeled knowledge from supply and target domains as delineated in Section 4.

We then use this synonym finder to expand the labelled feature vectors (train instances) from the supply domains and train an L1 regularised provision regression-based binary classifier (Classias) 2. L1 regularization is shown to supply a thin model, wherever most unsuitable options ar assigned a zero weight [22].

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TABLE 3 The effect of using a sentiment sensitive thesaurus for cross-domain sentiment classification

Method Kitchen DVDs Books

No. Adapt 0.7261 0.6807 0.6272

NSST 0.7750 0.7350 0.7146

SST 0.8518 0.7826 0.7632

In-Domain 0.8770 0.820 0.8040

This enables us to pick out helpful features for classification during a systematic manner while not having to preselect options exploitation heuristic approaches. In our preliminary experiments, we have a tendency to discovered that the classification accuracy on two development target domains did not vary significantly with totally

different L1 regularization parameter values. Therefore, we have a tendency to set the L1 regularization parameter to 1, that is that the default setting in Classias, for all experiments represented during this paper. Next, we have a tendency to use the trained classifier to classify reviews within the target domain. The synonym finder is once more wont to expand feature vectors from the target domain. This procedure is perennial for every domain in Table

The on top of mentioned procedure creates four thesauri (each synonym finder is made by excluding labeled coaching information for a selected target domain).

For example, from the three domains DVDs, electronics and books, we have a tendency to generate 53, 586 lexical elements and 62, 744 sentiment parts to make a synonym finder that's wont to adapt a classifier trained on those 3 domains to the kitchen domain. Similar

numbers of options are generated for the opposite domains similarly.

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To avoid generating distributed and possibly noisy options, we have a tendency to need that every feature occur in a minimum of two totally

different review sentences. we have a tendency to use classification accuracy on target domain because the analysis metric. it's the fraction of the correctly classified target domain reviews from the total variety of reviews within the target domain, and is outlined as follows:

5.2 Cross-Domain Sentiment Classification

To evaluate the advantage of using a sentiment sensitive synonym finder for cross-domain sentiment classification, we have a tendency to compare the planned technique against three baseline strategies in Table 4. Next, we have a tendency to describe the strategies compared in Table 4.

• No Adapt: This baseline simulates the impact of not playacting any feature enlargement. we have a tendency to simply train a binary classifier exploitation unigrams and bigrams as options from the labeled reviews within the supply domains and apply the trained

classifier on a target domain. this will be thought-about as a boundary that doesn't perform domain adaptation.

• NSST (Non-sentiment Sensitive Thesaurus): to judge the advantage of exploitation sentiment options on our planned methodology, we have a tendency to produce a synonym finder only exploitation lexical elements. Lexical elements will be derived from each labeled and unlabelled reviews whereas, sentiment elements are often derived only from labeled reviews. we have a tendency to failed to use rating data within the supply domain labeled knowledge during this baseline.A synonym finder is made exploitation those options and afterwards used for feature growth. A binary classifier is trained exploitation the enlarged options.

• planned (SST: sentiment sensitive thesaurus): this can be the planned methodology represented during this paper. we have a

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tendency to use the sentiment sensitive synonym finder created exploitation the procedure represented in Section 4 and use the

synonym finder for feature growth in a binary classifier.

• In-Domain: during this methodology, we have a tendency to train a binary classifier exploitation the labeled knowledge from the target domain. This methodology provides an bound for the cross-domain sentiment analysis. This higher baseline demonstrates the classification accuracy we are able to hope to get if we have a tendency to had labeled knowledge for the target domain. Note that this can be not a cross-domain classification setting. Table four shows the classification accuracy of the abovementioned strategies for every of the four domains within the benchmark dataset because the target domain. Moreover, for every domain we've got shown in boldface the simplest cross-domain sentiment classification results. Note that the In-Domain baseline isn't a cross-domain sentiment classification setting and acts as a bound. From the leads to Table 4, we have a tendency to see that the

planned (sentiment sensitive thesaurus) returns the simplest cross-domain sentiment classification accuracy for all four domains. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s honestly important variations (HSD) tests on the classification accuracies for the four domains show that our planned methodology is statistically considerably higher than each the no synonym finder and non-sentiment sensitive synonym finder baselines, at confidence level zero.05. This shows that exploitation the sentiment sensitive synonym finder for feature enlargement is helpful for cross-domain sentiment classification.

5.3 Effect of Relatedness Measures

The choice of the connection live is an important call in a very thesauri-based approach. totally different|completely different} connection

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measures can list different lexical elements as neighbors for a selected lexical element.

Therefore, the set of growth candidates are going to be directly influenced by the connection measure accustomed produce the synonym finder. to check the result of the connection measure on the performance of the projected methodology, we have a tendency to construct four sentiment sensitive thesauri exploitation four totally different connection measures. we have a tendency to then conduct feature growth and coaching within the same manner as represented in Section 5 with all four connection measures. we have a tendency to use the 3 domains at a time because the sources and therefore the remaining domain because the target during this experiment. The classification accuracies obtained victimization the various connection measures are shown in Table 5. Next, we have a tendency to describe the four connection measures compared in Table 5.

TABLE 4.Comparison of different relatedness measures

Method Kitchen DVDs electron

ics

Books Overall

Cosine 0.8342 0. 7826 0.8363 0.7657 0.8047

Lin[19] 0.8367 0. 7826 0.8438 0. 7632 0.8066

Proposed 0.8518 0.7826 0.8386 0. 7632 0.8091

Reversed 0.8342 0.7852 0.8463 0.7632 0.8072

• Cosine Similarity: This is the cosine of the angle between the two

vectors that represent two lexical elements u and v. Using the notation

introduced in Section 4, it can be computed as follows:

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Here, Γ(v) = {x|f(v, x) > 0}, is the set of features x that have positive

pmi values in the feature vector for the element v. Cosine similarity is widely used as a measure of relatedness in numerous tasks in natural

language processing [23].

• Lin’s Similarity Measure: We use the similarity measure proposed

by Lin [19] for clustering similar words. This measure has shown to outperform numerous other similarity measures for word clustering

tasks. It is computed as follows:

• Proposed: This is the relatedness measure proposed in this paper

and is defined by Equation 2. Unlike the Cosine Similarity and Lin’s Similarity Measure, this relatedness measure is asymmetric.

• Reversed: As a baseline that demonstrates the asymmetric nature of

the relatedness measure proposed in Equation 2, we swap the two arguments u and v in Equation 2 to construct a baseline relatedness measure. Specifically, the reversed baseline is computed as follows:

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Fig. 2. Correlation between relatedness scores.

From Table 5 we tend to see that the planned connection measure

reports the best overall classification accuracy followed by the Reversed baseline, Lin’s Similarity measure, and therefore the cosine Similarity in this order. However, it should be noted that the variations in performance among those connection measures don't seem to be statistically significant. This result implies that a wide-range of connection measures is accustomed produce a sentiment sensitive wordbook to be used with the feature enlargement methodology planned within the paper. any investigations into the unfitness of the planned methodology to the connection measures discovered three important reasons that we'll discuss next. First, recall that the planned feature enlargement methodology (Section 5) doesn't use absolutely the worth of connection scores, however only uses the relative rank among the enlargement candidates. Therefore, two connection measures that turn out totally different absolute scores will acquire similar performance if the relative rankings among enlargement candidates ar

similar. Second, as a posterior step to feature enlargement we tend to train a binary classifier with L1 regularization exploitation source domain labelled knowledge.

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Therefore, if we tend to introduce any incorrect enlargement candidates that don't properly mirror sentiment, those enlargement

candidates are appointed zero weights. Consequently, invalid enlargement candidates are cropped out from the ultimate model learnt by the binary classifier. However, it should be emphasised that though this posterior classifier coaching step will take away incorrect expansions, it cannot introduce the proper expansions. Therefore, it's important to the performance of the planned methodology that a connection measure identifies correct enlargement candidates throughout the feature enlargement step. to review the degree of spatiality within the connection measure planned in Equation 2, and its result on the performance of the planned cross-domain sentiment classification methodology, we tend to conduct the subsequent experiment. For word pairs (u, v) within the sentiment sensitive wordbook, we tend to plot the connection scores τ (u, v) against τ (v, u) as shown in Figure two. There ar one, 000, 000 such word pairs (data

points) in Figure 2. From Figure 2, we tend to see that τ (u, v) is very related to to τ (v, u). in reality the Pearson parametric statistic for Figure 2 is as high as 0.8839 with a decent confidence interval of [0.8835, 0.8844]. This experimental result indicates that, though by definition Equation two is uneven, its level of spatiality is incredibly little in observe. each the planned methodology and its Reversed baseline (Equation 8) coverage similar accuracy values in Table five any supports this finding. we tend to take into account this perceived low level of spatiality to be a third reason that explains the similar performance among symmetric and asymmetric connection measures compared in Table 5.

5.4 Effect of using Multiple Sources

In real-world cross-domain sentiment classification settings usually we've more than one supply domains at our disposal. choosing the right supply domains to adapt to a given target domain could be a difficult

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drawback [24]. to check the result of exploitation multiple supply domain within the planned technique, we tend to choose the electronics

domain because the target and train a sentiment classifier exploitation all possible mixtures of the three source domains books (B), kitchen appliances (K), and DVDs (D). Note that we tend to fix the entire number of labeled coaching instances after we combine multiple domains as sources to avoid any performance gains just because of the magnified variety of labeled instances as already explained in Section 6.1. Specifically, once employing a single source domains we tend to take 800 positive and 800 negative labeled reviews, once exploitation two source domains we tend to take 400 positive and 400 negative labeled reviews from every source domain, and once exploitation all 3 source domains we tend to take 266 positive and 266 negative labeled reviews. Moreover, we tend to use all obtainable unlabeled reviews from every supply domain and also the target domain. Figure three shows the result of mixing multiple supply domains to make a

sentiment classifier for the physical science domain. we tend to see that the room domain is that the single Fig. 4. result of supply domain labeled information. best input domain once adapting to the electronics target domain. This behavior is explained by the actual fact that generally kitchen appliances and electronic things have similar aspects. however a additional interesting observation is that the accuracy that we tend to get {when we tend to|once we|after we} use two source domains is usually bigger than the accuracy if we use those domains severally. the best accuracy is achieved after we use all three source domains. though not shown here for house limitations, we tend to ascertained similar trends with different domains within the benchmarkdataset.

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Graph5.1: Effect of using multiple source domains.

Graph5.2.Effect of source domain labeled data.

VI ALGORITHMS

6.1 Lemmatisation

Lemmatisation is a process of identifying the lemma of a word.

Algorithms for performing this operation typically use dictionaries, where they look up the primary form of the word.

Lemmatisation may find several different lemmas for a given word, if the word is the inflected form of many various lemmas.

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The use of lemmatisation reduces the number of terms present in

the corpus and allows matching of words in documents, even if words tend to occur in different grammatical forms.

The use of lemmatisation may result in deterioration of the

classification accuracy, due to the possible occurrence of words in different forms derived from one lemma, depending on the document affiliation to one of the classes.

Pseudo Code for Lemmatisation :

1) IF suffix("") THEN transform(""-->"") EXCEPT

2) IF suffix("ote") THEN transform("ote"-->"ite")

3) ELSE IF suffix("ten") THEN transform("ten"-->"e")

4) ELSE IF suffix("s") THEN transform("s"-->"")

5) ELSE IF suffix("g") THEN transform(""-->"") EXCEPT

6) IF suffix("hing") THEN transform("ing"-->"e")

7) ELSE IF suffix("d") THEN transform("d"-->"")

8) ELSE IF suffix("e") THEN transform(""-->"")

9) ELSE IF suffix("r") THEN transform(""-->"")

10) ELSE IF suffix("f") THEN transform(""-->"")

11) ELSE IF suffix("t") THEN transform(""-->"")

6.2.Stopwords

A stop-list is a set of words that should be removed at early stage of text processing. In most cases, these are conjunctions and other words which do not contribute additional information to the content

of the sentence.

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Often, stop-list words are present in the sentence solely due to the

requirements of language’s grammar. In many cases the use of stop-lists improves accuracy and performance of text document processing

Pseudo Code for Stop words:

1 For (i=0;i<=length;i++) 2 { 3 If(word == removerword[i]) 4 { 5 Removeword(); 6 } 7 End for }

6.3 Stemming:

Stemming is a process similar to lemmatisation. It aims to extract the core of the word, referred to as the stem, from the inflectional word forms. Stemming typically involves removal and replacement of prefixes and suffixes. The result of stemming does not need to be and often is not a proper lemma

Pseudo Code Stemming:

Step 1a:

Remove matching instrumental case if preceded by double

consonants and remainder is a valid word:

al el

Then remove one of the double consonants (digraphs included)

Step 1b

Remove the following noun cases if the remainder is a valid word:

ban ben ba be ra re nak nek tól t®l ról r®l ból b®l hoz hez

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nál nél ként ig val vel

Then if the last letter of the new word is á change it to a

Else if the last letter of the new word is é change it to e

Step 2

Remove longest matching personal suffix for owned nouns if

remainder is valid word:

oké öké 'aké eké

Step 3a

Search for the longest among the following singular owner

suffixes and perform the action indicated:

ünk unk nk juk jük uk ük em om am m od ed ad öd d ja je a e o

Remove if the remainder is a valid word

ánk ájuk ám ád á

Replace with a if remainder is a valid word

énk éjük ém éd é

Replace with e if remainder is a valid word

Step 3b

Search for the longest among the following plural owner suffixes and perform the action indicated:

jaim jeim aim eim im jaid jeid aid eid id jai jei ai ei i jaink

jeink eink aink ink jaitok jeitek aitok eitek itek jeik jaik aik eik ik

Remove if the remainder is a valid word

áim áid ái áink áitok áik

Replace with a if remainder is a valid word

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éim éid éi éink éitek éik

Replace with e if remainder is a valid word

Step 4

Search for the longest among the following plural suffixes and perform the action indicated:

ök ok ek ak Remove if the remainder is a valid word ák Replace with a if remainder is a valid word ék Replace with e if remainder is a valid word

6.4 social opinion algorithm:

The method proposed in this paper for determining term’s semantic orientation is a variant of the method used in [1]. The drawback of the original method is that it assigns maximum or minimum value to all terms if they occur in only one class, regardless of the number of occurrences. Therefore, we have proposed an alternative way of calculating the semantic orientation of a term. Our method is based on the ratio of term occurence frequency in documents assigned to positive and negative classes. According to our approach the scoring function for assigning positive and negative scores to terms to terms becomes

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The score value of a term determined as above increases or decreases with changing frequency of term occurrences in

positive or negative class, even if the term occurs in only one class.

The score value of a term determined as above increases or decreases with changing frequency of term occurrences in positive or negative class, even if the term occurs in only one class. Similarly to the score method, the disadvantage of the proportional method is the noise resulting from an insufficient number of term’s instances in the training set. However, when proportional method is used, the influence of the noise is limited in comparison to the score method.

This limitation results from the use of the scaling value .The score value assigned to a term which occurs only once in the

training set is limited by the ratio of cardinalities of classes, whereas the semantic orientation of terms characteristic to positive or negative documents is often orders of magnitude greater. To further reduce the impact of the noise on the effectiveness of the algorithm, we propose to add filtering by removing from the dictionary terms that occur in fewer than β documents

the minority class in the training set. Setting the threshold β of term occurrences in the training set allows to eliminate terms that are not characteristic for any of the document classes, i.e. these terms for which conditional probabilities of term occurrences are similar for both classes, but which occurred too rarely in the training set, to have their evaluation been determined to be equal or close to zero.

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Experiments:

Test sets

The main objective of experiments was to test the accuracy of the classification algorithm proposed in Section IV. We used collections of opinions harvested from the e-commerce site Merlin, and two social networks Znany lekarz and Ceneo. The first dataset is the collection of movie reviews from the Merlin website. The reviewers were grading

movies using the scale from 1 to 5, where the reviews with grades 1 or 2 are considered negative, and the reviews with grades 4 and 5 are considered positive. We have discarded neutral reviews with grade equal to 3. The dataset consists of 1055 negative reviews and 9068 positive reviews. The second dataset contains opinions on consumer products aggregated by the website Ceneo. Among the reviews graded from 0 to 5, we have chosen 16 674 positive reviews graded 4 or 5, and 793 negative reviews with grades 0 or 1. Again, we have discarded all neutral reviews.The third dataset comes from the website Znany lekarz which gathers opinions about physicians. We have assumed that opinions associated with grades 1 and 2 on a scale 1-6 are negative, and opinions with grades 5 and 6 indicate a positive feedback. The dataset contains 2380 negative opinions and 11 764 positive opinions. In addition we have performed tests using an aggregated dataset created by merging the three datasets. The aggregated dataset contains 4228

negative opinions and 37 506 positive opinions.

Pseudo Socio-opinion Algo:

1. For(i=0;i<total comments ; i++) 2. { 3. If(points > 1) 4. { 5. Scorer ++ 6. }

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7. Else 8. {

9. Scorer – 10. } 11. Counter = 1/scorer 12. }end for 13. Total counter = counter; 14. Update Scorer

6.5 Cross domain analysis algorithm:

Input:

-Dsrc (source domain)

-Dtar (target domain)

Output: Dsrc ∩ Dtar L(Dsrc) ∩ L(Dtar)

Process: 1) Get input source domain 2) Genrate L(Dsrc) with pair (t,c) review t with label c 3) Genrate ( (∪(Dsrc)) ∪ (Dtar)) 4) For t ⋴ Dsrc

If(+ve sentiment)*P

If(-ve sentiment)*N 5) Compute a

For all i: 1to n A=C(i,w) a=A/N

6) Compute b For all j: 1to m B=C(j,u) b=B/N

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7) Compute

F =log ( , )/∗

8) Find out target domain for ‘i’ having 0 to w length if (fN > 0) a + = w(x) else a=a for j having 0 to w length if (f(u)>0) b+=w(x)

9) if (a/b > 0.5) {

Dtar = w }

Else

Continue 10) update sentiment to Dtar

VII RESULT’s

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VIII CONCLUSION

We planned a cross-domain sentiment classifier exploitation an automatically extracted sentiment sensitive synonym finder. to overcome the feature mis-match drawback in cross-domain sentiment classification, we tend to use labelled data from multiple source domains and unlabeled data from source and target domains to calculate the connection of features and construct a sentiment sensitive synonym finder. we tend to then use the created synonym finder to expand feature vectors throughout train and check times for a binary classifier. A relevant set of the options is selected exploitation L1 regularization. The planned technique considerably outperforms many baselines and reports results that ar comparable previously planned cross-domain sentiment classification strategies on a benchmark dataset. Moreover, our comparisons against the SentiWordNet show that the created sentiment-sensitive synonym finder accurately teams

words that specific similar sentiments. In future, we decide to generalize the planned technique to resolve different kinds of domain adaptation tasks.we implement it and compare the results with expected results.

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16. Z. Harris, “Distributional structure,” Word, vol. 10, pp..

17. P. Turney, “Similarity of semantic relations,” Computational

Linguistics, vol. 32, no. 3, 2006.

18. P. Pantel and D. Ravichandran, “Automatically labeling semantic classes,” in NAACL-HLT’04, 2004,

19. D. Lin, “Automatic retrieval and clustering of similar words,” in ACL 1998, 1998,

20. J. Weeds and D. Weir, “Co-occurrence retrieval: A flexible framework for lexical distributional similarity,” Computational Linguistics, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 439–475, 2006.

21. S. Sarawagi and A. Kirpal, “Efficient set joins on similarity predicates,” in SIGMOD ’04, 2004, pp. 743–754.

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22. A. Y. Ng, “Feature selection, l1 vs. l2 regularization, and rotational invariance,” in ICML 2004, 2004.

23. C. D. Manning and H. Sch ¨ utze, Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2002.

24. M. T. Rosenstein, Z. Marx, and L. P. Kaelbling, “To transfer or not to transfer,” in NIPS 2005 Workshop on Transfer Learning, 2005.

25. J. Blitzer, R. McDonald, and F. Pereira, “Domain adaptation with structural correspondence learning,” in EMNLP 2006,

26. A. Esuli and F. Sebastiani, “Sentiwordnet: A publicly available lexical resource for opinion mining,” in LREC 2006,

27. G. Qiu, B. Liu, J. Bu, and C. Chen, “Expanding domain sentiment lexicon through double propagation,” in IJCAI 2009,

28. N. Kaji and M. Kitsuregawa, “Building lexicon for sentiment analysis from massive collection of html documents,” in EMNLP

2007, 2007.

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WOMEN AND EDUCATION IN INDIA

Dr. Bheemsha D Sagar

Dept of Women’s Studies Gulbarga University. Gulbarga

“If you educate a man you educate an individual, however, if you educate a woman you educate a whole family. Women empowered means mother India empowered”.

PT. Jawaharlal Nehru

India is the second largest country in the world so far as population is concerned. But so far as education is concerned it is a

backward country. In past, women did not receive any education at all. They were not allowed to come out of the four walls of their houses. Domestic works were their only education.

During the British rule in India some noble social thinkers of the time paid their attention to the education of woman in our country. Raja Ram Mohan Ray, Iswara Chandra Vidyasagar was famous reformers who gave emphasis on the education of women. They put forth a very strong argument.

Man and woman are like the two sides of a coin. Without one, the other cannot exist. They help each other in every sphere. So education should be given to both man and woman. Further, women are the mothers of the future generation. If women are uneducated, the future generations will be uneducated. For this reason the Greek warrior Napoleon once said, "Give me a few educated mothers; I shall

give you a heroic race."

In day to day life, the real problems are faced first by women and then the same problems are conveyed to men for solution. If the women are educated, they can solve all the problems of their houses.

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Very often, the working men of some families become handicapped in unfortunate accidents. In that situation, the complete burden of the family rests on the women of the families. To meet this exigency women should be educated. They should be employed in different spheres. Women can work as teachers, doctors, lawyers and

administrators. Educated women are good mothers.

Education of women can be helpful in eradicating many social evils such as dowry problem, unemployment problem, etc. Social peace can easily be established.

Women have played a very important role in human society. They are creator; they should be given facility to get knowledge so that they may earn their own bread. Women should be taught about environmental deterioration and protection as they have played a significant role in environmental movement such as chipko movement; they played a role in protestation against the commercial exploitation of the Himalaya forest. Now the world has awaken and United Nations in 1995 realized and recognized women’s need in planning of natural resources and decision-making process.

Empowerment allows individuals to reach their full potential, to

improve their political and social participation, and to believe in their own capabilities. Gender empowerment also has important ramifications for the rest of the household; empowered women have fewer children and higher child survival rates (Rosenzweig and Schultz, 1982; Dyson and Moore, 1983), healthier and better-fed children (Lundberg, Pollak and Wales, 1997; Kanbur and Haddad, 1994), and a generally greater allocation of resources to children (Thomas, 1990; Handa, 1996). Development programs have aimed to empower women by increasing their control over contraceptive choices, by providing them access to credit, and through education.

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A large body of literature finds that a woman’s access to

employment outside the house increases her household bargaining power (Anderson and Eswaran, 2009; Rahman and Rao, 2004). The ownership of assets, in particular, is one important way through which access to employment helps empower women in developing countries (

Agarwal, 2001). In addition, several analyses have found that access to credit programs— whether through micro-finance organizations or rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCA)— has a positive effect on female empowerment (Anderson and Baland, 2002; Hashemi, Schuler and Riley,1996).

WHY WOMEN ARE NOT EDUCATED IN INDIA

In Asia, India has the lowest rates of female literacy. This is attributed to the fact the country has a biased outlook towards the education of women. The Indian society feels that a woman is a liability who will one time get married and will not contribute the economic and social development of the family. The society perceives a woman as somebody who cannot do other duties apart from her traditional duties of cooking and housekeeping. As a result, the society considers home training more important as compared to formal education.

Another contributing factor is the rapid growth of the population. Most Indian households have a number of children whose

needs are much higher than their earning capacity. This leads to the neglect of the girl education and put more emphasis on the education of the boy child. In this instance, marriage is taken more seriously as opposed to education hence a number of Indian girls are married at a younger age. This becomes as an impediment in the education of the Indian woman.

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Some of the programmes taken for women’s betterment are given below:

1. Sarwa Shiksha Abhiyan

2. Balika Samridhi Yojana

3. Indira Mahila Yojana

4. Mahila Samridhi Yojana

5. Employment and Income Generating Training-cum-Production Centres

6. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh

7. Short Stay Home for Women and Girls

8. Programme of Development of Women & Children in rural areas.

Problems Affecting Women Education

(a) Undernourishment

(b) Malnutrition

(c) Sexual harassment and abuse

(d) Lower socio-economic status

(e) Infections

(f) Forced for uncontrolled reproduction

(g) Limited education

Sarwa Shiksha Abhiyan

It is a national mission which provides quality education for 8 years between 6 and 14 years. It has following targets to achieve-

(a) By the year 2002, all districts are to be covered by the programme.

(b) By the year 2003, all children are to be taken to school, education guarantee centers and alternative school or back-to-school campus.

(c) By the year 2007, all children must complete 5 years of education.

(d) By the year 2010, all children must complete 8 years of quality elementary education.

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Present position:

Indians are conservative by nature. So, their blind faith and age old superstition stood against the female education. Now, people have felt the virtue of female education. The do not hesitate to send their daughters to schools. Now in India we find women professors, lady doctors, lady scientists, lady politicians and lady ministers. But a large number of women are still in dark. They should be educated in the

interest of our national progress.

The female education is highly necessary for the society. Because mothers are the first teachers of the children. They are the first teachers of the future citizens of the country. If the mothers be ignorant, they cannot take proper care of the children. They cannot infuse good qualities in them. Hence, the very foundation of our people will remain weak, if the females will be ignorant the society will lose the services of a powerful part of our society. So, female education is quite necessary for the girls. The women are in no way inferior to men. In western countries the women are writing books, driving cars and aero-planes, running banks and big business firms and doing research in the laboratory. There are women scientists, women officers and women writers. The typewriters, the news agents, the sales agents the commercial solicitors are mostly women. Hence, we cannot decry the

women-folk in our country. Educating an Indian woman creates a vital opportunity for the social and economic development of India. An educated Indian woman will yield a positive impact in the Indian society by contributing positively to the economy of both the country and the society.

An educated woman reduces the chances of her child dying before the age of five. The chances of controlling the population are high as an educated woman is likely to marry at a later age as opposed to uneducated woman.

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Conclusion:

India is now optimistic in the field of female education. We had the female philosophers like Gargi, Maritreyi and Viswabara in the Vedic age. We had Mirabai, Ahalyabi, Durgabati and Laxmibai in the days of history. They were all learned. Hence, we had a great tradition during the days of our degeneration. Now, we have revived. So, we will certainly revive the female education in India.

Reference

1. Anderson, S., and J.-M. Baland. 2002. “The Economics of Roscas

and Intrahousehold Resource Allocation.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 117(3): 963–995.

2. Anderson, S., and M. Eswaran. 2009. “What Determines Female Autonomy? Evidence from Bangladesh.” Journal of Development Economics, 90(2): 179 – 191.

3. Dyson and Moore’s Thesis with New Data.” Population and Development Review, 30(2): 239–268.

4. Dyson, T., and M. Moore. 1983. “On Kinship Structure, Female Autonomy, and Demographic Behavior in India.” Population and Development Review, 9(1): 35–60

5. Eeshani Kandpal Kathy Baylis Mary Arends-Kuenning : Empowering Women through Education and Influence: An Evaluation of the Indian Mahila Samakhya Program IZA DP No. 6347 February 2012 http://ftp.iza.org/dp6347.pdf

6. http://www.preservearticles.com/201104306066/short-essay-on-woman-education.html

7. http://www.shareyouressays.com/89159/short-essay-on-womens-education-in-india

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8. Kanbur, R., and L. Haddad. 1994. “Are better off households

more equal or less equal?” Oxford Economic Papers, 46(3): 445–58.

9. Lundberg, S., R. Pollak, and T. Wales. 1997. “Do husbands and wives pool their resources? Evidence from the United Kingdom

child benefit.” Journal of Human Resources, 32(3): 463–480

10. Rahman, L., and V. Rao. 2004. “The Determinants of Gender Equity in India: Examining

11. Rosenzweig, M., and T. P. Schultz. 1982. “Market Opportunities, Genetic Endowments, and Intra family Resource Distribution: Child Survival in Rural India.” The American Economic Review, 72(4): 803–815.

12. Thomas, D. 1990. “Intra-Household Resource Allocation: An Inferential Approach.” The Journal of Human Resources, 25(4): 635–664.

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WOMEN AND POLITICS IN INDIA

Dr Bheemsha D Sagar

Guest faculty Dept. of. Women’s Studies

Gulbarga University, Gulbarga, Karnataka

Social class, status, and power are predetermined by one’s gender. Within today’s patriarchal society, men simply possess greater power than women, “and enjoy greater access to what is valued by the social group.” (Code 1993, 19) Patriarchal thought produces male dominance, and authority within multiple areas, including politics. Throughout history, governments have designed laws to maintain such

divisions of power, resulting in the oppression of women. “Patriarchal power relations construct sexual differences as political differences by giving legal form to the belief that women, because of their sex, are fit only to serve as wives and mothers.” One must question how women can achieve greater influence within the male political arena if they are not viewed as equal? How are determined women attempting to change their position within society, regarding politics? Multiple changes have been made throughout history regarding the place of women in society, but are they leading towards equality?

The main goal of the women’s movement was basic citizenship rights for women. For decades, many of the first women’s groups strived for their civil, and political rights as women. Their central focus was the right to vote, and the right to run for office. The purpose was to claim a role in democratic politics. Many believed that in order to attain

political goals, the right to vote was vital. The women’s movement “has touched the lives of many Canadian women, radically transforming the nature of their everyday experiences.” .Women assumed that once the

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right to vote was granted, equality in the eyes of males was soon to follow, along with their new influence within politics.

After the right to federal franchise for women was established, females continued to be disqualified from positions within the Senate because they were not considered qualified “persons” as defined by the British North America (BNA) Act.. It was not until 1929 when five women from Alberta disputed the BNA Act, and the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council determined that women be recognized

as “persons” within the law.

Soon, it became apparent that legal rights alone would not be enough for women to acquire an impressive influence within politics. Within the nineteen sixties, and seventies, women continued to remain fixtures within the second-class, and unable to alter their status. “Women still performed most of the domestic duties; could not find adequate, affordable child care; were woefully under-represented in politics; earned a fraction of the pay men earned; faced spousal abuse, sexual assault, and sexual harassment; and had no legal access to birth control.” Many of these issues remained unimportant to politicians, and decision makers, as they did not directly affect them. Multiple women’s groups began demanding care for their children, equal pay, unrestrictive employment legislation, and the termination of sex-role stereotyping in schools, and by mass media. Once it became evident

that the government was not concerned with women’s rights, groups began to form in an attempt to correct the setback. Some women’s groups made demands on the state; others provided services for women; others offered solidarity based on ethnicity, class, ideology, sexual orientation, and disability.

Decades full of protests for women’s rights created several political gains, as well as improvements in their status; however, inequality remained. Women’s beliefs that political rights would lead to

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equal opportunity, were overshadowed by the reality that their inequality resulted in their lack of influence within politics. Multiple policies and laws may have been created or changed in an attempt to improve women’s role in society, but economic dependence, and physical reliance on men continued as issues. Women remained underrepresented within politics, holding fewer than twenty percent of federal, and provincial elected offices in Canada. “In 1998, only fourteen percent of provincially appointed judges, and twenty percent

of justices appointed by the federal government were women.” Eliminating women from political positions hindered their ability to become a valid influence within the political arena.

Unequal pay, workplace harassment, and discrimination continued to plague women in the work force. Statistics Canada released a report, Women in Canada, in 2000, detailing women’s position in society. In 1999, seventy percent of women were employed in clerical or administrative positions; teaching, nursing, and health occupations; and sales, and service occupations. The report also confirmed that women’s income remained drastically lower than men’s. Many believe that the variance between wages is due to the fact that forty-one percent of women are employed in part-time, or temporary positions; however, those employed in full-time positions only earn seventy-three percent of what male employees make. Women occupy

only twenty-two percent of the country’s highest paying jobs, but hold sixty-eight percent of the lowest paying jobs. With the lack of women in high profile positions, and the belief that women are not as valuable as men, they continue to provide no bearing on the political aspects of society.

Women continue to receive less in our patriarchal society. “Women have less political power, fewer economic resources, less security, and lower status that do men.” This continues regardless of decades dedicated to movements for women’s rights, and lobbying for

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policies designed to alter women’s status in society. For those women who are poor, immigrant, Aboriginal, or disabled, they find themselves even more inferior than other women. Therefore, the question remains, are women equal? Simply stated, they are not equal. Women continue to fight for liberal democratic political power. Their gender continues to play a role in how society will view them, as well as their position. For centuries, power has been allotted to men, which continues to this day. Few women possess great political power due to the difficulties of

obtaining customary equality within society.

In a world where men rule, how is a women able to gain great authority, and step into the political spot light? In a society where women are viewed as insignificant, how are they to influence political decision makers? The law has granted women a voice within politics; however, it remains weak and inaudible. In order for women to increase their influence in politics, they must first become equal with men. Until then, they will be viewed as inferior; therefore, not requiring influence in politics. Gradually women are gaining more power, and prestige in society. Soon, the number in high-paying jobs will increase, creating a less economically dependent gender. As women strive for these changes, men, especially politicians, will be forced to take notice. As power for women intensifies, so will their influence in politics. As the voice for women’s rights grows, so will their equality; therefore, leveling out the

playing field in the political arena for both men, and women.

Women remain underrepresented in governance and politics, although no legal impediments hinder their participation in the political process. A 1998 "Times of India" report revealed that “domestic responsibilities, lack of financial clout, rising criminalization of politics and the threat of character assassination" are making it increasingly difficult for women to be part of the political framework. Moreover, women politicians point out that even within the political parties, women are rarely found in leadership positions. In fact, "women

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candidates are usually fielded from 'losing' constituencies where the party does not want to 'waste' a male candidate".

Despite the difficulties, women have made inroads to public life mainly due to the so-called “male equivalence or kinship link”. The assumption here is that women access political life with the support, backing and contacts of the family, in particular that of the husband. In a study made in 1998 wherein 15 women were surveyed, 1/3 of the women MPs, for example, have "family support" in the background.

However, other points out that "male equivalence" is an inadequate conceptual framework. First, because it is the public sphere (e.g. state institutions, press, and political discourse) that has to be negotiated if the family decision to put forward a woman in politics is to succeed; it is not a private, but a public matter. Second, in many cases the husbands do not support the candidature of the wife at all. It is the pressure of party political bosses that forces the issue in many cases. The centralized system of distribution of seats in mass political parties helps in this context. A party's concern with levels of representation of certain groups within its ranks, and consequences for legitimacy of the party among the under-represented groups might be the motive for including women.

Together with "kinship link" and state initiatives, an important factor impacting on women's access to political life seems to be social

and political movements. These movements have created windows of opportunity and some women have been able to take advantage of these opportunities to access political life. For example, the national movement was an important mobilizer of women. Gandhi's contribution to bringing women into politics is well-documented; the left movement also mobilized women. Women's organizations were constituted under the umbrella and control of the party the Mahila Congress and the All India Women's Federation (CPI).

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The 1993 passage of the "Panchayati Raj" constitutional

amendments reserved 30 percent of seats in elected village councils (Panchayats) for women, which has brought more than 1 million elected women into the political life at the grassroots level. The passage of the "Panchayati Raj" was due to the Seventy-third Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992, a central government law which is supposed to be enacted by all the states and union territories. The panchayats have been assigned various subjects ranging from agriculture to

poverty eradication. The panchayats have a five-year tenure, and they are given 29 subjects to look after ranging from agriculture, forestry, and fisheries to family planning, health and education.

As of 2002, there were 70 women in the 783-seat legislature. There were 6 women in the Cabinet. A large proportion of women participated in voting throughout the country (with turnout rates slightly lower than those of men), and numerous women were represented in all major parties in the national and state legislatures.

The Emergence of Gender Issues

Gender has been a central ‘issue’ in India since the colonial encounter. An overwhelming preoccupation with the “woman’s question” arose from the 19th century social reform movement, crucially informed anti-colonial nationalism, and remains a point of crisis in India’s cultural, social, and political space. The recognition of gender as an issue forms the basis for India’s women’s movement. One prominent gender concern was status— that is, the rewards and

benefits that accrued to women on India’s journey to self-determination, statehood, democracy, progress, modernity, and development. In 1974 the Indian government published a report, Towards Equality, That put status of women forcefully on the national agenda by arguing that the position of Indian women had declined, not improved, since 1911 (Committee on the Status of Women 1974). As a

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result development and progress became gender issues Data on gender discrimination in employment, education, land distribution, inheritance, nutrition, and health became impossible to overlook.

At the same time violence against women was on the rise and widely reported in the media. There were cases of rape in police custody, wife murder (usually called bride-burning or dowry deaths) on a large scale, and sexual harassment in the workplace and on the street. Women’s issues entered the fields of culture, religion, and law; of

family and community structures; of the problems of and official responses to population, poverty, illiteracy, and labor; and of the new social movements of dalits, environmentalists, tribals, anti-dam activists, peasants, and trade unions. Rajeswari Sunder Rajan, taking stock of the 50th independence celebrations, comments that in “all these discourses, disciplines and sites of action, gender began to figure as an ‘issue’ as well as a category of analysis”.

This paper addresses this critical challenge. It seeks, through historical analysis, to understand the cleavages in the women’s movement by examining the two most divisive issues before it: the Uniform Civil Code and the move to reserve for women one-third of the seats in legislative bodies. But it also mines the promise of a transformative (feminist) politics. Today there is not one women’s movement in India, an overarching collective in which gender politics is

articulated. Yet the multiplicity of sites, disciplines, and discourses makes for vibrant gender politics. Although women often define and identify themselves through difference and conflict rather than through similarity or common belonging, this paper uses the term women’s movement.

This approach is justified because analytical categories often must indulge in abstraction from the perceptions and definitions of social actors, so the term can be used to indicate a variety of campaigns

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around issues important to women. Moreover, I wish to affirm the possibility— and even necessity— for a women’s movement to exist, to offer women the possibility of a space outside the structures, if not also the identities, of community.

Reserving Seats for Women in Legislative Bodies

In September 1996 the United Front government introduced the Constitution (Eighty-first) Amendment Bill, which sought to reserve for women one-third of the seats in Lok Sabha and state assemblies. In the preceding elections almost all political parties had promised such reservation in their manifestos. The bill was referred to a joint select

committee under the chairpersonship of Gita Mukherjee, a veteran member of Parliament from the Communist Party of India. The resubmitted bill was hotly debated in the House in 1997 and 1998. Since then the bill has been stalled. It remains on the agenda in each parliamentary session, but with current political instability, no party is willing to take on such a controversial issue.

Empowerment and political representation Empowerment is the buzzword of the 1990s. But there is little consensus on the definition and use of the term. Indeed, most of the time it seems to be transparent, and so not in need of definition. Eempowerment is a “process that enhances the ability of disadvantaged (powerless) individuals and groups to challenge and change (in their favour)

existing power relationships that place them in subordinate economic, social and political positions.” In a general way, the emphasis on power is a response to post-feminist (and feminist) critiques of the earlier focus on victimization. But indiscriminate application of the term is likely to trivialize it and defuse its potential. Devaki Jain rightly points out that “to say inputs of education, better health facilities or toilets are empowering… is misusing the word and misleading policy. ”Toilets by themselves cannot be empowering, but the exercise of power by

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certain groups may lead to a situation where most people are denied basic facilities, like toilets, and the goal should be to empower underprivileged groups so that they can claim such facilities. Empowerment is about power— and politics is the field where power is negotiated. Achieving empowerment requires the women’s movement to operate in the field of politics, not only in the manner in which it redefines the field (the personal is the political) but also in the arena where power is brokered— the public world of formal, institutionalized

politics. In India the demand for reserved seats in legislative bodies did not arise from the women’s movement, but the alacrity with which a section of the movement picked it up reflects a political understanding of empowerment and shifts in the women’s movement. A crucial step has been taken since the 1980s, from protest politics toward the political mainstream, in order to actualize the movement’s claims of playing a transformative role in society and politics. In addition, there is growing awareness that since governments matter, women must be part of them. This awareness was reflected in the platform for action developed at the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, one of the goals of which was to increase women’s participation in political institutions. In fact, the government claimed the reservation bill to be a fulfillment of the pledge made at Beijing. But despite their best intentions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) cannot claim

true and authentic representation of a tenuously defined “people” relative to democratically elected governments.Indian women have had little representation in institutional politics since independence. The largest share of women in Parliament occurred in 1985, when the women’s movement was at its peak. Since then women’s representation has fallen. The women’s constituency is fragmenting rather than consolidating. There is an urgent need for political intervention. The issue of reservation is meaningful for women’s leadership; feminist arguments and advocacy now have to deepen into validating claims

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about the quality of leadership. Leadership is essential because feminist claims on the political arena are not just to share power but to change the nature of power; not just to govern but to change the nature of governance. Women have many ways of enhancing, transforming, and expanding the notion of power and politics and giving full meaning to the concept of representation. All this requires us to address the broader field of power and politics. Action at the local level can be useful. But such action inevitably remains at the margins and has

limited transformative potential. Only a strong political content can make empowerment a reality. Similarly, empowerment can be made meaningful for women only by enhancing the political-ideological content of development. The definition of “political” has to reach out to the widest arena of power. Moreover, to be effective players in the distribution of power and resources, women have to stake a claim not only on the state’s munificence, but also on state power.

As noted, the issue of reservation did not emanate from the women’s movement. Nor has the debate been confined to the movement. The possibility of such a large claim by women is of major significance to established and entrenched interests. Passions have risen to a fever pitch, both in Parliament and outside, especially in the visual and print media. Notably, the public ascribes authorship of the measure to feminists. Many feminists have welcomed the bill and the

political vicissitudes through which it is passing.

Male members of Parliament who oppose the bill have indulged in aggression and violence on the floor of the House; and there has been explicit male collusion to block the bill.15 The “male plot,” says Jain, has actually done women a service by uniting women parliamentarians across party lines as never before. Yet the Indian women’s movement is bitterly divided on the issue. One section, led by leftist females members of Parliament, has vociferously campaigned in its favor. But

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an equal number of activists have been hesitant, doubtful, indifferent, and even hostile to the proposed measure.

Progress and problems

Women’s participation in local governance had already been discussed in the context of Panchayat Raj, introduced in 1957. The solution at that time was a provision for co-opting two women who were interested in work among women and children (Balwantrai Mehta Commitee Report). The 1961 Maharashtra Zilla Parishad and Panchayat Samiti Act provided for the nomination of one or two women

if they were not elected, and the 1973 West Bengal Panchayat Act provided for coopting two women. The major breakthrough came in 1983 when a law was passed in the southern state of Karnataka to reserve for women 25 percent of seats in local councils. In 1987 the first elections were held. The impetus came not from the women’s movement but from Janata Dal, whose ideology was a mix of democratic socialism and Gandhian politics, and as part of a pro-people agenda. This initiative was adopted nationally 10 years later, in April 1993, when the Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act 1992 and The Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Act 1992 were passed. The first related to panchayats and the second to municipalities. In all panchayats and municipalities one-third of seats were reserved for women. One-third of the offices of chairpersons of panchayats and municipalities were also reserved for women. The full effects of this radical step have yet to be realized. However, in 1987-92 Karnataka

had 14,000 women in its development councils. In 1991 in Orissa, 22,000 women were elected to panchayats. In Kerala 30 percent of seats were reserved, but women won 35 percent. In 1994 in the Madhya Pradesh panchayati polls, 33 percent of seats were reserved, but women won 43 percent. In West Bengal in the same year, the all-women Kultikori panchayat took office with 11 members. In just two to three years, from about 1 percent elected women and 4-5 percent total

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women in local government bodies, there were more than 350,000 women. This figure is expected to rise to about 1 million. The panchayati reservations were passed in a sudden move that generated little debate and no opposition. Male Parliament members “gave” women one-third of the seats in the lowest elected bodies in the country. This measure had (or still has) the potential of revolutionizing not only the common lot of village women but also India’s political culture. Immediately after the first round of elections, there was a

great deal of skepticism. Studies in West Bengal showed that in many areas, women’s inexperience allowed their marginalization; that given the limited power and resources of the panchayats, women’s roles were highly circumscribed; and that political parties included women for panchayati representation without allowing them voice in party decision making. A second round of elected women are now in office, and activists and scholars argue that there have been many benefits. True, many of the women elected had little or no political experience, but they have gained self-confidence. These women have questioned priorities in panchayat programs and stressed “domestic” issues like fuel, water, schools, and the proximity of services. Women have been less committed to party interests and been able to build broad alliances among themselves.

Some argue that the success of the panchayati reservations has

been an eye-opener. The backlash has hardened male opposition to women’s inclusion in higher decision making bodies. Nevertheless, the 81st Amendment Bill was proposed. Its provisions were similar to the 73rd and 74th amendments: one-third of seats in Lok Sabha and state assemblies were to be reserved for women along with the existing provisions for SC/ST (Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes). The justification given was that since independence, women’s participation in Parliament has been quite limited And in 1995 women accounted for just 3.9 percent of the members of state assembles

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Thus there is an urgent need to redefine feminist political

agency— to allow for the possibility of secular political collectives to which women can belong not by ascription, but by voluntary participation. In other words, to rebuild the fragmented constituency of women. But the solution may not lie in a revitalized national women’s movement, particularly in the current context of economic fragility and political instability. There is already the contours of a women’s movement, actual or potential, in the impressive networking capacities

of autonomous groups and the mobilizing potential of left-led women’s groups. We need to recognize the importance of women’s associations at the local and regional levels without retreating into the irreducibly local. The developing and strengthening of local institutions is also necessary, and seems to dominate women’s movements in the late 1990s. The question is how to mobilize these institutions for a transformative feminist politics— that is, to ensure that these localized struggles face and accommodate the challenges posed by community and caste politics without allowing them to displace gender concerns.

Reference

1. Arscott, Jane. 1998. In the Presence of Women: Representation in Canadian Governments. Toronto: Harcourt Brace.

2. Brodie, Janine. 1995. Politics on the Margins: Restructuring and the Canadian Women’s Movement. Halifax: Fernwood.

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108



FINDING THE OPTIMAL NUMBER OF TICKETING COUNTERS AT MUMBAI SUBURBAN RAILWAY STATIONS

USING QUEUING THEORY

R Arvind Srivatsan Department of Production

Engineering NIT Trichy, India

R Abhishiekh Department of Production

Engineering NIT Trichy, India

Dr. Koilakuntla Maddulety

Associate Professor National Institute of Industrial Engineering (NITIE)

Vihar Lake Post , Mumbai ,India I. INTRODUCTION

Mumbai has an extensive network of suburban rapid transit system

which transports 7.24 million people daily. Spread over a distance of

432 Km, this suburban system is one of the busiest and crowded rapid

transit systems in the world. There are a total of 136 stations spread

over 3 lines, the Central, Western and Harbor Lines.

Purchasing of tickets for the travel is done by and large on a daily basis

through manual ticketing counters, though a small fraction of people

use monthly passes and smart cards while commuting. Thus, the

queues at the ticketing counters generally overflow during peak hours

causing difficulties to commuters and decreasing the system’s

efficiency greatly which calls for optimization.

Since the suburban system is the de-facto lifeline for the city’s

transportation needs optimizing its ticketing system would provide a

great deal of logistic and economic advantages. Therefore this paper

aims to achieve the same by considering the system as a multi-server

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infinite length queuing model and solve for the fundamental quantities

of the system. Using these quantities the number of servers

corresponding to maximum operational economy and minimum

waiting time would be found.

1.1 Introduction to queuing models

Queues are a very common phenomenon experienced by people in their

everyday lives. Merriam Webster dictionary defines a queue as “A line

of people who are waiting for something“. Common examples of queues

are the ones that are formed at ticketing counters, hospitals, banks etc.

More technical examples include manufacturing systems, computer

networks etc.

In general, a queuing system is one where people who require a

particular service arrive, wait in a queue and then get served by a

server and leave the system [2].

As much as queues form a part of our daily lives so do the delays that

are caused as a result of waiting in it. These delays result in wastage of

precious time and also tend to cause economic losses. Thus, studying

these queuing systems to improve their performance has been of great

research interest.

Queuing Theory is the mathematical study of these queuing systems.

This generally involves the construction of a mathematical model to

predict the waiting times and lengths of a given queue. The concept of

Queuing theory was first devised by Danish mathematician Agner

Krarup Erlang.

1.2 Characteristics of Queuing Models

Arrival and Service Patterns: In Queuing models, customer

arrivals into the system and service times generally follow particular

probability distributions [1]. From these distributions two basic

110



elements of any queuing system are obtained, these are the Arrival rate and the Service rate.

Arrival rate is the number of arrivals into the system during an

interval of time, it is represented as λ/hour. Service rate is the number

of services carried out by the server in a queuing system during an

interval of time, it is represented as μ/hour.

The ratio λ/μ is called the server efficiency and for an infinite queue

length the server efficiency ρ>1, this is because if λ>μ, then a person

entering the queue might never get served and the queue length always

keeps increasing, for a multiple server queuing system the value of ρ

=λ/cμ where c is he number of servers.

An assumption made here is the system is considered to have exhibit a

Markovian or memory less property which is the independence of the

future from the past given the present that is, the property states that

a customer currently in service has t units of service left is independent

of the time elapsed since the commencement of the service [3]. Systems

having markovian property have arrival rates following a poisson

distribution and the service times following an exponential

distribution.

Number of servers: The systems can be a single server or a multiple

server queuing systems. Common example of a single server type is a

hospital where the patients who wait in a queue are served by one

doctor, whereas the railway ticketing is an example for multiple sever

system. Increasing the number of servers decreases the queue length

and the waiting time but at the same time results in excess cost for

operation of the additional server.

Queue length: This is the maximum allowable length of queue in a

system. The systems can have finite or infinite queue length. In an

infinite queue length model, every person who comes, joins the queue

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whereas in an finite model, there is a restriction of queue length up to

a certain limit, if the thresh hold limit is reached people who come into

the system cannot or do not join the system.

Population size: The queuing systems can either have an infinite and

a finite population. In the former there is no limit to the number of

people who can be present in the system whereas in a finite model

there is a restriction to the number of people in the system, a good

example for this is the public distribution centers, here the number of

people getting served by it are restricted to the number living in this

area. Generally a queuing system is considered to be an infinite

population system.

Queuing Discipline: In any a queuing system a particular discipline

or methodology is adopted while service is done. Common types are

First in First out (FIFO), Last in first out (LIFO), Random Service,

Priority Service. In general when humans are involved in the service

providing FIFO principle is followed extensively

Kendall’s notation is widely used to represent a queuing system, it is

done as follows:1/2/3:4/5/6

Where,

1: Distribution of Arrival Rates

2: Distribution of Service times

3: Number of servers

4: Queue length

5: Population Size

6: Queuing Discipline

The Kendall’s representation for the considered model is: M/M/c:∞/∞

where ‘M’ represents Markovian property of the arrival and the service

rates and ‘c’ represents the number of servers. It can also be

112



understood that the maximum Queue length and population size are

infinity, since there is no mention of queuing discipline, it is considered

as First in First Out by default.

1.3 Customer Behavior in Queuing Systems

Customer behavior in a queuing system is classified into the following

types:

Balking: If an arriving customer leaves without joining the system

then he is said to balk from the system. Balking is of two types, when

the circumstances force a person to balk from the system, it is called as

forced balking whereas a voluntary balking is called as unforced

balking.

Reneging: If an arriving customers joins the system but exits it before

being served then he is said to renege from the system.

Jockeying: This is a phenomenon that happens in a multiple server

system, a person is said to jockey if he keeps switching from one queue

to another in the queuing system.

In this particular paper the effects of Balking, Reneging and Jockeying

have been ignored.

1.4 Measures of Performance of Queuing Systems

Under steady state conditions the following measures of performance

are determined.

Expected Length of System Ls: This is the expected number of

people present at any given time in the queuing system, this includes

even the number of people who are currently getting served by the

server.

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Expected Length of the Queue Lq: This is the expected number of

people present at any given time in the queue, this does not include the

number of people getting served.

Expected Waiting time in the system Ws: This is the expected time

any person spends waiting in the system.

Expected Waiting time in the Queue Wq: This is the expected time

any person spends waiting in the queue.

These values are very important from a customer point of view.

Ls and Lq are related to Ws and Wq respectively in the following way:

Ls = λWs (1.1)

Lq = λWq (1.2)

This relation is known as the Little’s Law [16].

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Over the years Queuing Theory has gained popularity for its simple

and effective approach towards optimization of systems and have been

used extensively and researched upon. A majority of this research is

concentrated in the field of healthcare and allied services.

Eman Almehdawe et al [4] constructs a queuing model of an

emergency service by taking into account the ambulance offload delay.

Two types of customers, ambulance and walk-in customers are

considered and the effect of service distribution on waiting time is

studied and it is found that off load delays are insensitive to the service

distribution while walk-in waiting times are lesser for exponential

service times rather than an Erlang distribution. Lakshmi C et al [5]

presents a review of the contributions in the applications of queuing

principles in the design of health care system design especially

Ambulatory care, Hospital and primary services.

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Apart from health queuing theory research has been expanded to

numerous other areas some of which are manufacturing, air transport

and optimsation of services such as ATM and restaurants.

Manish K Govil et al [6] provides an overview of and then devices

queuing model for model for different types of manufacturing systems.

H.T Papaduoplous et al [7] studies the queuing models for production

lines in manufacturing systems and finds that adding buffers to

production lines has no effect on the production rates.

Mehri et al [8] uses an M/G/c queue to represent a toll motorway and

uses simulation to arrive at measures of performance for the system.

Yanagisawa et al [9] studies the effect of walking distance in the

waiting time of a queuing system and then compares a parallel and

forked parallel system and arrives that a parallel system is more

efficient than a normal forked parallel queuing system.

Marianov et al [10] designs an M/D/c queuing system to study the

choosing of hubs for airlines for minimal transportataion and

congestion by considering using the probabilty of a number of palnes in

the system at particular time as the constraint.

In above studies have mostly used non-standard queuing models which

are difficult to be modelled analytically and requires simulation.

Batabayal [11] finds that though a non-standard stochastic model

generally depicts the system more accurately, at moderate crowding a

standard M/M/c queue can provide more or less similar results.

Dharmawirya et al [12] analyses the measures of performances of a

restaurant by using an M/M/1 queuing model considering the balking

of customers when Lq value reaches a threshold limit. A similar study

is done by Patel et al [13] for an ATM service.

Hwong et al [14] introduces a joint strategy of improving service

performance and operational economy and shows that both these

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features are not inversely related as popularly presumed. Acharya et al

[15] uses a similar strategy to find optimal number of service counters

in a library.

This paper aims at constructing a similar queuing model for optimizing

the overcrowding plagued yet largely addressed ticketing service of the

Mumbai Suburban Railway. A standard M/M/c queuing model is

considered and strategy inspired from [13] and [14] of combining

operational economy with improved service has been implemented in a

slightly different manner.

III. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Basic Principle

The framework for optimization proposed in this paper is as follows,

the number of arrivals and the time taken to serve each customer is

measured for fixed time intervals and using these the average arrival

rate and the average service rate is computed. Using these as input

parameters, the performance indicators of the system Lq, Ls, Wq and

Ws are estimated.

For the purpose of optimization we consider a quantity called Total

cost which is the sum of server operation cost and the customer

waiting cost the customer waiting cost component takes into account

the precious time lost in waiting in the queue and emphasizes lower

wait time. Increasing the number of servers time reduce the customer

waiting costs but at the same time increase the server operational cost.

By considering two cost components we ensure both maximum service

performance and operational economy. Thus trade-offs between the

two cost-components is done to arrive at the minimum total cost. The

number of servers corresponding to this minimal total cost is

established as the optimal number.

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Mathematically the total cost per hour Ct is calculated as follows:

Ct = Server operation cost per hour (Cs) * Number of servers +

Customer waiting costs per hour (Cc)

3.1.1 Server operation cost per hour.

Every ticketing counter is manned by a single person with a computer

and a printer to issue tickets. The average salary of each person was

found to be Rs 30,000 by interviewing the employees. Every employee

works for an average of 7 hours per day. Considering the salary as the

only significant cost, the cost of maintaining one server for one hour is

calculated from observation as:

Cs = Average salary per month / (24*7)

= 30000 / (24*7)

= Rs 178.5

3.1.2 Customer Waiting costs per hour

The average salary of Mumbai city is Rs 14,700 The cost lost due to

waiting in the queue for one person is

Cc/person = Average salary per month / (24*7)

= 14700 / (24*7)

= Rs 87.5

The customer waiting cost per hour = Cc/person * Ls

Ct = 178.5* Number of servers + 87.5*Ls

3.2 Data Collection

The station chosen for the study is Ghatkopar station in the central

line. Ghatkopar is a suburb in eastern Mumbai and an important

station where fast trains towards CST/Thane stop. The station sells an

average of 35,000 tickets daily [18].

117



The rate of arrival of customers/people coming into the station and the

rate at which they are being served are the quantities that are

measured. The station has a maximum of 4 ticketing counters, thus at

any particular time the number of servers operational were 4 or less.

The study was conducted for a total of 6 days which comprised 5 week

days and a Saturday from 8:30 am to 6:00pm and 8:30 am to 10:00am

during the weekdays and the weekend respectively

Arrival Rate: The number of people arriving during these intervals

and the time in between 2 arrivals were measured using a digital stop

watch and arrival rate for one hour was calculated as: No of people

entering the system in the interval / Total time taken during the

interval.

During weekdays the number of servers operational at various

intervals and the arrival rates during those interval were averaged to

be as follows:

Arrival Rate is calculated as

Table 3.1:

Time Interval

No of customers per server

No of servers operational

Total Arrival Rate

Server Efficiency

8:30-10:30 310 4 620 0.971360531

10:30-12:00 210 3 420 0.877357899

12:00-13:00 116 3 348 0.726953688

13:00-15:00 276 2 276 0.864824215

15:00-16:00 84 3 252 0.52641474

16:00-16:30 60 2 240 0.752021057

16:30-18:00 165 3 330 0.689352635

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The same for weekends was found as follows:

Table 3.2:

Time Interval

No of customers per server

No of servers operational

Total Arrival Rate

Server Efficiency

8:45-

10:00 142 3 341 0.712331056

Note: The Arrival Rate measured here is the net arrival rate into the

station and not the arrival rate for one server.

From Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 it is seen that readings are taken for 7

different shifts, some of these shifts having similar arrival rate and

number of servers were merged and the following new shifts are

established:

Table 3.3:

Shifts Average Arrival Rate

Week Day 8:30-10:30 620

Week Day 10:30-1:00 391

Week Day 1:00-4:00 260

Week Day 4:00-6:00 308

Weekends 341

Service Times: Since the station has a total of 4 servers, the time

taken to serve a customer was computed for different servers at

random time intervals throughout the course of 6 days. Again a digital

stop watch was used for this purpose.

119



The average service time for a customer was found as 22.56 seconds.

The average service rate μ = Number of customers served in one hour

= 3600/Average Service time

= 3600/22.56

= 159.57

Thus μ = 159.57

3.3 Derivation for Obtaining Quantities of Performance Measure [2]

Thus the equations for Ls, Lq, Ws and Wq are derived as follows:

We assume the arrival rate of λ/hour following a Poisson distribution

and the service rate of μ/hr to following exponential distribution

By assuming markovian property we can conclude that at an instant

only one event can occur. This event can either be an arrival or service.

Since Ls, Lq, Ws and Wq are expected values, these are dependent on

the steady state probability pn that there are n people in the system.

The probability that at any time there are 0,1,2,....n people in the

system is p0,p1,p2…..pn.

From the previous assumption of a markovian property:

pn(t+h) = pn-1(t) * One arrival and no service + pn+1(t) * One service and

no arrival + pn(t) * No service and no arrival. (3.1)

Where pn(t) is the steady state probability that there are n people in

the system at a time.

The probability of one arrival and one service at an interval h is λh and

μh respectively, substituting in Eq 3.1 we get

pn(t+h) = pn-1(t)*(λh)*(1-μh) + pn+1(t)*(μh)*(1-λh) + pn(t)*(1-μh)*(1-λh)

(3.2)

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On simplifying and neglecting higher order terms of h we get

pn-1(t)*λ + pn+1(t)*μ + pn(t)*(λ+μ) (3.3)

Since system is in steady state left hand side becomes zero thus,

pn(t)*(λ+μ)= pn-1(t)*λ + pn+1(t)*μ (3.4)

Probability that there are zero persons in the system is,

p0(t+h) = p1(t)*(μh)*(1-λh) + p0(t)*(1-λh)*1, because the probability of

no service when the number of people in the queue is 0 is 1. (3.5)

On simplifying and neglecting higher order terms of h we get

p1(t)*μ + p0(t)*λ (3.6)

Since system is in steady state left hand side becomes zero thus,

p1 = p0 (3.7)

Substituting n=1 in Eq 3.7 we get,

P1(t)*(λ+μ)= p0(t)*λ + p2(t)*μ (3.8)

From Eq 3.7 and Eq 3.8 we get,

p2 = p1

= )2p0 (3.9)

Thus we can write pn as,

pn = )np0 = ρnp0 (3.10)

We know that there are c number of servers so,

The service rate when there are n people in the system is written as

μn = nμ when n<c

121



=cμ when n>c

Therefore considering this Eq 3.10 is modified as,

pn = )n p0 When n <c and, (3.11)

pn = p0 When n≥c (3.12)

The sum of all steady state probabilities is 1 therefore,

p0 + p1+p2+….pn = 1 (3.13)

Substituting Eq 3.11 and Eq 3.12 in Eq 3.13 we get,

(3.14)

On simplifying we get,

p0 = (3.15)

Substituting in Eq 3.11 and Eq 3.12 the value of pn can be found.

In a multiple server system the expected length of queue is zero when

n < c, thus the values of Lq are computed for n ≥ c, Thus

Lq = = = (3.16)

On simplifying we get,

Lq = (3.17)

Knowing Lq, Ls can be calculated as

Ls = Lq + ρ (expected number of people being served) (3.18)

Ws and Wq can be calculated using Eq 1.1 and Eq 1.2, Ws = Ls/λ

(3.19)

Wq =Lq/λ (3.20)

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Thus by knowing values for λ and μ, we find the steady state

probabilities pn from which Ls, Lq, Ws and Wq for the system is

calculated.

IV. CALCULATIONS

The values of Lq, Ls, Ws and Wq are calculated for each time interval

specified in Table 3.3 and total cost is computed by considering

diferent values for the number of servers.

4.1 Weekdays

4.1.1 8:30 am to 10:30 am

Table 4.1

Number of

Servers Ls Lq Ws Wq Total cost

4 35.67307 31.78763 0.05754 0.05127 3835.393625

5 5.66609 1.78065 0.00914 0.00287 1388.282875

6 4.35871 0.47327 0.00703 0.00076 1452.387125

7 4.0347 0.14926 0.00651 0.00024 1602.53625

8 3.93369 0.04825 0.00634 0.00008 1772.197875

Model Calculations:

ρ =

Lq =

Ls = 31.78763 + 3.88544 =35.67307

Wq = Lq/620 = 0.05127

Ws = Ls/629 = 0.05754

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The total cost is plotted in a graph as a function of the number of

servers:

Fig. 4.1

From the graph it is clearly seen that minimum total cost is obtained

when number of servers is 5.

Current number of servers: 4

Optimal number of servers: 5

4.1.2 10:30 am to 1:00 pm

Table 4.2

No of


3 8.19336 5.56129 0.07951 0.01324 1252.419

4 3.33606 0.70399 0.00794 0.00168 1005.90525

5 2.80416 0.17209 0.00668 0.00041 1137.864

6 2.67797 0.04589 0.00638 0.00011 1305.322375

7 2.64411 0.01204 0.0063 0.00003 1480.859625

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The total cost as a function of number of servers:

Fig. 4.2

Original number of servers: 5


4.1.3 1:00pm to 4:00pm

Table 4.3

No of


2 4.84529 3.21591 0.01864 0.01237 780.962875

3 1.96831 0.33894 0.00757 0.0013 707.727125

4 1.69522 0.06584 0.00652 0.00025 862.33175

5 1.6428 0.01342 0.00632 0.00005 1036.245

6 1.63199 0.00261 0.00628 0.00001 1213.799125

125



The total cost is plotted as a function of the number of servers

Fig. 4.3



4.1.4 4:00pm to 6:00 pm

Table 4.4

No of


2 28.13923 26.20905 0.09136 0.08509 2819.182625

3 2.67387 0.74368 0.00868 0.00241 769.463625

4 2.0768 0.14661 0.00674 0.00674 895.72

5 1.96316 0.03298 0.00637 0.00637 1064.2765

6 1.93747 0.00728 0.00629 0.00002 1240.528625

126



The total cost plotted as a function of number of servers

Fig. 4.4



4.2 Weekends

Table 4.5

No of


3 3.40127 1.26424 0.00997 0.00371 833.111125

4 2.37711 0.24012 0.00697 0.0007 921.997125

5 2.19352 0.05653 0.00643 0.00017 1084.433

6 2.15038 0.01336 0.00631 0.00004 1259.15825

7 2.14001 0.00301 0.00628 0.00001 1436.750875

127



The total cost plotted as a function of number of servers

Fig. 4.5



V. ANALYSIS

Thus the number of servers for each shift/interval having the lowest

total cost is considered optimal.

These are summarized as follows

Table 5.1

Shifts Average Arrival Rate Optimal No of Servers

Week Day 8:30-10:30 620 5

Week Day 10:30-1:00 391 4

Week Day 1:00-4:00 260 3

Week Day 4:00-6:00 308 3

Weekends 341 3

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5.1 Comparison of Costs

5.1.1 Weekdays

5.1.1.1 Original coats

Table 5.2

Time Arrival Rate

No of Servers

Ls Cost per hour

Total Cost per slot

8:30-10:30 620 4 35.6730

7

3835.39362

5 7670.78725

10:30-12:00 420 3 8.19336 1252.419 1878.6285

12:00-1:00 348 3 3.59853 850.371375 850.371375

1:00-3:00 276 2 6.86153 957.383875 1914.76775

3:00-4:00 252 3 1.87484 699.5485 699.5485

4:00-4:30 240 2 3.46183 659.910125 329.9550625

4:30-6:00 330 3 3.12619 809.041625 1213.562438

Total Cost 14557.62088

The total cost of the system for 8:30 am to 6:00 pm was found as Rs 14557.62

5.1.1.2 Optimized costs

Table 5.3

Shifts Average Arrival Rate

Optimal No of Servers

Ls Cost per hour Total Cost per slot

8:30-10:30 620 5 5.66609 1388.275 2776.55 10:30-1:00 391 4 2.93 970.375 2425.9375 1:00-4:00 260 3 1.96831 707.727 2123.181 4:00-6:00 308 3 3.40127 769.434 1538.868

Total Cost 8864.5365

The optimized cost for the same duration is found as Rs 8854.54

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5.1.2 Weekends

During weekends, we find the original number and the optimal

number of servers are equal, thus the existing system is optimal

Table 5.4

Shifts

Average

Arrival

Rate

Optimal No

of Servers Ls

Cost per

hour

Total Cost per

slot

8:45-

10:00 341 3

3.4012

7 833.111125 1041.388906

Both Original and Optimal cost is Rs 1041.39 per slot

5.1.3 Cost Saved (Weekdays)

Thus the difference in cost is Rs 5604.26

The percentage of cost saved is 38.49%

5.2 Benefits of the Study

Apart from the obvious monetary benefit, it is also seen that the

performance measures Ls and Ws are greatly reduced for the optimal

number of servers as compared to current operating number. Here we

are able to achieve better performance of the queuing system at lower

costs and thus ensuring improved customer satisfaction.

Another observation that can be done here is the reduction in the

number of shifts as a result more homogenization in the number of

servers during the shift leading to easy of shift planning.

5.3 Limitations of the Study

The study conducted had the following limitations

The study ignores phenomenon of balking and reneging

130



The pattern of arrival rate is extremely unpredictable and may vary

with different times of the year (during festivals etc.) and data

taken over a period of 6 days may not be very reliable

The priority system for first class passengers ( though very few in

number as compared to the regular class passengers ) has been

ignored

5.4 Scope for Further Studies

The model can be improved to overcome its inherent limitations. An

extensive long-term study showing seasonal variations can be done to

make the model move closer to the real one. Accurate automated

simulation and prediction of customer arrival data for the model can

also be developed by the usage of sophisticated analytics software.

VI. CONCLUSIONS

The multiple server queuing model was used to represent the railway

ticketing system. Using measured data for the arrival rate and service

rate the measures of performance for the queuing system were

calculated.

A quantity total cost containing two components namely server

operational cost and customer waiting cost was defined taking into

account the cost of additional cost of having extra servers and the loss

to customers as a result of waiting in the queue. Tradeoff between the

components was done to obtain the optimal number of servers having

minimum total cost which corresponds to maximum operational

economy and minimum waiting times.

The total costs of obtained as a result of the optimized number of

servers was compared to the existing number of servers. It was

observed that the new model not only saved about 38% of the total but

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also provides drastic reduction in the queue length and waiting times

than the previous model.

Finally the limitations of the paper were briefly discussed paving way

for further improvements to making the study more infallible.

Thus the above considered framework provides an effective method by

helping predict customer flow, reducing cost, waiting times and

ensuring good Quality of Service (QoS).

References

1. H.A. Taha, Operations Research-An Introduction. 8th Edition,

ISBN 0131889230. Pearson Education, 2007.

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3. Donald Cross, John F Shortle, James M Thomson, Carl M

Harris, Fundamental of Queuing Theory.

4. Eman Almehdawe, Beth Jewkes, Qi-Ming He, A Markovian

queuing model for ambulance offload delays.

5. Lakshmi C, Sivakumar Appa Iyer, Application of queuing theory

in health care: A literature review.

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Manufacturing: A Survey

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8. Houda Mehri, Taoufik Djemel, Study and Simulation of Queuing

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9. Daichi Yanagisawa, Yushi Suma, Akiyasu Tomoeda, Ayako

Miura, Kazumichi Ohtsuka, Katsuhiro Nishinari,Walking-

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distance introduced queuing model for pedestrian queuing

system: Theoretical analysis and experimental verification.

10. Vladimir Marianov, Daniel Serra, Location models for airline

hubs behaving as M/D/c queues.

11. Amitrajeet A. Batabyal, The queuing theoretic approach to

groundwater management

12. Mathias Dharmawirya, Erwin Adi, Case Study for Restaurant

Queuing Model.

13. Bhavin Patel1 and Pravin Bhathawala, Case Study for Bank

ATM Queuing Model.

14. Johye Hwang a, Long Gao b, Wooseung Jang, Joint demand and

capacity management in a restaurant system.

15. U H Acharya, G Ravindran, Application of Queuing Theory to

Libraries and Information Centres.

16. J.D.C. Little, “A Proof for the Queuing Formula: ܹߣ=ܮ”,

Operations Research,

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subway station capacity with the use of queuing theory.

18. Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia, http://en.w ikipedia.or

g/wiki/Gh atkopar_ railw ay_station.

133



AN EVALUATION OF PUBLIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IN

PUNJAB A STUDY OF MANSA DISTRICT Ms. Gurdeep Kaur Ghumaan

Research scholar Deptt of Management

&Humanities, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology

Longowal

Dr. Pawan Kumar Dhiman Associate Professor

Deptt of Management &Humanities

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology

Longowal

Introduction

Improving food security is an issue of considerable significance for a developing country like India where millions of population suffer from hunger and malnutrition. It is now widely recognized that food security is not just a matter of the availability of food, but even more of the

access of households and individuals to sufficient nutritious food. As a result, food security is analyzed along the axes of availability, access and absorption and nutritional security becomes an important component of food security in our country.

Thus, for a country of India’s size and diversity, the question of providing adequate food to its population is a difficult task and the difficulty is compounded by lack of access to adequate food for a sizeable section of its population and in recent periods, the access is threatened by rising food prices across the world. Given the high incidence of poverty, under-nutrition and hunger in our country, the task of ensuring food security becomes a formidable one , particularly in a situation where the functioning of the government’s public distribution system exhibits weakness, inefficiency and often corruption, which tend to aggravate the problem of food insecurity, particularly among the poor and vulnerable sections of the

population.(Chatterjee and Karmakar,2012)

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Of all the safety net operations that exist in India, the most far reaching, in terms of coverage as well as Public expenditure on subsidy, is the public distribution system. PDS has been in operation in some form or another since the inter-war period; thus it is probably the earliest publicly-funded safety net in the country. It aims to provide

essential commodities such as rice, wheat, sugar, edible oil, soft cake and kerosene oil at subsidized prices. State governments, which manage the public distribution in their respective states, also supply other commodities like pulses, salt, coarse clothing etc. (R.Radhakrishna & K.Subbarao,1997). As per (GOI,1991-92, p.55), The PDS has remained a major instrument to execute the Government of India’s economic policy to protect the poor. Public Intervention in the foodgrains market aims at procurement of foodgrains for public distribution and maintenance of buffer stocks to ensure not only short term but also long-term stability of prices of essential commodities and protect the interest of the consumers. Procurement of foodgrains also ensure remunerative returns to the farmers and provides them incentives to invest more on agriculture and to ensure that in the event of any glut or due to any other reason, the market prices do not fall

below the support prices.(Bhaskar Majumder, 2009).

The concept of Public Distribution System in the country was evolved around 1942 due to shortage of food grains during 2nd World War and Government intervention in distribution of food started. The drought and food shortages of the mid-sixties highlighted the need for strengthening and continuing with a system of food distribution and the PDS was made a universal scheme in the 1970s. There have been four phases, broadly speaking, in the history of the PDS in India (Swaminathan, 2000). The first phase was from 1942 to 1960, a period when the system was expanded to cities. The Second phase: from 1960 to 1978, The government of India set up the Agricultural Prices Commission and the Food Corporation of Indi. The Third phase: from

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1978 to 1991, was marked by large-scale expansion of the PDS, supported by domestic procurement and stocks. The Fourth phase: from 1991 to the present, is one in which the policy of universal PDS has been replaced by a targeted policy.

The public distribution system(PDS) is a mature system distribution

network operative in India, through which Government of India provides food(ration) and non-food items at high subsidized rates to the poor and vulnerable sections of the population chain of shops called ration shops or fair price shops (FPS) are set-up over the country to distribute rations to three category of households holding ration cards: Above Poverty Line(APL), Below Poverty Line(BPL) and Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY). With about 4.5 lakhs Fair Price Shops (FPS) distributing food and non-food items to about 16 crore families, the government spends about Rs.25,000 crore on subsidies. .(Chatterjee and Karmakar,2012)

A well-organized Public Distribution System (PDS) is maintained in the Punjab State through network of 8040 Fair Price Shops. As on 31.03.2010 there were 27496752 cardholders. As per the present Govt. policy 350 ration cards are required for opening a fair price shop in the

urban areas and 300 ration cards or 1500 units in the Rural areas. Whenever the number of ration cards exceeds 700 in urban areas a second ration depot can be opened in that area. The total number of BPL families in the State is limited to 5.23 lakh (3.44 lakh rural and 1.79 lakh urban) which is about 12% of the families in the State. In Punjab, 15.10 lakh families availing food subsidy under the Atta Dal scheme criterion annual income less than Rs. 30,000(Govt of Punjab,2011). The present study aims at analyzing the functioning of Public Distribution System on BPL(Below Poverty Line) families in Mansa district of Punajb, an agricultural state in Northwest India.

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Review of Literature

Numbers of studies have been done on PDS in India. The past studies were required to understanding the research problem and in carrying out the formulated work. Hence various research studies related to the Public distribution system are as following:

Sharma Anuradha: attempted to detailed analysis of the

administration and the organization of the PDS as also the operational aspects of the fair price shops in the Jammu region of the state of Jammu & Kashmir .This study explain the major objectives of the PDS

i.e adequacy of the rural coverage, management of the fair price shops under the scheme, consumers perception and managerial aspects of the PDS at the central and the State level to assess the ability to run this system effectively and to suggest suitable measures in the light of the problems identified. this study seeks to examine the gap between the promises and performance of the PDS.

Preeti Rajpal Singh: revealed in her study, the evolution, growth and

performance of the institutional framework of procurement, storage and distribution of essential commodities viz. Food corporation of India, Central warehousing corporation, State warehousing corporation & State civil supplies Corporation. She explained the performance & activities of Delhi State Civil supplies Corporation and has also been done the framework of growth of PDS in Delhi.

Rao Subha: discussed in his study, a balanced coverage of the

practices and scope of PDS in India and contains an exhaustive account of how PDS has been targeted towards the consumers. A number of suggestions have been made to revamp the system so as to make it more effective. This study also found that the cardholders were facing

the problems like under-weighment, poor quality, leakage and non-availability of controlled and non-controlled articles.

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Dholakia and Khurana: explained that the structure as well as the

functioning of the public and private distribution systems remains far from satisfactory in relation to several key social objectives. Since the ultimate interest of public policy is to improve the effectiveness of the distribution system as a whole, it is essential that the planning for public distribution system be integrated with the measures taken to influence the private trade in respect of poverty alleviation and price

stabilization. This is only possible if a long range national distribution policy is developed.

Narwal Sujata: revealed in her study “Management of Public

Distribution System” analyzed the policy framework and several managerial aspects of the PDS in Haryana. Further, evaluated the working of the system from the feed-back of consumers and beneficiaries, in term of their satisfaction level. The study has highlighted several weak spots and loop-holes in present system of Public Distribution which need to be strengthened and plugged at the earliest. She suggested that PDS is a valuable respite for the have-nots and an indispensable tool to alleviate the sufferings of starving masses and it may be necessary to maintain subsidies on foodgrains at levels that are sustainable by the government and the economy and yet help poor household in a real way.

Objectives of study

The objectives of the study are as follows:

1. To examine the availability and accessibility of food grains supplied to the people by Govt under Public Distribution

system.

2. To know about the perception and satisfaction level of consumers regarding the overall functioning of Public Distribution system in mansa district of Punjab.

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Research Methodology and findings

The Present study is empirical in nature and has been studied by using primary and Secondary data. Survey method was followed for this study. The present study was undertaken in Mansa district of Punjab, an agricultural state in Northwest India. and three blocks from Mansa district were selected for this study. For collecting data, 100 respondents (50 urban and 50 rural) were selected by using random sampling. 100 respondents were visited with the help of block officials

of Punjab. Punjab is situated in north-west of India and has an area of 50,362 km2. According to 2011 census, the population of Punjab is 27,704,236 and literacy rate is 76.70 percent. Punjab is divided into three regions namely Malwa, Majha and Doaba. Malwa region of Punjab covers 11 districts, Barnala, Bathinda, Faridkot, Fatehgarh Sahib, Firozpur, Ludhiana, Mansa, Moga, Muktsar, Patiala and Sangrur. The Sangrur is one of the backward districts in Punjab. Mansa is situated in the cotton belt of Punjab, called the “Area of white gold” and is bounded on the northwest by Bathinda district, on the northeast by Sangrur district and on the south by Haryana state. According to 2011 census, Mansa district has a population of 7,68,808, Mansa has a sex ratio of 880 female for every 1000 males and a literacy rate of 62.8 percent. There are 5 blocks in Mansa district as Budhlada, Bhikhi, Jhunir, Mansa and Sardulgarh. The details of fair price shops

of Mansa district have been listed on the following table.

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Table:1

Details of Fair Price Shops/No. of Ration Cards (BPL,AAY,APL & BLUE) has been shown of the Mansa District in the following table.

Sr.No Block Name

APL cards AAY cards BPL cards Blue cards

1. Budhlada 61123(40.28) 1527(26.94) 3194(25.86) 16075(32.07)

2. Bhikhi 22359(14.73) 1006(17.75) 1468(11.88) 6164(12.29)

3. Jhunir 13522(8.912) 1428(25.19) 1221(9.88) 7719(15.40)

4. Mansa 35980(23.715) 1024(18.06) 2053(16.62) 11913(23.76)

5. Sardulgarh 18733(12.347) 682(12.03) 4411(35.725) 8247(16.45)

Total 151717(100.0) 5667(100.0) 12347(100.0) 50118(100.0)

Source: Department of Food & Civil Supplies, Punjab.

The above table-1 reveals that in the year 2012, there were 151717 APL ration cards, 5667 AAY ration cards, 12347 BPL ration cards and 50118 Blue ration cards in sangrur district to provide essential commodities to the consumers. The maximum no of APL ration cards 61123 (40.28percent)were in Budhlada block, 35980(23.715 percent) were in Mansa block of Mansa district and minimum no of APL ration cards 13522 (8.912percent) were in Jhunir block, 18733(12.347percent) were in Sardulgarh block of mansa district. The maximum no of AAY ration cards 1527(26.94percent)were in Budhlada, 1428(25.19 percent) were in Jhunir blocks and minimum no of AAY ration cards 682(12.03 percent) were in Sardulgarh, 1006(17.75 percent) were in Bhikhi blocks of Mansa district. The maximum no of BPL ration cards 4411(35.72 percent) were in sardulgarh block,

3194(25.86 percent) were in Budhlada blocks and minimum no of BPL ration cards 1221(9.88percent) were in Jhunir and 1468(11.88 percent) were in Bhikhi blocks of Mansa district. The maximum no of Blue cards

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16075(32.07 percent) were in Budhlada block, 11913(23.76 percent) were in Mansa blocks of Mansa district and minimum no of Blue cards 6164(12.29 percent) were in Bhikhi, 7719(15.40 percent) were in jhunir blocks of Mansa district. The details of ration cards of Mansa district have been listed on the following table.

Field Survey:

A study of utilization of PDS and Consumer satisfaction with

PDS(Public Dsitribution System), A survey was conducted in blocks (Budhlada, Bhikhi and Mansa) of Mansa district. For collecting data, 100 respondents (50 urban and 50 rural) were selected by using random sampling. 100 respondents were visited with the help of block officials of Mansa. In Mansa district, there are BPL, AAY, Blue cards, BPL+Blue cards and AAY+Blue types of ration cards. The details of various types ration cards of Mansa district have been listed on the following table.

Table:2

Types of Ration Cards

Ration cards

BPL Antyodaya Blue card

BPL+ Blue

card

AAY+ Blue

Card

Totl

Urban 22(44.0) 2(4.0) 14(28.0) 8(16.0) 4(8.0) 50(100.0)

Rural 14(28.0) 8(16.0) 22(44.0) 4(8.0) 2(4.0) 50(100.0)

Total 36(36.0) 10(10.0) 36(36.0) 12(12.0) 6(6.0) 100(100.0)

Source: Personal prove survey

It is clear from table number-2 that out of 100 respondents ( 50 Rural & 50 Urban )Hundred cardholders were selected for study, out of total 100 Cardholders around 36 percent cardholders are from the BPL families , largest number of the interviewed cardholders is from this

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category, 10 percent cardholders are from the Antyodaya ration card families which is the poorest among the poor category, 36 percent cardholders are from Blue card families, second largest number of the interviewed cardholders is from this category, 12 percent cardholders are from BPL+ Blue cards cardholders and 6 percent are from AAY+

Blue cards cardholders. The details of different commodities like wheat, wheat & Kerosene, Wheat+ Kerosene+ Dal and wheat & Dal which are mainly purchased by Householders in rural and urban areas of Mansa district have been listed on the following table.

Table:3

Commodities mainly purchased from FPS

Commodity/

Area

Wheat Wheat & Kerosene

Wheat, Kerosene & Dal

Wheat & Dal

Nothing Total

Urban 26(52.0) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 16(32.0) 8(16.0) 50(100.0)

Rural 4(8.0) 8(16.0) 36(72.0) 2(4.0) 0(0.0) 50(100.0)

Total 30(30.0) 8(8.0) 36(36.0) 18(18.0) 8(8.0) 100(100.0)


Table -3 depicts that among all sections of the masses the commodities are mainly purchased by householders in rural and urban areas. It has

been noted that the wheat, kerosene, Dal are the major items purchased by the people in FPS. Out of 100 households, 36 householders (72 percent) only rural respondents are getting wheat, kerosene, Dal from FPS. The 18 householders including 16(32 percent) urban and 2(4 percent) rural respondents are purchasing wheat and Dal from FPS. The only 8 rural households (16 percent) respondents are purchasing wheat and kerosene from FPS. The 30 householders including 26(52 percent) urban and 4(8 percent) rural respondents are purchasing only wheat from FPS. The last 8 respondents(16 percent) from urban area, are purchasing nothing from FPS. The details of

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satisfaction level of ration cardholders with the service of dealers of FPS have been listed in the following table.

Table:4

Satisfaction level of ration cardholders with the service of dealers

Satisfaction level of consumers

with FPS.

Highly

Dissatisf

ied

Dissatisf

ied

Avera

ge

Satisfied Highl

y

Satisf

ied

Responses

100

iv) Are you satisfied

with the service of

FPS dealers.

Urban 26(52.0) 16(32.0) 2(4.0) 6(12.0) 0(0.0) 50(100.0)

Rural 14(28.0) 18(36.0)\ 0(0.0) 16(32.0) 2(4.0) 50(100.0)

Total

Rural/

Urban

40(40.0) 34(34.0) 2(2.0) 22(22.0) 2(2.0) 100(100.0)


The above table-4 reveals that most of the households in general expressed dissatisfaction about the FPS dealers. It reveals that, out of 50 respondents of urban areas, 6 are satisfied, 2 are on average satisfaction level, 16 are dissatisfied and 26 are highly dissatisfied with the service of dealers of FPS. In Rural areas, 2 respondents are highly satisfied, 16 respondents are satisfied, no one respondents on average level, 18 are dissatisfied and 14 are highly dissatisfied with the service of FPS dealer. The total respondents of rural and urban area, 22 respondents are satisfied, 2 are on average level, 34 are dissatisfied, 40 are highly dissatisfied and 2 is highly satisfied with the service of FPS dealers. So, Majority of respondents are dissatisfied with the service of dealers and they explained various reasons behind this. The above table explains the experiences of customers while purchasing food items from

the FPS to evaluate the performance of Public Distribution System in Mansa district of Punjab.

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Table:5

Experiences of customers while purchasing food items from Fair Price Shops

Question-4 Strongly Disagree

Disagree Neutral

Agree Strongly Agree

Total

i)Inadequate and irregular supply of ration items

Urban 0(0.0) 8(16.0) 0(0.0) 16(32.0) 26(52.0) 50(100.0) Rural 2(4.0) 12(24.0) 0(0.0) 22(44.0) 14(28.0) 50(100.0)

Total Urban/Rural 2(2.0) 20(20.0) 0(0.0) 38(38.0) 40(40.0) 100(100.0) ii) Unfair distribution of food grains

Urban 2(4.0) 6(12.0) 0(0.0) 12(24.0) 30(60.0) 50(100.0) Rural 2(4.0) 12(24.0) 0(0.0) 20(40.0) 16(32.0) 50(100.0)

Total Urban/Rural 4(4.0) 18(18.0) 0(0.0) 32(32.0) 46(46.0) 100(100.0) iii) Rude behavior of dealers

Urban 0(0.0) 2(4.0) 3(6.0) 17(34.0) 28(56.0) 50(100.0) Rural 2(4.0) 14(28.0) 0(0.0) 18(36.0) 16(32.0) 50(100.0)

Total Urban/Rural 2(2.0) 16(16.0) 2(2.0) 36(36.0) 44(44.0) 100(100.0) iv)Corrupt practices of the dealers

Urban 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 4(8.0) 14(28.0) 32(72.0) 50(100.0) Rural 0(0.0) 12(24.0) 2(4.0) 16(32.0) 20(40.0) 50(100.0)

Total Urban/Rural 0(0.0) 12(12.0) 6(6.0) 30(30.0) 52(52.0) 100(100.0) v)Preference to known people

Urban 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 20(40.0) 30(60.0) 50(100.0) Rural 0(0.0) 12(24.0) 0(0.0) 16(32.0) 22(44.0) 50(100.0)

Total Urban/Rural 0(0.0) 12(12.0) 0(0.0) 36(36.0) 52(52.0) 100(100.0)


Inadequate and irregular supply of ration items is the major problem, it was felt by majority of the respondents. The low quality of food grains is another complaint. The above table-5 reveals the satisfaction level of respondents with the performance of Public Distribution System. The respondents have been asked if the good quality commodities supplied under PDS by the FPSs are available in time. In response to the

questions, the majority of the respondents have said that the quality of all the food items is average. They have indicated that the food items are not available in time and have given negative responses are of the opinion that the non-availability of items is due to various reasons. In Urban area 26(52 percent) of households are strongly agree, 16(32

144



percent) are agree and only 8(16 percent) of households are disagree with the non-availability of adequate and good quality food items . In rural areas, 14(28 percent) of households are strongly agree, 22(44 percent) are agree, 12(24 percent) are disagree and only 2(4 percent) are strongly disagree with the non-availability of adequate and good

quality food items on time. Majority of respondents are dissatisfied with non-availability of adequate and good quality food items on time.

Regarding the proper and equitable distribution of food grains, In Urban areas, 30(60 percent) of households are strongly agree, 12(24 percent) of households are agree, 6(12 percent) of households are disagree and only2( 4 percent) of households are strongly disagree. In Rural areas 16(32 percent) of households are strongly agree, 20(40 percen)t of households are agree, 12(24 percent) of households are disagree and only 2( 4 percent) of households are strongly disagree with unfair distribution of food items. Total respondents from urban and rural areas, 78% are agree with that there always unfair distribution of foodgrains at FPS. Majority of respondents are dissatisfied with improper and unfair distribution of food grains at FPS.

With the polite & courteous behaviour, any shopkeeper can win his

consumer and expand his market. The following table explain the responses of consumers of FPS, regarding the rude behaviour of FPS’s dealer with customer during purchasing the food items. The table shows that 28 respondents (56%) from total 50 respondents of urban areas and 16 respondents(32%) from total 50 respondents of rural areas are strongly agree with that their dealers show very rude behaviour with them. 17 respondents (34%) from urban areas and 18 respondents(36%) from rural areas have also a complaint against rude behaviour of the dealers at FPS .only 3 respondents (6%) from the urban areas have fallen in the category of neutral. Rest of the 2 respondents from urban areas and 14 respondents (28%) rural areas are disagree and only 2 respondents(4%) from rural area are strongly

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disagree with that their dealers show rude behavior with them. They have expressed that their dealers show very polite behavior with them. It is concluded that majority of respondents have complained about the rude behavior of FPS dealers and only few respondents are satisfied with the behavior of FPS dealers.

Most of the respondents are of opinion that there is corruption in FPS as the stocks are

sold in open market and the required quantity is not given to them. This above table discuss the opinion of consumers about the corruption practices of the dealers of FPS. 46 (92 percent) respondents from urban area and 36 (72 percent) respondents from rural area are agree that there is a corruption in the public distribution system. The total 82 percent respondents of urban and rural areas using PDS felt it to be corrupt. Regarding the preference given to known people, all the respondents from urban areas and 38(76 percent) respondents from rural areas are agree with the preference given to known people. Only 12 (24 percent) respondents are disagree with this.

Conclusion

We got varying responses from the beneficiary households on the indicators that we considered for performance of PDS in Mansa district of Punjab. Majority of respondents are dissatisfied with the

performance of PDS on indicators like non-availability of food items on time at reasonable price, unfair distribution of food grains, Rude behavior of dealers of FPS, Corrupt practices of the dealers and their preferences to known people and FPS dealers in collusion with local political leaders and bureaucrats. The respondents have also been asked if the good quality commodities supplied under PDS by the FPSs are available in time on lower price. In response to the questions, the majority of the respondents have said that the quality of all the food items is average and food items are not available in time. Most of the

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respondents are of opinion that there is corruption in FPS as the stocks are sold in open market or somewhere else and the required quantity of wheat, pulses and kerosene is not given to them. The information related to stock and price is not shared with them. The BPL families of rural areas of Mansa district are demanding BPL ration cards in order

to get more quantity of food grains from Fair price shops, even though a large percentage of non-poor are included and real BPL families are outside the purview of BPL category. There are some people who generally do not complaint about the PDS even though they have the ground to do so. There might be few respondents who do not make complaints as they do not know how to and whom to lodge complaints. A majority of respondents both from urban & rural areas would like to improve the quality and quantity of ration goods. They suggested that households with high income should excluded from PDS and should be targeted only towards poor, below the poverty line people. They also suggested that the adequate arrangements for transportation & warehousing be made for quick & timely distribution of good quality rationed commodities. Some measures to check corruption & malpractices are needed from the govt and consumers both and for its

success it is necessary that it is implemented in the true spirit of its aims and objectives.

Suggestions

1. The number of cards handled by the FPS should be reduced from the present level so that the dealer can distribute the ration items to consumers with out any delay.

2. Provide proper commission and monthly salary to Fair Price Shop’s dealers so that they can supply the fair and equal distribution of foodgrains to consumers.

3. There should be effective and systematic complaint redressal mechanism for the common people and FPS level vigilance

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committees are to be created consisting of officials, cardholders and consumer organizations so as to make the functioning of FPS more efficiently.

4. The Punjab government must ensure timely supply of commodities with good quality to fair price shops and see that it

reaches only to the needy section of the society through the public distribution system.

5. There has to be transparency in the system. The availability, allocation, lifting and distribution of items per period per FPS should be on display. The verification report must be displayed at the level of consumers in village and block. The State Government should continue its vigil and control over hoarding, black marketing and speculation through “Consumer protection Cell”.

6. Increasing the margin of profit for the shopkeepers on one hand and control of black marketing, adulteration, under-weighing and quality control of commodities on the other hand can be some extent induce consumer interest in the PDS.

7. Punishing the corrupt officials and consumer awareness will go

a long way in making the system successful and popular.

Reference

1. Sharma Anuradha (2002): Organisation & management of Public Distribution System; Anmol publications pvt ltd; Delhi.

2. Preeti Rajpal Singh (1998) “ Management of Public Distribution System”; Anmol publications pvt ltd, Delhi.

3. Biswajit chatterjee and Asim k. karmakar(2012): “Food Security in India : A comprehensive plan for sustainable solution” Regal publications.

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4. R.Radhakrishna & k.Subharao with S. Indrakant & C. Razi

(1997): “India’s Public Distribution System, A National & International perspective”.

5. K.V Subha Rao: Management of Public Distribution System; Neha publishers & Distributors.

6. Swaminathan, Madhura (2000). Weakening Welfare: The Public Distribution of Food in India. New Delhi:LeftWord Books

7. .Pathania, Kulwant Singh. (2005). Public Distribution System, Status, Challenges and Remedial strategies, New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.

8. Sujata Narwal(2001): “Management of Public Distribution System”, Deep & Deep Publications , New Delhi.

9. Annual Report of 2010-11, Department of Food & Civil Supplies, Punjab

10. Majumder, Bhaskar. (2004). Poverty, Food Security and Sustainability, Public Distribution System in India. Jaipur: Rawat Publications

11. Annual Report of 2011-12, Food Civil Supply and Consumer Affairs, Mansa.

12. Ghumaan & Dhiman,(2013), Organization and Working of Public Distribution System A study of Punjab, INDIAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH, Volume : 3 | Issue : 4 | April 2013 | ISSN - 2249-555X

13. Nikhilesh Dholakia & rakesh Khurana(1979) : Public Distribution System: Evolution, Evaluation and Prospects: Oxford & IBH.

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14. Ghumaan & Dhiman (2014): Impact Of Public Distribution

System On BPL Families- An Analysis of Punjab” International Journal of Business management & Research.

15. Annual Report 2010-11. Department of Food and Public Distribution, Government of | India.

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AN OVER-VIEW DISCUSSION & CONSERVATION OF

WETLANDS IN SRIKAKULAM DISTRICT, ANDRAPRADESH, INDIA

S.Mukunda Rao Research Scholar

Department of Zoology Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

INTRODUCTION

Wetlands are defined as ‘lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Mitsch & Gosselink 1986). Wetlands are an important feeding and breeding areas for wildlife and provide a stopping place and refuge for waterfowl. As with

any natural habitat, wetlands are important in supporting species diversity and have a complex of wetland values.

MATERIAL& METHODS

Wetlands of the Srikakulam District (fig1) were located using Survey of India Topo Sheets and Google Earth Maps and field surveys were planned and executed accordingly. Feild visits in all the mandals of the district and important wetlands in each mandal to collect as much primary data as possible, within my time and logistic constraints.

Before embarking upon the field trips extensive survey of literature was collecting maximum information available. Government departments such as Irrigation, Forest, Fisheries and District Industries Centre were valuable sources of information. NGO’s, industrialists, public and other knowledgeable people were also helpful in this regard.

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Since the coastal wetlands such as Sompeta and Bhavanapadu were found to be the major wetland complexes supporting large human population and are apparently rich in biodiversity, special attention was given to these wetlands in terms of time and efforts. Stratified random sampling strategy was adopted for sampling the wetlands ensuring representation from diverse geographical areas as well as the wetlands under varying disturbance regimes. All the large wetlands of the districts, especially the ones with more than 500 acres of ayacut area, were surveyed. Wetlands of lesser size classes were also visited on a rapid survey mode and sample data collected.

WETLANDS IN THE SRIKAKULAM DISTRICT

The Srikakulam district abounds in wetlands both natural and man made. The number of wetlands, small to large ones, is more than 8000.

Though the wetlands are distributed more or less evenly in the district, the coastal wetlands are ecologically and economically more sensitive and came into focus for various reasons.

The coastal plains consist of 10-15 Km strip of land all along the sea coast of 193 Km starting from Itchapuram to Kandivalasagedda. The major rivers of the district, namely the Nagavalli drains into Bay of Bengal near Kallepalli, the Vamsadhara near Kalingapatnam and the Mahendratanaya near Baruva creating estuaries.

The Coastal Plains all along the seacoast are characterized by Beelas (in vernacular) or backwaters, typical wetland systems fed by flood waters through a vast network of small streams/channels and connected to the sea via a creek/channel marked by sandy dunes. The two major Beelas of the district are Sompeta swamp and Bhavanapadu swamp. Sompeta swamp is situated in the northern part of the district

and Bhavanapadu lies near to Tekkali town in the central part of the district. The Poondi wetland complex, extending to about 320 ha acres with more than 200 acres of back water area and adjacent salt pans and

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aquaculture fields, is a major wetland near Vajrapukkotturu in Nandigam mandal. Ichapuram wetland, into which the river Bahuda drains, is partly situated in the extreme north of the Srikakulam district and partly in the Odisha state.

Apart from the above major wetlands there are hundreds of wetlands with fresh water, most of them being perennial, and providing habitat for important varied biodiversity. Some such wetlands surveyed (Table1) are Dunkuru, Narasipuram Peddacheruvu, Pathatekkali, Telineelapuram, Kotabommali, Sivarampuram, Narayanapuram, Mettucheruvu, Lanka and Kuddiram Cheruvu. As discussed above coastal plains are highly productive with similar but varied ecosystem

characteristics. Sand bars / mounds can be seen near Kallepalli, Srikakulam, kalingapatnam, Bhavanapadu, Vajrapukotturu, Baruva etc., along the estuaries of the rivers Nagavalli near Kallepalli, Vamsadhara near kalingapatnam and Mahendratanaya near Baruva. Major Corporates were eyeing the coastal areas of Srikakulam district for setting up Thermal Power Plants due to various reasons such as the availability of water, and transportation facilities in the form of NH-5 from Chennai to Calcutta and the broad-gauge railway line from Chennai to An ecological status survey of wetlands of Srikakulam 26 Calcutta. Proximity to the sea facilitates building jetties for transportation of coal and other materials and also for drawing sea water as coolant or for other uses and for discharge of effluents.

The present review is aimed at providing in a nutshell, the distribution of wetlands, the value of wetlands, the causes and

consequences of the loss of wetlands. The review attempts to provide a glimpse of the use of modern spatial technology tools, viz. Remote Sensing / GIS for obtaining an assessment, description and monitoring of inland wetlands. The review also gives a methodology for an ongoing nationwide attempt on evolving a con-servation area network or a protected area net-work of inland wetlands.

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WETLAND VALUES OF SRIKAKULAM DISTRICT

The values of the wetlands are increasingly being acknowledged all over the world as a result of the ever increasing awareness about the role they have been playing in the development of civilisations and over all welfare of the humanity by ensuring water security and food security and several other services being derived from them. As earlier, wetlands no more are considered as wastelands. It has been estimated that wetlands provide US $4.88 trillion as ecosystem services. These ecosystem services include flood regulation, water supply, water quality maintenance, facilitating pollination, biological control, food production, and others. According to Costanza et al., (1997) wetlands are 75% more valuable in terms of ecosystem services than lakes and rivers, 15 times more valuable than forests, and 64 times more valuable

than grassland or rangelands (Bruland, 2008).

As noted above the wetlands offer a variety of services to human kind, numerous other species and to the environment. Some of the well known such services, grouped into different types, are briefed below.

Basic categories of Ecosystem Services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)

Provisioning Services: supply a large variety of ecosystem goods and

other services for human consumption, ranging from food and raw materials to energy resources and genetic material.

Regulating Services: regulate essential ecological processes and life

support systems through bio-geochemical cycles and other biospheric processes. These include things like climate regulation, disturbance moderation and waste treatment.

Cultural Services: provide an essential ‘reference function’ and

contribute to the maintenance of human health and well being by

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providing spiritual fulfilment, historic integrity, recreation and aesthetics.

Supporting Services: provide a range of services that are necessary for the production of the other three service categories. These include nutrient cycling, soil formation and soil retention.

Wetland ecosystems provide many services that contribute to human wellbeing and poverty alleviation. Some groups of people, particularly those living near wetlands are highly dependent on these services and are directly harmed by their degradation. However the primary indirect drivers of degradation and loss of wetlands have been population growth and increasing economic development. And loss

include infrastructure development, land conversion, water withdrawal, pollution, over harvesting and over exploitation and the introduction of invasive alien species. The continued degradation of wetland and more specifically the continued decline in water quality and quantity will result in further impoverishment of human health (Millennium Ecosystem, 2005).

Ecosystem services (Table2) are the benefits provided by ecosystems to households, communities and economies (Boyd and Banzhaf 2006). The millennium Ecosystem assessment (2005) described four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, for example the production of food and water, regulating, such as the control of climate and disease, supporting for example nutrient cycles and crop pollination and cultural such as spiritual and recreational benefits. Table 11.2 provides example of the different types of

ecosystem services provided by wetlands

DIVERSITY OF BIRDS

In total 224 bird species belonging to 141 genera, over 56 families and 17 orders were recorded .This included 174 species that were directly observed and rest 50 species were based on various secondary

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information. Of the 224 bird species, 100 species were aquatic, 124 species terrestrial, 169 species resident, and 55 species migratory (both winter and summer visitors,). In the study area insectivorous birds represented by 96 species dominated, followed by omnivores (50 species), piscivores (32 species), predators (23 species), granivores (14 species) and frugivores (12 species,).

DIVERSITY OF FISHES

The result of present investigations confirmed the occurrence of fourty six (46) species of fishes belonging to six orders and eighteen families recorded in commercial catches. The order cypriniformes was dominant with 18 species followed by order perciformes with 16 siluriformes with 08 species, while the order cyprinidontiformes were represanted by 02 Angulliformes were represented by 01 species and order

osteoglossiformes with 01 species.

THREATS TO THE WETLANDS

Wetlands are one of the most threatened habi-tats of the world. Wetlands in India, as elsewhere are increasingly facing several anthropogenic pres-sures. Thus, the rapidly expanding human popula-tion, large scale changes in land use/landcover, burgeoning development projects and improper use of watersheds have all caused a substantial decline of wetland resources of the country. Significant losses have resulted from its conversion threats from industrial, agricultural and various urban developments. These have led to hydrological per-turbations, pollution and their effects. Unsustain-able levels of grazing and fishing activities have also resulted in degradation of wetlands.

Urbanisation: Ever increasing demand for space for residential, infrastructure, commercial and recreation activities are adding pressure on wetlands. Already the wetlands are fast disappearing for

various such reasons.

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Pollution: Dumping solid wastes and discharge of liquid waste and industrial effluents, toxic chemicals from industries and households are destroying the wetlands. Industrialisation: More and more wetlands are being diverted for setting up industries flouting wetland conservation rules and guidelines.

Agriculture: Booming requirement for new areas for cultivation makes

wetlands very prone for diversion.

Deforestation: Extensive land use changes in the catchment and deforestation is leading to heavy siltation of wetlands and changes in the water regime.

Climate change: Coastal wetlands are under threat from sea level rise as a consequence of global warming. Erratic changes in the pattern of precipitation increase in ambient temperature, frequent floods and

droughts pose serious threats to the hydrological regime and biodiversity of wetlands.

Weeds: Exotic species like Salvinia and Water Hyacinth invade wetlands, dominate the macrophytes and choke them and curtail the growth of the planktonic forms eventually leading to the death of the wetlands.

Salinisation: Depletion in the water table due to overexploitation of

ground water leads to reduction of wetland size as well as increase in salinity.

WETLAND MANAGEMENT - CURRENT STATUS

Wetlands are not delineated under any specific administrative jurisdiction. The primary responsibility for the management of these ecosystems is in the hands of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Although some wetlands are protected after the formulation of the Wildlife Protection Act, the others are in grave danger of extinction. Effective coordination between the different minis-tries, energy,

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industry, fisheries revenue, agricul-ture, transport and water resources, is essential for the protection of these ecosystems.

Protection laws and government initiatives

Wetlands conservation in India is indirectly in-fluenced by an array of policy and legislative measures (Parikh & Parikh 1999). Some of the key legislations are given below:

• The Indian Fisheries Act - 1857 • The Indian Forest Act - 1927 • Wildlife (Protection) Act - 1972 • Water (Prevention and Control of Pollu-tion) Act - 1974 • Territorial Water, Continental Shelf, Ex-clusive Economic Zone

and other Marine Zones Act - 1976 • Water (Prevention and Control of Pollu-tion) Act - 1977 • Maritime Zone of India (Regulation and fishing by foreign

vessels) Act - 1980 • Forest (Conservation act) – 1980 • Environmental (Protection) Act - 1986 • Coastal Zone Regulation Notification - 1991 • Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act - 1991 • National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on

Environment and Develop-ment – 1992 • National Policy And Macro level Action

Strategy on Biodiversity-1999 National wetland strategy

National wetland strategy should encompass

(i) Conservation and collaborative management,

(ii) Prevention of loss and restoration and

(iii) Sustainable management.

USE OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS IN WETLAND MANAGEMENT

Remote sensing data in combination with Geo-graphic Information System (GIS) are effective tools for wetland conservation and

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management. The application encompasses water resource assessment, hydrologic modeling, flood management, reservoir capacity surveys, assessment and monitoring of the environmental impacts of water re-sources project and water quality mapping and monitoring (Jonna 1999).

WETLAND MAPPING – A STATUS REVIEW

Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining the overall cultural, economic and ecological health of the ecosystem, their fast pace of disappearance from the landscape is of great concern. The Wild-life Protection Act protects few of the ecologically sensitive regions whereas several wetlands are becoming an easy target for anthropogenic exploitation. Survey of 147 major sites across various agro climatic zones identified the anthropogenic interference as the main cause of

wetland degradation (The Directory of Indian Wetlands 1993). Current spatial spread of wetlands under various categories is shown. (Parikh & Parikh 1999).

CONCLUSION

It is noteworthy that even a small country like UK could designate 161 wetlands as Ramsar sites, India being a mega-diversity country, so far managed to delineate a mere six sites till date one in andrapradesh, no one in srikakulam district. There is obviously much ground to be covered in our conservation efforts of wetlands. In addition, a paradigm shift in conservation ethic is also a strong need of the hour. This shift is necessary and perhaps mandatory due to the very nature of resource being conserved and ‘protected’. Since wetlands are a common property resource, it is an uphill task to protect or conserve the ecosystems unless; the principal stakeholders are involved in the process. The dynamic nature of wetlands ne-cessitates the widespread and consistent use of satellite based remote sensors and low cost, af-

fordable GIS tools for effective management and monitoring.

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2. Anonymous, 1991. India 1990. A Refrence Annual. Re-search and Reference Division, Ministry of Informa-tion and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, Delhi.

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5. Chopra, R. 1985. The State of India’s Environment. Am-bassador Press, New Delhi.

6. Choudhury, B.C. 2000. Conserving wetlands: emerging scenario. pp. 131-138. In: A. Bhardwaj, R. Badola & B. M. Rathore (eds.) Proceedings of the workshop on the ‘Conserving Biodiversity in the 21st Century, through Integrated Conservation and Development Planning on a Regional Scale’. LBSNA Mussorie and WII Dehradun.

7. Das, S., S.C. Behera., A. Kar., P. Narendra & S. Guha. 1997. Hydrogeomorphological mapping in ground water exploration using remotely sensed data – A case study in Keonjhar District, Orissa. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing 25: 247-250.

8. Das, K.K., S.N. Prasad., P.S. Roy & S.K. Bhan. 1994. 9. Mapping of Potential Crane Habitat in Etawah and Mainpuri

Districts (U.P.) using Satellite Remote Sensing Techniques. A Project Report: Indian Insti-tute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun and Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Kalampalayam, Coimbatore.

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11. Foote Lee, S., Pandey & N.T. Krogman. 1996. Processes of

wetland loss in India. Environmental Conserva-tion 23: 45-54. 12. Gitelson, A., G. Garbuzov., F. Szilagyi., K.H. Mit-tenzwey., A.

Karnielli & A. Kaiser. 1993. Quantita-tive remote sensing methods for real-time monitor-ing of inland water quality. International Journal of Remote Sensing 14: 1269-1295.

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15. Gosselink, J.G. & R.E. Turner. 1978. The role of hy-drology in fresh water wetland ecosystems. pp. 63-78. In: R.E. Good, D.F. Whigham & R.L. Simpson (eds.) Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Processes and Management Potential. Academic Press, New York.

16. Hazra, P.B. & B. Bhattacharya. 1999. River shifting and bank failure problem of Ganga- Padma in West Bengal. pp. 385-390. In: S. Adiga (ed.). Retrospective and Perspective. Proceedings of ISRS National Symposium on Remote Sensing Applications for Natural Resources. Dehradun.

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24. Sasmal, S.K. & P.L.N. Raju. 1996. Monitoring sus-pended load in estuarine waters of Hooghly with satellite data using PC based GIS environment. In: Proceedings of National Symposium on Coastal Zone Management. Feb. 25-26 Behrampur University, Behrampur, Orissa.

25. Seshamani, R., T.K. Alex & Y.K. Jain. 1994. An air-borne sensor for primary productivity and related parameters of coastal waters and large water bod-ies. International Journal of Remote Sensing 15;1101-1108.

26. Srivastava, H.S., S.N. Prasad., M.L. Manchanda & S. Adiga. 2001. Radar remote sensing applications in wetland habitats - a case study with multi-incidence angle radarsat SAR data. pp. 87-92. In: I.V. Mu-ralikrishan (eds) Spatial Information Technology Remote Sensing and GIS. Vol 2. B.S. Publications, Hyderabad.

27. Vijayan, V.S. 1991. Keoladeo National Park Ecology Study. Final Report. Bombay Natural History So-ciety.

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Fig 1; study area

Table1; Wetlands visited during the present study

1 Asalu cheruvu 17 Mettucheruvu

2 Arisadu wetlands 18 Nagavalli River Mouth

3 Bhavanapadu Creek area

19 Narasapuram Peddha Cheruvu

4 Cheri Cheruvu 20 Narayana Sagaram

5 Chintada Cheruvu 21 Narayanavalasa

6 Damodar Sagaram 22 Naupada Swamps

7 Dhyal Cheruvu (Dhevunuvalu)

23 Pathatekkali

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8 Dunkuru Wetlands 24 Peddapadu Cheruvu

9 Harichandra puram petcheruvu

25 Poondi Back waters

10 Kottabommali Cheruvu 26 Pydibhimavaram Cheruvu

11 Kuddiram Sagaram 27 Rajakaru Cheruu

12 Lakhamdiddi peddacheruvu

28 Rajulu Cheruu

13 Lanks Cheruvu 29 Sompeta

14 Madduvalasa 30 Telineelapuram Wetland

15 Mahendratanaya swamps

31 Thamarai Cheruvu

16 Marandupada Cheruvu 32 Vaddidhandra Karricheruvu

Table 2; Types of an ecosystem services with examples from srikakulam wetlands

Service

categories

Specific services Examples from Srikakulam

wetlands

Provisioning services

Food Fish production

Fresh water Water for domestic and agricultural use

Drinking water Drinking water supply extracted from the wetlands.

Regulating services

Climate regulation Wetlands regulates high temperatures, making the area cooler

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Water purification Water purification undertaken

by physical environment and plants

Cultural services

Spiritual activities Religious activities are performed and temples are situated in the wetlands of the district

Educational activities Educational tour and trips are held in wetlands by many institutions.

Supporting services

Sediment retention Eroded sediments are accumulated in this wetlands

Nutrient cycling Storage, recycling, processing and acquisition of nutrients

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DESIGN, ENGINEERNING AND ANALYSIS OF UTILITY

SCALE SOLAR PV POWER PLANT

M. Srinu

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Madanapalle Institute of Technology and Science

Madanapalle

S. Khadarvali Department of Electrical and

Electronic Engineering Madanapalle Institute of Technology and Science

Madanapalle

I. INTRODUCTION

In the most recent time, fresh energy sources have been planned and urbanized due to the need and regular increase of expenses of vestige fuel. On additional hand, vestige fuels have an enormous pessimistic blow on the atmosphere. In this circumstance, the novel energy sources are basically non-conventional energies [1]. It is predictable that the electrical energy generation from non conventional energy sources will boost from 19% in 2010 to 32% in 2030 most important to a subsequent decline of CO2 emission [2]. The planetary PV systems have established that they can produce power to extremely minute electronic devices up to utility range PV power plant. The current power system is more and more attractive benefit of solar power systems incoming the marketplace. Solar PV power systems setting up in the region of the universal demonstrate a almost

exponential boost. Utility-scale PV plants are typically owned and operated by a third party and sells the electricity to a market or load

serving entity through a Purchase Power Agreement (PPA). Utility scale systems that can reach tens of megawatts of power output under optimum conditions of solar irradiation [3]. These systems are usually ground mounted and span a large area for power harvesting [16]. The feat of a PV system is in general evaluate under the standard test condition (STC), where an regular planetary spectrum at AM1.5 is used, the irradiance is standardize to 1000W/m2, and the cell hotness is

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defined as 25oC [10] [11]. On the other hand, under actual working circumstances with changeable irradiance as well as major temperature changes in the ground most profitable modules do not automatically perform as in the condition given by the manufacturers [11].

II. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

Several components are needed to construct a grid coupled PV system to perform the power generation and conversion functions

shown in fig.1.[6].

Fig.1.Grid connected PV power plant topology.

A PV array is used to transfer the light from the sun into DC current and voltage [3]. A three phase inverter is then attached to perform the power conversion of the array output power into AC power appropriate for injection into the grid [16] [15]. A harmonics filter is additional after the inverter to diminish the harmonics in the output current which result from the power conversion process [17]. An interfacing transformer is connected after the filter to step up the output AC voltage of the inverter to match the grid voltage level.

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III. SYSTEM DESIGN

This segment highlights several of the key issues that need to be considered when designing a PV plant. The electrical design of a PV plant can be split into the DC and AC systems [8]. Sizing the DC component of the plant the maximum voltage and current of the individual strings and PV array(s) should be calculated using the maximum output of the individual modules. For mono-crystalline and

multi-crystalline silicon modules all DC components should be rated as follows to allow thermal and voltage limits.

minimum voltage rating = V ×1.15OC(STC) (1)

minimum current rating = I 1.25( )SC STC (2)

For non-crystalline silicon modules DC component ratings should be calculated from manufacturer’s data taking into account the temperature and irradiance coefficients.

A. Solar pv module selection and sizing

Poly crystalline silicon cell type solar PV modules are now -a –days becoming best choice for most of the residential and commercial applications [23]. Recent improvements in the technology of multi-

crystalline or poly crystalline solar modules which are having better efficiency, size and heat tolerance levels than their mono crystalline counterparts. A central power generation system with a set of solar PV arrays has been considered for the 25 MW solar PV plant. For the proposed system power output required from solar PV arrays would be approximately 25 MW peak. In this paper CANADIAN SOLAR CS6P-250P solar modules have been selected and the electrical specifications for the module are given below table 1 [23]. By using the PV syst software the sizing of the 25 MW PV plant can be done and the results are shown in fig.2.from the fig.2 the number of series connected modules

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per string is 20 and the total number of strings per inverter is 100. Here we required 50 inverters each of capacity 500kW so the total number of modules for designing a 25MW PV plant are 1, 00,000.

Table 1 Parameters of a CS6P-250P solar module under Standard test condition (STC) [23].

Maximum Power (Pmax ) 250W Rated power @ PTC (W) 227.6W Module efficiency (%) 15.54% Power tolerance +2% Maximum Power Voltage (Vmpp ) 30.1 V Maximum Power Current ( Impp) 8.30 A Open Circuit Voltage ( Voc) 37.2 V Short Circuit Current ( Isc) 8.87 A Voltage/Temperaturecoefficient(Kv ) -0.0034 V/K Current/Temperaturecoefficient ( Ki) 0.00065 A/K Series Connected cells ( C) 60X1

B. Inverter selection and sizing

Grid connected inverters are necessary for dc-ac conversion. To avoid the power distortions the generated currents from these inverters are required to have low harmonics and high power factor. PV system inverters can be configured in four general ways. Those are central inverter, string inverter, multi string inverter and ac module inverter configurations [14]. This kind of inverters has enough voltage on its dc side i.e. from 150V to 1000V and there is no need to use an intermediate dc-dc converter to boost the voltage up to a reasonable level.

Central inverter has got the advantage of high inverter efficiency at a low cost per watt. As efficiency is one of the major concern in the PV system, central inverter based PV system is a better economical choice [14]. Therefore it is the first choice of medium and large scale PV systems. In this paper SMA SOLAR TECHNOLOGY 500 kW solar

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inverter has been selected and, electrical specifications for the inverter are given below table 2.

Table 2 electrical specifications SMA SOLAR TECHNOLOGY 500 kW solar inverter.

Maximum PV power (Pdc) kW 560 Maximum open circuit voltage (Vdc) 1000 MPPT range(Vdc) 430-850 Maximum DC input current (Idc) 1250 Maximum Output power(Pac) KW 500 Nominal output voltage (Vac) 243-310 AC output wiring 3wire w/neut Maximum Output current (Iac) 1176 Maximum efficiency (%) 98.6 CEC-weighted efficiency (%) 98.4

It is not possible to formulate an optimal inverter sizing strategy that applies in all cases. While the rule of thumb has been to use an inverter-to-array power ratio less than unity this is not always the best design approach. Most plants will have an inverter sizing range within the limits defined by

0.8 < Power Ratio < 1.2

Where

Pinverter DC ratedPower Ratio =PPV Peak (3)

Pinverter AC ratedP =inverter DC rated η100% (4)

Inverters can control reactive power by controlling the phase angle of the current injection. The array to inverter matching can be done by the following way.

Maximum number of modules per string

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Maximum input voltage for an inverter is a hard stop design

limit. Exceeding the maximum inverter operating voltage can result in catastrophic failure of the inverter and also in some cases result in National Energy Commission (NEC) violations [23]. Therefore, when designing a PV array the maximum open circuit voltage plays a vital

role. The number of modules in series determines the array open-circuit voltage (Voc).The maximum numeral of modules connected in series for an inverter can be calculated as

maximum dc input voltage for the inverterNmax maximum module voltage(V )maxoc

(5)

temperaturetemperatureV = V +{( )×( )}oc_max oc coefficient of Vdifference oc (6)

temperatureV = V +{(T -T )×( )}oc-max oc _STC_min coefficient of Voc (7)

Where N = Maximum number of Modules in Series.maxV = Open circuit voltage of the module.ocV = Maximum module voltage.oc_maxT = Minimum temperature for the site._minT = Tempera_STC ture at Standard Test condition.

Minimum number of modules in a string

Excessively low array voltage can have a dramatic negative impact on PV system energy production. If the array voltage falls below the minimum operating voltage the inverter may not be able to track the array maximum power point [23]. The minimum number of

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modules for an inverter can be calculated as fallows.

minimum dc input voltage for the inverterNmin maximum expected module

maximum power voltage(V )mp_min

(8)

temperaturetemperatureV = V +{( )×( )}mpmp_min coefficient of Vdifference mp (9)

temperatureV = V + {(T - T ) × ( )}mp _max _STCmp_min coefficient of Vmp (10)

Where N = Minimum number of Modules in Seriesmin V = Maximum power voltagempV = Minimum expected module maximum power voltage mp_min T = Maximum temperature for the site_maxT = Temperature at_stc Standard Test Conditions

Number of strings in parallel per inverter

The maximum number of parallel strings that can be connected to the inverter without causing current limiting can usually determined by a simple calculation without the need for temperature correction. To calculate the maximum number of parallel strings, divide the maximum inverter input current by either the module Maximum power current (Imp) or Short-circuit current (Isc).

maximum inverter input currentN

maximum power current at STC

(11)

Where N = Maximum number of Strings in Parallel

C. Dc cable selection and sizing

In the selection and sizing of DC Cables in general, three criteria must be observed. Those are the cable voltage rating, the current

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carrying capacity of the cable and the minimization of cable losses [20]. DC cabling consists of module, string and main cables as shown in fig.2.

Fig.2. PV array showing module, string and main Cables.

A number of cable connection systems are available those are i. Screw terminals.

ii. Post terminals.

iii. Spring clamp terminals.

iv. Plug connectors.

Plug connectors have become the standard in grid connected solar PV plants due to the benefits that they offer in terms of installation ease and speed.

For module cables the following should apply

Minimum Voltage Rating = VOC (STC) ×1.15 (12) Minimum Current Rating = ISC (STC) ×1.25. (13)

In an array comprising of N strings connected in parallel and M modules in each string, sizing of cables should be based on the following.

Array with no string fuses (applies to arrays of three or fewer strings only).

Voltage: VOC (STC) ×M×1.15 (14) Current: ISC (STC) × (N - 1) ×1. (15)

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Array with string fuses

Voltage Rating = VOC (STC) ×M×1.15 (16) Current Rating = ISC (STC) ×1.25 (17) The formulae that guide the sizing of main DC cables running

from the PV array to the inverter, for a system are given below.

minimum voltage rating = V × M ×1.15OC(STC) (18

minimum current rating = I × N ×1.25SC(STC) (19)

In order to reduce losses, the overall voltage drop between the PV array and the inverter (at STC) should be minimized. A benchmark voltage drop of less than 3% is suitable.

D. Junction boxes/combiner box

Junction boxes or combiners are needed at the point where the individual strings forming an array are marshalled and connected together in parallel before leaving for the inverter through the main DC cable. As a precaution, disconnects and string fuses should be provided.

E. String fuses

The main function of string fuses is to protect PV strings from over-currents. Miniature fuses are normally used in PV applications. The faults can occur on both the positive and negative sides, fuses must be installed on all unearthed cables. To avoid nuisance tripping, the nominal current of the fuse should be at least 1.25 times greater than the nominal string current. The string fuse must be rated for operation at the string voltage using the formula.

String Fuse Voltage Rating = V × M ×1.15OC(STC) (20)

F. Ac cabling

Cabling for AC systems should be designed to provide a safe, economic means of transmitting power from the inverters to the

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transformers and beyond. Cables should be rated for the operating voltage. Cables should comply with relevant IEC standards or national standards. Examples of these include.

IEC 60502 for cables between 1 kV and 36 kV.

IEC 60364 for LV cabling (BS 7671 in UK).

IEC 60840 for cables rated for voltages above 30 kV and up to 150 kV.

G. Sizing of transformer

The purpose of transformers in a solar power plant is to provide suitable voltage levels for transmission across the site and for export to the grid. In general, the inverters supply power at (LV) Low Voltage. But for a commercial solar power plant, grid connection is typically made at upwards of 11 kV. It is therefore necessary to step up the voltage using a transformer between the inverter and the grid connection point.

Cables, fuse, switches are standard components meeting with (NEC) National Energy Commission requirements. The proposed 25MW system needs 1, 00, 000 solar PV modules with 250 watts of

power generation at STC arranged 20 solar PV modules in series for each string and total of 100 strings connected to one inverter of 500 kW. The selected and simulated components are given in fig.3.

Fig.4. Sun path diagram for utility scale solar PV plant [26].

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Fig.3.Solar PV power plant component sizing [26].

IV. ENGINEERNING

A. solar fixed layout

The general layout of the plant and the distance chosen between rows of mounting structures will be selected according to the specific site conditions and location on earth, plotting its altitude and azimuth angle on a sun path diagram as shown in Fig.4 [20]. Computer simulation software could be used to help design the plant layout.

Tilt angle

Every location will have an optimal tilt angle that maximizes the total annual irradiation (averaged over the whole year) on the plane of the collector [20]. For fixed tilt grid connected power plants, the

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theoretical optimum tilt angle may be calculated from the latitude of the site. Panel tilt angle(β) = Φ - δ (21)

360(284+n)Declination angle(δ) = 23.45sin

365.24 (22) where β tilt angle

δ declinationangle

Φ latitude of the site

n number of days in that month Inter-row spacing

The choice of row spacing is a compromise chosen to reduce inter-row shading while keeping the area of the PV plant within reasonable limits, reducing cable runs and keeping ohmic losses within acceptable limits. Inter-row shading can never be reduced to zero [24]: at the beginning and end of the day the shadow lengths are extremely long, so we can maintain the inter row spacing amoung arrays is two times to its height.

Orientation

In the northern hemisphere, the orientation that optimizes the total annual energy yield is true south [20] with tilt angle of 35˚is shown in

fig.5.

Fig.5.Collector plane orientations [26].

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B. Loss analysis

There are various losses are occurred in the large scale solar pv power plant, the aggregation of those losses in the large scale power

system are shown in the fig.6 and the percentage representation of losses in the system are also shown in the fig.7.

Fig.6.Aggregations of losses in the large scale PV plant.

Fig.7.Percentage representations of various losses in the large scale solar PV power plant.

The aggregation of losses in the large scale power system using PV syst software is shown in the fig.8.

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Fig.8. Detailed power losses considered in sizing the power plant [26].

V. MATLAB/SIMULINK MODELLING

The Matlab/Simulink model of a 25MW utility scale solar PV plant is

shown in fig.9.

Fig.9.Simulink model for the 25 mw solar PV plant

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In fig.9 we have 25 sub systems each of capacity 1 MW, from

which a 1.25 MW, 744/25kV transformer for step up the voltages and these are fed to the utility grid through a transmission lines to transfer the power to the utility grid. Each sub system has two solar PV panels, two inverters and two LCL filters to minimizing the harmonic contents

that are present in the systems due to PWM inverters as shown in fig.10.

Fig.10.1MW subsystem for 25 MW pv plant

A. PV array

A Photovoltaic (PV) cells are used to convert the sunlight into direct current (DC). Due to the low voltages and current generated in a PV cell several PV cells are connected in series and then in parallel to form a PV module for desired output. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired voltages and individual strings are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce more current. The equivalent circuit of PV array is shown in

fig.11 [6] [8] [9].

Fig.11. Equivalent circuit of a PV array.

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From the above fig.10

I = (I N ) - I - IpA ph sh d (23)

I = I (I + K (T - T ))rr sc opph i ref (24)

V + IRS[ ]NSI = I N {{exp × V × C} -1}P TSd n (25)

KTOPV =T q (26) 2q ET 1 1g3OPI = I [ ] (exp ( - ))rsS T Kn Tref Topref (27)

IscI = -1rs qVocexp( )KCT nop (28)

IR + VSI =Sh R P (29)

KTOPV =T q (30) Where I PV array output currentA I Solar cell photocurrentPhI hunt current of PV arrayshI diode current of PV arraydN number of modules in parallelpV array output voltageAR series resists

S

ance of the PV moduleR parallel resistance of the PV modulePI cell reverse saturation current at temperatureTrr refI short circuit current of the PVcellsc

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K short circuit current temperature coefficientiT operating temperature of the PV cell in Kelvin’sop

T reference temperature of the PV cell in Kelvin’srefI Reverse saturation curre

nt equat s ion at Top

I cell revers

V termin

e saturatio

al voltage of the pvce

n current at temperature Trs

llt ref

E band gap of the semiconductor used in the cellGK Boltzmann's constant, 1.380658e – 23 J / Kq Electron charge, 1.60217733e – 19 CbN number of modules in seriessN number of modules in paralle

p

l

n p - n junction ideality factorC total number of cells in a PV module

By grouping all the above equations from (23) – (30) and the data available in the table 1 gives the Simulink model for PV array is shown in fig.12.

Fig.12.Simulink model of a PV array.

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B. Inverter

A three phase inverter is attached to carry out the power change of the array output power into AC power appropriate for injection into the

grid [19]. Pulse width modulation control is one of the techniques used to shape the phase of the inverter output voltage. The sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM) method produces a sinusoidal waveform by filtering an output pulse waveform with varying width. A high switching frequency leads to a better filtered sinusoidal output waveform. The most wanted output voltage is achieved by changeable the frequency and amplitude of a reference or modulating voltage. The variations in the amplitude and frequency of the reference voltage change the pulse-width patterns of the output voltage but keep the sinusoidal modulation.

The modulation index [19] is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of output voltage generated by SPWM to the fundamental peak value of the maximum square wave. Thus, the maximum modulation index of the SPWM technique is

VdcV πPWM 2MI= = = 0.7855=78.55%

2VV 4dcmax-sixstepπ

(31)

Where VPWM is the maximum output voltage generated by a SPWM and

max sixstepV is the fundamental peak value of a square wave.

C. Filter

In the grid-connected inverter all the controlled power electronic devices like IGBT and GTO are to be used which are modulated by the high frequency PWM. As a result the du/dt and di/dt are ever large [25]. Due to the occurrence of some drifter parameters the current incorporated high order harmonic flow into the power grid this made the

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harmonic pollution. The most ordinary filter is L filter in the grid-connected inverter [27]. In order to reduce current ripple, the inductance have to be increased. As a result, the volume and weight of the filter increased. While the arrangement and the parameter of the LC filter are easy the filtering effect is not good because of the uncertainty

of network impedance. LCL filter had an naturally high cut-off frequency and strong penetrating capability in low frequency. So LCL filter has come into extensive use in the inverter [27].

Filter inductor design

For the given circumstance of DC bus voltage and AC output voltage and current as the L value is increasing the ripple content decreases, tracking speed of current is reduces, weight, volume and cost increases. Under the idea of the price economy how to design the inductance parameters for the best consequence is the key question. Based on great reference, the constraints could be got as

1) Under the rated circumstances the voltage drop of the inductive filter is smaller than 5% of the network voltage.

2) The peak to peak amplitude of harmonic current will be prohibited within 10%~20% of the rated value of the inverter.

3) The inrush current of inverter should be as small as possible.

4) In order to attain the best presentation of LCL filter, in the low frequency range the current should be as smooth as possible and in the high frequency range the shrinking rate should be as fast as possible.

5) Let the high order harmonic flow through the capacitance, and the low order harmonic flow through the inductance.

1X = ; X = SLC L2 2CS (32)

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Therefore, f is bigger and XC is as smaller as better or both the f and X L2

is as smaller as better. P is defined as the rated output power of three-phase grid-connected inverter cos is power factor, V is rated network

voltage, and f is driven frequency. Then equation (33) can be derived

from the constraint 1).

4πfPL5%23V cosφ

(33)

2Vdc3 + VΔi =max 2L f

(34)

2PΔi * (0.1 0.2)max 3Vcosφ

� (35)

Equations (34) and (35) can be derived from constraint 2) and reference [25].The constraints 2) -5) show that the values of L and C are as bigger as better.

Filter capacitance

How to design the capacitance parameters is one more key question. If the Xc value is more, the high frequency harmonics that flow through the shunt capacitor branch is not enough. As a result, the great high-frequency harmonic current flow into the grid [27]. If the Xc got too small, which will lead to the great reactive current flow though the capacitor branch thereby increasing the inverter output current and increasing system losses. In general when the resonant frequency of filter capacitance and inductance is inside the range 1/4 to 1/5 carrier frequency then the filtering performance is bet. The resonant frequency of LCL filter could be described as

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L + L1 1 2f =

2π L L C1 2 (36)

Generally, the resonant frequency is bigger than the 10 times the power frequency and smaller than 1/2 times the switching frequency.

1C = 24πf L

(37)

In order to avoid the low power factor of grid-connected inverter the reactive power that is absorbed by filter capacitance should not exceed 5% of the rated active power.

λP

C 26πfEM (38)

Considering the equations (37) and (38), the filter capacitance value can be calculating the filter capacitance value.

Where E is the root mean square values RMS of m grid connected phase voltage, f is the fundamental frequency of the grid,1 λ

is the ratio of fundamental power absorbed by the filter capacitor to total power.

D. GRID IMPEDANCE

The grid impedance was the leakage impedance of the 25MW distribution transformers [25]. It is calculated according to (39) using the transformer parameters.

2VVcc 1LL = .g 2πf PNT (39)

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Where Lg leakage impedance of the transformer

P power of the grid connected transformer NT V primary side line voltage of the transformer1L f

grid frequency V voltage tolerance of the transfor mercc

The cable impedances of the PV plant and most parasitic impedances were neglected. These parasitic impedances mainly affect the high-frequency range and are difficult to estimate.

VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Fig.13.500kW inverter output voltage

Fig.14.500kW inverter output current

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Fig.15.500kW inverter output power

Fig.16.Transformer input voltage

Fig.17.Transformer input current

Fig.18.Transformer input power

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Fig.19.Transformer output voltage

Fig.20.Transformer output current

Fig.21.Transformer output power

Fig.22.Grid voltage

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Fig.23.Grid current

Fig.24.Power fed to the Grid

CONCLUSION

For developing a 25MW utility scale PV power plant in this paper a site which has a GHI of 5.65 kWh/m2/day, it requires total area of 160582m2 and annual yield is 41313 MWh. In this paper sizing of basics components of solar PV plant can be designed using the PV syst software. The present study of engineering analysis of 25MW solar photovoltaic (PV) power plant includes the losses analysis and the module orientation of the PV plant, these are also done by using PV syst software. The modeling of 25 MW solar PV power plant is done in MATLAB/SIMULINK environment.

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References

1. P. Karki, B. Adhikary and K. Sherpa, "Comparative Study of Grid-Tied Photovoltaic (PV) System in Kathmandu and Berlin Using PV syst," IEEE ICSET, 2012.

2. H.L. Tsai, C.S. Tu, Y.J. Su, Development of generalized photovoltaic model using MATLAB/SIMULINK, in: Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science, San Francisco, USA, 2008

3. M.G. Villalva, J.R. Gazoli, E.R. Filho, Comprehensive approach to modeling and simulation of photovoltaic arrays, IEEE Transaction on Power Electronics 24 (2009) 1198-1204

4. A. A. Hassan, F. H. Fahmy, A. E.-S. A. Nafeh and M. A. El-Sayed, "Modeling and Simulation of a Single Phase Grid Connected," WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on SYSTEMS and CONTROL, pp. 16-25, 2010

5. J.T. Bialasiewicz, Renewable energy systems with photovoltaic power generators: Operation and modeling, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 55 (2008) 2752-2758.

6. Jitendra Kasera, Ankit Chaplot and Jai Kumar Maherchandani,(2012). “Modeling and Simulation of Wind-PV Hybrid Power System using Matlab/Simulink”, IEEE Students’ Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Science.

7. K. T. Tan, P. L. So, Y. C. Chu, and K. H. Kwan, (2010). “Modeling, Control and Simulation of a Photovoltaic Power System for Grid-connected and Standalone Applications”, IEEE- IPEC.46

8. J. M. Carrasco, L. G. Franquelo, J. T. Bialasiewicz, E. Galván, R. C. Portillo-Guisado, M. A. Martín-Prats, J. I. León, N. Moreno- Alfonso, “Power electronic systems for the grid integration of renewable energy sources: a survey,” IEEE Trans. Industrial Electronics, vol. 53, no. 4, pp.1002-1016, 2006

9. Soeren Baekhoej Kjaer, Member, IEEE, John K. Pedersen, Senior Member, IEEE, and Frede Blaabjerg, “A Review of Single-Phase Grid-Connected Inverters for Photovoltaic Modules,” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2005.

10. Vasarevičius D., Martavičius R. Solar Irradiance Model for Solar Electric Panels and Solar Thermal Collectors in Lithuania // Electronics and Electrical Engineering. – Kaunas: Technologija, 2011. – No. 2(108). – P. 3–6.

11. M. G. Molina, and P. E. Mercado “Modeling and Control of Gridconnected PV Energy Conversion System used as a Dispersed Generator”.978-1-4244-2218-0/08/©2008 IEEE B.

12. Soeren Baekhoej Kjaer, John K. Pedersen, Frede Blaabjerg, “Power Inverter Topologies for Photovoltaic Modules – A Review,”

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13. Verhoeven, et. al. Utility aspects of grid connected photovoltaic power

systems, International Energy Agency PVPS task V, 1998 14. M. Meinhardt, D. Wimmer, G. Cramer, “Multi-string-converter: The next

step in evolution of string-converter”, Proc. of 9th EPE, 2001, Graz, Austria.

15. S. Rustemli, F. Dincer, “Modeling of Photovoltaic Panel and Examining Effects of Temperature in Matlab/Simulink,” ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 2011. No. 3(109).

16. F.Bouchafaa1, D.Beriber1, M.S.Boucherit, “Modeling and control of a gird connected PV generation system,” 18th Mediterranean Conference on Control & Automation Congress Palace Hotel, Marrakech, Morocco June 23-25, 2010

17. Altas, I. H.; Sharaf, A.M., “A Photovoltaic Array Simulation Model for Matlab-Simulink GUI Environment,” Clean Electrical Power, 2007. ICCEP '07. International Conference on 21-23 May 2007 Page(s):341 – 345.

18. Huan-Liang Tsai, Ci-Siang Tu, and Yi-Jie Su, “Development of Generalized Photovoltaic Model Using MATLAB/SIMULINK” Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2008 WCECS 2008, October 22 - 24, 2008, San Francisco, USA

19. R. Mechouma, B.Azoui, M.Chaabane, “Three-Phase Grid Connected Inverter for Photovoltaic Systems, a Review,” 2012 First International Conference on Renewable Energies and Vehicular Technology

20. Anita Marangoly George 2012 utility scale solar pv plant a guide for developers and investors

21. Array to Inverter Matching Mastering Manual Design Calculations solar weekly By John Berdner

22. Scaling Up for Commercial PV Systems solar weekly By John Berdner 23. Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules solar weekly by John Berdner 24. Array Trackers Increase Energy Yield & Return on Investment solar

weekly by Stephen Smith. 25. Juan Luis Agorreta, Mikel Borrega, Jes´us L´opez, Modeling and Control

of N-Paralleled Grid-Connected Inverters With LCL Filter Coupled Due to Grid Impedance in PV Plants Member, IEEE, and Luis Marroyo, Member, IEEE.

26. PV syst software. 27. F. Liu, X. Zha, and S. Duan, “Three-phase inverter with LCL filter design

parameters and research,” Electric Power Systems, March 2010, pp. 110-115.

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TIME CONSTRAINED SELF-DESTRUCTING DATA SYSTEM

(SeDaS) FOR DATA PRIVACY

S. Savitha PG Scholar

Department of CSE Adhiyamaan College of

Engineering Hosur, Tamil Nadu, India

Dr. D. Thilagavathy Professor



I. INTRODUCTION

Internet-based development and use of computer technology has opened up to several trends in the era of cloud computing. The software as a service (SaaS) computing architecture together with cheaper and powerful processors has transformed the data centers into pools of computing service on a huge scale. Services that reside solely on remote data centers can be accessed with high quality due to increased network bandwidth and reliable network connections. Moving data into the cloud offers great convenience to users since they don’t have to care about the complexities of direct hardware management.

Cloud computing vendors like Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3),

Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) are well known to all. When people rely more and more on internet and cloud technology the privacy of the users must be achieved through an important issue called security. When data is transformed and processed it is cached and copied on many systems in the network which is not up to the knowledge of the users. So there are chances of leaking the private details of the users via Cloud Service Providers negligence, hackers’ intrusion or some legal actions.

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Vanish [1] as shown in Figure 1, provides idea for protecting and

sharing privacy where the secret key is divided and stored in a P2P system with distributed hash table (DHTs).

Figure 1. The Vanish system architecture

In order to avoid hopping attacks which is one kind of Sybil attack [7],[9] we go for a new scheme, called Self Vanish [4] by extending the length range of key shares as shown in Figure 2(b), along with some enhancement on Shamir secret sharing algorithm [2] implemented in vanish system.

Figure 2(a). The push operation in the VuzeDHT network.

Figure 2(b). Hopping Attack

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Figure 3. Increasing the length of range of key shares

II. RELATED WORK

In cloud, providing privacy to the data stored in it is a major task where performance measures are also important to be done to achieve excellence. So accordingly storage and retrieval plays an important role where the use of Object-based storage (OBS) [10] uses an object-based storage device (OSD) [11] as the underlying storage device. The T10 OSD standard is being developed by the Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA) and the INCITS T10 Technical Committee. Each OSD consists of a CPU, network interface, ROM, RAM, and storage

device (disk or RAID subsystem) and exports a high-level data object abstraction on the top of device block read/write interface.

Another scenario for storing the data and files is active storage framework which has become one of the most important research

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branches in the domain of intelligent storage systems. For instance,

Wickremesinghe et al. [12] proposed a model of load-managed active storage, which strives to integrate computation with storage access in a way that the system can predict the effects of offloading computation to Active Storage Units (ASU). Hence, applications can be configured to match hardware capabilities and load conditions. MVSS [13], a storage system for active storage devices, provided a single framework 2550 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 49, NO. 6, JUNE 2013 to support various services at the device level. MVSS separated the deployment of services from file systems and thus allowed services to be migrated to storage devices.

III. DISCUSSION AND RESULT

Various techniques has been covered to provide security for the data stored in cloud alone with performance evaluation for uploading and downloading the files. Researchers have mainly concentrated on the algorithms that is used for key encryption/decryption and sharing. Let us discuss various approaches that has been used for the same.

The paper [3] describes vanish implementation that leads to two Sybil

attacks, where the encryption keys are stored in million-node Vuze Bit Torrent DHT. These attacks happens by crawling the DHT and saving each stored value before its time goes out. More than 99% of Vanish messages can be recovered with the keys efficiently in this method.

The paper [5] as shown in Figure 4, has taken advantage of the process capabilities of service migration they need used a method known as Active storage. However, in recent analysis, they have enforced a model of service execution that also remains passive request-driven mode. In self-management scenario, a mechanism for automatic service execution has been implemented which is important. To handle this drawback they have employed an energetic storage framework for object-based device that provides a hybrid approach to mix request-

196



driven model and policy-driven model. Supported the necessities of

active storage, some enhancements area unit additional into the present version T10 OSD specification have been given in the paper. Finally, they have shown a classification system example with the assistance of the active storage mechanism, network delay may be dramatically reduced.

Figure 4. Active Storage in context of parallel file systems

The paper [6] introduces parallel I/O interface that executes data analysis, mining, statistical operation evaluated on an active storage system. They have proposed a scheme where common analysis kernels are embedded in parallel file systems. They have shown experimentally that the overall performance of the proposed system improved by 50.9%

of all four benchmarks and that the compute-intensive portion of the k-means clustering kernel can be improved by 58.4% through GPU offloading when executed with a larger computational load.

The paper [7] describes various techniques used to reduce the data management cost and to solve security concerns they have used a concept called FADE to outsource the data to the third-party cloud

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storage services. FADE is designed to be readily deployable in cloud

storage system which focuses on protecting deleted data with policy-based file assured deletion. FADE guarantees privacy and integrity of the outsourced data files using some standard cryptographic techniques encrypts the outsourced data files. Important of all it assuredly deletes files to make them unrecoverable to anyone (including those who manage the cloud storage) when those files are tried to access. This objective is implemented by a working prototype of FADE atop Amazon S3 which is one of today’s cloud storage service uses the working prototype of FADE , which provides policy based file assured deletion with a minimal performance overhead. This work provides the insights of how to incorporate value-added security features into data outsourcing applications.

The paper [8] has discussed about Sybil attack in detail as how it occurs in a distributed hash table (DHTs). Sybil attacks represents the situation where a particular service in an identity-based system is

subverted by forging identities. The Sybil attack refers to the situation where an adversary controls a set of fake identities, each called a Sybil, and joins a targeted system multiple times under these Sybil identities. In this paper, they have considered an identity-based systems where each user is intended to have a single identity and is expected to use this identity when interacting with other users in the system. In such systems, we call a user with multiple identities a Sybil user and each identity the user uses a Sybil identity. The solution to this attack has been given in the paper Safe Vanish [4].

IV. PROPOSED WORK As per the proposed, the security measures have been taken effectively for the files stored on the cloud server. Hence in order to avoid unauthorized control over the user’s personal data SeDas is proposed as shown in Figure 5. Self-Destructing data system aim is to destruct all the data along with its copies, either cached or archived after certain

198



period of time so that it becomes unreadable even to the admin (say

CSPs) who maintains it. Whenever the user uploads/downloads a file SeDas works such that the ttl (Time-to-Live) parameter will be given for that particular file. This can be implemented by using Shamir Secret Sharing algorithm which seems to be one of the strongest algorithm in usage. An easy solution to this can be provided by using the spring MVC framework that provides model-view-controller architecture and ready components which can be used to develop flexible and loosely coupled web application which has interceptors as well as controllers, making it easy to factor out behavior common to the handling of many requests. It helps to create high performing, easily testable, reusable code

Figure 5. SeDaS system architecture

Storing data in cloud might be safe on one side but on the other hand what if the confidential data gets misused? There are also some amount of data residing in the cloud which has not been used for years and years. This leads to lower performance in the cloud and issues in network traffic. So this paper gives the solution for the above problems

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with the help of SeDas. Thus the latency and throughput performance

measures are being improved here in this paper.

V. CONCLUSION

In cloud computing environment many a technique have been used to provide security for the user’s data/files. As of the above information many researchers have given many techniques and ideas for the same. According to the above analysis many techniques has been taken into work where the data disappears but without the knowledge of the user. SeDas makes the sensitive information such as credential details to get self-destructed without any action on the user’s part so that the details are unreadable to anyone after that supported by object-based storage technique. The Experimental security analysis sheds intuitive practicableness of the approach. This time-constrained system can facilitate to produce researchers with any valuable expertise to tell future of Cloud services.

References

[1] R. Geambasu, T. Kohno, A. Levy, and H. M. Levy, “Vanish: Increasing data privacy with self-destructing data,” in Proc. USENIX Security Symp., Montreal, Canada, Aug. 2009, pp. 299–315.

[2] A. Shamir, “How to share a secret,” Commun. ACM, vol. 22, no. 11, pp. 612–613, 1979.

[3] S. Wolchok, O. S. Hofmann, N. Heninger, E. W. Felten, J. A. Halderman, C. J. Rossbach, B. Waters, and E. Witchel, “Defeating vanish with low-cost sybil attacks against large DHEs,” in Proc. Network and Distributed System Security Symp., 2010.

[4] L. Zeng, Z. Shi, S. Xu, and D. Feng, “Safevanish: An improved data self-destruction for protecting data privacy,” in Proc. Second Int. Conf. Cloud Computing Technology and Science (CloudCom), Indianapolis, IN, USA, Dec. 2010, pp. 521–528.

[5] L. Qin and D. Feng, “Active storage framework for object-based storage device,” in Proc. IEEE 20th Int. Conf. Advanced Information Networking and Applications (AINA), 2006.

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[6] S. W. Son, S. Lang, P. Carns, R. Ross, R. Thakur, B. Ozisikyilmaz,

W.-K. Liao, and A. Choudhary, “Enabling active storage on parallel I/O software stacks,” in Proc. IEEE 26th Symp. Mass Storage Systems and Technologies (MSST), 2010.

[7] Y. Tang, P. P. C. Lee, J. C. S. Lui, and R. Perlman, “FADE: Secure overlay cloud storage with file assured deletion,” in Proc. SecureComm, 2010.

[8] J. R. Douceur, “The sybil attack,” in Proc. IPTPS ’01: Revised Papers from the First Int. Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Systems, 2002.

[9] T. Cholez, I. Chrisment, and O. Festor, “Evaluation of sybil attack protection schemes in kad,” in Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Autonomous Infrastructure,Management and Security, Berlin, Germany, 2009, pp. 70–82.

[10] M. Mesnier, G. Ganger, and E. Riedel, “Object- based storage,” IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 41, no. 8, pp. 84–90, Aug. 2003.

[11] R. Weber, “Information Technology—SCSI object-based storage device commands (OSD) - vol. 41, no. 8, pp. 84–90, Aug. 2003.

[12] R. Wickremesinghe, J. Chase, and J. Vitter, “Distributed computing with load-managed active storage,” in Proc. 11th IEEE Int. Symp. High Performance Distributed Computing (HPDC), 2002, pp. 13–23

[13] X. Ma and A. Reddy, “MVSS: An active storage architecture,” IEEE Trans. Parallel Distributed Syst., vol. 14, no. 10, pp. 993–1003, Oct. 2003.

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ANALYSIS ON PACKET SIZE OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES

IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

P. Venkatesh

PG Scholar Department of CSE

Adhiyamaan College of Engineering

Hosur, Tamil Nadu, India

Dr. M. Prabu Professor



I. INTRODUCTION

Wireless Sensor Networks is collection of sensing devices that can communicate wirelessly. Each device can perform three important tasks such as, Sense, process and talk to its peers. Hence it has

centralized Collection point (sink or base station). A WSN can be defined as network devices, denoted as node, which can sense the environment and communicate through wireless links. The data is forwarded, possibly via multiple hops to sink, that can use it’s locally or is connected to other network (e.g. internet) through gateway. The node can be Stationary or moving. They can be homogeneous or not [1].

The traditional single-sink WSN may suffer from lack of scalability. So by increasing large number of nodes, amount of data gathered by sink increases and once its capacity is reached, the network cannot be increased. Furthermore, for reasons related to MAC and routing aspects, network performance cannot be considered independent from the network size.

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Fig.1. Architecture of wireless sensor network

As there are many problems in the single sink scenario, moving to multiple sink scenario can be scalable and also increase the performance of the WSN in terms of increasing the number of the nodes, which it not possible in the single sink scenario. In many cases nodes send the collected data to one sink, select among many, which forward data to the gateway, towards the final user. The selection of sink is based on certain suitable criteria that could be, for example, minimum delay, maximum throughput, minimum number of hops etc., Hence the presence of multiple sink ensures better network

performance with respect to single sink case where designing part is more complex for communication protocol and must design according to suitable criteria[2].

The WSN can be used for a variety of applications such as Environment monitoring [3], healthcare, positing [4]and tracking [5] etc., The applications of the wireless sensor network can be classified according to the Event Detection (ED) and the Spatial Process Estimation (SPE) .

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Fig. 2. Left side Single-sink scenario and Right side Multi-sink-scenario] [2]

In the ED scenario, the sensor is deployed to detect the events such as, fire in the forest, Earthquake. In SPE scenario it is deployed to monitor

the physical phenomenon (for example atmospheric pressure in a wide area or temperature variation in a small volcanic site), which can be modeled as a bi-dimensional random process (generally non-stationary).

Power consumption plays an important role in the WSN, so the designers are now mainly focusing on the power aware- protocol and algorithm for design of energy efficient sensor network. For all the operations to be performed in the network, such as sensing information, processing the information and forwarding to the sink node. Hence the power consumption and power management are more important in the wireless sensor networks [1].

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II. RELATED WORK

In the WSN packet size is a major problem, which will directly affect the reliability and the performance of communication between the nodes. However choosing the packet size must be optimal. According to the first scenario the packet size is long in WSN that causes data bit corruption and data packet re-transmission [6]. Power consumption is also high during the transmission of data packet to the sink which in turn ultimately loses the performance of the WSN when the packet size

is long.

In second scenario the packet size is small, which increase the data transmission reliability and reduces the data bit error. But short packet size degrades the performance of the WSN. Also management of packet at each node will become complicated. So many techniques were developed so far to get an optimal packet size for the WSN, but most of the researchers suggest fixed packet size [7].The minority researchers are promoting the use of the dynamic packet length [8] i.e. variable size of data packets in WSN. In this survey report numbers of techniques have been discussed to obtain an appropriate data packet size in WSN and finally the conclusion for each technique.

III. DISCUSSION AND RESULT

Various techniques are used for packet size optimization for wireless sensor networks. A range of techniques were developed by the different researcher for the packet size optimization in WSN.The researchers have majorly focus on the two approaches which is, either fixed packet

size or variable packet size approach. In this section we discuss those approaches and results.

A. Fixed size packet in WSN

In the [7] they have used the fixed packet size in WSN rather than the variable packet size. Even though the variable packet size will increase

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the throughput of the channel and enhance the wireless sensor network transmission mechanism the simplicity of such independent system is also compromised. Since choosing the variable packet size leads to the resource management overhead they choose the fixed size data packets for energy efficient WSN. Basically, there are three fields in the data packet.

1) Packet header. 2) Payload/Data Segment. 3) Packet Trailer.

The packet header contains many fields that are usually less important for WSN nodes and removing those will help us to reduce the packet size in the WSNs. Those fields include current segment number, total number of segments, packet identifiers, source and destination identifiers [7].By employing these method the overall throughput and efficiency is increased.

Fig 3. Packet format [7]

B. Variable Size packet in WSNs

In the [8] variable packet size in WSNs plays a vital role and this paper describes the creation of packet size according to the channel condition i.e. in a dynamic manner, they developed a scheme called dynamic packet length control. In the WSNs if the channel is noisy or busy (means it is congested having lots of packets) it will automatically create small packets. When the channel is empty or channel if it is capable of processing large packet means it will automatically generate the large packet size. By using this method they are increasing the

overall throughput and efficiency.

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C. Framework for optimization of packet size

There are various researchers who developed lot of frameworks for creating or generating an optimal packet size for reducing the energy consumption and to increase the throughput and energy efficiency in

WSN. In this framework [9] for packet optimization in WSNs, they are describing that the longer packet size is more appropriate than the shorter packet size in some case. In certain situation this may lead to inefficiency in the WSNs. The framework must be employed there to find an appropriate method for optimal solution to the problem in wireless sensor networks. The paper [9] used a framework to find the optimal packet size based on some performance metric. The metric consists of the throughput, energy consumption per bit, latency, and packet error rate.

D. Various packet size used in different techniques

In this paper [10], they describe that if small packet size produces more energy efficient in WSN, overhead of each packet is ignored. Tracking

per packet overhead created in WSN will lead to favor large size packet for this type of resource constrained in tiny sensor node. So it depends on overhead produced by each packet generation in WSN. There are some suggested packet sizes as follows

Fig. 4. Effect of packet size on the ESB [10]

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There are some other packet formats designed by the researchers for energy efficiency in wireless sensor networks. In the paper [11] they describe different header formats and researchers could use predefined formats for designing their own packets. Designers have to design their packet header using common header format that is shown in the figure below

Fig. 5. Packet header format [11]

In the paper [12], they describe the Dynamic Packet length control

scheme that provides more efficient terms of channel utilization than the paper [8]. They provide two services, i.e., small message aggregation and large message Fragmentation. By using those services they provide better performance compared to the previous works. The two service are shown clearly in the below figure.

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Fig. 6. DPLC overview [12]

IV. PROPOSED WORK

The proposed work describes and improves the data aggregation i.e. decrease the power consumption and increase the life time of packet send between the two nodes using BEAR protocol. The data aggregation scheme is used to improve the network functionality with

energy competence. Each and every sensor is used to minimize the energy consumption. In data aggregation there are various algorithms used to measure the performance such as lifetime, data accuracy and latency. To improve the lifetime of the mobility nodes based on the centralized and localized algorithm by using the BEAR [A Balanced Energy Aware Routing] Protocols, the dynamic fixed length packets lifetime is measured and this protocol increases the coverage areas to get better performance and where large nodes are to be used.

Wireless sensor network latency refers to data transmission, data aggregation and routing. It defines the time delay between the sink and

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destination. This paper decides to improve the coverage areas, lifetime and also decreases the power consumptions by the protocol. Source node sends packet to destination node where the source node has the backup and increases the networks lifetime generated and maintain by the centralized and localized algorithm. While sending the source node is in off mode and after receiving the acknowledgement it moves to on

mode so, in this way the energy consumption is minimized, increases the data size and lifetime and avoids the latency.

V. CONCLUSION

In the Wireless Sensor Networks major factor deciding the performance, i.e. to choose the packet size leads to efficiency in energy. There are so many researchers who proposed packet size format and there are also some framework approaches for the same. According to above analysis some of the researcher have encouraged fixed size packet for the data transmission in the sensor node, whereas at the same time other researchers encourage variable size packet for data transmission in the sensor node according to the channel capacity. The former approaches are easy to implement and process less overhead but they are inefficient with regards to energy efficiency, overall throughput and performance. Next approaches are capable with respect to energy efficiency, throughput and performance but major drawback is it possess a lot of overhead at each node. Each and every approaches and

framework has their own negative aspect and the positive aspect. Yet we develop an optimal approach which combines the advantages of the previous approach and avoids the drawbacks in those approaches.

References

1. I.F.Akyildiz, W.Su, Y.Sankarasubramaniam and E. Cayirci, “A Survey on Sensor Networks”, IEEE Communications Magazine, pp. 102-114, August 2002.

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2. Lin, C.; Tseng, Y.; Lai, T. Message-Efficient In-Network Location

Management in a Multi-sink Wireless Sensor Network. In Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Sensor Networks, Ubiquitous, and Trustworthy Computing, Taichung, Taiwan, 2006; pp. 1–8.

3. Ong, J.; You, Y.Z.; Mills-Beale, J.; Tan, E.L.; Pereles, B.; Ghee, K. A

wireless, passive embedded sensor for real-time monitoring of water content in civil engineering materials. IEEE Sensors J.2008, 8, 2053–2058

4. Lee, D.-S.; Lee, Y.-D.; Chung, W.-Y.; Myllyla, R. Vital sign monitoring system with life emergency event detection using wireless sensor network. In Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Sensors, Daegu, Korea, 2006.

5. Hao, J.; Brady, J.; Guenther, B.; Burchett, J.; Shankar, M.; Feller, S. Human tracking with wireless distributed pyroelectric sensors. IEEE Sensors J. 2006, 6, 1683–1696.

6. Low Tang Jung, Azween Abdullah, “Wireless Sensor Networks: Data Packet Size Optimization”, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia, 2012.

7. Y. Sankarasubramaniam, I. E Akyildiz and S. W. Mchughlin,

“Energy Efficiency based Packet Size Optimization in Wireless Sensor Networks”, School of Electrical & Computer Engineering Georgia, Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, 2003.

8. Wei Dong, Xue Liu, Chun Chen, Yuan He, Gong Chen, Yunhao Liu, and Jiajun Bu,and Zhejiang Key, “DPLC: Dynamic Packet Length Control in Wireless Sensor Networks”, Lab. of Service Robot, College of Comp. Sci., Zhejiang University School of Comp. Sci., McGill University 2010.

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9. Vuran, M.C.; Akyildiz, I.F.;, "Cross-Layer Packet Size Optimization

for Wireless Terrestrial, Underwater, and Underground Sensor Networks," Infocom 2008. The 27th Conference on Computer Communications. IEEE, vol., no., pp.226-230, 13-18 April 2008.

10. Matthew Holland, Tianqi Wang, Bulent Tavli, Alireza Seyedi, and Wendi Heinzelman, “Optimizing physical-layer parameters for

wireless sensor networks”, ACM Trans. Sen. Netw. 7, 4, Article 28 (February 2011), 20 pages. DOI=10.1145/1921621.1921622 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1921621.1921622.

11. Haboub, Rachid, and Mohammed Ouzzif. "Secure Routing in WSN."International Journal 2 (2011).

12. Wei Dong, Member, IEEE, Chun Chen, Member, IEEE, Xue Liu, Member, IEEE, Yuan He, Member, IEEE, Yunhao Liu, Senior Member, IEEE, Jiajun Bu, Member, IEEE, and Xianghua Xu, Member, IEEE” Dynamic Packet Length Control in Wireless Sensor Networks” IEEE Transactions ON Wireless Communications, VOL. 13, NO. 3, March 2014.

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COMPRESSED AIR VEHICLE (CAV)(A PRACTICAL APPROACH WITH DESIGN)

Sai Chakradhar. Kommuri Student

Department of Mechanical Engineering QISCET, Ongole

HISTORY OF CAV:

Compressed air has been used since the 19th century to power mine locomotives and trams in cities such as Paris (via a central, city-level, compressed), and was previously the basis of naval torpedo propulsion.

During the construction of the Gotthardbahn from 1872 to 1882, pneumatic locomotives were used in the construction of the Gotthard Rail Tunnel and other tunnels of the Gotthardbahn.

In 1903, the Liquid Air Company located in London England manufactured a number of compressed-air and liquefied-air cars. The major problem with these cars and all compressed-air cars is the lack of torque produced by the "engines" and the cost of compressing the air.

INTRODUCTION

Compared to batteries, compressed air is favourable because of a high energy density, low toxicity, fast filling at low cost and long service life. These issues make it technically challenging to design air engines for all kind of compressed air driven vehicles. To meet the growing demand of public transportation, sustainable with environmental

consciousness, people are in the search for the ultimate clean car with zero-emissions. Many concept vehicles were proposed that run on

everything from solar power to algae, but most of them are expensive

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and require hard-to-find fuels .Compressed air vehicle project in the form of light utility vehicle (LUV) (i.e., air car in particular) has been a topic of great interest for the last decade and many theoretical and experimental investigations.

COMPRESSED AIR TECHNOLOGY

Mankind has been making use of uncompressed airpower from

centuries in different application viz., windmills, sailing, balloon car, hot air balloon flying and hang gliding etc. The use of compressed air for storing energy is a method that is not only efficient and clean, but also economical and has been used since the 19th century to power mine locomotives, and was previously the basis of naval torpedo propulsion. The laws of physics dictate that uncontained gases will fill any given space. The easiest way to see this in action is to inflate

a balloon. The elastic skin of the balloon holds the air tightly inside, but the moment you use a pin to create a hole in the balloon's surface, the air expands outward with so much energy that the balloon explodes. Compressing a gas into a small space is a way to store energy. When the gas expands again, that energy is released to do work. That's the basic principle behind what makes an air car go. The air compressors are built into them.

The principle of compressed-air propulsion is to pressurize the storage tank and then connect it to something very like a reciprocating engine of the vehicle. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it in the engine to drive pistons with hot expanding gases, compressed air vehicles (CAV) use the expansion of compressed air to drive their

pistons. Thus, making the technology free from difficulties.

The air is compressed at pressure about 150 times the rate the air is pressurized into car tyres or bicycle. The tanks must be designed to safety standards appropriate for a pressure vessel. The storage tank may be made of steel, aluminium, carbon fibre, Kevlar or other

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materials, or combinations of the above. The fibre materials are considerably lighter than metals but generally more expensive. Metal tanks can withstand a large number of pressure cycles, but must be checked for corrosion periodically. A company has stated to store air in

tanks at 4,500 pounds per square inch (about 30 MPa) and hold nearly 3,200 cubic feet (around 90 cubic metres) of air. The tanks may be refilled at a service station equipped with heat exchangers, or in a few hours at home or in parking lots, plugging the vehicle into an on-board compressor. The cost of driving such a car is typically projected to be around Rs. 60 per 100 km, with a complete refill at the "tank-station" at about Rs. 120 only.

The compression, storage and release of the air together are termed as the Compressed Air Technology. This technology

has been utilized in different pneumatic systems. This technology has been undergoing several years of research to improve its applications.

WORKING

The air-powered car runs on a pneumatic motor that is powered by compressed air stored on board of the vehicle. Once compressed air is transferred into the on board storage tank, it is slowly released to power the car’s pistons The engine that is installed on the compressed air car, uses compressed air which is stored in the car’s tank. The compressed air drives the piston down as the power stroke. At the end of the power stroke, the compressed air is released through the exhaust valves and the exhaust is only air. The motor then converts the air

power into mechanical power. That power is then transferred to the wheels and becomes the source of power for the car. ( i.e. the pistons were connected to the wheels through the HERO HONDA bike’s 4 speed transmission.). This modified engine was mounted on a rectangular crossectional frame and a body that looked like a curious crossbreed of a car.

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PROPERTIES OF AIR CAR ENGINE

The properties of air car engine are:

1. Approximately 0.05 mt3 of compressed air is stored in mild steel tank in the vehicle.

2. The engine is powered by compressed air, stored in the tank at 30bar. In order to reduce weight, the tank can be made of carbon fibre.

3. The expansion of this air pushes the piston and creates movement. The atmospheric temperature is used to reheat the engine and increase the road coverage.

4. The air condition system can be made use of the expelled cold air.

We only need a simple piston-cylinder arrangement with an intlet and an exhaust. But as we know a normal two stroke engine contained several ports and it also had the spark plug which we didn’t require. So, due to the presence of ports in a two stroke engine, it is difficult to get required output from the engine. So, several modifications had to be done on the four stroke engine to suit our purpose.

The modifications comprised of:-

Providing a suitable connector at the cylinder head.

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Removing the spark plug from the cylinder head.

Modifying the cam shaft of the engine.

1. COMPRESSED AIR TANK

Compressed air tank is one of the most important part of these cars. These tanks hold 0.05m3 of air to 30 bars. It is similar to the

tanks used to carry the liquid gas. The tank enjoys the same technology developed to containing natural gas. These tanks do not explode in case of accidents since there are no metals in them if made of carbon fibre. So the selection of material for the storage tank matters much in safety.

2. ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS

Made: HERO HONDA Model: CD100

Stroke: 4 stroke No. of cylinders: Single cylinder

Displacement: 110 cc 3. THE CHASSIS

Based on design principles in aeronautics, engine has put together highly-resistant, yet light, chassis, zinc rods welded together. Using these rods enables us to build a more shock-resistant chassis than regular chassis, allowing quick assembly and a more

secure. This system helps to reduce manufacture time.

4. AIR FILTER

The engine works with air taken from the atmosphere. Air is compressed by the off-board compressor or at service stations equipped with a high-pressure compressor. Before compression, the air must be filtered to get rid of any impurities that could damage the engine. Carbon filters are used to eliminate dirt, dust, humidity and

other particles which, unfortunately, are found in the air in our cities.

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5. REFILLING

As these energies are so easy to store Filling stations are setup as for petrol and diesel. The filling of tank of an air car nearly

takes 3 to 4 minutes for cars. Either, we can set up a filling equipment too in our house, which is quite cheaper.

6. SPECIAL FEATURES

There is absolutely no fuel required and no combustion in the engine cylinder.

There is no pollution at all as only air is taken in and air is ejected out.

No Heat is generated, as there is no combustion. No engine cooling system is required, like water Pump, radiator,

and water Circulating pipes. It was measured practically that the engine exhaust is a cooled air; its temperature was measured as low as 5 degrees Celsius.

No air conditioning system in the car is required if used, the exhaust chilled and clean air can be recirculated partly in the car to cool it.

The atmospheric temperature can fall down, as the exhaust is a clean and chilled air, so the problem of pollution can be permanently eradicated.

Very less maintenance is required as there won’t be any soot formation.

Very low cost materials can be used, as there is no heat involvement.

Weight of the engine can be reduced in the absence of cooling system and because of lightweight material, which will improve the mileage and efficiency.

In case of leakage or accident, there won’t be any fire. Engine vibrations were very less and sound pollution was also

very low. Operating cost is ten times less than that of gasoline engine. 7. EMISSION OUTPUT

Since the compressed air is filtered to protect the

compressor machinery, the air discharged has less suspended dust in

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it, though there may be carry-over of lubricants used in the engine. The car works when gas expands.

ADVANTAGES

Compressed-air vehicles are comparable in many ways to electric vehicles, but use compressed air to store the energy instead of batteries. Their potential advantages over other vehicles include:.

Compressed-air technology reduces the cost of vehicle production by about 20%, because there is no need to build a cooling system, fuel tank, Ignition Systems or silencers.

The engine can be massively reduced in size. The engine runs on cold or warm air, so can be made of lower

strength light weight material such as aluminium, plastic, low friction Teflon or a combination.

Low manufacture and maintenance costs as well as easy maintenance.

Compressed-air tanks can be disposed of or recycled with less pollution than batteries.

Compressed-air vehicles are unconstrained by the degradation problems associated with current battery systems.

The air tank may be refilled more often and in less time than

batteries can be recharged, with re-filling rates comparable to liquid fuels.

Lighter vehicles cause less damage to roads, resulting in lower maintenance cost.

The price of filling air powered vehicles is significantly cheaper than petrol, diesel or biofuel. If electricity is cheap, then compressing air will also be relatively cheap.

DISADVANTAGES

The principal disadvantage is the indirect use of energy. Energy is used to compress air, which – in turn – provides the energy to run the

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motor. Any conversion of energy between forms results in loss. For conventional combustion motor cars, the energy is lost when oil is converted to usable fuel – including drilling, refinement, labor, storage, eventually transportation to the end-user. For compressed-air cars,

energy is lost when electrical energy is converted to compressed air.

When air expands, as it would in the engine, it cools dramatically (Charles's law) and must be heated to ambient temperature using a heat exchanger similar to the Intercooler used for internal combustion engines. The heating is necessary in order to obtain a significant fraction of the theoretical energy output. The heat exchanger can be problematic. While it performs a similar task to the Intercooler, the temperature difference between the incoming air and the working gas is smaller. In heating the stored air, the device gets very cold and may ice up in cool, moist climates.

Refueling the compressed-air container using a home or low-end conventional air compressor may take as long as 4 hours, while the specialized equipment at service stations may fill the tanks in only 3 minutes.

Tanks get very hot when filled rapidly. SCUBA tanks are sometimes immersed in water to cool them down when they are being filled. That would not be possible with tanks in a car and thus it would either take a long time to fill the tanks, or they would have to take less than a full charge, since heat drives up the pressure.

Early tests have demonstrated the limited storage capacity of the tanks; the only published test of a vehicle running on compressed air alone was limited to a range of 7.22 km (4 mi).

A 2005 study demonstrated that cars running on lithium-ion batteries out-perform both compressed-air and fuel cell vehicle more than threefold at same speeds.[10] MDI has recently claimed that an air car will be able to travel 140 km (87 mi) in urban driving, and have a range of 80 km (50 mi) with a top speed

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of 110 km/h (68 mph) on highways, when operating on compressed air alone.

POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENTS

Compressed-air vehicles operate to a thermodynamic process as air cools down when expanding and heats up when being compressed. As it is not possible in practice to use a theoretically ideal process,

losses occur and improvements may involve reducing these, e.g., by using large heat exchangers in order to use heat from the ambient air and at the same time provide air cooling in the passenger compartment. At the other end, the heat produced during compression can be stored in water systems, physical or chemical systems and reused later.

It may be possible to store compressed air at lower pressure using an absorption material within the tank. Absorption materials such as Activated carbon, or a metal organic framework is used to store compressed natural gas at 500 psi instead of 4500 psi, which amounts to a large energy saving.

CONCLUSION

It’s important to remember that while vehicles running on only compressed air might seem like a distant dream, but they still have public interest due to their environmental friendly nature. Efforts should be to make them light, safe, cost effective and economical for deriving. The storage of compressed air (initially as well as during

journey) with all benefits like no heating, high energy density and provisions to make use of cooling produced during adiabatic expansion during the energy release have to be taken care off in a much more controlled manner. Electric-powered cars and bikes already available on the market put a strong competition to compressed air car not only in terms of cost but also their environment friendly role. The technology still looks distant but that has not deterred inventors from working on it.

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DESIGN OF AN OPTIMISED LOW POWER FULL ADDER USING DOUBLE GATED MOSFET AT 45nm TECHNOLOGY

T Nithyoosha P.G Student

VLSI, Department of E.C.E, SIETK Tirupati

M.Rajeswara Rao Assistant Professor

Department of E.C.E, SIETK Tirupati

1. INTRODUCTION

In very large scale integration (VLSI) systems, full adder circuit is used

in arithmetic operations for addition, multipliers and Arithmetic Logic

Unit (ALU). It is a building block of the application of VLSI, digital

signal processing, image processing and microprocessors. Most of full

adder systems are considered performance of circuits, number of

transistor, speed of circuit, chip area, threshold loss and full swing

output and the most important is power consumption. In the future,

portable devices such as cell phone, laptop computer, tablet etc. need

low power and high speed full adders.

The power consumption for CMOS circuit is given by the following

equation:

Pavg = Pdynamic + Pleak + Pshort-circuit

=CLVddVFclk + IleakVdd +IscVdd (1)

Lowering the supply voltage would significantly lower the power

consumption of the circuit. This basic concept of would be used to

improve the performance of adder circuit.

2. FULL ADDER

Full adder circuit is designed for addition binary logics. Sum signal

(SUM) and carry out signal (Cout) are the output of I-bit full adder. Both

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of them are generated by input A, B and CIN, following Boolean

equation as:

SUM = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin (2)

Cout = AB + A ⊕ B Cin (3)

A

B

Cin

Fig.1. Block Diagram of basic full adder circuit

2.1 DOUBLE GATE 14T FULL ADDER CIRCUIT

Double gate MOSFET will be constructed by connecting two transistors

in parallel as a way that their supply and drain are connected together.

Double gate MOSFET can be classified in two types, based on biasing of

gate. Once the front and back gate area unit connected along, initial

kind is achieved and it is referred as three terminal devices. This device

is used for direct replacement of single gate transistor. Second kind is

achieved by independent gate control.

In this section single bit full adder circuit is designed by using double

gate MOSFET for improve the performance of adder in terms of power

and leakage using 14 transistors.

s

Cout

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Fig.2. Schematic of 4T XOR

This cell is constructed by using the 4T XOR gate. In the 14T full adder

cell two 4T XOR gate are used. Fig3 shows the double gate 14T full adder

circuit .Here 4T XOR is used gate to increase circuit density using this

XOR gate, reduction in size of full adder is achieved and overall leakage

is also reduced. Output waveform of 14T full adder is shown in fig.4

Fig.3. Double gate 14T full adder

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Fig.4. Output waveform of double gate 14T full adder

2.2 DOUBLE GATE 10T FULL ADDER CIRUIT

In this section one bit full adder circuit is presented by using double gate

transistors for improve the performance of adder in terms of power and

leakage. Fig5 shows the double gate 10T full adder circuit. This cell is

made by using the 4T XOR gate. It is the essential component of full

adder cell and generates the essential addition operation of adder cell. It

behaves like a single half adder cell.

Here 4T XOR gate is used to increase circuit density. Fig.2 shows the

4T XOR gate. Using this XOR gate, reduction in size of full adder is

achieved and overall leakage is also reduced. The schematic of full adder

is shown in fig.5 and output waveform is shown in fig.6.10T double gate

full adder achieves 31.25% reduction in active power and 95% reduction

in leakage current as compared to 14T double gate full adder.

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A B C

Fig.5. Double gate 10T full adder

Fig.6. Output waveform of double gate 10T full adder

1. DOUBLE GATE MOSFET

The MOS transistor model from COMSOL as a template is used to model

the double gate MOSFET. Double gate transistors are developed to

Sum

Cout

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resolve short channel effect problems in actual MOSFET structures. So

that such architectures are directly related to the constant Reduction of

the feature size in microelectronic technology. At the present time, it

seems that double gate devices- going to non-planar transistor.

Architectures- could be a solution for sub-32nm Nodes. In addition, new

design flexibility is allowed when gates are not interconnected. However,

appropriate models must be developed. Threshold voltage (Vth) modeling

of double gate (DG) MOSFETs was performed, for the first time, by

considering barrier lowering in the short channel devices. As the gate

length of DG MOSFETs scales down, the overlapped charge-sharing

length (xh) in the channel which is related to the barrier lowering

becomes very important. A fitting parameter δw was introduced

semiempirically with the fin body width and body doping concentration

for higher accuracy. The Vth model predicted well the Vth behavior with

fin body thickness, body doping concentration, and gate length.

Recently, bulk FinFETs have been considering very promising candidate

for next generation memory cell transistors to be applicable to dynamic

random access memory (DRAM) and flash memory. As the gate length of

bulk FinFETs scales down, barrier lowering occurs in spite of low drain

bias (VDS =0.05V) because the depleted charge-sharing length (xh) by

source and drain in short channel is overlapped. To apply the devices to

integrated circuits, it is strongly required to model threshold voltage

(Vth) considering the barrier lowering in short channel. However, the Vth

model has not been developed since the xh modeling in short channel

devices is very complicated with device geometry and doping

concentration. For Vth modeling of the devices, double-gate (DG) nature

is key point and needs to be understood well. In this paper, we propose

Vth model of DG MOSFETs based on the correction of xh considering

barrier lowering, and verify the Vth model by comparing with device

simulation in terms of gate length (Lg), fin width (Wfin) and body

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doping (Nb). Threshold voltages were extracted by using gm,max for a

given VDS of 0.05 V in this paper.

4. SIMULATION AND RESULT

A single bit full adder circuit based on double gate MOSFET technique is

proposed. It is used for measurement of leakage, power consumption and

delay of the proposed circuit at 45nm technology with different supply

voltage from 0.7v to 1.0v.

4.1. LEAKAGE CURRENT

Leakage current is the current that flows through the protective ground

conductor to ground. In the absence of a grounding connection, it is the

current that could flow from any conductive part or the surface of

non-conductive parts to ground if a conductive path was available (such

as a human body). There are always extraneous currents flowing in the

safety ground conductor. Tunnelling leakage can also occur across

junctions between heavily doped p-type and n-type. The basic equation

of leakage current is shown in Eq.4

Ileak = Isub + Iox (4)

Where, Isub = sub-threshold leakage current, Iox = gate-oxide leakage

current.

Where, K1 and n are experimentally derived, W = gate width, Vth =

threshold voltage, n = slope shape factor, Vθ = thermal voltage.

Where, K2 and α are derived experimentally, Tox = oxide thickness.

Table 1 shows the leakage current of 10T and 14T full adder cell using

double gate MOSFET at different supply voltage. Fig 7 and fig 8 shows

228



the leakage current waveform of double gate 14T and 10T full adder cell

at 0.7V.

Voltage 10T Full Adder (pA) 14T Full Adder (pA) 0.7 3.646 58.2 0.8 3.915 84.6 0.9 5.165 144 1.0 5.401 220

Table 1. Leakage current at difference voltages of 10t and 14t full adder

Fig.7. Leakage Current Waveform of Double Gate 14T Full Adder at 0.7V

There are two types of leakage current: ac leakage and dc leakage. Dc

leakage current usually applies only to end-product equipment, not to

power supplies. Ac leakage current is caused by a parallel combination of

capacitance and dc resistance between a voltage source (ac line) and the

grounded conductive parts of the equipment. The leakage caused by the

dc resistance usually is insignificant compared to the ac impedance of

various parallel capacitances.

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Fig.8. Leakage Current Waveform of Double Gate 10T Full Adder at 0.7V

4.2 ACTIVE POWER

At the time of operating the power is dissipated by the circuit is known

as active power. Active power includes both static power and dynamic

power of the circuit. The basic equation of active power is shown in Eq.

(7)

Pactive = Pdyanamic + Pstatic (7)

=Pswitching + Pshort-circuit + Pleakage

Where,

Cl = load capacitance, fclk = clock frequency, α = switching activity, Isc = short circuit current, Ileakage = leakage current, Vdd = supply voltage

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Table 2. Active power at difference voltages of 14t full adder

Voltage 10T Full Adder(µW)

14T Full Adder (µW)

0.7 9.34 13.7 0.8 15.21 23.56 0.9 21.95 39.69 1 29.61 61.52

Fig.9. Active Power Waveform of Double Gate 14T Full Adder at 0.7V

Fig.10. Active Power Waveform of Double Gate 10T Full Adder at 0.7V

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Table 2 shows the active power of 10T and 14T full adder cell using

double gate MOSFET at different supply voltage. Fig 9 and fig 10 shows

the active power waveform of double gate 14T and 10T full adder cell at

0.7V. 4.3 DELAY Propagation delay is required by a digital signal to travel from that input

of the circuit to the output. The propagation delay is inversely

proportional to the speed of the architecture and hence it is important

performance parameter. The basic equation of delay in presence of sleep

transistor is shown in Eq. (9) the propagation delay for an integrated

circuit (IC) logic gate may differ for each of the inputs. If all other factors

are held constant, the average propagation delay in a logic gate IC

increases as the complexity of the internal circuitry increases.

Some IC technologies have inherently longer tpd values than others, and

are considered "slower." Propagation delay is important because it has a

direct effect on the speed at which a digital device, such as a computer,

can operate. This is true of memory chips as well as microprocessors.

Fig.11.Delay Comparison Graph of 10T and 14T Full Adder Circuit.

5. CONCLUSION

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The analysis carried out while analyzing both l0T and 14T full adders

individually and comparing them on the basis of calculation of active

power, leakage current and delay by varying different parameters. The

outcomes of the simulation show that l0T full adder to be a better option

with improved performance over 14T structure. As compare to 14T

double gate full adder active power of 10T full adder is reduced from

13.7μW to 9.34 μW at 0.7V. As compare to 14T double gate full adder

Leakage current of 10T full adder is reduced from 58.2pA to 3.646pA at

0.7V.As compare to 10T double gate full adder Delay of 14T double gate

full adder is reduced from 171.3ps to 151ps.

References

2. Sun, X.-G., Mao, Z.-G., and Lai, F.-C. “A 64 bit parallel CMOS adder for high performance processors”, Proc. IEEE Asia-Pacific Conf. on ASIC, 2002, pp. 205–208.

3. Vahid Moalemi and Ali Afzali-Kusha, “Subthreshold 1-bit Full adder cells in sub-100nm technologies”, IEEE Computer Society Annual Symposium on VLSI (ISVLSI-07), Porto Alegre, Brazil, March 9-11, 2007 (ISBN 0-7695-2896-1).

4. Lu Junming; Shu Yan; Lin Zhenghui; Wang Ling," A Novel IO-transistor Low-power High-speed Full adder cell", Proceedings of 6th International Conference on Solid-State and Integrated-Circuit Technology, vol-2, pp. 1155-1158,2001.

5. Dan Wang, Maofeng Yang, Wu Cheng, Xuguang Guan, Zhangming Zhu, Yintang Yang, "Novel Low Power Full Adder Cells in 180nm CMOS Technology", 4th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, ICIEA 2009, pp 430-433.

6. Adarsh Kumar Agrawal, Shivshankar Mishra, and R K. Nagaria, "Proposing a Novel Low-Power High-Speed Mixed GDI Full Adder Topology", accepted in Proceeding of IEEE International Conference on Power, Control and Embedded System (ICPCES), 28 Nov.-1 Dec. 2010.

7. Shipra Mishra, Shelendra Singh Tomar and Shyam Akashe, “Design low power 10T full adder using process and circuit techniques”, 7th IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Systems and Control(ISCO) Coimbatore 2013, pp. 325-328.

233



8. Mohammad Hossein Moaiyeri and Reza Faghih Mirzaee, Keivan Navi, 'Two New Low-Power and High-Performance Full Adders", Journal Of Computers, Vol. 4,N o. 2,February 2009.

9. Mariano Aguirre-Hernandez and Monico Linares-Aranda, "CMOS Full Adders for Energy-Efficient Arithmetic Applications", IEEE Transactions On Very Large Scale Integration (Vlsi) Systems, Vol. 19, No. 4, April 2011.

10. G.Shyam Kishore, Associate. Prof, ECE dept, JITS, Karimnagar, Andhra Pradesh, India, "A Novel Full Adder with High Speed Low Area", Proceedings published in International Journal of Computer Applications® (UCA) , 2nd National Conference on Information and Communication Technology (NCICT) 2011.

11. D. J. Frank, S. E. Laux, and M. V. Fischetti, “Monte carlo simulation of a 30 nm dual-gate MOSFET: How short can Si go?,” in IEDM Tech. Dig., 1992, pp. 553–556.

12. C. Fiegna et al., “A new scaling methodology for the 0.1–0.025 um MOSFET,” in VLSI Symp. Tech. Dig., 1993, pp. 33–34.

13. K. Suzuki et al., “Scaling theory for double-gate SOI MOSFET’s,” IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 40, pp. 2326–2329, 1993.

14. H. S. Wong, D. J. Frank, Y. Taur, and J. M. C. Stork, “Design and performance considerations for sub-0.1 um double-gate SOI MOSFET’s,” in IEDM Tech. Dig., 1994, pp. 747–750.

15. B. Majkusiak, T. Janik, and J. Walczak, “Semiconductor thickness effects in the double-gate SOI MOSFET,” IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 45, pp. 1127–1134, May 1998.

16. L. T. Su, M. J. Sherony, H. Hu, J. E. Chung, and D. A. Antoniadis, “Optimization of series resistance in sub-0.2 um SOI MOSFETs,” in IEDM Tech. Dig., 1993, pp. 723–726.

17. D. Hisamoto et al., “Metallized ultra-shallow-junction device technology for sub-0.1 um gate MOSFET’s,” IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 41, pp. 745–750, May 1994.

18. J. Hwang and G. Pollack, “Novel polysilicon/TiN stacked-gate structure for fully-depleted SOI/CMOS,” IEDM Tech. Dig., pp. 345–348, 1992.

19. D. Hisamoto et al., “A folded-channel MOSFET for deep-sub-tenth micron era,” IEDM Tech. Dig., pp. 1032–1034, 1998.

234



20. D. Hisamoto, T. Kaga, and E. Takeda, “Impact of the vertical SOI ‘Delta’ structure on planar device technology,” IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 38, pp. 1419–1424, 1991.

21. S. Kimura, H. Noda, D. Hisamoto, and E. Takeda, “A 0.1 _m-gate elevated source and drain MOSFET fabricated by phase-shifted lithography,” in IEDM Tech. Dig., 1991, pp. 950–952.

22. T. Ushiki et al., “Reliable tantalum gate fully-depleted-SOI MOSFET’s with 0.15 _m gate length by low-temperature processing below 500 C,” in IEDM Tech. Dig., 1996, pp. 117–120.

23. T.-J. King, J. P. McVittie, K. C. Saraswat, and J. R. Pfiester, “Electrical properties of heavily doped polycrystalline silicon-germanium films,” IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 41, pp. 228–232, Feb. 1994.

235



AN MTCMOS TECHNIQUE FOR OPTIMIZING LOW POWER FLIP-FLOP DESIGNS

S.Roja

P.G Student VLSI, Department of E.C.E

SIETK, Puttur

C.Vijaya Bhaskar Assistant Professor

Department of E.C.E SIETK, Puttur

I. INTRODUCTION

Power consumption being the major problem in achieving high

performance and it is listed as one of the top three challenges in

electronics industry. The clock system, which consists of the clock

distribution network and flip-flops and latches, is one of the most power

consuming components in a VLSI system. It accounts for 30% to 60% of

the total power dissipation in a system. As a result, reducing the power

consumed by flip-flops will have a deep impact on the total power

consumed. A large portion of the on chip power is consumed by the clock

circuits.

Power consumption is determined by several factors including frequency

ƒ, supply voltage V, data activity α, capacitance C, leakage, and short

circuit current

P=Pdynamic+Pshort circuit+Pleakage

In the above equation, dynamic power Pdynamic is also called the

switching power,

Pdynamic=αCV2ƒ.

Pshort circuit is the short circuit power which is caused by the finite rise

and fall time of input signals, resulting in both the pull up network and

pull down network to be ON for a short while

Pshort circuit= Ishort circuitVdd

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Pleakage is the leakage power. With supply voltage scaling down, the

threshold voltage also decreases to maintain performance. However, this

leads to the exponential growth of the sub threshold leakage current.

Sub threshold leakage is the dominant leakage now.

Pleakage= IleakageVdd.

Flip-Flop is an electronic circuit that stores a logical state of one or more

data input signals in response to a clock pulse. Flip-flops are often used

in computational circuits to operate in selected sequences during

recurring clock intervals to receive and maintain data for a limited time

period sufficient for other circuits within a system to further process

data. At each rising or falling edge of a clock signal, the data stored in a

set of Flip-Flops is readily available so that it can be applied as inputs to

other combinational or sequential circuitry. Such flip-flops that store

data on both the leading edge and the trailing edge of a clock pulse are

referred to as double-edge triggered Flip-Flops otherwise it is called as

single edge triggered Flip-Flops.

In digital CMOS circuits there are three sources of power dissipation,

the first is due to signal transition, the second comes from short circuit

current which flows directly from supply to ground terminal and the last

is due to leakage currents. As technology scales down the short circuit

power becomes comparable to dynamic power dissipation. Furthermore,

the leakage power also becomes highly significant. High leakage current

is becoming a significant contributor to power dissipation of CMOS

circuits as threshold voltage, channel length and gate oxide thickness

are reduced. Consequently, the identification and modeling of different

leakage components is very important for estimation and reduction of

leakage power especially for High-speed and low-power applications.

Multithreshold Voltage Based CMOS (MTCMOS) and voltage scaling

are two of the low power techniques used to reduce power.

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II. SOURCES OF POWER DISSIPATION

Power dissipation in digital CMOS circuits is caused by four sources as

follows.

Low Power Design Space: The three degrees of freedom inherent in the low-power design space:

voltage, physical capacitance, and data activity. Optimizing for power

entails an attempt to reduce one or more of these factors.

1) Voltage: Voltage reduction offers the most effective means of

minimizing power consumption the useful range of Vdd to a minimum

of two to three times Vt. One approach to reduce the supply voltage

without loss in throughput is to modify the Vt of the devices. Reducing

the Vt allows the supply voltage to be scaled down without loss in speed.

2) Switching Activity: If there is no switching in a circuit, then no dynamic power will be

consumed. There are two components to switching activity, fclk which

specifies the average periodicity of data arrivals and E(sw) which

determines how many transitions each arrival will generate

3) Physical Capacitance: Minimizing capacitances offers another technique for minimizing power

consumption. In order to consider this possibility we must first

understand what factors contribute to the physical capacitance of a

circuit. Power dissipation is dependent on the physical capacitances seen

by individual gates in the circuit.

The leakage current, which is primarily determined by the

fabrication technology, consists of two components

1) Reverse bias current in the parasitic diodes formed between source

and drain diffusions and the bulk region in a MOS transistor.

2) The sub threshold current that arises from the inversion charge

that exists at the gate voltages below the threshold voltage.

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3) The standby current which is the DC current drawn continuously

from Vdd to ground.

4) The short-circuit current which is due to the DC path between the

supply rails during output transitions.

5) The capacitance current which flows to charge and discharge

capacitive loads during logic changes.

This paper surveys various low power flip-flops is described in Section II.

Section III gives the proposed MTCMOS technique. Section IV

represents MT-CPSFF and section V presents simulation results.

Section VI concludes this paper.

III. LOW POWER FLIP-FLOPS

Some of the different flip-flops are designed for reducing power

consumption. The following are the different low power flip-flops they

are

1) Conditional discharge flip-flop (CDFF)

2) Conditional data mapping flip-flop (CDMFF)

3) Clock pair shared flip-flop (CPSFF)

4) Multi threshold CMOS -Clocked paired shared flip-flop (MT-CMOS

CPSFF)

1) Conditional discharge flip-flop (CDFF):

FIG 3.1: CDFF

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The schematic diagram of the conditional discharge flip-flop (CDFF),

is shown in Fig. It uses a pulse generator as in, which is suitable for

double-edge sampling. The flip-flop is made up of two stages. Stage one

is responsible for capturing the LOW-to-HIGH transition. If the input D

is HIGH in the sampling window, the internal node X is discharged,

assuming (q,qb)that were initially (LOW, HIGH) for the discharge path

to be enabled. As a result, the output node will be charged to HIGH

through P2 in the second stage. Stage 2 captures the HIGH-to-LOW

input transition. If the input D was LOW during the sampling period,

then the first stage is disabled and node X retains its precharge state.

Whereas, node Y will be HIGH, and the discharge path in the second

stage will be enabled in the sampling period, allowing the output node to

discharge and to correctly capture the input data. CDFF uses 13clocked

transistors resulting in reduction of the power consumption.

2) Conditional data mapping flip-flop (CDFF):

IN Conditional data mapping flip-flop (CDMFF) used only seven clocked

transistors, resulting in about 50% reduction in the number of clocked

transistors; hence CDMFF used less power than CDFF. This shows the

effectiveness of reducing clocked transistor numbers to achieve low

power. The conditional data mapping methodology exploits the property

of the flip-flop, by providing the flip-flop with a stage to map its inputs to

(0, 0) if a redundant event is predicted, such that the outputs will be

unchanged when clock signal is triggered. A conditional data mapper is

deployed in the circuit to map the inputs by using outputs as control

signals.

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FIG 3.2: CDMFF

3) Clock paired shared flip-flop:

This low power flip flop is the improved version of Conditional Data

Mapping Flip flop (CDMFF). It has totally 19 transistors including 4

clocked transistors as shown in Figure. The N3 and N4 are called

clocked pair which is shared by first and second stage. The floating

problem is avoided by the transistor P1 (always ON) which is used to

charge the internal node X. This flip flop will operate, when clk and

clkdb is at logic ‘1’. When D=1, Q=0, Qb_kpr=1, N5=OFF, N1=ON,

the ground voltage will pass through N3, N4 and N1 then switch on the

P2. That is Q output pulls up through P2. When D=0, Q=1, Qb_kpr=0,

N5= ON, N1= OFF, Y=1, N2= ON, then Q output pulls down to zero

through N2, N3 and N4.

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The flip flop output is depending upon the previous output Qand Qb_kpr

in addition with clock and data input. So the initial condition should be

like when D=1 the previous state of Q should be ‘0’ and Qb_kpr should

be ‘1’. Similarly when D=0 the previous state of Q should be ‘1’ and

Qb_kpr should be ‘0’. Whenever the D=1 the transistor N5 is idle,

Whenever the D=0 input transmission gate is idle.

In high frequency operation the input transmission gate andN5 will

acquire incorrect initial conditions due to the feedback from the output.

The noise coupling occurred in the Q output due to continuous

switching at high frequency. The glitch will be appearing in the Q

output. It will propagate to the next stage which makes the system more

vulnerable to noise. In order to avoid the above drawbacks and reduce

the power consumption in proposed flip flop, we can make the flip-flop

output as independent of previous state. That is without initial

conditions and removal of noise coupling transistors. In addition double

edge triggering can be applied easily for power reduction to the proposed

flip flop. It will be a less power consumption than other flip flops.

FIG 3.3: CPSFF

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IV. MTCMOS TECHNIQUE

Multi-Threshold Voltage CMOS (MTCMOS) is one of the highly

accepted circuit technique in the reduction of the leakage current. For

efficient power management in MTCMOS technology, the circuit works

on two modes, one being the "active" and the other "sleep" operational

modes. The conventional circuit works on single threshold voltage (Vt)

while the circuit employing the MTCMOS technique works on two

different threshold voltage switches are Low Vt and High Vt. The circuit

comprises of two different set of transistors- one which works on High Vt

are termed as "sleep" transistors and the transistors which works on Low

Vt comprises the logical circuit. The sleep transistors are used to achieve

high performance by reducing the leakage current while the Low Vt

transistors enhance the circuit’s speed performance.

The power gating technique using MTCMOS is shown in Fig. The

diagram consists of two sleep transistors S1 and S2 with higher Vt. The

logic circuit between the S1 and S2 is not directly connected to real

supply lines Vdd and Gnd, but in turn it is connected to virtual power

supply lines Vddv and Gndv and has low Vt. Both the sleep transistors

are given complementary inputs S and SBAR. The above circuit operates

in two modes active mode and standby mode.

In active mode, S=0 and SBAR=1 such that S1 and S2 are ON and

virtual supply lines Vddv and Gndv work as real supply lines therefore

the logic circuit operates normally and at a higher speed. In sleep mode,

S=1 and SBAR=0 such that S1 And S2 are OFF and this will cause

virtual power supply lines to float and large leakage current present in

circuit is suppressed by sleep transistors S1 and S2 resulting in lower

leakage current and thus reducing power consumption.

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FIG 4.1:MTCMOS TECHNIQUE

V.PROPOSED LOW POWER FLIP-FLOP DESIGNS USING MT-CMOS

To reduce standby leakage power consumption and to ensure efficient

implementation of sequential elements, we propose clocked pair shared

flip-flop using MTCMOS technique. We are designing this circuit

keeping the number of clocked transistors same as in the actual circuit.

The schematic of MT-CPSFF is shown in Fig.5.1

Fig.5.1 Schematic of Proposed CPSFF using MTCMOS

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In this proposed Clocked Pair Shared Flip Flop, a high threshold voltage

NMOS transistor is provided with a sleep signal S, which is high in the

active mode and low during the standby mode.Here, the first and the

second stage shares the same clocked pair (M5 and M6). Furthermore,

the pMOS M1 is always turned on and is connected to the power supply

Vdd, thus charging the internal node X all the time. This reduces the

floating of node X and enhances the noise robustness.

The flip flop works, when both clk and clkdb are at logic ‘1’. Pseudo

nMOS and conditional mapping technique both are combined using the

above scheme. The nMOS M3 is controlled by a feedback signal. For

input D=1and S=1,Q will be high, switching ON the transistor M8, and

turning OFF M3 thus parrying redundant switching activity and flow of

shortcircuit current at the node X. When D transits to 1 the output Q is

pulled up by pMOS M2 whereas M4 is used to pull down Q when D=0

and Y=1 at the arrival of clock pulse. When the input D transits from 0-1

the short-circuit occurs for once even though M1 is always ON, thus

disconnecting the discharge path and turning off M3 after two gates

delay by feedback signal. There will be no short-circuit even if the input

D stays high as M3 disconnects the discharge path. The output of the flip

flop depends upon the state previously acquired by Q and QB along with

the clock and the data signal inputs provided.

T-FLIP-FLOP MTCMOS TECHNIQUE

The below diagram which shows the extension of the MT-CPSFF.T

flip-flop which uses for the reducing switching activity and also power

consumption. This is the another proposed MTCMOS technique, The

schematic of MT-CPSFF is shown in Fig.5.2

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Fig.5.2 Schematic of Proposed T- CPSFF using MTCMOS

VI.SIMULATION RESULTS

The simulation results for all existing and proposed flip-flops were

obtained in a 90nm CMOS technology at room temperature using

Tanner EDA Tools over various supply voltages and frequencies. Table I

show power comparison results for the CDFF, CDMFF, CPSFF and the

proposed MT-CPSFF for 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 supply voltage (Vdd) over

750MHz and 500MHz clock frequencies. Table I show that CDFF has

38.39% less power consumption than conventional DEFF at 750MHz

clock frequency and 1.5Vdd.

The simulation results for all existing and proposed flip-flops were

obtained in a 90nm CMOS technology at room temperature using

Tanner EDA Tools 13.0 over varioussupply voltages and frequencies.

Table I show power comparison results for the CDFF, CDMFF, CPSFF

and the proposed MT-CPSFF for 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 supply voltage (Vdd)

over 750MHz and 500MHz clock frequencies. Table I show that CDFF

has 38.39% less power consumption.

Similarly at 500MHz and 3Vdd CDFF consumes 74.02% less power than

conventional DEFF. With the reduction in the number of clocked

transistor in the CDMFF as compared to CDFF, the power consumption

by CDMFF at 750MHz and at1.5Vdd is 81.02% less as compared to the

246



CDFF. Albeit CDMFF reduces the power consumption to a considerable

amount, but it is susceptible to redundant clocking in addition to a

floating node. The CPSFF overcomes this drawback by reducing the

number of clocking transistors. For 500 MHz and at 3Vdd CPSFF

consumes 53.80% less power than CDMFF. Similarly at 750MHz and

1.5Vdd CPSFF consumes 9.74% less power as compared to CDMFF. The

comparison shows that reducing the clocked transistors has a major

effect on reducing the total power consumption of the design circuit.

The proposed MT-CPSFF which makes use of MTCMOS technique

shows higher performance as well as smaller Stand by leakage current.

The low Vt MOSFETs enhances the speed, while the higher Vt

MOSFETs reduces the standby leakage current. Table I show that for

MT-CPSFF at 500MHz and 3Vdd, the proposed circuit consumes 66.3%

less power as compared to conventional CPSFF. Similarly at 750MHz

and1.5Vdd MTCPSFF consumes 15.2% less power than conventional

cpsff.

Fig:6.1 Output wave form for D-ff

247



Fig: 6.2Output waveform for T-ff

DESIGN NAME

AREA SWITICHIN

G TRANSISTOR

FREQUENCY 500MHZ 700MHZ

POWER CONSUMPTION

SUPPLY VOLTAGE CDFF 26 13 1.5 3 1.5 3V

9.7 54.8 14.6 82.0 CDMFF 20 7 1.9 49.6 2.7 53.7 CPSFF 17 4 1.3 22.9 2.5 32.8

MT-CPSFF 21 4 1.2 7.7 2.12 11.6 MT-CPSFF 27 4 1.1 7.5 2.00 10.5

VII CONCLUSION

In this paper, a new design for D and T flip-flop is introduced to reduce

internal switching activity of nodes and stand by leakage power; along

with this variety of design techniques for low power clocking system are

reviewed. This proposed flip-flop reduces local clock transistor number

and power consumption as well. The proposed MT-CPSFF outperforms

previously existing CDFF, CDMFF and CPSFF in terms of power and

good output response by approximately 20% to 85%. Furthermore,

248



several low power techniques, including low swing and double edge

clocking, can be explored to incorporate into the new flip-flop to build

system.

References

1. M. Pedram, “Power minimization in IC Design: Principles and applications,” ACM Transactions on Design Automation of Electronic Systems, vol. 1, pp.3-56, Jan. 1996.

2. S.M. Kang, Y. Leblebici “CMOS Digital Integrated Circuits analysis and design” third edition, TMH, 2003.

3. A. Keshavarzi, K. Roy, and C. F. Hawkins, “Intrinsic leakage in low power deep submicron CMOS ICs,” in Proc. Int. Test Conf., pp. 146– 155, 1997.

4. Z. Peiyi, M. Jason, K. Weidong, W. Nan, and W. Zhongfeng Design of Sequential Elements for Low Power Clocking System” IEEE Transaction of Very large Scale Integration “July 2010.

5. N.Weste and D. Harris, “CMOS VLSI Design”. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 2004.

6. M. Pedram, Q. Wu, and X. Wu, “A New Design for Double Edge Triggered Flip-flops”, in Jan.2002

7. P. Zhao, T. K. Darwish, and M. A. Bayoumi, “High-Performance and Low-Power Conditional Discharge Flip-Flop”, IEEE transactions on very large scale integration (VLSI) systems, vol.12 no.5, May 2004.

8. P. Zhao, T. K. Darwish, and M. A. Bayoumi, “High-Performance and Low-Power Conditional Discharge Flip-Flop”, IEEE transactions on very large scale integration (VLSI) systems, vol.12 no.5, May 2004.

9. T.Kavitha, Dr.V.Sumalatha “A New Reduced Clock Power Flipflop for Future SOC Applications”. International Journal of Computer Trends and Technology, volume3Issue4, 2012.

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10. C. K. Teh, M. Hamada, T. Fujita,H. Hara, N. Ikumi, and Y. Oowaki, “Conditional Data Mapping Flip-Flops for Low-Power and High-Performance Systems”.IEEE Transactions on very large scale integration (VLSI) systems, vol. 14, no. 12,December 2006.

11. F. Mohammad, L. A. Abhilasand P. Srinivas“A new parallel counter architecture with reduced transistor count for power and area optimization”, international conference on Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sept., 2012.

12. BhuvanaS, SangeethaR“A Survey on Sequential Elements for Low Power Clocking System”, Journal of Computer Applications ISSN: 0974 – 1925, Volume-5, Issue EICA2012-3, and February 10, 2012.

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14. Mutoh S et al, “1-V Power supply high-speed digital circuit technology with multithreshold- voltage CMOS”, IEEE J. Solid State Circuits, Vol. 30, pp. 847-854, August 1995.

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250



SECURITY AND PRIVACY ENHANCEMENT USING JAMMER IN DOWNLINK CELLULAR NETWORKS

S.Shafil Mohammad


SIETK, Tirupati

T.Prasad Assistant Professor

Department of E.C.E SIETK, Tirupati

1. INTRODUCTION

Wireless communication is vulnerable to eavesdropping due to the

broadcast nature of wireless medium. In broadcast channel where one transmitter disperses the information to the multiple users, the importance of security becomes more emphasized. Wyner introduced the

information theoretic view of the physical-layer security in [1]. From this perspective, the effective transmission with the multiple antennas and the cooperative jammer (CJ) to improve the security were studied in [2]–[5].

Recently, with the ever-increasing demand of broadcast services (e.g. downlink communication in cellular networks and wireless local networks (WLAN)), the concern on broadcast channel with the confidential messages has been growing. Specially in multiuser system, since all users within the communication range can overhear the wireless signal, there occurs a possibility that the licensed users might be the maliciouseavesdroppers1.Thus, we should counteract two sorts of eavesdroppers such as internal and external. If they are from

legitimate user set of the transmitter, we call them internal eavesdroppers and otherwise external eavesdroppers. Authors of [6] and [7] investigated the secure transmission against a single external

eavesdropper. For coping with the internal eavesdroppers, [8] proposed

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the transmission technique for the base station (BS) via semi definite programming (SDP).

In this paper2, we aim at designing the optimal transmission in downlink cellular network against the multiple internal eavesdroppers. In our scenario, BS desires to send the private message to one of K mobile users (MUs) while keeping the privacy from the K-1

remaining MUs, i.e. internal eavesdroppers. For the secrecy enhancement of the intended user, we design a novel secure transmission which jointly optimizes both BS and CJ for the multiple-antenna link. This joint cooperation has the robustness for the case where BSs are in the severe fading conditions or where the eavesdropper is close to BSs or MUs. Additionally, the employment of CJ can lessen the complexity burden compared to the beam forming solution solely at BS with no help of CJ such as [8]3.Unlike the studies enlisting the aid of optimization software tools for the transmission design in multiuser setting [8], [10]–[12], our strategy is also grounded on an explicit parametrization for an arbitrary number of users and antennas with the constructed programming problem.

2. SYSTEM MODEL

The system model under consideration is illustrated in Fig.1. The

cellular network consists of a base station (BS), K mobile users (MUs) and a single cooperative jammer (CJ).

All users can have two types of data traffic such as private and open, but in this paper we suppose that each user has only

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Fig.1 System Model

private message transmitted from the BS. The BS wants to securely transmit the private message to each user over the same spectral band simultaneously. However, such public dispersion unavoidably brings the information leakage to the unintended users over the associated cross-channels. We assume that the remaining users except the desired recipient are considered the potential eavesdroppers and we refer to them as the as internal eavesdroppers. In this work, a CJ creating the artificial noise toward the multiple eavesdroppers is applied to improve the secrecy of a desired point-to-point link. In doing so, we can obtain the strength on security level in the channel condition vulnerable to

eavesdropping comparing to the system only controlling the signal direction by beam forming at BS. Also,with the help of CJ, BS can lighten the complexity cost for the secrecy enhancement. To accomplish this mission, we propose the joint transmission technique for both BS and CJ under transmit power constraint. We assume that BS and CJ possess Nb and Nc transmit antennas, respectively, while all MUs are single-antenna nodes. The transmission is composed of scalar coding

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followed by beam forming and all propagation channels are supposed to be frequency-flat.

With these assumptions, the received signal at MUk can be modeled as

the symbols transmitted by BS and CJ, hk and gk are the (complex-valued) Nb×1 channel-vector between BS and MUk and Nc × 1 channel-vector between CJ and MUk, and wb and wc are the transmit beam forming vectors used by BS and CJ, respectively. The variable nk models the complex Gaussian noise with zero mean and variance σ2 k.

We assume that BS and CJ have full channel state information (CSI). The objective of the transmit beamformers wb and wc is to convey the symbol sb in a secure way.

3.MODELING ASSUMPTIONS:

3.1 Sensor Network Model

We consider a wireless sensor network deployed over a large area and operating under a single-carrier slotted Aloha type random access protocol. We assume symmetric trans-mission and reception in the sense that a node i can receive a signal from node j if and only if node j can receive a signal from. Time is divided into time slots and the slot size is equal to the size of a packet. All nodes are assumed to be synchronized when transmitting with respect to time slot boundaries. Each node transmits at a fixed power level P with an omni directional antenna and its transmission range R and sensing range Rs are circular with sharp

boundary.

Transmission and sensing ranges are defined by two thresh- olds of received signal strength. A node within transmission range of node i can correctly decode transmitted messages from i, while a node within sensing range can just sense activity due to higher signal strength than

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noise, but cannot decode the transmitted message. Typically, Rs is a small multiple of R, ranging from 2 to 3.

Anode within distance R of anode i(excluding node i itself)is called a neighbor of i. The neighborhood of i, N i is the set of all neighbors of i with ni ¼ j Nij being the size of i’s neighborhood. Transmissions from node i are received by all its neighbors. The sensor network is

represented by an undirected graph. where S is the set of sensor nodes and E is the set of edges where edge denotes that sensor i and j are within transmission range of each other. Sensor nodes are uniformly distributed in an area,with spatial density nodes per unit area and the topology is static, i.e., we assume no mobility. Each node has an initial amount of energy E. We do not consider the energy consumed in reception. Each node is equipped with a single transceiver, so that it cannot transmit and receive simultaneously. All nodes are assumed to be continuously backlogged, so that there are always packets in each node’s buffer in each slot. Packets can be generated by higher layers of a node, or they may come from other nodes and need to be forwarded or they may be previously sent and collided packets to be retransmitted.

A transmission on edge is successful if and only if no node in N j [f] jgnf ig transmits during that transmission. In this work, we consider the

class of slotted Aloha type random access protocols that are characterized by a common channel access probability for all network nodes in each slot. This provides us with a straightforward means to quantify the network effort to withstand and confront the attack by regulating the amount of transmitted traffic and essentially exposing the attacker to the detection system, as will become clear in the sequel.

Provided that it remains silent in a slot, a receiver node j experiences collision if at least two nodes in its neighborhood transmit simultaneously, regardless of whether the transmitted packets are destined for node j or for other nodes.

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Thus, the probability of collision at node j in a slot is:

If node j attempts to transmit at a slot while it receives a message, a collision occurs as well. In that case, the receiver is not in position to tell whether the collision is due to its own transmission or whether it would occur anyway. In the sequel, we will term collision an event addressing the case of multiple simultaneous transmissions received by (not necessarily intended to) a node and no transmission attempt by that node. Note that, if we include the possibility that the receiver also attempts to access the channel, the probability of

collision is the same as the one above with nj substituted by nj þ 1. Whenever a collision occurs at a receiver, the packet is retransmitted in the next slot if the transmitter accesses the channel again. If a node does not have any neighbors (i.e., it is nj ¼ 0), then this node does not receive any packets and does not experience collisions.

3.2Attacker Model:

We consider one attacker, the jammer, in the sensor network area. The jammer is neither authenticated nor associated with the network. The objective of the jammer is to corrupt legitimate transmissions of sensor nodes by causing intentional packet collisions at receivers. Intentional collision leads to retransmission, which is translated into additional energy consumption for a certain amount of attainable throughput or equivalently reduced throughput for a given amount of consumed energy. In this paper, we do not consider the attacker that is capable of node capture.

The jammer may use its sensing ability in order to sense ongoing

activity in the network. Clearly, sensing ongoing network activity prior to jamming is beneficial for the attacker in the sense that its energy resources are not aimlessly consumed and the jammer is not

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needlessly exposed to the network. The jammer transmits a small packet which collides with legitimate transmitted packets at their intended receivers.

Fig .2.Illustration of Jamming attack

As argued in, a beacon packet of a few bits suffices to disrupt a transmitted packet in the network. The jammer is assumed to have energy resources denoted by Em, yet the corresponding energy constraint in the optimization problems of the next section may be redundant if the jammer adheres to the policy above.

The jammer uses an omni directional antenna with circular sensing range Rms and adaptable transmission range Rm that is realized by controlling transmission power Pm as illustrated inFig.1.Thejammeralsocontrolstheprobabilityq of jamming the area

within its transmission range in a slot, thus, controlling the aggressiveness of the attack.

The attack space is, therefore, specified by set P-ð 0;1Þ, where P is the discrete set of employed power levels. The attacker attempts to strike a balance between short-and long-term benefits, as a more aggressive attack increases instantaneous benefit but exposes the

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attacker to the detection system, while a milder attack may prolong detection time.

If the jammer senses the channel prior to deciding whether to jam or not, collision occurs at node j if the jammer jams and at least one neighbor transmits. Thus, conditioned on existence of a jammer, the probability of collision at node j is

On the other hand, if jamming occurs without prior channel sensing, the probability of collision is

Thus, the probability of collision is the same regardless of channel sensing prior to jamming. This implies that jamming can be viewed as a multiple access situation between a network of legitimate nodes, each with access probability and the jammer with access probability q. Nevertheless, by using sensing, the adversary does not was energy on empty slots and conserves energy by a factor of 1where denotes the number of legitimate nodes in the jammer’s sensing range. For large 1.

Namely, for a den sensor network, It is very likely that some transmission will always occur in the network and, therefore, it does not really make a difference whether the attacker will sense the channel or not. In the sequel, we will not consider the energy saving facto We will subsequently assume that the adversary possesses different amounts of knowledge about the network, ranging from full knowledge about network parameters such as access probability and the neighborhood of a monitor node to no knowledge at all. Network’s differing levels of

knowledge about an attacker will be considered as well.

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3.3 Attack Detection Model:

The network employs a mechanism for monitoring network status and detecting potential malicious activity.

The monitoring mechanism consists of:

1)Determination of a subset of nodes M that act as monitors.

2) Employment of a detection algorithm at each monitor node.

The assignment of the role of monitor to anode is affected by potential existing energy consumption and node computational complexity

limitations, and by detection performance specifications. In this work, we consider a fixed set M, and formulate optimization problems for one or several monitor nodes. We fix attention to a specific monitor node and the detection scheme that it employs.

First, we need to define the quantity to be observed at each monitor. In our case, the readily available metric is the probability of collision that a monitor node experiences, namely the percentage of packets that are erroneously received.

During normal network operation and in the absence of a jammer, we consider a large enough training period in which the monitor node learns the percentage of collisions it experiences as the long-term limit of the ratio of number of slots where there was collision over total number of slots of the training period. Now let the network operate in the open after the training period has elapsed and fix attention to a time window

much smaller than the training period.

An increased percentage of collisions in the time window compared to the learned long-term ratio may be an indication of an ongoing jamming attack that causes additional collisions. However, it may happen as well that the network operates normally and there is just a temporary irregular increase in the percentage of collisions compared to the learned ratio for that specific interval.

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A detection algorithm is part of the detection module at a monitor node; it takes as input observation samples obtained by the monitor node (i.e., collision/not collision) and decides whether there is an attack or not.

On one hand, the observation window should be small enough, such that the attack is detected in a timely manner and appropriate

countermeasures are initiated.

On the other hand, this window should be sufficiently large, such that the chance of a false alarm notification is reduced.

The sequential nature of observations at consecutive time slots motivates the use of sequential detection techniques.

A sequential decision rule consists of:

1) A stopping time, indicating when to stop taking observations.

2) Afinal decision rule that decides between the two hypotheses.

A sequential decision rule is efficient if it can provide reliable decision as fast as possible. The probability of false alarm PFA and probability of missed detection PM constitute inherent trade-offs in a detection scheme in the sense that a faster decision unavoidably leads to higher values of these probabilities while lower values are attained at the expense of detection delay.Forgiven values of PFA and PM, the detection

test that minimizes the average number of required observations (and thus average delay) to reach a decision among all sequential and non sequential tests for which PFA and PM do not exceed the predefined values above is Wald’s Sequential Probability Ratio Test (SPRT).

When SPRT is used for sequential testing between two hypotheses concerning two probability distributions, SPRT is optimal in that sense as well.

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3.4 Notification Delay

Following detection of an attack, the network needs to be notified in order to launch appropriate counter measures. The transfer of the notification message out of the jammed area is performed with multiple routing from the monitor node to a node out of the jammed region.

The same random access protocol with channel access probability is employed by a node to forward the message to the next node. Having assumed a single-channel sensor network, we implicitly exclude the

existence of a control channel that is used for signaling attack notification messages.

Hence, the transfer of the notification message out of the jammed will take place in the same channel and will still under go jamming. Clearly, the time that is needed for the notification message to be passed out of the jammed area depends on the jamming strategy as well as the network channel access probability. For that reason, we use the sum of detection and notification delay as a metric that captures the objective of the attacker and the network. It is understood that if there exists a control channel for signaling notification messages that is not jammed, then only the detection delay is needed as a performance objective. If this control channel is jammed, then one needs to consider the notification time but also assess the cost incurred by jamming an additional channel. We discuss briefly this issue in the last section as

part of future work.

We now compute the average time needed for the notification message to be carried out of the jammed area.

The probability of successful channel access for a node i along the route of the notification message in the presence of jamming is

.

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Hence, the ex-pected number of transmission attempts before successful transmission, which also denotes expected delay for node i before successful transmission is slots. In a single-channel network, the adversary can cause additional disruption to the network by jamming the alert message even after being detected. In order to find the average delay for transmitting an alert out of the jammed region, let us first

denote the average number of hops to deliver the alarm out of jammed area Am by H.

Clearly, the expected notification delay depends on the expected number of hops it takes for the notification message to leave the jammed area which in turn depends on the position of the monitor node. We assume dense sensor deployment and, thus, roughly approximate the route followed by the notification message with an almost straight line. This means that H Rm=2p, namely, H is equal to the average distance of a monitor from the boundary of the jammed area (Rm=2) divided by the node transmission range R.

We adhere to this approximation since the exact expression for the distribution of H depends on knowledge about the network topology and the location of the monitor. Such knowledge is rather unrealistic to assume for the attacker and even for the network itself.

The average time needed for the alarm to propagate out of the jamming area, also referred to as notification delay, is

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4.BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig.3.Block diagram of Mobile jamming circuit.

with the help of this Speaker,Keypad and Mick are blocked.

5. RANDOM MODEL WITH ONE TRANSMITTER AND ONE JAMMER:

We first consider one transmitter node (node 1) and one jammer node (node 2) at a single channel access point as shown in Figure 2. Packets

arrive randomly at node 1’s queue with rate λ (packets per time slot) and they are transmitted over a single channel. Node 2 does not have its own traffic and jams node 1’s transmissions. We assume that each (packet or jamming signal) transmission consumes one unit of energy. We consider a synchronous slotted system, in which each packet transmission (or jamming attempt) takes one time slot. Hence, the jammer cannot wait to detect the start of a transmission before jamming. Later in Section VI, we will consider the effects of channel sensing and allow the jammer to detect any transmission before starting a denial of service attack.

Fig.4.Single Channel Access point With one Transmitter and one Jammer

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From the above Fig4.Single channel Access point with one transmitter and one jammer is used for the prototype model.

6.CONCLUSIONS

We have considered the secure communication in the K user downlink cellular system. For the secrecy improvement

of the intended user, we develop the joint transmission strategy with the assistance of CJ based on the framework of power gain region. The numerical results verify the performance improvement of the proposed

scheme.

References

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3. S. Goel and R. Negi, “Guaranteeing secrecy using artificial noise,” IEEE Trans. Wireless Commun., vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 2180–2189, June 2008.

4. A. Khisti and G. Wornell, “Secure transmission with multiple antennas—I: the MISOME wiretap channel,” IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory,vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 3088–3104, Jul. 2010.

5. E. A. Jorswieck, “Secrecy capacity of single- and multi-antenna channels simple helpers,” in Proc. 2010 Int. ITG Conf. on Source and Channel Coding, pp. 1–6.

6. A. Khisti, A. Tchamkerten, and G. Wornell, “Secure broadcasting over fading channels,” IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory, vol. 54, no. 6, pp. 1–7, Jun.

2008.

7. A. Mukherjee and A. L. Swindlehurst, “Utility of beamforming strategies for secrecy in multiuser MIMO wiretap channels,” in

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Proc. 2009 Allerton Conf. on Comm. Control and Comp., pp. 1134–1141.

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Proc. Adv. in Wireless Comm., pp. 349–353.

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IEEE Mil. Comm. Conf., pp. 1–5.

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Trans. Inf. Theory, vol. 56, no. 11, pp. 5477–5487, Nov. 2010.

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beamforming for AF relay networks with multiple eavesdroppers,” IEEE

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SECURE DATA DISSEMINATION BASED ON MERKLE HASH TREE FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Udatha Hariprasad

M.Tech Student Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering Annamacharya Institute of

Technology and Sciences, Rajampet

K Riyazuddin

Assistant Professor Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering Annamacharya Institute of

Technology and Sciences, Rajampet

I. INTRODUCTION

Inside multi-hop Instant sensor sites (WSNs) happen to be attracting great curiosity about many applications linked to monitoring in addition to control associated with environmental as well as physical circumstances, such as industry monitoring and military operations.

After a WSN will be deployed inside field, it can be necessary in order to update the particular installed applications or stashed parameters inside sensor nodes. This is achieved simply by dissemination services which ensure new applications or parameter values for being propagated during the entire WSN making sure that all nodes use a consistent duplicate. Normally, a brand new program is on the order associated with kilobytes though a parameter is simply few bytes extended. Due to such a vast imbalance between their sizes, the look considerations in their dissemination protocols will vary.

Code dissemination (also known as data dissemination as well as reprogramming) protocols are created to correctly distribute extended messages in to a network, empowering complete system reprogramming. On the other hand, data breakthrough and dissemination protocols are used to deliver short emails, such as several

two-byte configuration parameters, in just a WSN. Common makes use of this type of protocols incorporate injecting little programs,

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commands, queries, in addition to configuration details. Recently, several files discovery in addition to dissemination protocols happen to be proposed. And this includes, Drip, DIP in addition to DHV are renowned and included in Tiny OS distributions. However, to the best of our knowledge, just about all existing files discovery in addition to dissemination protocols only target reliable files transmission, but provide no security procedure. Certainly, this is really a critical issue

which should be addressed. In any other case, adversaries might, for example, distribute viral or phony data in order to cripple a new WSN deployed inside battlefield.

In this kind of proposed system we initial investigate the particular security difficulties in files discovery in addition to dissemination process of WSNs and explain that the possible lack of authentication on the disseminated files introduces a new vulnerability for the update associated with arbitrary files in WSNs. We then create a secure, light and portable, and Denial-of-Assistance (DoS)-resistant files discovery in addition to dissemination protocol named Se-Drip for WSNs, that is a secure extension of Spill. To gain DoS-attack resilience and permit immediate verification of just about any received packets, Se-Drip is based on a signed Merkle hash sapling. This way the bottom station of your WSN must sign only the root of this kind of tree.

Furthermore, Se-Drip can easily tolerate the particular compromise associated with some sensor nodes. For boosting the stability and effectiveness, some extra mechanisms such as message unique puzzle tactic are incorporated in the design associated with SeDrip. Most of us also implement the recommended protocol inside networks associated with MicaZ in addition to TelosB motes, respectively. Experimental benefits demonstrate their high efficiency in practice. To the best of our knowledge, that is also the 1st implemented secure data breakthrough and dissemination protocol for WSNs.

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II. PREVIOUS WORK

Among these protocols, Deluge is included in the Tiny OS distributions. However, since the design of Deluge did not take security into consideration, there have been several extensions to Deluge to provide security protection for code dissemination. Among them, Seluge enjoys both strong security and high efficiency. However, all these code dissemination protocols are based on the centralized approach which assumes the existence of a base station and only the base station has the authority to reprogram sensor nodes. As shown in Figure below,

when the base station wants to disseminate a new code image, it broadcasts the signed code image and each sensor node only accepts code images signed by it. Unfortunately, there are WSNs having no base station at all. Examples of such networks include a military WSN in a battlefield to monitor enemy activity (e.g., troop movements), a WSN deployed along an international border to monitor weapons smuggling or human trafficking, and a WSN situated in a remote area of a national park monitoring illegal activities (e.g., firearm discharge, illicit crop cultivation). Having a base station in these WSNs introduces a single point of failure and a very attractive attack target. Obviously, the centralized approach is not applicable to such WSNs.

Trust Model

The network owner delegates his/her code dissemination privilege to the network users who are willing to register. We assume the special modules (e.g., authentication module for each new program image

proposed in this paper, the user access log module) reside in the boot loader section of the program flash on each sensor node which cannot be overwritten by anyone except the network owner. To achieve this goal, some existing approaches can be employed such as hardware-based approaches (e.g., security chips) and software based approaches (e.g., program code analysis).

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Threat Model We assume that an adversary can launch both outsider

and insider attacks. In outsider attacks, the adversary does not control any valid nodes in the WSN. The adversary may eavesdrop, copy or replay the transmitted messages in the WSN. He/she may also inject false messages or forge non-existing links in the network by launching a wormhole attack.With insider attacks, the adversary can compromise some users (or sensor nodes) and then inject forged code dissemination packets, or exploit specific weakness of the secure protocol

architecture.[1]

Experience with wireless sensor network deployments across application domains has shown that sensor node tasks typically change over time, for instance, to vary sensed parameters, node duty cycles, or support debugging. Such reprogramming is accomplished through wireless communication using reprogrammable devices. The goal of network reprogramming is to not only reprogram individual sensors but to also ensure that all network sensors agree on the task to be performed. Network reprogramming is typically implemented on top of data dissemination protocols. For reprogramming, the data can be configuration parameters, code capsules, or binary images. We will refer to this data as a code item. A node must detect if there is a different code item in the network, identify if it is newer, and update its code with minimal reprogramming cost, in terms of convergence speed

and energy.

Early attempts tried to adapt epidemic algorithms to disseminate code updates during specific reprogramming periods. But there is no way for new nodes to discover past updates. If a node is not updated during the reprogramming period, it will never get updated. To discover if a node needs an update, a natural approach is to query or advertise its information periodically.

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The network as a whole may transmit an excessive and unnecessary number of query and advertisement messages. To address this problem, Levis et al developed the Trickle protocol to allow nodes to suppress unnecessary transmissions. In Trickle, a node periodically broadcasts its versions but politely keeps quiet and increases the period if it hears several messages containing the same information as it has. When a difference is detected, the node resets the period to the lowest preset

interval. Trickle scales well with the number of nodes and has successfully reduced the number of messages in the network.

Bit-level identification: Previous CCMPs have transmitted the complete version number for a code item. We observe that it may not always be necessary to do so. We treat the version number as a bit array, with the versions of all the code items representing a two dimensional bit array. DHV uses bit slicing to quickly zero in on the out of date code segment, resulting in fewer bits transmitted in the network.

Statelessness: Keeping state in the network, particularly with mobility, is not scalable. DHV messages do not contain any state and usually small in size. Preference of a large message over multiple small messages: To reduce energy consumption, it is better to transmit as much information possible in a single maximum length message rather

than transmit multiple small messages. Sensor nodes turn off the radio when they are idle to conserve energy. Radio start-up and turn-off times (300 microseconds) are much longer than the time used to transmit one byte (30 microseconds). A long packet may affect the collision rate and packet loss. However, that effect only becomes noticeable under bursty data traffic conditions. [3]

This idea seems quite attractive at first. However, it has several shortcomings. This work points to these shortcomings and proposes methods to overcome them. Our description is based mostly on TESLA,

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although the improvements apply to the other schemes as well. We sketch some of these points:

1. In TESLA the receiver has to buffer packets, until the sender discloses the corresponding key, and until the receiver authenticates the packets. This may delay delivering the information to the application, may cause storage problems, and also generates vulnerability to denial-of-service (DoS) attacks on the receiver (by

flooding it with bogus packets). We propose a method that allows receivers to authenticate most packets immediately upon arrival, thus reducing the need for buffering at the receiver side and in particular reduces the susceptibility to this type of DoS attacks. This improvement comes at the price of one extra hash per packet, plus some buffering at the sender side. We believe that buffering at the sender side is often more reasonable and acceptable than buffering at the receiver side. In particular, it is not susceptible to this type of DoS attacks. We also propose other methods to alleviate this type of DoS attacks. These methods work even when the receiver buffers packets as in TESLA.

2. When operating in an environment with heterogenous network delay times for different receivers, TESLA authenticates each packet using multiple keys, where the different keys have different disclosure

delay times. This results in larger overhead, both in processing time and in bandwidth. We propose a method for achieving the same functionality (i.e., different receivers can authenticate the packets at different delays) with a more moderate increase in the overhead per packet.

3. In TESLA the sender needs to perform authenticated time synchronization individually with each receiver. This may not scale well, especially in cases where many receivers wish to join the multicast group and synchronize with the sender at the same time. This is so,

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since each synchronization involves a costly public-key operation. We propose a method that uses only a single public-key operation per time-unit, regardless of the number of time synchronizations performed during this time unit. This reduces the cost of synchronizing with a receiver to practically the cost of setting up a simple, unauthenticated connection.

We also explore time synchronization issues in greater depth and

describe direct and indirect time synchronization. For the former method, the receiver synchronizes its time directly with the sender, in the latter method both the sender and receiver synchronize their time with a time synchronization server. For both cases, we give a detailed analysis on how to choose the key disclosure delay, a crucial parameter for TESLA.

TESLA assumes that all members have joined the group and have synchronized with the sender before any transmission starts. In reality, receivers may wish to join after the transmission has started; furthermore, receivers may wish to receive the transmission immediately, and perform the time synchronization only later. We propose methods that enable both functionalities. That is, our methods allow a receiver to join in “on the fly” to an ongoing session; they also allow receivers to synchronize at a later time and authenticate packets

only then. [4]

III. PROPOSED SYSTEM

A. Initialization

Compared with the traditional approaches, elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) is a better approach to public-key cryptography in terms of key size, computational efficiency, and communication efficiency. However, while ECC is feasible on resource-limited sensor motes, heavily involving ECC-based authentication is still not practical. SeDrip combines ECC public key algorithm and Merkle hash tree to

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avoid frequent public key operations and achieve strong robustness against various malicious attacks. Also, SeDrip inherits robustness to packet loss from underlying Trickle algorithm, because Trickle uses periodic retransmissions to ensure eventual delivery of the message to every node in the network.

SeDrip consists of three phases: system initialization, packet pre-processing, and packet verification. The system initialization phase is

carried out before network deployment. In this phase, the base station creates its public and private keys, and loads the public parameters on each sensor node. Then, before disseminating data, the base station executes the packet preprocessing phase in which packets and their corresponding Merkle hash tree are constructed from data items. Finally, in the packet verification phase, a node verifies each received packet. If the result is positive, it updates the data according to the received packet.

In SeDrip, we extend the 3-tuple (key, version, data) of Drip into a 4-tuple (round, key, version, data) to represent a data item, where round refers to which round of data dissemination this data item belongs to (the higher the round, the newer the data dissemination), and the other three elements bear the same meaning as existing protocols. Same as the Drip implementation, key and version are 2 bytes and 4 bytes long,

respectively. For the round field, it can be just as short as 4 bits because we can allow a wrap around in the number space to take place. This is possible based on two characteristics of the dissemination process. First, the configuration of a WSN is not expected to change frequently and hence the dissemination rate would be low. Second, only a small amount of data is disseminated in each round, so the time required to complete one round of dissemination should be very short. As a result, each sensor node would not experience any ambiguity in determining which round number is the latest even if there is a wrap around in a round number.

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B. Packet Pre-processing Phase

After system initialization, if the base station wants to disseminate n data items: di = {round, keyi, versioni, datai}, i = 1, 2, . . ., n, it uses the Merkle hash tree method to construct the packets of the respective data as follows. Merkle hash tree is a tree of hashes, where the leaves in the tree are hashes of the authentic packets Pi, i = 1, 2, . . ., n. Here the hash function is calculated over packet header and data item di(= {round, keyi, versioni, datai}). Nodes further up in the tree are the

hashes of their respective children. More exactly, the base station computes ei = H(Pi)(i = 1, 2, 3, 4), and builds a binary tree by computing internal nodes from adjacent children nodes. Each internal node of the tree is the hash value of the two children nodes. Subsequently, the base station constructs n packets based on this Merkle hash tree. For packet Pi, it consists of the packet header, the data item di and the values in its authentication path (i.e., the siblings of the nodes in the path from Pi to the root) in the Merkle hash tree.

C. Packet Verification Phase

Upon receiving a packet (from any one-hop neighboring node or the base station), each sensor node, say Si, first checks the key field of the packet: If this is a signature packet P0, node Si runs the following operations: If this is a new round (i.e., the round included in this packet is newer than that of its stored < round, root >), node Si uses the public key PK of the base station to run an ECDSA verify operation to

authenticate the received signature packet. If this verification passes, node Si accepts the root of the Merkle hash tree and then updates its stored < round, root > by the corresponding values in packet P0; otherwise, node Si simply drops the signature packet P0. If node Si has recently heard an identical signature packet (i.e., the round included in this packet is same as that of its stored < round, root >), it increases

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the broadcast interval of this packet through the Trickle algorithm, thereby limiting energy costs when a network is consistent.

If this is an old round (i.e., the round included in this packet is older than that of its stored < round, root >. That is, the signature packet distributed by its one-hop neighboring node is old), node Si broadcasts its stored signature packet.

IV. RESULTS

The concept of this paper is implemented and different results are shown below, the proposed paper is implemented in NS 2.34 on a Linux

Fedora 10. The propose paper’s concepts shows efficient results and has been efficiently tested on different Datasets. The below figures shows the real time results compared.

Fig. 1 Packet Delivery Fraction Vs Pause Time

Fig. 2 Packet Delivery Fraction Vs Pause Time

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Fig. 3 Average End to End Delay Vs Pause Time

Fig. 4 Average End to End Delay Vs Pause Time

Fig. 5 Routing Overhead Vs Pause Time

Fig. 6 Routing Overhead Vs Pause Time

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V. CONCLUSION

In this paper, we have now identified the particular security vulnerabilities throughout data breakthrough and dissemination of WSNs. We and then developed a lightweight method named Se-Drip to allow efficient authentication on the disseminated information items by enjoying efficient Merkle woods algorithm. Se-Drip was designed to work from the computation, ram and electricity limits of inexpensive sensor motes. In addition to analyzing the particular security of Se-Drip, this paper has reported the particular evaluation link between Se-Drip

in the experimental multilevel of resource limited sensor nodes, which demonstrate that Se-Drip can be efficient as well as feasible used.

References:

1. D. He, C. Chen, S. Chan, and J. Bu, “DiCode: DoS-resistant and distributed code dissemination in wireless sensor networks,” IEEE Trans. Wireless Commun., vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 1946–1956, May 2012.

2. K. Lin and P. Levis, “Data discovery and dissemination with DIP,” in Proc. 2008 ACM/IEEE IPSN, pp. 433–444.

3. T. Dang, N. Bulusu, W. Feng, and S. Park, “DHV: a code consistency maintenance protocol for multi-hop wireless sensor networks,” in Proc. 2009 EWSN, pp. 327–342.

4. A. Perrig, R. Canetti, D. Song, and J. Tygar, “Effcient and secure source authentication for multicast,” in Proc. 2001 NDSS, pp. 35–46.

5. P. Levis, N. Patel, D. Culler, and S. Shenker, “Trickle: a self-regulating algorithm for code maintenance and propagation in wireless sensor networks,” in Proc. 2004 NSDI, pp. 15–28.

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6. S. Hyun, P. Ning, A. Liu, and W. Du, “Seluge: secure and DoSresistant code dissemination in wireless sensor networks,” in Proc. 2008 ACM/IEEE IPSN, pp. 445–456.

7. A. Liu and P. Ning, “TinyECC: a configurable library for elliptic curve cryptography in wireless sensor networks,” in Proc. 2008

ACM/IEEE IPSN, pp. 245–256.

8. J. Lee, K. Kapitanova, and S. Son, “The price of security in wireless sensor networks,” Comput. Netw., vol. 54, no. 17, pp. 2967–2978, Dec. 2010..

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ENHANCEMENT SCHEME LOW POWER PULSE TRIGGERED FLIPFLOP WITH CONDITIONAL PULSE

S.Sruthi


SIETK, Tirupati

V.Viswanath Assistant Professor

Department of E.C.E, SIETK Tirupat

1. I NTRODUCTION

Flip-flops (FFs) are the basic storage elements used extensively in all kinds of digital designs. In particular, digital designs nowadays often adopt intensive pipelining techniques and employ many FF-rich modules. It is also estimated that the power consumption of the clock system, which consists of clock distribution networks and storage elements, is as high as 20%–45% of the total system power [1]. Pulse-triggered FF (P-FF) has been considered a popular alternative to the conventional master–slave-based FF in the applications of high-speed

operations [2]–[5]. Besides the speed advantage, its circuit simplicity is also beneficial to lowering the power consumption of the clock tree system. A P-FF consists of a pulse generator for generating strobe signals and a latch for data storage. Since triggering pulses generated on the transition edges of the clock signal are very narrow in pulse width, the latch acts like an edge-triggered FF. The circuit complexity of a P-FF is simplified since only one latch, as opposed to two used in conventional master–slave configuration, is needed. P-FFs also allow time borrowing across clock cycle boundaries and feature a zero or even negative setup time. P-FFs are thus less sensitive to clock jitter. Despite these advantages, pulse generation circuitry requires delicate pulsewidth control in the face of process variation and the configuration of pulse clock distribution network [4]. Depending on the method of

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pulse generation, P-FF designs can be classified as implicit or explicit [6]. In an implicit-type P-FF, the pulse generator is a built-in logic of the latch design, and no explicit pulse signals are generated. In an explicit-type P-FF, the designs of pulse generator and latch are separate. Implicit pulse generation is often considered to be more power efficient than explicit pulse generation. This is because the former

merely controls the discharging path while the latter needs to physically generate a pulse train. Implicit-type designs, however, face a lengthened discharging path in latch design, which leads to inferior timing characteristics. The situation deteriorates further when low-power techniques such as conditional capture, conditional precharge, conditional discharge, or conditional data mapping are applied [7]–[10]. As a consequence, the transistors of pulse generation logic are often enlarged to assure that the generated pulses are sufficiently wide to trigger the data capturing of the latch. Explicit-type P-FF designs face a similar pulsewidth control issue, but the problem is further complicated in the presence of a large capacitive load, e.g., when one pulse generator is shared among several latches. In this paper, we will present a novel low-power implicit-type P-FF design featuring a conditional pulse-enhancement scheme. Three additional transistors are employed to

support this feature. In spite of a slight increase in total transistor count, transistors of the pulse generation logic benefit from significant size reductions and the overall layout area is even slightly reduced. This gives rise to competitive power and power-delay product performances against other P-FF designs.

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Fig :Conventional Pulse-Triggered FF designs (a) ip-DCO (b) MHLLF (c) SCCER

2. PROPOSED IMPLICIT-TYPE P-FF DESIGN WITH PULSE CONTROL SCHEME

A. Conventional Implicit-Type P-FF Designs

Some conventional implicit-type P-FF designs, which are used as the reference designs in later performance comparisons, are first reviewed. A state-of-the-art P-FF design, named ip-DCO, is given in Fig. 1(a) [6]. It contains an AND logic-based pulse generator and a semi-dynamic structured latch design. Inverters I5 and I6 are used to latch data and inverters I7 and I8 are used to hold the internal node . The pulse generator takes complementary and delay skewed clock signals to generate a transparent window equal in size to the delay by inverters I1-I3. Two practical problems exist in this design. First, during the rising edge, nMOS transistors N2 and N3 are turned on. If data remains high, node will be discharged on every rising edge of the clock. This leads to a large switching power. The other problem is that node controls two larger MOS transistors (P2 and N5). The large capacitive load to node causes speed and power performance degradation. Fig. 1(b)

shows an improved P-FF design, named MHLLF, by employing a static latch structure presented in [11]. Node is no longer precharged periodically by the clock signal. A weak pull-up transistor P1 controlled

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by the FF output signal Q is used to maintain the node level at high when Q is zero. This design eliminates the unnecessary discharging problem at node . However, it encounters a longer Data-to-Q (D-to-Q) delay during “0” to “1” transitions because node is not pre-discharged. Larger transistors N3 and N4 are required to enhance the discharging capability. Another drawback of this design is that node becomes

floating when output Q and input Data both equal to “1”. Extra DC power emerges if node X is drifted from an intact “1”. Fig. 1(c) shows a refined low power P-FF design named SCCER using a conditional discharged technique [9], [12]. In this design, the keeper logic (back-to-back inverters I7 and I8 in Fig. 1(a)) is replaced by a weak pull up transistor P1 in conjunction with an inverter I2 to reduce the load capacitance of node [12]. The discharge path contains nMOS transistors N2 and N1 connected in series. In order to eliminate superfluous switching at node, an extra nMOS transistor N3 is employed. Since N3 is controlled by Q_fdbk, no discharge occurs if input data remains high. The worst case timing of this design occurs when input data is “1” and node is discharged through four transistors in series, i.e., N1 through N4, while combating with the pull up transistor P1. A powerful pull-down circuitry is thus needed to

ensure node discharge path contains nMOS transistors N2 and N1 connected in series. In order to eliminate superfluous switching at node , an extra nMOS transistor N3 is employed. Since N3 is controlled by Q_fdbk, no discharge occurs if input data remains high. The worst case timing of this design occurs when input data is “1” and node is discharged through four transistors in series, i.e., N1 through N4, while combating with the pull up transistor P1. A powerful pull-down circuitry is thus needed to ensure node can be properly discharged. This implies wider N1 and N2 transistors and a longer delay from the delay inverter I1 to widen the discharge pulse width.

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B. Proposed P-FF Design

The proposed design, as shown in Fig. 2, adopts two measures to overcome the problems associated with existing P-FF designs. The first one is reducing the number of nMOS transistors stacked in the discharging path. The second one is supporting a mechanism to conditionally enhance the pull down strength when input data is “1.” Refer to Fig. 2, the upper part latch design is similar to the one

employed in SCCER design [12]. As opposed to the transistor stacking design in Fig. 1(a) and (c), transistor N2 is removed from the discharging path. Transistor N2, in conjunction with an additional transistor N3, forms a two-input pass transistor logic (PTL)-based AND gate [13], [14] to control the discharge of transistor N1. Since the two inputs to the AND logic are mostly complementary (except during the transition edges of the clock), the output node is kept at zero most of the time. When both input signals equal to “0” (during the falling edges of the clock), temporary floating at node is basically harmless. At the rising edges of the clock, both transistors N2 and N3 are turned on and collaborate to pass a weak logic high to node , which then turns on transistor N1 by a time span defined by the delay inverter I1. The switching power at node can be reduced due to a diminished voltage swing. Unlike the MHLLF design [11], where the discharge control

signal is driven by a single transistor, parallel conduction of two nMOS transistors (N2 and N3) speeds up the

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Fig : Schematic of the proposed PFF design

operations of the pulse generation. With this designmeasure, the number of stacked transistors along the discharging path is reduced and the sizes of transistors N1-N5 can be reduced also. In this design,

the longest discharging path is formed when input data is “1” while the Qbar output is “1.” To enhance the discharging under this condition, transistor P3 is added. Transistor P3 is normally turned off because node is pulled high most of the time. It steps in when node is discharged to mod(Vtp) below the VDD. This provides additional boost to node Z(from VDD – VTH to VDD). The generated pulse is taller, which enhances the pull-down strength of transistor N1. After the rising edge of the clock, the delay inverter I1 drives node Z back to zero through transistor N3 to shut down the discharging path. The voltage level of Node rises and turns off transistor P3 eventually. With theinterventionofP3,the width of the generated discharging pulse is stretched out. This means to create a pulse with sufficient width for correct data capturing, a bulky delay inverter design, which constitutes most of the power consumption in pulse generation logic, is no longer

needed. It should be noted that this conditional pulse enhancement

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technique takes effects only when the FF output is subject to a data change from 0 to 1. The leads to a better power performance than those schemes using an indiscriminate pulsewidth enhancement approach. Another benefit of this conditional pulse enhancement scheme is the reduction in leakage power due to shrunken transistors in the critical discharging path and in the delay inverter.

3. SIMULATION RESULTS

To demonstrate the superiority of the proposed design, postlayout

simulations on various P-FF designs were conducted to obtain their Performance figures. These designs include the three P-FF designs shown in Fig. 1 (ip-DCO [6], MHLLF [11], SCCER [12]), another P-FF design called conditional capture FF (CCFF) [7], and two other non- pulse-triggered FF designs, i.e., a sense-amplifier-based FF (SAFF) [2], and a conventional transmission gate-based FF (TGFF). The target technology is the UMC 90-nm CMOS process. The operating condition used in simulations is 500 MHz/1.0 V. Since pulsewidth design is crucial to the correctness of data capturing as well as the power consumption, the pulse generator logic in all designs are first sized to function properly across process variation. All designs are further optimized subject to the tradeoff between power and D-to-Q delay, i.e., minimizing the product of the two terms. Fig. 3 shows the simulation setup model. To mimic the signal rise and fall time delays, input signals

are generated through buffers. Considering the loading effect of the FF to the previous stage and the clock tree, the power consumptions of the clock and data buffers are also included. The output of the FF is loaded with a 20-fF capacitor. An extra capacitance of 3fF is also placed after the clock buffer. To illustrate the merits of the presented work, Fig. 4 shows the simulation waveforms of the proposed P-FF design against the MHLLF design.

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Fig: Simulation Setup model

In the proposed design, pulses of node are generated on every rising

edge of the clock. Due to the extra voltage boost from transistor P3, pulses generated to capture input data “1” are significantly enhanced in their heights and widths compared with the pulses generated for capturing data “0” (0.84 V versus 0.65 V in height and 141ps versus 84 ps in width). In the MHLL design, there is no such differentiation in their pulse generation. In addition, no signal degradation occurs in the internal node of the proposed design. In contrast, the internal node in MHLLF in MHLLF design is degraded when Q equals to “0” and data equals to “1”. Node Q thus deviates slightly from an intact value “0” and causes a DC power consumption at the output stage. From Fig. 4, the height of its pulses at node Z is around 0.68 V. Furthermore, node is floating when clock equals “0” and its value drifts gradually. To

elaborate the power consumption behavior of these FF designs, five test patterns, each exhibiting a different data switching probability, are applied. Five of them are deterministic patterns with 0% (all-zero or all-one), 25%, 50%, and 100% data transition probabilities, respectively. The power consumption results are summarized in Table I.

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Due to a shorter discharging path and the employment of a conditional pulse enhancement scheme, the power consumption of the proposed design is the lowest in all test patterns. Take the test pattern with 50% data transition probability as an example, the power saving of proposed design ranges from 38.4% (against the ip-DCO design) to 5.6% (against the TGFF design). This savings is even more pronounced when

operating at lower data switching activities, where the power consumption of pulse generation circuitry dominates. Because of a redundant switching power consumption problem at an internal node, the ip-DCO design has the largest power consumption when data switching activity is 0% (all 1). Fig. 5 shows the curves of power-delay-product (delay from D to Q ) versus setup time (for 50% data switching activity). The values of the proposed design are the smallest in all designs when the setup times are greater than 60 ps. Its minimum value occurs when the setup time is 53.9ps and the corresponding to delay is 116.9ps.

The CCFF design is ranked in the second place in this evaluation with its optimal setup time as 67ps. The setup time of the conventional TGFF design is always positive and has the smallest PDPDQ performance of each design under different data switching activities.

The proposed design takes the lead in all types of data switching activity. The SCCER and the CCFF designs almost tie in the second place. Fig. 6(b) shows the PDPDQ performance of these designs at different process corners under the condition of 50% data switching activity. The performance edge of the proposed design is maintained as well. Notably, the MHLLF design has the worst PDPDQ performance especially at the performance especially at the SS process corner due to a large D-to-Q delay and the poor driving capability of its pulse generation circuit.

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Table I also summarizes some important performance indexes of these P-FF designs. These include transistor count, layout area, setup time, hold time, min D-to-Q delay, optimal PDP, and the clock tree power. Although the transistor count of the proposed design is not the lowest one, its actual layout area is the smaller than all but the TGFF design. The MHLLF design exhibits the largest layout area because of an

oversized pulse generation circuit. Following the measurement methods in [15], curves of -to- delay versus setup time and -to- delay versus hold time are simulated first. Setup time is defined as the point in the curve where D-to-Q delay is the minimum. Hold time is measured at the point where the slope of the curve equals 1. The proposed design features the shortest minimum D-to-Q delay. Its hold time is longer than other designs because the transistor (P3) for the pulse enhancement requires a prolonged availability of data input. The power drawn from the clock tree is calculated to evaluate the impact of FF loading on the clock jitter. Although the proposed FF design requires clock signal connected to the drain of transistor N2, the drawn current is not significant. Due to complementary switching behavior of N2 and N3, there exists no signal path from the entry of the clock signal to either The clock tree is only liable for charging/discharging node Z. The

optimal PDP value of the proposed design is also significantly better than other designs. The simulation results show that the clock tree power of the proposed design is close to those of the two leading designs (MHLFF and CCFF) and outperforms ip-DCO, SCCER, TGFF, and SAFF, where clock signals connected to gates of the transistors only. The setup time is measured as the point where the minimum PDP value occurs. The setup times of these designs vary from 67 to 47 ps. Note that although the optimal setup time of the proposed design is 53.9ps, its PDP value is lowest in all designs for any setup time greater than 60ps. The D-to-Q delay and the hold time are calculated subject to the optimal setup time. The D-to-Q delay of the proposed design is second to the SCCER design only and outperforms the conventional

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TGFF design by a margin of 44.7%. The hold time requirement seems to be slightly larger due to a negative setup time. This number reduces as the setup time moves toward a positive value. Table II gives the leakage power consumption comparison of these FF designs in a standby mode (clock signal is gated). For a fair comparison, we assume the output Q as “0” when input data is “1” to exclude the extra power

consumption coming from the discharging of the internal node. For different clock and input data combinations, the proposed design enjoys the minimum leakage power consumption, which is mainly attributed to the reduction in the transistor sizes along the discharging path. The SAFF design experiences the worst leakage power consumption when clock equals “0” because its two precharge pMOS transistors are always turned on. Compared to the conventional TGFF design, the average leakage power is reduced by a factor of 3.52. Finally, to show the robustness of the proposed design against the process variations, Table III compiles the changes in the width and the height of the generated discharge pulses under different process corners. Although significant fluctuations in pulsewidth and height are observed, the unique conditional pulse-enhancement scheme works well in all cases.

CONCLUSION

In this paper, we devise a novel low-power pulse-triggered FF design by employing two new design measures. The first one successfully reduces

the number of transistors stacked along the discharging path by incorporating a PTL-based AND logic. The second one supports conditional enhancement to the height and width of the discharging pulse so that the size of the transistors in the pulse generation circuit can be kept minimum. Simulation results indicate that the proposed design excels rival designs in performance indexes such as power, D-to-Q delay, and PDP. Coupled with these design merits is a longer hold-time requirement inherent in pulse-triggered FF designs. However, hold-time violations are much easier to fix in circuit design compared

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with the failures in speed or power.

References

1. H. Kawaguchi and T. Sakurai, “A reduced clock-swing flip-flop(RCSFF) for 63% power reduction,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits , vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 807–811, May 1998.

2. A. G. M. Strollo, D. De Caro, E. Napoli, and N. Petra, “A novel high

speed sense-amplifier-based flip-flop,” IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst. , vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 1266–1274, Nov. 2005.

3. H. Partovi, R. Burd, U. Salim, F. Weber, L. DiGregorio, and D. Draper, “Flow-through latch and edge-triggered flip-flop hybrid elements,” in IEEE Te ch . Dig. ISSCC , 1996, pp. 138–139.

4. F. Klass,C. Amir,A.Das, K.Aingaran, C. Truong, R.Wang, A.Mehta, R.Heald,andG.Yee, “A new family of semi-dynamic and dynamic flipflops with embedded logic for high-performance processors,”

IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits , vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 712–716, May 1999.

5. S. D. Naffziger, G. Colon-Bonet, T. Fischer, R. Riedlinger, T. J. Sullivan, and T. Grutkowski, “The implementation of the Itanium 2 microprocessor,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits , vol. 37, no. 11, pp. 1448–1460, Nov. 2002.

6. J. Tschanz, S. Narendra, Z. Chen, S. Borkar, M. Sachdev, and V. De, “Comparative delay and energy of single edge-triggered and dual edge triggered pulsed flip-flops for high-performance microprocessors,” in Proc. ISPLED , 2001, pp. 207–212.

7. B. Kong, S. Kim, and Y. Jun, “Conditional-capture flip-flop for statistical power reduction,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits , vol. 36, no. 8, pp. 1263–1271, Aug. 2001.

8. N. Nedovic, M. Aleksic, and V. G. Oklobdzija, “Conditional precharge techniques for power-efficient dual-edge clocking,” in

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Proc. Int. Symp. Low-Power Electron. Design , Monterey, CA, Aug. 12–14, 2002, pp. 56–59.

9. P. Zhao, T. Darwish, and M. Bayoumi, “High-performance and low power conditional discharge flip-flop,” IEEE Trans. Very Large

Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst. , vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 477–484, May 2004.

10. C. K. Teh, M. Hamada, T. Fujita, H. Hara, N. Ikumi, and Y. Oowaki, “Conditional data mapping flip-flops for low-power and high-performance systems,” IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Systems , vol. 14, pp. 1379–1383, Dec. 2006.

11. S. H. Rasouli, A. Khademzadeh, A. Afzali-Kusha, and M. Nourani,

“Lowpowersingle-anddouble-edge-triggeredflip-flopsforhighspeed applications,”Proc. Inst. Electr. Eng.—Circuits Devices Syst. ,vol. 152, no. 2, pp. 118–122, Apr. 2005.

12. H. Mahmoodi, V. Tirumalashetty, M. Cooke, and K. Roy, “Ultra low power clocking scheme using energy recovery and clock gating,” IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst. , vol. 17, pp. 33–44, Jan. 2009.

13. P. Zhao, J. McNeely, W. Kaung, N. Wang, and Z. Wang, “Design of sequential elements for low power clocking system,” IEEE Trans.

Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst. , to be published.

14. Y.-H. Shu, S.Tenqchen, M.-C. Sun, and W.-S. Feng, “ XNOR-based double-edge-triggered flip-flop for two-phase pipelines,” IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II, Exp. Briefs , vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 138–142, Feb. 2006.

15. V. G. Oklobdzija, “Clocking and clocked storage elements in a multigiga-hertz environment,”IBM J. Res. Devel. ,vol.47, pp. 567–

584,Sep. 2003.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF STATOR WINDING INSULATION SYSTEMS OF LOW-VOLTAGE INDUCTION MACHINES

AIMING ON TURN INSULATION PROBLEMS : TESTING AND MONITORING

A. Deeti Sreekanth

Fellow, IEEE

INTRODUCTION

Turn insulation failures are seen in the stator coils as melted copper conductors and hole in the main insulation due to earth fault. Induction motors have been widely used in many industrial applications, because of simplicity of control[1]. Owners of electrical

machines expect a high reliability and a long lifetime of its equipment. This can only be achieved by a consistent quality assurance throughout the whole product life cycle on both, the product- and process level[2]. The process level includes research and development, continuous design improvement, quality control during production/commissioning and online/off line testing in service. In the beginning, natural products such as silk, wool, cellulose and flax together with natural varnishes and petroleum derivatives were used for insulation. Due to optimization, these materials were displaced or materials like asbestos, quartz or other minerals have been added. The main reasons of winding insulation deterioration as described in [2] and [3] are thermal,

electrical, mechanical, or environmental stress. Moreover, the class of insulation and the application of the motor have a strong influence on the condition and aging of the insulation system. Many approaches

have been proposed to detect the faults and even the early deterioration of the primary insulation system (phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase) and the secondary insulation system (turn toturn). The testing and

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monitoring methods can be generally divided into two different categories. The first one is offline testing [2], [4], [11]–[26], which requires the motor to be removed from service, while the second one is online monitoring [2], [7], [27]–[35], which can be performed while the machine is operating. An important aspect of each method is whether it is invasive or noninvasive to the machine’s normal operation.

Nonintrusive methods are always preferred because they only use voltage and current measurements from the motor terminals and do not require additional sensors. Most of the insulation system faults are caused by the deterioration and failure of the turn-to-turn insulation [4], [5]. Therefore, the monitoring of the turn-to-turn insulation’s condition is of special interest. For this reason, the main focus of this survey—in contrast to other surveys related to motor diagnostics [8]–[9]—is on methods that can be used to detect faults or deterioration in

the turn-to-turn insulation of low-voltage machines. Some popular methods related to medium- and high-voltage machines are also briefly mentioned. The recent technology advances in sensors, integrated circuits, digital signal processing, and communications enabled engineers to develop more advanced methods to test and monitor the conditions of the machine [4]. The most common methods to test and monitor the ground-wall and phase-to-phase insulation are also included in this survey. First, the insulation–failure mechanisms are analyzed briefly. Then, several offline tests are introduced. Finally, a general approach of developing online methods is discussed, and conclusions are drawn considering the need for future development in this area.

II. STATOR FAULTS AND THEIR ROOT CAUSE

As mentioned earlier, the main cause for stator failures can be divided into four groups [2], [3] thermal, electrical, mechanical, and environmental stress. Before describing the different causes for the

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breakdown of the insulation system, a brief overview over the possible nature of the fault and a way to analyze it is given.

A.Analysis and Nature of the Stator Insulation Failure:

Analyzing the mode and pattern of the fault helps to find its cause. As there are different failure modes and patterns associated with stator insulation failures [10]. The most severe failure mode is a phase-to-ground fault. Other mode are turn-to-turn, coil-to-coil, phase-to-phase short-circuits, or an open-circuit of the stator windings. Those faults can occur in a single phase, can be symmetrical, nonsymmetrical with grounding, or nonsymmetrical excluding grounding. A great percentage of the insulation failures start with a turn-to-turn insulation problem and subsequently develop into more severe insulation faults. In a turn-to-turn fault, two or more turns of a coil are short-circuited.

The current in the shorted turns will be considerably higher than the operating current and therefore increases the winding’s temperature to

a level where severe damage or even the cessation of the insulation is the result.

One of the faults developing from a turn-to-turn fault might be a coil-to-coil short circuit, where coils from the same phase get shorted, or a phase-to-phase short circuit, where two or more of the different phases get shorted. These faults again can develop into phase-to-ground faults, which can cause large damage to the motor. A different kind of fault is the open-circuit of a stator winding. As the short-circuit faults, the open-circuit introduces a strong asymmetry and, thus, malfunction of the motor. Compared to the short-circuit faults, this kind of fault rarely occurs. Aside from analyzing the mode and pattern of the failure, the examination of the appearance of the motor is helpful to identify the cause of the fault. This includes aspects like the cleanness of the motor, signs of moisture, minor inspection, moderate and major inspections ,

and the condition of the rotor. The operating conditions under which

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the motor fails, as well as the general operating conditions, should also be taken into consideration. Furthermore, the maintenance history can be consulted to determine the problems that lead to failure. Considering all these aspects, a method can be developed in order to analyze and classify insulation failures [10].

B. Root Causes for the Failures of the Stator Insulation System: Aging Mechanisms: “Insulation in service is exposed to high

temperature, high voltage, vibration, and other mechanical forces as well as some unfavorable environmental conditions. These various factors act together and individually to wear out or age the insulation.”

1) Thermal Stress: One of the thermal stresses insulation is subject to

is the thermal aging process. An increase in temperature accelerates the aging process and thus reduces the lifetime of the insulation significantly. Under normal operating conditions, the aging process itself does not cause a failure but makes the insulation more susceptible to other stresses, which then produce the actual failure. In order to ensure a longer lifetime and reduce the temperature. influence of the aging process, one can either work at low operating temperatures or use an insulation of higher quality, i.e., use a higher insulation class. Another thermal stress that has a negative effect on the insulation lifetime is thermal overloading, which occurs due to voltage variations, unbalanced phase voltages, cycling, overloading, obstructed ventilation, or ambient temperature. For example, even a small increase in the

voltage unbalance has an enormous effect on the winding temperature. It should be ensured that the flow of air through the motor is not obstructed since the heat cannot be dissipated otherwise and that the winding temperature will increase. If this is not possible, however, this should be taken into account by upgrading the insulation system or restricting the winding.

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Thermal Aging: Thermal cycling, especially with respect to the main

field windings of peaking units, can lead to significant physical deformation of the associated coils.

In this thermal aging insulation are catalouged in to two different categories as core insulation and stator/rotor insulation. Core Insulation:

Inadequate cooling, General over- heating ,Localized over- Heating, Burnout at High Temperature

Stator/Rotor Insulation:

Continous High Temp, Differntial Expansion, Thermal Cycling, Girth Cracking, Scarf- Joint, Loosening of End winding, Loosening of coils in

slots.

2) Electrical Stress: There are different reasons why electrical stresses lead to failure of the stator insulation. These can usually be broken down into problems with the dielectric material, the phenomena of tracking and corona and the transient voltages, that a machine is exposed to the type of dielectric material that is used for phase-to-ground, phase-to-phase, and turn-to-turn insulation, as well as the

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voltage stresses applied to the insulating materials, influences the lifetime of the insulation significantly. Thus, the materials for the insulation have to be chosen adequately in order to assure flawless operation and desired design life.

Tracking and corona are phenomena that only occur at operating voltages above 600 V and 5 kV, respectively. The negative influence of transient voltage conditions on the winding life has been observed in recent years. These transients, which either cause depreciation of the insulation or even turn-toturn or turn-to-ground failures, can be caused by line-to-line, line-to-ground, or multiphase line-to-ground faults in the supply; repetitive restriking; current limiting fuses; rapid bus transfer; opening and closing of the circuit breakers; capacitor switching(power factor improvement); insulation failure in the power system; or lightning strike. Variable frequency drives are subject to

permanent voltage transients. In particular, during the starting and stopping process, high-voltage transients can occur.

Electrical Aging: Loose stator winding will vibrate within the stator

slots. Fretting against the stator core iron, corona suppression materials will abrade, increasing PD activity.

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Core Insulation: Under-Excitation, Over Excitation, Manfacturing

Defects, Ground Fault in core slots.

Stator Insulation: Electrical Discharges, Surface Tracking, Moisture

Absorption, System Surge voltages, Unbalanced Supply Voltages Rotor Insulation: Transient Over-Voltages , Static Excitation

Transients , Surface Tracking , Moisture Absorption.

3) Mechanical Stress: The main causes for insulation failure due to mechanical stresses are coil movement and strikes from the rotor. The force on the winding coils is proportional to the square of the motor current and reaches its maximum value during the startup of the motor. This force causes the coils to move and vibrate. The movement of the coils again can cause severe damage to the coil insulation or the conductor. There are different reasons that will cause the rotor to strike the stator. The most common are bearing failures, shaft deflection, and rotor-to-stator misalignment. Sometimes, the contact is only made during the start, but it can also happen that there will be a contact made at full speed of the motor. Both contacts can result in a grounded coil.There are other mechanical stresses, which the windings

are exposed to, like loose rotor balancing weights, loose rotor fan blades, loose nuts or bolts striking the motor, or foreign particles that enter the motor.

Mechanical Aging: Core Insulation: Core Looseness & Fretting , Back Iron Over-Heating

Stator Insulation:120 Hz Bar vibration Forces, Electromagnetic

Forces on End windings, Abrasive Materials. Rotor Insulation: Centrifugal Forces , Abrasive materials, Operation

on Turning Gear.

4) Environmental Stress: Stresses stemming from contamination, high humidity, aggressive chemicals, radiation in nuclear plants, or the salt level in seashore applications can be categorized as environmental or

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ambient stress [2]. For example, the presence of foreign material by contamination can lead to reduction in the heat dissipation, increasing the thermal deterioration. A thin layer of conducting material on the surface of the insulation is another possible result of contamination. Surface currents and electrical tracking can occur due to this layer applying additional electrical stress. Aggressive chemicals can degrade the insulation and make it more vulnerable to mechanical stresses. If possible, the motor should be kept clean and dry internally, as well as externally, to avoid the influence of moisture, chemicals, and foreign particles on the insulation condition. Radiation is a stress that only occurs in nuclear power plants or nuclear-powered ships. The aging process is comparable to thermal aging.

Environmental Aging: Oil is both a solvent as well as a lubricant.

Internal oil contamination can breakdown insulation, and loosen the frictional-force blocks, ties, and packing throughout a generator.

Environmental Aging: Core Insulation: Water Absorption., Chemical contamination. Stator/Rotor Insulation: Water Absorption., Chemical

Contamination.

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III. OFFLINE TESTING

The condition of the stator winding is critical for the overall motor wellness. To ensure the perfect operation of a motor system, various offline tests can be executed. These tests allow the user to assess the condition of the motor under test. Offline methods are normally more direct and accurate. The user does not need to be an expert of motor drives to perform the tests. However, most of these tests can only be applied to motors that are disconnected from service i.e, offline tests are done during a shutdown . This is one of the main drawbacks compared to the online-monitoring methods. An advantage to online monitoring is that meaningful tests can be performed after production of the motor and that a test device can be used for several different machines, which saves costs. The offline tests are summarized in Table I, [2], [4], [11]–[16]. Evaluating the table, it becomes obvious that there are not many offline techniques available to diagnose insulation are the surge test and the offline partial discharge (PD) test. Since the PD

test is not applicable to low-voltage machines, it is not further described here. Common methods used to test the phase-to-ground insulation [2], [11]–[13] are the insulation resistance (IR) test, the polarization index test, the dc and ac high potential test, and the dissipation factor test. Recently, a new method was developed to apply some of those offline tests (IR, dissipation factor, and capacitance tests) to inverter-fed machines while they are not operating [14], [15]. Since the tests can be conducted on a frequent basis without using additional equipment, ground-wall insulation problems can be diagnosed at an early stage.

A. Surge Tests

If the turn insulation fails in a form-wound stator winding, the motor will likely fail in a few minutes. About 80% of all electrical failures in the stator originate from a weak turn-to-turn insulation [5].Thus the turn insulation is critical to the life of a motor. By applying a high

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voltage between the turns, the surge test is able to overcome this limitation and thus this test is an overvoltage test for the turn insulation, and may fail the insulation, requiring by passing of the failed coil, replacement or rewind . Low voltage tests on form-wound stators, such as inductance or inductive impedance tests, can detect if the turn insulation is shorted, but not if it is weakened. Only the surge voltage test is able to directly find stator windings with deteriorated turn insulation. The test is valid for any random wound or multi-turn form wound stator, and the test method for form wound stators is described in IEEE 522.

The surge test duplicates the voltage surge created by switching on the motor. The surge test is a destructive go-no go test. If the turn insulation fails, then the assumption is that the stator would have failed in service due to motor switch-on, PWM inverter voltage surges

or transients caused by power system faults. If the winding does not puncture, then the assumption is that the turn insulation will survive any likely surge occurring in service over the next few years.

The first generation of surge test sets was called surge comparison testers. They consisted of two energy storage capacitors, which were connected to two phases. The waveform from each phase is monitored on an analog oscilloscope. The assumption is that the waveform is identical for the two phases. As the voltage is increased, if one of the waveforms changes (increases in frequency) then turn to turn puncture occurred in the phase that changed. This approach has lost favor now since it is possible for two phases to have slightly different inductances due to different circuit ring bus lengths, mid-winding equalizer connections or even due to rotor position (since it affects the permeability). Modern surge testers use a digitizer to capture the surge

voltage waveform on a phase, as the voltage is gradually raised. Digital analysis then provides an alarm when the waveform changes at a high voltage, due to a turn fault [6]. The test voltages are described in IEEE

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522. There have been a lot of controversies about the risk of surge testing [21]–[23]. A comprehensive study about this issue disproves the statement that surge testing significantly reduces the lifetime of a machine [45], [46]. The effect of the surge rise time is also a topic that has been widely discussed [24]

B. Signature Analysis After Switch-Off

A technique that uses motor, the signature analysis of the terminal voltage immediately after switch-off to diagnose turn faults, is introduced in [15]. The advantage, compared to online techniques using current signature analysis, is that the voltage unbalance of the source does not influence the result since the supply is off. The faulty machine model used for simulation is also included in the paper.

IV. ONLINE MONITORING

On-line monitoring performed during normal operation of the motor .Various monitoring methods have been developed using different physical quantities to detect the health condition of the stator

insulation system [2], [3]. These methods utilize different motor parameters like magnetic flux, temperature, stator current, or input power for the monitoring purpose. The induction motor model with a turn-to-turn fault, introduced in [36]–[40], is required for some of the methods. Online condition monitoring is usually preferred in the applications, which have a continuous process, such as petro/chem, water treatment, material handling, etc. The major advantage is that the machine does not have to be taken out of service. As a result, the health condition while the motor is operating can be assessed. Predictive maintenance is made easier because the machine is under constant monitoring, an incipient failure can immediately be detected, and actions can be scheduled to avoid more severe process downtime.

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Method Reference Insulation tested &

Diagnostic value

Positive Features Negative Features

Insulation Resistance

(IR)/ Mega ohm

[2] [11]-[15]

Finds contamination and defects in

phase-to-ground insulation.

Easy to perform, applicable to all

windings except for rotor of a squirrel

cage IM

Results in strong temperature dependent

Winding resistance/DC conductivity

Test

[2], [8], [11] Detects shorted turns, no

predictive value

Easy to perform

Only detects faults.

Polarization index (PI)

[2] [11]-[13]


phase –to-ground insulation

Easy to perform, Less sensitive to

temperature than IR-test

----

(DC HIPOT) DC High

potential test

[6] [11]-[13]



Easy to perform, if test doesn’t fail the insulation is likely to work flawlessly

until the next maintenance period—more

predictive character than PI and IR

In case of failure, repair is required

( destructive )

(AC HIPOT) AC High potential

Test

[2] [12],[13]



More effective than DC Highpot

Not as so easy to perform like DC

Highpot.

Growler Detects shorted coils, no

predictive value

Applicable to both low voltage and

High voltage machines

Specifically applied to armature and

rotors

SurgeTest [2],[4],[11] [16]

Detects worsening of the

turn-to-turn insulation.

It is only a offline test that measures the integrity of the

turn insulation

Test can be destructive

Signature Analysis of Terminal

voltage after switch-off

[16] Detects turn to turn insulation

Signature analysis without influence of

supply voltage unbalance

Test can only be conducted directly

after swith-off.

Partial Discharge

[2],[1] Detects deterioration of the turn-to-turn and phase-

to-ground insulation

Good practical results

Not applicable to low voltage machines,

difficulty in interpretation of

the data. Dissipation

factor [2],[14],[15] Detects

deterioration of Able to determine

the cause of Measurements on a

regular basis

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the phase-to-ground and

phase-to-phase insulation

deterioration required in order to trend the data

over time.

Inductive Impedance

[2] Detects shorted turns, no

predictive value

---- Not as easy to perform as the

winding Resistance Test

TABLE I

DIFFERENT METHODS TO TEST THE STATOR INSULATION SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

A disadvantage is that the online-monitoring techniques often require the installation of additional equipment, which has to be installed on

every machine. Compared to the offline tests, it is more difficult or even impossible to detect some failure processes [6]. However, many sensorless and nonintrusive methods have been recently developed using the electrical signatures, e.g., current and voltage, such that the monitoring algorithm can reside in the motor control center or even inside of motor control devices, such as the drives [58]. Therefore, the online monitoring can become nonintrusive without the need of additional sensors and installations. The online-monitoring techniques described in the survey are summarized in Table II [27]–[35].

A. HF Impedance/Turn-to-Turn Capacitance

A nonintrusive condition monitoring system using the highfrequency (HF) response of the motor is introduced in [34]. It is able to observe the aging and, thus, the deterioration of the turn-to-turn insulation by detecting small changes in the stator winding’s turn-to-turn capacitance. It is shown that the turn-to-turn capacitance of the stator

winding and, thus, its impedance spectrum are changing under the influence of different aging processes. Since it is not possible to use an impedance analyzer for the purpose of an online test, it is suggested to inject a small HF signal into the stator winding. Its frequency has to be close to the series resonance frequency of the system. The flux of the

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machine caused by the injected HF signal can be measured by a magnetic probe in the vicinity of the machine. The change in the phase lag between the injected signal and the measured flux will be used as an indicator of a change in the resonance frequency and, thus, in the turn-to-turn capacitance, which is caused by the deterioration of the insulation. If there is some prior knowledge or data of the system available, it can even be deduced how likely a failure of the insulation system is in the near future. A similar technique is introduced in two different patents [35], [36]. Two different methods to determine the insulation condition and how close it is to failure are listed. The first one requires the comparison of the impedance response to a response that is recorded after the fabrication of the motor, which can be called its “birth certificate.” Another method is to calculate the power that is dissipated in the insulation by either measuring current or voltage

across the winding and using the broadband impedance response. This power is then compared to a target value which can be determined by historical data from similar motors.

In contrast to the claim in [34], the use of an impedance meter is suggested in [35]. However, in [36], the measurement of the broadband impedance is accomplished by measuring voltage and current at the machines’ terminals and by using Ohm’s law.

B. Sequence Components

Several methods based on the sequence components of the machine’s impedance, currents, or voltages have been developed for the online detection of turn-to-turn faults in the stator insulation system [34]. One of the drawbacks of the methods utilizing sequence components is that only a fault, but not the change of the overall condition and thus the deterioration of the insulation system, is monitored.

1) Negative-Sequence Current: The monitoring of the negative

sequence current for fault detection is the subject of many papers

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[31],[34]. If there is an asymmetry introduced by a turn-to-turn fault, the negative-sequence current will change and can thus be used as an indicator for a fault.

Method Reference Insulation tested &

Diagnostic value

Positive Features Negative Features

Negative sequence current

[31],[34] Detects turn-to-turn faults

Non-invasive, methods available to take non-idealities in to account

Non-idealities that complicate fault detection

Sequence Impedance

Matrix

[51]-[52] Detects turn-to-turn faults


Non-idealities that complicate fault detection

Zero sequence Voltage

[49] Detects turn-to-turn faults


Non-idealities that complicate fault detection, neutral of the machine has to be accessible

Pendulous oscillation

phenomenon


Non-invasive, able to compensate for non-idealities.

----

Airgap Flux signature,

Axial leakage Flux


Invasive, results strongly depend on the load.

Current signature analysis


Non-invasive, interpretation of results subjective.

Further research advised to generalize results.

Vibration signature analysis


----

Non-invasive, Further research advised to generalize results.

Online partial discharge

[7],[41]-[48] Detects turn-to-turn faults

Good practical results

Difficulty in interpretation of the data, not applicable to low voltage machines, additional equipment required.

Ozone [6] Detects turn-to-turn faults

By-product of PD Invasive (gas analysis tube or electronic instrument).

High Frequency Impedance

[34]-[36] Detects deterioration of the turn-to-turn

insulation

Capable of monitoring the deterioration of turn-to-turn insulation.

Invasive (search coil), not tested widely yet.

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Temperature monitoring

[6],[24],[27]-[35]

Detects deterioration in phase-to-ground

and faults in turn-to-turn insulation

Non-invasive, capable of determining the cause of deterioration.

Invasive if sensors are required, a lot of data and additional information like ambient temperature required.

Leakage currents

[32],[33] Detects deterioration in phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase insulation

Non-invasive, capable of determining the cause of deterioration.

----

Condition Monitors and

Tagging compounds

[6],[24] Detects faults and problems with phase-to-

ground and turn-to-turn insulation

----

Invasive (equipment for detection of particles required and chemicals have to be applied to machine)

TABLE II

DIFFERENT METHODS TO TEST THE STATOR INSULATION SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

The major problem with this method is that not only a turn-to-turn fault contributes to the negative-sequence component of the current but also supply voltage imbalances, motor and load inherent asymmetries, and measurement errors have an effect on this quantity. The methods suggested in [35] account for those nonidealities by using the negative-sequence voltage and impedance and a database. Another way to consider the nonidealities is the use of artificial neural networks (ANNs). A method to determine the negative-sequence current due to a turn fault with the help of those ANNs is proposed in [40]. The neural network is trained offline over the entire range of operating conditions. Thus, the ANN learns to estimate the negative-sequence current of the healthy machine considering all sources of asymmetry except for the

asymmetry due to a turn fault. During the monitoring process, the ANN estimates the negative-sequence current based on the training under healthy condition. This value is compared to the measured negative-sequence current.

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The deviation of the measured value from the estimated value is an indicator of a turn fault and even indicates the severity of the fault. Another approach using negative-sequence current and an

ANN to detect the fault, which is implemented in a LABVIEW environment, is proposed in [30]. The injection of an HF signal superposed to the fundamental excitation in inverter-fed machines has been suggested and examined in [31]. By using reference frame theory and digital filters, the authors show that the negative-sequence component does not depend on the frequency of the injected signal. Thus, it is possible to use a frequency that is substantially higher than the one of the fundamental excitation. The application of an HF signal also minimizes the influence on the machine’s operation. To compensate for nonidealities, a commissioning process during the first operation of the machine is suggested.

2) Sequence Impedance Matrix: The calculation of the sequence

impedance matrix under healthy conditions is the basis of an approach that is presented in [51],[52]. A library of the sequence impedance matrix as a function of the motor speed for a healthy machine is used during the monitoring process. The method is not sensitive to construction imperfections and supply unbalances, since they have been taken into account during the construction of the library. Another robust method with high sensitivity using the sequence component impedance matrix is introduced in [52]. It uses an off-diagonal term of the sequence component impedance matrix and is immune against supply voltage unbalance, the slip-dependent influence of inherent motor asymmetry, and measurement errors.

3) Zero Sequence Voltage: A method utilizing the zero sequence

voltage is proposed in [53]. The algebraic sum of the line-neutral voltages is used as an indicator for a turn fault. Ideally, this sum should be zero. The sensitivity is improved by filtering the voltage sum to get

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rid of higher order harmonics. It is pointed out that the method is not sensitive to supply or load unbalances. In order to take inherent machine imbalances into account, different procedures are suggested. The main drawback of this procedure is that the neutral of the machine has to be accessible.

C. Signature Analysis:

1) Current Signature Analysis: Current Signature Analysis (CSA)

monitoring has revolutionized the detection of broken rotor bars and cracked short circuit rings in squirrel cage induction motor rotors [4]. CSA can also find problems with rotor balance that lead to rotor eccentricity. In CSA, the current on one of the power cables feeding the motor is analyzed for its frequency content. Specific frequencies in the current indicate the presence of defective rotor windings during normal operation of the motor. Broken rotor bars by CSA can sometimes be detected by bearing vibration analysis. Motor current signature analysis is a popular method to detect broken rotor bars and airgap eccentricity [55]. In [56], it has been shown that it is also possible to

use this technique to detect turn faults. This approach is based on the fact that the magnitude of the stator current harmonics changes after a turn fault developed. The method for detecting a turn fault seems to be subjective though. The various approaches use different frequency harmonics to detect a fault. For example, in [55], it is suggested to observe the change in the third harmonic and some other frequency components. Unfortunately, the sensitivity of those components under loaded conditions is not very high, and they are also sensitive to inherent motor asymmetry and supply unbalance.

2) Axial Leakage Flux: If an induction machine is in perfectly

balanced condition, there should be no axial leakage flux present. Due to production imperfection, there is always a small asymmetry in the motor that causes an axial leakage flux. Since a turn fault also creates

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some asymmetry in the machine and thus some axial leakage flux, the monitoring of this flux can be used for detecting turn faults. This technique has been the topic of several publications [54]. The theoretical and practical analyses carried out show that certain frequency components of the axial leakage flux are sensitive to interturn short circuits. One of the main disadvantages of this method is the strong dependence on the load driven by the motor. The highest sensitivity can be reached under fullload conditions. Another drawback is that a search coil to detect the axial flux has to be installed. Another publication [54] not only detects turn-to-turn faults but also uses the axial leakage flux to find broken rotor bars and end rings.

3) Vibration Signature Analysis:

Another quantity whose signature analysis can be used to get information about the condition of the insulation system is the electrically excited vibration. This topic has been examined in [58]. The

results show that deteriorated and faulted windings can be identified. It is indicated that the method is good to provide additional information supplementary to other monitoring techniques. Further research has to be made in order to gain full access to the potential of this method. An obvious disadvantage is the required installation of vibration sensors.

D. Temperature Monitoring

The constant monitoring of the temperature and trending over time can be used by maintenance personnel to draw conclusions about the insulation condition [2]. In many motors, the temperature is monitored and the motor is turned off if a certain temperature is exceeded. Temperature sensors can be embedded within the stator windings, the stator core, or frame or even be part of the cooling system. There are different types of temperature sensors employed like resistance temperature detectors or thermocouples. Recently, there has also been a lot of work done on temperature estimation techniques [28]-[31],

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which are nonintrusive and, thus, do not require the installation of temperature sensors. The ability to measure even small excursions in temperature enables the detection of possible problems in the insulation at an early stage and can thus be used to plan maintenance before a major breakdown occurs [24].

E. PD

A popular, reliable, and very frequently used method for finding problems with the insulation system of medium- and high-voltage machines is the PD method [2], [3], [41]–[44] that can be applied online as well as offline. Unfortunately, it requires the installation of costly additional equipment. For various reasons, the method has not been widely applied to low-voltage machines yet. However, the occurrence of PD in low-voltage motors under application of voltage surges has been subject to several investigations [45], [46], and the possible use of the PD method for low-voltage motors has been recently reported in [47]

and [48]. Since the voltage level in low-voltage mains-fed machines is too low to induce PDs, the method is only applied to inverter-fed machines that are subject to repetitive voltage surges. The main problem in this application is that the PDs are overlapped by the voltage surges and thus are difficult to detect. Different methods are suggested, which all entail large complexity and cost. For example, the detection using optical sensors is suggested. However, this method does not seem to be very useful for the application in motors since the windings are at least partially invisible (hidden) and some discharges will therefore be “hidden” from the optical sensor. The cost and complexity of this or other methods seem to be too high to justify the use on comparatively cheap low-voltage motors on a big scale. A by-product of the PD that can also be used for monitoring the insulation condition is ozone [2].

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V. CONCLUSION

The main objective of this paper is to evaluate existing offline and online-monitoring methods for the stator winding insulation of low-voltage induction machines in order to give engineers a broad overview over recent developments in this area, to show the capability and boundaries of those methods, and to point out possible directions for future research activities. A comprehensive literature survey on the existing methods for low-voltage induction motor winding insulation condition monitoring and fault detection has been presented, and it has been identified that turn-to-turn faults count most for induction motor winding insulation faults [4], [5]. Various online methods have been developed that are capable of identifying a turn fault even in the presence of nonidealities. The offline surge test is not only able to identify a fault but also capable of revealing a weakness in the turn insulation prior to a fault. Despite all progress made in the field of monitoring motor drive systems, there is still no online-monitoring

method widely applied in industries and accepted in the diagnosis community, which is capable of monitoring the deterioration of the turn-toturn insulation of low-voltage machines. Thus, based on the survey results, the authors suggest the development of an online-monitoring method applicable to low-voltage machines, which is capable of diagnosing the deterioration of the turn-to-turn insulation prior to a fault and is also reasonable from a cost standpoint.

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25. H. D. Kim and Y. H. Ju, “Comparison of off-line and on-line partial discharge for large motors,” in Conf. Rec. IEEE Int. Symp. Elect. Insul., Apr. 7–10, 2002, pp. 27–30.

26. X. Ma, X.Ma, B. Yue,W. Lu, and H. Xie, “Study of aging characteristics of generator stator insulation based on temperature spectrum of dielectric dissipation factor,” in Proc. 7th Int. Conf. Prop. Appl. Dielectr. Mater., Jun. 1–5, 2003, vol. 1, pp. 294–297.

27. S.-B. Lee, T. G. Habetler, R. G. Harley, and D. J. Gritter, “An evaluation of model-based stator resistance estimation for induction motor stator winding temperature monitoring,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 766–775, Jul./Aug. 1998.

28. S.-B. Lee and T. G. Habetler, “An online stator winding resistance estimation technique for temperature monitoring of line-connected induction machines,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 685–694, May/Jun. 2003.

29. Z. Gao, T. G. Habetler, R. G. Harley, and R. S. Colby, “A sensorless adaptive stator winding temperature estimator for mains-fed induction machines with continuous-operation periodic duty cycles,” in Conf. Rec. 41st IEEE IAS Annu. Meeting, Oct. 2006, vol. 1, pp. 448–455.

30. F. Briz, M. W. Degner, J. M. Guerrero, and A. B. Diez, “Temperature estimation in inverter fed machines using high frequency carrier signal injection,” in Conf. Rec. 42nd IEEE IAS Annu. Meeting, Sep. 23–27, 2007, pp. 2030–2037.

31. R. Beguenane and M. E. H. Benbouzid, “Induction motors thermal monitoring by means of rotor resistance identification,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 566–570, Sep. 1999.

32. S.-B. Lee, K. Younsi, and G. B. Kliman, “An online technique for monitoring the insulation condition of AC machine stator windings,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 737–745, Dec. 2005.

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34. P. Werynski, D. Roger, R. Corton, and J. F. Brudny, “Proposition of a new method for in-service monitoring of the aging of stator winding insulation in AC motors,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 673–681, Sep. 2006.

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DEGRADED DOCUMENT IMAGE ENHANCING IN SPATIAL DOMAIN USING ADAPTIVE CONTRASTING AND

THRESHOLDING

Dr. P V Ramaraju Professor

Department of ECE SRKR Engg. College Bhimavaram, India.

G.Nagaraju Asst.Professor,


V.Rajasekhar M.Tech Student


I. INTRODUCTION

Robust binarization gives the possibility of a correct extraction of the sketched line drawing or text from its background. For the binarization of images many algorithms have been implemented. Thresholding is a sufficiently accurate and high processing speed segmentation approach to monochrome image. This paper describes a modified logical thresholding method for binarization of seriously

degraded and very poor quality gray-scale document images.

In general there are two types of image thresholding techniques available: global and local. In the global thresholding technique a gray level image is converted into a binary image based on an image intensity value called global threshold which is fixed in the whole image domain whereas in local thresholding technique, threshold value can vary from one pixel location to next. Thus, global thresholding converts an input image I to a binary image G as follows G(i, j) = 1 for I (i, j) ≥ T, or, G(i, j) = 0 for I (i, j) < T, where T is the threshold, G (i, j) = 1 for foreground and G (i, j) = 0 for background.

Whereas, for a local threshold, the threshold T is a function over the image domain, i.e.,T= T(x, y). In addition, if in constructing the threshold value/surface the algorithm adapts itself to the image intensity values, then it is called dynamic or adaptive threshold.

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In a general setting, thresholding can be expressed as a test

operation that tests against a function T of the form [1]: T = T[x , y, h, I ] , where, I is the input image and h denotes some local property of this point– for example, the average gray level of a neighborhood centered on (x, y).

Threshold selection depends on the information available in the gray level histogram of the image. We know that an image function I(x, y) can be expressed as the product of a reflectance function and an

illumination function based on a simple image formation model. If the illumination component of the image is uniform then the gray level histogram of the image is clearly bimodal, because the gray levels of object pixels are significantly different from the gray levels of the background. It indicates that one mode is populated from object pixels and the other mode is populated from background pixels.

Then objects could be easily partitioned by placing a single global threshold at the neck or valley at the histogram. However, in reality bimodality in histograms does not occur very often. Consequently, a fixed threshold level based on the information of the gray level histogram will fail totally to separate objects from the background. In this scenario we turn our attention to adaptive local

threshold surface where threshold value changes over the image domain to fit the spatially changing background and lighting conditions.

Over the years many threshold selection methods have been proposed. Otsu has suggested a global image thresholding technique where the optimal global threshold value is ascertained by maximizing the between-class variance with an exhaustive search [2]. Sahoo et al. [3] claim that Otsu’s method is suitable for real world applications with regard to uniformity and shape measures. Though Otsu’s method is one of the most popular methods for global thresholding, it does not work

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well for many real world images where a significant overlap exists in

the gray level histogram between the pixel intensity values of the objects and the background due to un-even and poor illumination.

As many degraded documents do not have a clear bimodal pattern, global thresholding [4]–[7] is usually not a suitable approach for the degraded document binarization. Adaptive thresholding [8]–[14], which estimates a local threshold for each document image pixel, is often a better approach to deal with different variations within degraded document images. For example, the early window-based adaptive thresholding techniques [12], [13] estimate the local threshold by using the mean and the standard variation of image pixels within a local neighborhood window.

The local image contrast and the local image gradient are very useful features for segmenting the text from the document background because the document text usually has certain image contrast to the neighboring document background.

The image gradient is defined as follows

G(x,y)=fmax(x, y) − fmin(x,y ) 1

The Local contrast is defined as follows

max min

max min

( , ) ( , )( , ) 2

( , ) ( , )

x y x yD x y

x y x yf f

f f

Where ε is a positive but infinitely small number that is added in case the local maximum is equal to 0.

II. PROPOSED METHOD

This section describes the proposed document image binarization techniques. Given a degraded document image, an adaptive contrast map is first constructed. The text is then segmented

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based on the local threshold that is estimated from the detected text

stroke edge pixels. Some post processing is further applied to improve the document binarization quality.

A. Contrast Image Construction

The image contrast in Equation 2 has one typical limitation that it may not handle document images with the bright text properly. This is because a weak contrast will be calculated for stroke edges of the bright text where the denominator in Equation 2 will be large but the numerator will be small. To overcome this over-normalization problem, we combine the local image contrast with the local image gradient and derive an adaptive local image contrast as follows

max min( , ) ( , ) (1 )( ( , ) ( , )) 3aD x y D x y f x y f x y Where D(x, y)

denotes the local contrast in Equation 2 and (fmax(x, y) − fmin(x,y )) refers to the local image gradient that is normalized to [0, 1]. The local windows size is set to 3 empirically. α is the weight between local contrast and local gradient that is controlled based on the document image statistical information. Ideally, the image contrast will be

assigned with a high weight (i.e. large α) when the document image has significant intensity variation. So that the proposed binarization technique depends more on the local image contrast that can capture the intensity variation well and hence produce good results. Otherwise, the local image gradient will be assigned with a high weight.

We model the mapping from document image intensity variation to α by a power function as follows

α= (Std/128)γ 4

Where Std denotes the document image intensity standard deviation, and γ is a pre-defined parameter. The power function has a nice property in that it monotonically and smoothly increases from 0 to

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1 and its shape can be easily controlled by different γ .γ can be selected

from [0,∞], where the power function becomes a linear function when γ = 1. Therefore, the local image gradient will play the major role in Equation 3 when γ is large and the local image contrast will play the major role when γ is small. The setting of parameter γ will be discussed in the section of parameter selection.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

(a)

(b)

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(c)

Fig. 3. Contrast Images constructed using (a) local image gradient, (b) local image contrast [15], and (c) our proposed method for the original sample document images which are shown in Fig. 1 and 2, respectively.

Fig. 3 shows the contrast map of the sample document images in Fig. 1 and 2 that are created by using local image gradient, local image contrast [15] and our proposed method in Equation 3, respectively.

B. Local Threshold Estimation

The text can then be extracted from the document background pixels once the high contrast stroke edge pixels are detected properly. Two characteristics can be observed from different kinds of document images [15]: First, the text pixels are close to the detected text stroke

edge pixels. Second, there is a distinct intensity difference between the high contrast stroke edge pixels and the surrounding background pixels. The document image text can thus be extracted based on the detected text stroke edge pixels as follows

1.. min&& ( , ) / 20..( , ) 5Ne N I x y Emean Estd

otherwiseR x y

Where Emean and Estd are the mean and the standard deviation of the image intensity of the detected high contrast image pixels (within the original document image) within the neighborhood window that can be evaluated as follows

mean

( , )*(1 ( , ))E 6neighbor

I x y E x y

Ne

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2(( ( , ) )* (1 ( , )))E 7

2neighbor

std

I x y Emean E x y

The size of the neighborhood window W can be set based on the stroke width of the document image under study.

C. Post-Processing

Once the initial binarization result is derived from Equation 5 as described in previous subsections, the binarization result can be further improved by incorporating certain domain knowledge as described in Algorithm 1. First, the isolated foreground pixels that do not connect with other foreground pixels are filtered out to make the

edge pixel set precisely. Second, the neighborhood pixel pair that lies on symmetric sides of a text stroke edge pixel should belong to different classes (i.e., either the document background or the foreground text). One pixel of the pixel pair is therefore labeled to the other category if both of the two pixels belong to the same class. Finally, some single-pixel artifacts along the text stroke boundaries are filtered out by using several logical operators as described in[16].

Algorithm 1 Post-Processing Procedure

Require: The Input grayscale Document Image ‘I’, Initial Binary

Result ‘B’ and Corresponding Binary Text Stroke Edge Image ‘Edge’

Ensure: The Final Binary Result ‘Bf’

1: Obtain the connect components of the stroke edge pixels in ‘Edge’.

2: Take out those pixels that do not connect with other pixels.

3: For removing isolated pixels, we need to check connectivity.

4: for Each remaining edge pixels (i, j ): do

5: Get its neighborhood pairs:

(i − 1, j) & (i + 1, j); (i, j − 1) &(i, j + 1)

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6: if The pixels in the pairs belong to the same class (both text or

background) then

7: Classify the foreground and background pixels based on pixel values.

8: end if

9: end for

10: Remove single-pixel artifacts [16] along the text stroke boundaries after the document thresholding.

11: Store the new binary result to ‘Bf ‘.

D. Parameter Selection

In the first experiment, we apply different γ to obtain different power functions and test their performance. α is close to 1 when γ is small and the local image contrast Da dominates the adaptive image contrast Da in Equation 3. On the other hand, Da is mainly influenced by local image gradient when γ is large. At the same time, the variation of α for different document images increases when γ is close to 1. Under such circumstance, the power function becomes more sensitive to the

global image intensity variation and appropriate weights can be assigned to images with different characteristics.

The proposed method can assign more suitable α to different images when γ is closer to 1. Parameter γ should therefore be set around 1 when the adaptability of the proposed technique is maximized and better and more robust binarization results can be derived from different kinds of degraded document images.

III. RESULTS

This section evaluates the results for proposed document image binarization techniques. Given a degraded document image, an adaptive contrast map is first constructed. The text is then segmented based on the local threshold that is estimated from the detected text

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stroke edge pixels. Some post-processing is further applied to improve

the document binarization quality.

Example 1

Fig.4 input degraded document image having ink bleeding through effect

Fig.5 Contrast image constructed based on proposed adaptive local contrast map

Fig.6 Binarized resultant image constructed based on proposed local thresholding and post processing.

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Example 2

Fig.7 input degraded document image having ink bleeding through effect

Fig.8 Contrast image constructed based on proposed adaptive local contrast map

Fig.9 Binarized resultant image constructed based on proposed local thresholding and post processing.

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IV. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT

BINARIZATION METHODS

In this experiment, we quantitatively compare our proposed method with Otsu’s method (OTSU) [2], Sauvola’s method (SAUV) [12], Niblack’s method (NIBL) [13], Bernsen’s method (BERN) [8], Gatos et al.’s method (GATO) [17], and LMM method (LMM [15], BE [16]). These are composed of the same series of document images that suffer from several common document degradations such as smear, smudge, bleed-through and low contrast.

Example 1

Fig. 10. Binarization results of the sample document image in Fig. 1(b) produced by different methods. (a) OTSU [2]. (b) SAUV [12]. (c) NIBL

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[13]. (d) BERN [8]. (e) GATO [17]. (f) LMM [15]. (g) BE [16]. (h)

Proposed.

Example 2

Fig. 11. Binarization results of the sample document image (PR 06) in DIBCO 2011 dataset produced by different methods. (a) Input Image. (b) OTSU [2]. (c) SAUV [12]. (d) NIBL [13]. (e) BERN [8]. (f) GATO [17]. (g) LMM [15]. (h) BE [16]. (i) LELO [18]. (j) SNUS. (k) HOWE

[19]. (l) Proposed.

V. CONCLUSION

This paper presents a simple and robust method of enhancing degraded document images. The method proposed in this paper constitutes binarization that is tolerant to different types of document degradation such as non-uniform illumination, ink bleeding through

and document smear. This image binarization is based on local thresholding along with adaptive contrast mapping. The proposed method has been tested over various noise affected document images and is binarized efficaciously. But we observed that the performance on Bickley diary dataset needs to be improved, we will explore it in future.

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References

1. R. C. Gonzalez and R. E. Woods, Digital Image Processing,

Pearson prentice Hall, 2005.

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3. P.K. Sahoo, S. Soltani, A.K.C. Wong, and Y. Chen, “A survey of thresholding techniques,” Computer Vision Graphics Image Processing, Vol. 41, 1988, pp. 233 – 260.

4. A. Brink, “Thresholding of digital images using two-dimensional entropies,” Pattern Recognit., vol. 25, no. 8, pp. 803–808, 1992.

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histogram,” IEEE Trans. Syst., Man, Cybern., vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 62–66, Jan. 1979.

7. N. Papamarkos and B. Gatos, “A new approach for multithreshold selection,” Comput. Vis. Graph. Image Process., vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 357–370, 1994.

8. J. Bernsen, “Dynamic thresholding of gray-level images,” in Proc. Int. Conf. Pattern Recognit., Oct. 1986, pp. 1251–1255.

9. L. Eikvil, T. Taxt, and K. Moen, “A fast adaptive method for binarization of document images,” in Proc. Int. Conf. Document Anal. Recognit., Sep. 1991, pp. 435–443.

10. I.-K. Kim, D.-W. Jung, and R.-H. Park, “Document image binarization based on topographic analysis using a water flow model,” Pattern Recognit., vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 265–277, 2002.

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11. J. Parker, C. Jennings, and A. Salkauskas, “Thresholding using

an illumination model,” in Proc. Int. Conf. Doc. Anal. Recognit., Oct. 1993, pp. 270–273.

12. J. Sauvola and M. Pietikainen, “Adaptive document image binarization,” Pattern Recognit., vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 225–236, 2000.

13. W. Niblack, An Introduction to Digital Image Processing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986.

14. J.-D. Yang, Y.-S. Chen, and W.-H. Hsu, “Adaptive thresholding algorithm and its hardware implementation,” Pattern Recognit.

Lett., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 141–150, 1994.

15. B. Su, S. Lu, and C. L. Tan, “Binarization of historical handwritten document images using local maximum and minimum filter,” in Proc. Int. Workshop Document Anal. Syst., Jun. 2010, pp. 159–166.

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Document Anal. Recognit., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 303–314, Dec. 2010.

17. B. Gatos, I. Pratikakis, and S. Perantonis, “Adaptive degraded document image binarization,” Pattern Recognit., vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 317–327, 2006.

18. T. Lelore and F. Bouchara, “Super resolved binarization of text based on the fair algorithm,” in Proc. Int. Conf. Document Anal. Recognit., Sep. 2011, pp. 839–843.

19. N. Howe, “A Laplacian energy for document binarization,” in Proc. Int. Conf. Doc. Anal. Recognit., Sep. 2011, pp. 6–10.

331



POWER CAPTURE SAFE TEST PATTERN DETERMINATION FOR AT-SPEED SCAN BASED TESTING

P.Praveen Kumar B.Naresh Babu N.Pushpalatha (Decs) Student Assistant Professor Assistant Professor

Department of ECE, AITS

Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Tirupati

I INTRODUCTION

SCAN-BASED testing is the most widely used design for test

(DFT) methodology due to its simple structure, high fault coverage, and strong diagnostic support. However, the test power of scan tests may be significantly higher than normal functional power because circuits may en ter non-functional states during testing. The test power required to load or unload test data with shift clock control is called shift power, and the power required to capture test responses with an at-speed clock rate is called capture power. Excessive shift power can lead to high temperatures that can damage the circuit under test (CUT) and may reduce the circuit’s reliability. Excessive capture power induced by test

patterns may lead to large current demand and induce a supply voltage drop, known as the IR-drop problem. This would cause a normal circuit to slow down and eventually fail the test, thereby inducing unnecessary yield loss.

To estimate shift power and capture power, several metrics have been proposed.

1. The circuit level simulation metric

a. The most accurate one.

b. Time consuming and memory intensive.

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2. Most previous works use simpler metrics. The toggle count metric considers the state changes of nodes (FFs or gates) and the weighted switching activity (WSA) metric considers both node state changes

and fanouts of nodes. Metrics that consider paths are also proposed.

3. The critical capture transition (CCT) metric assesses launch switching activities around critical paths, and the critical area targeted (CAT) metric estimates launch switching activities caused by test patterns around the longest sensitized path. In this paper, we will employ the WSA metric as it is highly correlated to the real capture power and has been used in most related work to determine power-safe test patterns.

4. The capture-power-safe patterns: To address the capture-safe-power problem, numerous methods have been proposed.

a) The hardware-based methods attempt to reduce test power by modifying the circuit/clock in test structures or by adding some additional hardware to the CUT.

I. In scan chain segmentation methods are proposed to reduce both

shift and capture power.

II. In a partial launch on- capture (LOC) scheme is proposed to reduce the capture power, which allows only partial scan cells to be activated during the capture cycle.

Advantages:

1. Some clock gating schemes have also been proposed to limit the test power consumption.

2. They effectively reduce test power.

Disadvantages:

1. They may increase circuit area

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2. Degrade circuit performance

3. They may be incompatible with existing design flows

b) software-based methods attempt to generate power safe test

patterns that will not consume excess power during testing by modifying the traditional automatic test pattern generation (ATPG) procedure or by modifying predetermined test sets. These methods are generally based on the X-filling technique to assign fixed logic values to don’t care bits (X-bits) in test patterns to minimize test power dissipation.

c) Instead of modifying the ATPG procedure, some post-ATPG methods modify a given test set by using X-filling to reduce as much test power as possible [7], [10], [16] or to satisfy the power constraints [6], [21], [26]. Butler et al. [16] propose a method, named adjacency fill, which assigns deterministic values to the X-bits in line with the adjacent bit values to reduce shift power.

d) Another method to reduce the capture power is to use the circuit’s steady states to fill X-bits [7]. This method, called ACF in [7], first fills X-bit randomly. Then, it applies a number of functional clock cycles starting from the scan-in state of a test.

e) Vector to obtain the final states and uses these states to fill the X-bits to get more realistic patterns. Although both the Preferred Fill and the ACF methods can quickly assign the X-bits in PPI, they cannot ensure capture power safety because they do not consider the power constraint of the circuit. Another problem with the above two methods is that they try to assign values to all X-bits in all test patterns to reduce test power as much as possible. However, not all of the test patterns are power-risky [19].

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I. Devanathan et al.and Wu et al. modified the PODEM-based ATPG

procedure by adding some power constraints to the back trace and dynamic compaction processes to directly generate power-safe test sets.

II. In a low-capture power (LCP) X-filling method is proposed and incorporated into the dynamic compaction process of the test generation flow to reduce the capture power.

III. Although these methods can achieve a large reduction in capture power, they often increase the test data volume in comparison with that produced by conventional at-speed scan test methods due to the fact that during the dynamic compaction process, many X-bits that can be assigned to detect more faults are reserved to reduce capture power.

II METHODS TO REDUCE CAPTURE POWER

1. Instead of modifying the ATPG procedure, some post-ATPG methods modify a given test set by using X-filling to reduce as much test power as possible or to satisfy the power constraints.

a) Adjacency fill assigns deterministic values to the X-bits in line with the adjacent bit values to reduce shift power.

eg,-given the test pattern (1, X, X, 1, 0), the X-bits in this pattern are filled as (1, 1, 1, 1, 0).

b) The circuit’s steady states to fill X-bits (ACF), this method first fills X-bit randomly. Then, it applies a number of functional clock cycles starting from the scan-in state of a test vector to obtain the final states and uses these states to fill the X-bits to get more realistic patterns.

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Disadvantages: 1. Although both the Preferred Fill and the ACF methods can

quickly assign the X-bits in PPI, they cannot ensure capture

power safety because they do not consider the power constraint of the circuit.

2. They try to assign values to all X-bits in all test patterns to reduce

test power as much as possible.

Fig.1: At-speed scan testing with LOC scheme.

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III PROPOSED METHOD

This method modifies only power-safe patterns to address the issue of the capture power. The rationale behind this strategy is the patterns that can detect more faults normally have larger switching activity and lower X-bit ratios, and the number of detected faults

decreases drastically with increasing X-bit ratio. Hence, filling X-bits in power-risky patterns may not be efficient as they tend to have lower X-bit ratios. In contrast, power-safe patterns usually have higher X-bit ratios and many unused X-bits. Therefore, using the X-bits in power safe patterns to detect faults within the power constraints may be more efficient than using those in power-risky patterns.

Hence, this paper proposes a novel test pattern determination procedure to determine a power safe test set with the LOC clocking scheme.

The proposed procedure contains two processes

1. Test pattern refinement

2. Low-power test pattern regeneration

Given a pregenerated compacted partially-specified test set without any power constraints, the power-risky patterns are all dropped. This will

make faults that were detected only by the power risky patterns become undetected. The test pattern refinement process then tries to properly fill the X-bits in the power safe patterns such that the power-risky faults can be detected with the power constraint still being satisfied. If some power risky faults remain undetected after this process, the low-power test pattern regeneration process is employed to generate more power-safe test patterns for these faults.

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CAPTURE-POWER-SAFE TEST PATTERN DETERMINATION

This section first uses a simple example to illustrate the main idea of the proposed procedure. Then, it describes the overall flow and its details.

1) Main Idea

The main idea of this paper is to utilize the X-bits in power-safe patterns to detect as many faults that are previously detected only by power-risky patterns as possible. If there are still undetected faults, then a low-power pattern generation process is used to generate patterns to detect the remaining faults.

2) Overall Flow of Proposed Procedure

Based on the main idea, a technique is proposed to determine a test set such that the power constraint is satisfied and the test data

inflation is minimized

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3) Algorithm for Test Pattern Refinement Process

1. The goal of the test pattern refinement process is to utilize the X-bits in power-safe patterns to to utilize the X-bits in power-

safe patterns to This process ends when there are no remaining faults

In Fr or all the power-safe patterns in Ts have been refined.

4) Algorithm for Low Power Test Generation Process

The low-power test generation process attempts to generate a new power-safe test set to detect all the undetected faults and minimize the test data inflation at the same time. In order to achieve this goal, this process uses a dynamic data compression flow [20]

IV CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

This paper proposed a novel capture-power-safe test pattern determination procedure to address the capture power problem. Unlike previous methods, the test pattern refinement processing the

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proposed procedure refines power-safe patterns to detect the power-risky faults and discards the power-risky patterns to ensure the capture power safety. The capture power of newly generated patterns is also

guaranteed to be under the power constraints. The experimental results show that more than 75% of power-risky faults can be detected by refining the power safe patterns, and that the required test data volumes can be reduced by 12.76% on average under the appropriate power constraints without fault coverage loss.

References:

1. N. Ahmed, M. Tehranipoor, and V. Jayaram, “Transition delay fault testpattern generation considering supply voltage noise in a SOC design,”in Proc. Design Autom. Conf., 2007, pp. 533–538

2. Y. Bonhomme, P. Girard, L. Guiller, C. Landrault, and S. Pravossoudovitch,“A gated clock scheme for low power scan testing of logicICs or embedded cores, ” in Proc. Asian Test

Symp., 2001, pp. 253–258.

3. K. Enokimoto, X. Wen, Y. Yamato, K. Miyase, H. Sone, S. Kajihara,M. Aso, and H. Furukawa, “CAT: A critical-area-targeted test setmodification scheme for reducing launch switching activity in at-speedscan testing,” in Proc. Asian Test Symp., 2009, pp. 99–104

4. T.-C. Huang and K.-J. Lee, “A token scan architecture for low powertesting,” in Proc. Int. Test Conf., 2001, pp. 660–669.

5. K.-J. Lee, S.-J. Hsu, and C.-M. Ho, “Test power reduction with multiplecapture orders,” in Proc. Asian Test Symp., 2004, pp. 26–31.

6. J. Li, Q. Xu, Y. Hu, and X. Li, “X-Filling for simultaneous shift- andcapture-power reduction in at-speed scan-based testing,”

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IEEE Trans.Very Large Scale Integr. Syst., vol. 18, no. 7, pp.

1081–1092, Jul.2010.

7. E. K. Moghaddam, J. Rajski, S. M. Reddy, and M. Kassab, “At-speedscan test with low switching activity,” in Proc. VLSI Test Symp., 2010,pp. 177–182.

8. K. Miyase and S. Kajihara, “XID: Don’t care identification of testpatterns for combinational circuits,” IEEE Trans. Comput. Aided DesignIntegr. Circuits Syst., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 321–326,

Feb. 2004.

9. I. Pomeranz and S. M. Reddy, “Switching activity as a test compactionheuristic for transition faults,” IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. Syst.,vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 1357–1361, Sep. 2010.

10. S. Remersaro, X. Lin, Z. Zhang, S. M. Reddy, I. Pomeranz, andJ. Rajski, “Preferred fill: A scalable method to reduce capture powerfor scan based designs,” in Proc. Int. Test Conf., 2006, pp.

1–10.

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VERSATILE BICYCLE (AN AMPHIBIOUS VEHICLE)

Shyam.C IV yr, Mechanical Department

Veltech Multitech Dr.RR & Dr.SR Engineering College

Santhosh.P IV yr, Mechanical Department


Saravana Muthu.K IV yr, Mechanical Department


S.Lakshmanan, M.E. Assistant Professor

Mechanical Department Veltech Multitech Dr.RR & Dr.SR

Engineering College

OBJECTIVE OF OUR PROJECT

The main objective of the project is to modify a normal bicycle so that, it can be used both on land and water. It’s made sure that the modifications do not cause any unease to the rider and the comfort of riding on land is not reduced.

VERSATILE BICYCLE

Versatile bicycle in swimming pool (fig. 1)

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Versatile bicycle on land mode (fig. 2)

Versatile bicycle on land mode (fig. 3)

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3. MATERIALS USED

Material Specifications No.

Bicycle standard 1

Thermocol density of 20 kg/m3 ,200 mm thickness

4

M.S.Sheet 3mm thickness

M.S.Sheet 6 mm thickness

M.S.Sheet 1 mm thickness

Iron rod Tempered, 6mm dia 4

Lorry hinges Standard 4

Chain drive Standard 2

Sprocket Standard 2

Hub Single side threaded 1

Hub Double side threaded 1

4. THERMOCOL

Thermocol is one of the major raw materials of our project. Four blocks of thermocol are used to create buoyancy force that makes the cycle to float in water. The thermocol blocks are cut in aerodynamics shape to provide better displacement in water.

Before cutting After cutting

Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2

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5. THE L - CLAMPS

The L-clamps are made of mild steel of thickness 3mm and 6 mm. The clamp is foldable and can be folded while operating the bicycle on the land. The folding is done by fixing hinges. The thermocol blocks can be fitted and locked by using bold and nuts. The thermocol can be

attached or detached according to the riders wish. The supporting rod should be fitted while moving in water.

3-D MODEL OF L-CLAMPS (fig.5)

6. PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL

(For L-Clamps, adjusting plate, paddles)

1. Possess good ductility and can be bent easily.

2. Possess good machinability.

3. Has good tensile strength.

4. Possess excellent weld ability.

5. Good toughness and hardness.

7. PROPERTIES OF TEMPERED STEEL

(Used for supporting rods)

1. Very high tensile strength.

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2. Excellent toughness and hardness.

3. Ductility is reduced.

4. Machinability is reduced.

8. PADDLES

The rotating type paddles is used to give displacement in water. It’s

made of sheet metal of 1 mm thickness. The paddles are nothing but blades that rotate by peddling action. The paddle blades are welded to a hollow pipe which is welded to a hub. The hub is welded with the sprocket and chain drive connects the paddle sprocket with the rear double threaded hub sprocket. Thus the paddles rotate by the chain drive power transmission. There are 6 blades in total which acts as two paddles in the versatile bicycle.

3-D MODEL OF PADDLES (fig.6)

PADDLES IN VERSATILE BICYCLE (fig.7)

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9. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

Average speed in water : 4 to 5 km/hr

Average speed on land : 15 to 20 km/hr

Time for fitting the

thermocol blocks : 2 to 3 mins

Time for dismantling

the thermocol blocks : 1 to 2 mins

3-D MODEL OF VERSATILE BICYCLE (fig.8)

10. BUOYANCY FORCE

Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus a column of fluid, or an object submerged in the fluid, experiences greater pressure at the bottom of the column than at the top. This difference in pressure results in a net force that tends to accelerate an object upwards. The magnitude of that force is proportional to the difference in the pressure between the top and the bottom of the column, and is also equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the column, i.e. the

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displaced fluid. For this reason, an object whose density is greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink. If the object is either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a

boat), the force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame which either has a gravitational field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a "downward" direction. In a situation of fluid statics, the net upward buoyancy force is equal to the magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body.

11. PROPERTIES OF EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE (THERMOCOL)

Typical Properties:

Density Range 15-30 Kg/m3

Thermal conductivity at 10 mean temperature

0.028-0.031 K cal m/hr. m c

Compressive Strength 0.8-1.6 Kg/cm

Cross breaking Strength 1.4-2.0 Kg/cm

Tensile Strength 3-6 kg/cm

Application Range -200 +80 deg C

Water absorption by % Volume for 7 days in water

0.5%

Self ignition point 300 C

Melting Range 100-200C

12.WORKING OF VERSATILE BICYCLE

In versatile bicycle, thermocol blocks are used to create buoyancy force. There are 4 blocks of even volume to give balance in the water .The thermocols are attachable and detachable in the L-clamps and the L-clamps itself is foldable.

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The movement in the water is given through rotating paddles that are fixed at the back of the versatile bicycle. These paddles are connected to the rear wheel of the bicycle through chain drive. Double threaded hub

has been used to put on two sprockets. In one sprocket, the normal chain is connected to the pedals and in another sprocket, the chain drive that rotate the paddles are connected. Thus, the movement is given. These paddles can be adjusted according to the weight of the rider when inside the water. There is an adjustable rod that increases or decreases the altitude of the position of the paddles. The paddles should be half inside and half outside the water to maximum displacement.

13. ADVANTAGES OF VERSATILE BICYCLE

• Single vehicle is used instead of two vehicles while crossing water bodies.

• Reasonable speed on water is achieved. • No major unease or discomfort to rider while riding on land. • The thermocol blocks are detachable, hence weight is reduced

while riding on land. • There is no sucking of water by thermocol as its of high density

quality. • In overall, the vehicle is very robust and can be used in any

conditions. • As the vehicle is cycle, its pollution free and environmental

friendly. • No extra fuel or energy required. • As the factor of safety given is 2, the chances of drowning is

zero. 14. DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Density of water = 1 g/cm3

Density of thermocol = 20 kg/m3 => 0.02g/cm3

Density of thermocol > density of water

Thus thermocol floats in water.

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Material Weight

• Bicycle 25 kg

• Rider 75 kgs

Total 100 kgs (app. mass)

Applied load = 100 x 9.8 Newtons = 980 Newtons

Required factor of safety is 2.

Factor of safety = allowable load/applied load

2= allowable load / ( 100 x 9.8)

Allowable load = 2 x 100 x 9.8 Newton

Allowable mass = 200 kg or 200000 grams

1 cm3 of thermocol can bear (1- 0.02) grams of mass.

= 0.98 grams of mass

So for bearing 200000 grams of mass, we need 200000/0.98 cm3 of thermocol.

= 204081 cm3 of thermocol required.

No. of blocks needed = 4

So , volume of 1 block = 204081/4 = 51020 cm3.

Standard thickness of thermocol blocks = 20 cm

Volume of 1 thermocol block = surface area x thickness

51020 = required surface area x 20

Required surface area = 51020/20 = 2551 cm2.

The thermocol blocks are cut in aerodynamic shape as per design requirement shown (surface are > 2551 cm2) in fig

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Final dimensions of the thermocol block

Final dimensions of thermocol (Fig. 9)

The above dimensions are chosen to get the required surface area, thus to satisfy the design. Surface area = [(50 x 36)+(0.5 x (12+50) x 25 )]

= 2575 cm2 (> 2551 cm2) Volume of 1 block = 2575 x 20

= 51500 cm3 (> 51020 cm3) Thus the design of thermocol blocks are satisfied.

15.1. TEST DRIVE IN WATER

Test drive in water (Fig. 10)

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15.2. TEST DRIVE ON LAND

Test drive on land (Fig.11)

16. APPLICATIONS OF VERSATILE BICYCLE

Used to cross rivers, ponds, lakes in villages.

Can be used as main mode of transport in states like Kerala, Goa etc. where crossing of back waters is very much necessary task.

Can be used in flood prone states like Bihar, West Bengal,

Orissa etc. as a medium of transport for evacuation process.

Can be used as a medium of transport in areas like Velachery,

Madipakkam, Adambakkam, Korattur, Annanur etc. where short term flooding occurs during monsoon season.

Can be used as a water sport in tourist spots like Ooty,

Kodaikanal etc. along with boating.

Can be used for small scale fishing process in lakes and ponds.

Can be used by children for having fun in water ride and also serves as normal bicycle.

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17. LIMITATIONS OF VERSATILE BICYCLE • Though the versatile bicycle reaches a reasonable speed in

water, its lower than hi-tech amphibious vehicles that runs on fuel.

• The stylish shape of the bicycle is slightly altered.

• Doubles cannot be ridden in versatile bicycle as the clamps are fixed.

18. COST OF FABRICATION

S.NO COMPONENTS COST 1 BICYCLE (used) 2000 2 THERMOOL 1000 3 M.S.SHEET 1000 4 MISCELLENEOUS

(HUBS,SPROCKETS,CHAINS ETC) 1000

5 FABRICATION (LABOR,TRANSPORTATIONS ETC)

2000

6 TOTAL 7000

19. COMMERCIALIZATION OF OUR PRODUCT

Our product has not yet hit the market so far. So it will be a brand new innovation .It has a great potential market in states like Kerala, Goa where crossing of back water is a unavoidable task and in flood prone states like Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu etc. Once it launches in market, our product will become a basic need in each and every house. As our product has a lot of major applications, it has a great potential to be commercialized in the market successfully. And more over the usage of bicycle is getting very low as the exposure to motor bikes is very high among children in India. Children are losing interest in bicycle and the bicycle manufacturers ought to do something innovative to keep the bicycle alive for at least next few decades. So our innovation will help in attracting the young people towards using bicycle and boost up the bicycle market by introducing an extra wow factor in the normal bicycle.

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20. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN VERSATILE BICYCLE

• To replace the thermocol material with inflatables filled with air of that shape.

• Making the whole L-clamp easily detachable and attachable.

• To replace the paddles with propellers for giving high displacement in water.

• To improve the aesthetics of the bicycle to make it more marketable.

• To use aluminum hollow pipes instead of mild steel to decrease the weight.

• To increase the velocity of the bicycle in water.

• To improve the aesthetics and ergonomics of the versatile bicycle.

• To make the whole water mode attachments like L-Clamps , thermocols ,paddles attachable and detachable in any standard bicycle.

References

1. Fluid Mechanics by R.K. Purohit

2. Fluid Mechanics By Victor Streetor , Benjemin Wylie and K.W.Bedford

3. Introduction to Polymer Chemistry by Charles E. Carraher, Jr.

4. An Introduction to fluid dynamics by Batchelor

5. An Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics : The Finite Volume Method (English) 2nd Edition byVersteeg.

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ANALYTICAL STUDY OF GENERAL FAILURE IN PROMINENT COMPONENTS

Balaji V.R

Under Graduate Student SSN College of Engineering

Kalavakkan,Tamilnadu,India

Amitesh Jain



A.Kirthivasan



D.Ananthapadmanaban

Associate Professor Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

SSN College of Engineering, Kalavakkam, Tamilnadu, India

I. Introduction

The defects in quality, design, process or part application are the underlying cause of a failure. The human errors are considered, when failure depends on the user of the product or process. The failure analysis includes the area of creep, fatigue, structural resonance, crack initiation, crack propagation, spalling and pitting, fretting and wear,

component failure. The components are subjected to failure analysis before and after manufacturing. Even though the various tests are conducted, failure happens at one stage.

The mechanism of failure can be attributed to multiple factors which simultaneously plays an influential role. These include corrosion, abnormal electric current welding of contacts, returns spring fatigue failure, unintended failure, dust accumulation and blockage of mechanism, etc.

The strategy for safety is to make various test before the product comes into the usage. The investigation of failure is vividly illustrated in the pioneering efforts of the consideration of physical evidence and

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the use of engineering and scientific principles and analytical tools. Often, the reason why one performs a failure analysis is to characterize the causes of failure with the overall objective to avoid repetition of similar failures. However, analysis of the physical evidence alone may not be adequate to reach this goal. The scope of a failure analysis can, but does not necessarily, lead to a correctable root cause of failure. Many times, a failure analysis incorrectly ends at the identification of the failure mechanism.

A material or component shows gradual deformation or creep when subjected to sustained loading especially at elevated temperatures. It occurs even if the applied stresses are below the proportional limit. It occurs in both metals and non-metals.

Similarly when a component is subjected repeated continuous load, it tends to gradually deteriorate resulting in fatigue failure. Fatigue occurs in three stages namely crack initiation, crack propagation and unstable rapid growth.

Fatigue failure may also occur due propagation of the cracks originating from the surface of the component. They are of two types namely spalling and pitting. It occurs due to sub surface tensile and shear stresses that exceed materials fatigue limits. Gears and bearings are usually subjected to such stresses. When surfaces of two components mate each other they are subjected to normal pressure and tangential oscillatory motion fretting failure occurs. The surface undergoes failure due to fatigue, high normal forces or wear and failure can be accelerated in the presence of chemical attack.

II. Failure analysis-History and Inception

The importance and value of failure analysis to safety, reliability, performance, and economy are well documented.

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For example, the importance of investigating failures is vividly illustrated in the pioneering efforts of the Wright Brothers in developing self-propelled flight. In fact, while Wilbur was traveling in France in 1908, Orville was conducting flight tests for the U.S. Army Signal Corps and was injured when his Wright Flyer crashed (Fig. 1). His passenger sustained fatal injuries [1]. Upon receiving word of the mishap, Wilbur immediately ordered the delivery of the failed flyer to France so that he could conduct a thorough investigation. This was decades before the formal discipline called “failure analysis” was introduced.

Unfortunately, there are many dramatic examples of catastrophic failures that result in injury, loss of life, and damage to property. For

example, a molasses tank failed in Boston in 1919, and another molasses tank failed in Bellview, NJ, in 1973 [2]. Were the causes identified in 1919? Were lessons learned as a result of the accident? Were corrective actions developed and implemented to prevent recurrence?

Fig.1 Crash of the Wright Flyer, 1908. Courtesy of the National Air and

Space Museum,Smithsonian Institution Photo A-42555-A[1]

Conversely, failures can also lead to improvements in engineering practices. The spectacular failures of the Liberty ships during World War II were studied extensively in subsequent decades, and the outcome of these efforts was a significantly more thorough

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understanding of the phenomenon of fracture, culminating in part with the development of the engineering discipline of fracture mechanics [3]. Through these and other efforts, insights into the cause and prevention of failures continue to evolve.

Space shuttle, Columbia orbitter failed upon its re-entry into the earth’s atmosphere. Earlier it was believed that failure was caused by foam piece which got dislodged from external tank during takeoff and struck the leading edge of the left wing. This damaged the latter made of carbon-carbon composites thereby providing a breach in the shuttle leading to catastrophic failure [4].

The foam tiles on analysis show signs of erosion due to high temperatures exceeding 2000K during re-entry which is sufficient

enough to melt aluminium. Hence it is quite apparent that Aluminium Sandwich Panel Skins below the tiles were protected during re-entry. Hence an analysis was carried out on the Aluminium Sandwich Panel Skin recovered from the debris field. They were 0.6mm thick sheets made up of 2000-series Aluminium alloy.

A micrograph of sample taken few millimetres behind fracture surface reveals that it was subjected to much higher temperatures than area directly beneath the tile. From these images it is clear that second phase particles present in the microstructure composed of copper, manganese and iron melted and subsequently wetted the grain boundaries upon exposure to high temperature causing significant weakening of grain boundaries, ultimately resulting in intergranular failure.

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Fig.2 Light optical microscopy micrograph of panel skin section at

fracture surface. Notice that liquation isobserved across entire micrograph. A crack along a grain boundary is also present. [4]

The Sandwich Panel was locally heated to cause liquation only near the fracture surface whereas aluminium microstructure directly beneath an insulating tile shows no sign of liquation. This lead to formation of local hotspots where there was no thermal protection due to loss of insulation resulting from the accident. These localised hotspots lead to the failure of the aluminium sandwich panel and hence failure of the space shuttle.

III. Recent trends and advancements

Modern automobiles increasingly utilize high-strength low-weight alloys for better fuel efficiency. Aluminium alloys seem to serve the purpose owing to its high strength to weight ratio. Several major automobile components such as engine blocks, pistons, intake manifold, carburettors and brake parts make use of aluminium castings. Since aluminium alloys such as Al-356 is extensively used, a study to realize the reason for their mechanical failure is necessary.

S. Nasrazadani and L. Reyes investigated a clutch pedal lever made of permanent mould cast Al 356-T6 aluminium by way of metallography, SEM, hardness testing and visual inspection [5]. They concluded that the parts in clutch assembly must be designed with thicker sections to resist the applied stress. Fatigue and brittle failure occurs due to

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presence of dendrite phases and micro-porosity and it can be avoided by production of heat treated Al 356-T6.

Fig. 3 Image of the fractured part showing two visible cracks[5]

Y. Huang and Y. Zhu[6] metallurgically examined the section of a fractured spindle from an axle housing of a truck. It was found that after about 8,000 miles of service the axle fractured at the friction weld

interface. Metallographic and SEM examinations at the fractured site revealed the existence of micro-porosity and formation of ferrite layer. This had reduced the impact strength of the weld resulting in overload fracture. Due to air exposure at the molten layer interface, a band of oxides was formed and the solidification of liquid film leads to micro-shrinkage.

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Fig. 5 The assembly fractured along the weld interface (a ferrite band with oxides), etched, 2% natal[6]

A lap welded steel joint had failed when it was operated under very high speeds[7]. This joint was fabricated by a laser beam welding using high energy coherent optical source of heat at low pressure. The steel sheets used for this purpose was 0.5 mm thick. The components of the

debris was put into failure analysis for metallurgical investigation. The sheet and plate used to form this joint were analysed for their chemical composition.

Fig.4 Oxidation product visible at the grain boundary (arrows) with other oxidized grain boundaries (encircled) [7]

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The results showed that both were made of the same steel grade X2NiCoMo18-8-5. The samples were cut from both defected and non-defected regions and were analysed using optical microscopy. From the analysis it was observed that welding bead had serious problems due to the oxidation of the plate. The surface of metal plate was deposited by oxidation products due to under machining of the plate, before welding. Hence during welding, the oxidation products get entrapped within weld bead or may appear on the surface of the weld. This weakens the weld thereby causing failure.

IV. Root-Cause Analysis

Failure analysis is considered to be the examination of the characteristics and causes of equipment or component failure[8]. In most cases this involves the consideration of physical evidence and the use of engineering and scientific principles and analytical tools. Often, the

reason why one performs a failure analysis is to characterize the causes of failure with the overall objective to avoid repeat of similar failures. However, analysis of the physical evidence alone may not be adequate to reach this goal. The scope of a failure analysis can, but does not necessarily, lead to a correctable root cause of failure. Many times, a failure analysis incorrectly ends at the identification of the failure mechanism and perhaps causal influences. The principles of root-cause analysis (RCA) may be applied to ensure that the root cause is understood and appropriate corrective actions may be identified. An RCA exercise may simply be a momentary mental exercise or an extensive logistical charting analysis.

Many volumes have been written on the process and methods of RCA. The concept of RCA does not apply to failures alone, but is applied in response to an undesirable event or condition (Fig. 4). Root-cause

analysis is intended to identify the fundamental cause(s) that if corrected will prevent recurrence.

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Fig. 6 Root-cause analogy [8]

V. Recent Case History

Building in Chennai under construction crashed recently (2014) when there was rain for about 1 or 2 hours. Most probably the soil itself must have been loose around that area, Chennai being home to clayey soil[9]. Another reason could be-lack of proper curing of foundation. In earlier days, foundations used to be cured for close to 3 weeks. These days, it is not certain whether proper procedures are followed. Most often, there

is a combination of factors involved each of which contributes to the ultimate failure. So, it is suggested that at each stage, mandatory checks be followed so that even if a structure fails, one can exactly pinpoint what went wrong and at which stage it went wrong.

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Fig.7 The Hindu 11 floor building collapse at Bai kadai junction Moulivakkam,near Porur on Sunday.in Chennai-TN.India[9]

VI. Conclusions

Various procedures followed during failure analysis have been documented in this paper. Root cause analysis has been discussed. Starting from the history of failure analysis some case studies have been presented. It can be concluded that failure analysis is a very vast field of research and any analysis can give the possible cause of failure only.Sometimes there may be a a combination of factors for a material or component to fail.

References

1. P.L. Jakab, Visions of a Flying Machine: The Wright Brothers and the Process of Invention, Smithsonian Institution, 1990, p 226

2. R.W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials, John Wiley & Sons, 1976, p 229–230

3. D.J. Wulpi, Understanding How Components Fail, 2nd ed., ASM International, 1999

4. Metals Handbook,American Society of Metals,Volume 5,Failure Analysis and prevention.

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5. S. Nasrazadani• L. Reyes ,Failure Analysis of Al 356-T6 Clutch Lever, Failure Analysis of Al 356-T6 Clutch Lever

6. Y. Huang and Y. Zhu, Failure Analysis of Friction Weld (FRW) in Truck Axle Application, Submitted: 17 September 2007 / in revised

form: 16 November 2007 / Published online: 20 December 2007_ ASM International 2007

7. A. Nusair Khan • W. Mohammad • I. Salam..: Failure Analysis of Laser Weld Joint of X2NiCoMo18-8-5 Steel.

8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_cause_analysis

9. http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/ap-cm-announces-exgratia-for-telugu-victims-in-chennai-building-collapse/article6159984.ece

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A NOVEL APPROACH TO ASSESS THE QUALITY OF TONE MAPPED IMAGES

P.Manjulamma M.Tech (DECS) Student

Department of ECE, AITS Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Sciences

Tirupati, India

B.Sreenivasan Assistant Professor

Department of ECE, AITS Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Sciences

Tirupati, India

N.Pushpalatha

Assistant Professor Department of ECE, AITS

Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Sciences Tirupati, India

I. INTRODUCTION

There has been a growing interest in recent years in high dynamic range (HDR) images, where the range of intensity levels could be on the order of 10,000 to 1. This allows for accurate representations of the luminance variations in real scenes, ranging from direct sunlight to faint starlight [1]. With recent advances in imaging and computer graphics technologies, HDR images are becoming more widely available. A common problem that is often encountered in practice is how to visualize HDR images on standard display devices that are

designed to display low dynamic range (LDR) images. To overcome this problem, an increasing number of tone mapping operators (TMOs) that convert HDR to LDR images have been developed, for examples [2]–[5]. Because of the reduction in dynamic range, tone mapping procedures inevitably cause information loss. With multiple TMOs available, one would ask which TMO faithfully preserves the structural information in the original HDR images, and which TMO produces natural-looking

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realistic LDR images. TMO assessment in the past mostly relied on

human subjective evaluations. In [6], perceptual evaluations of 6 TMOs were conducted with regard to similarity and preferences.

An overview and a subjective comparison of 8 TMOs were reported in [7]. HDR capable monitor was employed in to compare 6 TMOs in a subjective experiment using a paired comparison method. In, 14 subjects were asked to rate 2 architectural interior scenes produced by 7 TMOs based on basic image attributes as well as the naturalness of the LDR images. A more comprehensive subjective evaluation was carried out in where tone mapped images generated by 14 TMOs were shown to 2 groups of 10 human observers to rate LDR images, concerning overall quality, brightness, contrast, detail reproduction and color. In subjects were asked to choose the best LDRs derived from 2 TMOs with different parameter settings to optimally tune the algorithms. The value of subjective testing cannot be overestimated. However, they have fundamental limitations. First, it is

expensive and time consuming. Second, it is difficult to be incorporated into an optimization framework to automatically improve TMOs and adjust their parameter settings. Furthermore, important image structures contained in HDR images may be missing in tone mapped images, but human observers may not be aware of their existence. In this sense, subjective evaluation should not be regarded as a golden standard for the quality of tone mapped images. Typical objective image quality assessment (IQA) approaches assume the reference and test images to have the same dynamic range [12], and thus cannot be directly applied to evaluate tone mapped images. Only a few objective assessment methods have been proposed for HDR images.

The HDR visible differences predictor (HDR-VDP) is a human visual system (HVS) based fidelity metric that aims to distinguish between visible (supra threshold) and invisible (sub threshold)

distortions. The metric reflects the perception of distortions in terms of

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detection probability. Since HDR-VDP is designed to predict the

visibility of differences between two HDR images of the same dynamic range, it is not applicable to compare an HDR image with an LDR image. A dynamic range independent approach was proposed in [14], which improves upon HDR-VDP and produces three types of quality maps that indicate the loss of visible features, the amplification of invisible features, and reversal of contrast polarity, respectively. These quality maps show good correlations with subjective classifications of image degradation types including blur, sharpening, contrast reversal, and no distortion. However, it does not provide a single quality score for an entire image, making it impossible to be validated with subjective evaluations of overall image quality. The purpose of the current work is to develop an objective

IQA model for tone mapped LDR images using their corresponding HDR images as references. Our work is inspired by the success of two design principles in IQA literature. The first is the structural similarity

(SSIM) approach [15] and its multi-scale derivations [16], [17], which asserts that the main purpose of vision is to extract structural information from the visual scene and thus structural fidelity is a good predictor of perceptual quality. The second is the natural scene statistics (NSS) approach, which maintains that the visual system is highly adapted to the natural visual environment and uses the departure from natural image statistics as a measure of perceptual quality [18]. Here we propose a method that combines a multi-scale structural fidelity measure and a statistical naturalness measure, leading to Tone Mapped image Quality Index (TMQI). Moreover, we demonstrate that TMQI can be employed for optimizing parameters in TMOs and for adaptively fusing multiple tone mapped images.

II. LITERATURE SURVEY

A. High-Dynamic-Range Image (HDR)

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High-Dynamic-Range Imaging (HDRI or HDR) is a set of techniques

used in imaging and photography to reproduce a greater dynamic range of luminosity than possible using standard digital imaging or photographic techniques. HDR images can represent more accurately the range of intensity levels found in real scenes, from direct sunlight to faint starlight, and is often captured by way of a plurality of differently exposed pictures of the same subject matter. Non-HDR cameras take photographs with a limited exposure range, resulting in the loss of detail in bright or dark areas. HDR compensates for this loss of detail by capturing multiple photographs at different exposure levels and combining them to produce a photograph representative of a broader tonal range. The two primary types of HDR images are computer renderings and images resulting from merging multiple low-dynamic-range (LDR) or standard-dynamic-range (SDR)

photographs. HDR images can also be acquired using special image sensors, like oversampled binary image sensor. Tone mapping methods,

which reduce overall contrast to facilitate display of HDR images on devices with lower dynamic range, can be applied to produce images with preserved or exaggerated local contrast for artistic effect. HDR stands for High Dynamic Range. For those who aren’t so acquainted with this high-tech shutterbug lingo, dynamic range is basically just the difference between the lightest light and darkest dark you can capture in a photo. Once your subject exceeds the camera’s dynamic range, the highlights tend to wash out to white, or the darks simply become big black blobs. It’s notoriously difficult to snap a photo that captures both ends of this spectrum, but with modern shooting techniques and advanced post-processing software, photographers have devised ways to make it happen. This is basically what HDR is: a specific style of photo

with an unusually high dynamic range that couldn’t otherwise be achieved in a single photograph.

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You’ve probably seen these types of images scattered across

the Web. Depending on how they’re processed, HDR photos can be anything from stunningly accurate reproductions of what your eyes see to mind-blowing surreal works of art that transform reality into a high-def dreamscape. Here are a few examples from HDR. At the most basic level, an HDR photo is really just two (or three, or nine) photos taken at different exposure levels and then mashed together with software to create a better picture. It’s a bit more complicated than that, but not much more – that’s basically the gist of it. Ideally, the photographer takes a range of bracketed photos – that is, photos of the same subject taken with varying shutter speed/aperture combinations in order to produce a set of images with varying luminosity and depth of field. Then, with the help of advanced post-processing software, the photographer is able to blend the photos together and create a single image comprised of the most focused, well-lit, and colorful parts of the scene.

B. Tone Mapping

Tone mapping is a technique used in image processing and computer graphics to map one set of colors to another in order to approximate the appearance of high dynamic range images in a medium that has a more limited dynamic range. Print-outs, CRT or LCD monitors, and projectors all have a limited dynamic range that is inadequate to reproduce the full range of light intensities present in natural scenes. Tone mapping addresses the problem of strong contrast reduction from the scene radiance to the displayable range while preserving the image details and color appearance important to appreciate the original scene content.

C. Purpose and Methods

The goals of tone mapping can be differently stated depending on the particular application. In some cases producing just aesthetically

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pleasing images is the main goal, while other applications might

emphasize reproducing as many image details as possible, or maximizing the image contrast. The goal in realistic rendering applications might be to obtain a perceptual match between a real scene and a displayed image even though the display device is not able to reproduce the full range of luminance values.

Another approach to tone mapping of HDR images is inspired by the anchoring theory of lightness perception. This theory explains many characteristics of the human visual system such as lightness constancy and its failures (as in the checker shadow illusion), which are important in the perception of images. The key concept of this tone mapping method (Lightness Perception in Tone Reproduction) is a decomposition of an HDR image into areas (frameworks) of consistent illumination and the local calculation of the lightness values. The net lightness of an image is calculated by merging of the frameworks proportionally to their strength. Particularly important is the

anchoring—relating of the luminance to a known luminance, namely estimating which luminance value is perceived as white in the scene. This approach to tone mapping does not affect the local contrast and preserves the natural colors of an HDR image due to the linear handling of luminance.

One simple form of tone mapping takes a standard image (not HDR – the dynamic range already compressed) and applies unsharp masking with a large radius, which increases local contrast rather than sharpening.

However, HDR tone mapping, usually using local operators, has become increasingly popular amongst digital photographers as a post-processing technique, where several exposures at different shutter

speeds are combined to produce an HDR image and a tone mapping operator is then applied to the result. There are now many examples of

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locally tone mapped digital images, inaccurately known as "HDR

photographs", on the internet, and these are of varying quality. This popularity is partly driven by the distinctive appearance of locally tone mapped images, which many people find attractive, and partly by a desire to capture high-contrast scenes that are hard or impossible to photograph in a single exposure, and may not render attractively even when they can be captured. Although digital sensors actually capture a higher dynamic range than film, they completely lose detail in extreme highlights, clipping them to pure white, producing an unattractive result when compared with negative film, which tends to retain colour and some detail in highlights.

In some cases local tone mapping is used even though the dynamic range of the source image could be captured on the target media, either to produce the distinctive appearance of a locally tone mapped image, or to produce an image closer to the photographer's artistic vision of the scene by removing sharp contrasts, which often

look unattractive. In some cases, tone mapped images are produced from a single exposure which is then manipulated with conventional processing tools to produce the inputs to the HDR image generation process. This avoids the artifacts that can appear when different exposures are combined, due to moving objects in the scene or camera shake. However, when tone mapping is applied to a single exposure in this way, the intermediate image has only normal dynamic range, and the amount of shadow or highlight detail that can be rendered is only that which was captured in the original exposure.

III. A PERCEPTUAL IMAGE QUALITY ASSESSMENT METRIC-STRUCTURAL SIMILARITY (SSIM)

This paper is related to structural similarity index (SSIM) which represents perceptual image quality based on the structural information. SSIM is an objective image quality metric and is superior

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to traditional quantitative measures such as MSE and PSNR. This

project demonstrates the SSIM based image quality assessment and illustrates its validity in terms of human visual perception. It will be very helpful to understand SSIM and its applications by reviewing the paper listed below.

The structural similarity (SSIM) method is a recently proposed approach for image quality assessment. It is widely believed the statistical properties of the natural visual environment play a fundamental role in the evolution, development and adaptation of the human visual system. An important observation about natural image signal samples is that they are highly structured. By “structured signal”, mean that the signal sample exhibit strong dependencies amongst themselves, especially when they are spatially proximate. These dependencies carry important information about the structure of the objects in visual scene. The principal hypothesis of structural similarity based image quality assessment is that the HVS is highly

adapted to extract structure information in the visual field, and therefore a measurement of structure similarity or distortion should provide a good approximation to perceived image quality. The SSIM index is a method for measuring the similarity between two images. The SSIM index is a full reference metric, in other words, the measure event of image quality is based on an initial uncompressed or distortion free image as reference. The SSIM is designed to improve on traditional metrics like PSNR and MSE, which have proved to be inconsistent with human eye perception.

The first approach is called the error sensitivity approach. In that approach the test images data is considered as the sum of the reference image and an error signal. It is assumed that the loss of perceptual quality is directly related to the visibility of the error signal. In most of HVS- based image quality assessment models attempt to

weigh and combine different aspect of the error signal according to

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their respective visual sensitivities, which are usually determined by

psychophysical measurement. And the problem with this approach is that larger visible differences may not necessarily imply lower perceptual quality.

In the second approach the observation process efficiently extract and make the use of information represented in the natural scene, whose statistical properties are believed to play a fundamental role in the development of the HVS. So, the example of the second approach is the structural similarity based image quality assessment method, which is based on observation that natural images are highly “structured,” meaning that the signal samples have strong dependencies among themselves. These dependencies carry important information about the structure of the objects in the visual scene.

Figure: 1 Structural Similarity (SSIM) Measurement System [6]

IV. QUALITY ASSESSMENT METHOD

Due to the reduction in dynamic range, TMOs cannot preserve all information in HDR images, and human observers of the LDR versions of these images may not be aware of this. Therefore, structural fidelity plays an important role in assessing the quality of tone-mapped images [19]. On the other hand, structural fidelity alone does not suffice to provide an overall quality evaluation. A good quality tone mapped image should achieve a good compromise between structural

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fidelity preservation and statistical naturalness, which are sometimes

competing factors.

A. STRUCTURAL FIDELITY

The SSIM approach provides a useful design philosophy as well as a practical method for measuring structural fidelities between images [20]. The original SSIM algorithm is applied locally and contains three comparison components − luminance, contrast and structure. Since TMOs are meant to change local intensity and contrast, direct comparisons of local and contrast are inappropriate. Let x and y be two local image patches extracted from the HDR and the tone-mapped LDR images, respectively. We define our local structural fidelity measure as

where σx , σy and σxy are the local standard deviations and cross correlation between the two corresponding patches in HDR and LDR images, respectively, and C1 and C2 are positive stabilizing constants. Compared with the SSIM definition [15], the luminance comparison component is missing, and the structure comparison component (the second term in (1)) is exactly the same. The first term in (1) compares signal strength and is modified from that of the SSIM definition based

on two intuitive considerations. First, the difference of signal strength between HDR and LDR image patches should not be penalized when their signal strengths are both significant (above visibility threshold) or both insignificant (below visibility threshold). Second, the algorithm should penalize the cases that the signal strength is significant in one of the image patches but insignificant in the other. This is different from the corresponding term in the original SSIM definition where any change in signal strength is penalized.

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To distinguish between significant and insignificant signal

strength, we pass the local standard deviation σ through a nonlinear mapping, which results in the σ` value employed in (1). The nonlinear mapping should be designed so that significant signal strength is mapped to 1 and insignificant signal strength to 0, with a smooth transition in-between. Therefore, the nonlinear mapping is related to the visual sensitivity of contrast, which has been an extensively studied subject in the literature of visual psychophysics [21]. Practically, the HVS does not have a fixed threshold of contrast detection, but typically follows a gradual increasing probability in observing contrast variations. Psychometric functions describing the detection probability of signal strength have been employed to model the data taken from psychophysical experiments. Generally, the psychometric function resembles a sigmoid shape [22], [23] and the sensory threshold is usually defined at the level of 50% of detection probability. A commonly adopted psychometric function is known as Galton’s ogive [21], which

takes the form of a cumulative normal distribution function given by

where p is the detection probability density, s is the amplitude of the sinusoidal stimulus, τs is the modulation threshold, and θs is the

standard deviation of the normal distribution that controls the slope of detection probability variation. It was found that the ratio

k =τs/θs

is roughly a constant, known as Crozier’s law . Typical values of k ranges between 2.3 and 4, and k = 3 makes the probability of false alarm considerably small [21]. The reciprocal of the modulation threshold τs is often used to quantify visual contrast sensitivity, which

is a function of spatial frequency, namely the contrast sensitivity

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function (CSF) [21]. A CSF formula that fits well with data collected in

various psychological experiments is given by [25]

A( f ) ≈ 2.6[0.0192 + 0.114 f ] exp[−(0.114 f )1.1]

where f denotes spatial frequency. This function is normalized to have peak value 1, and thus only provides relative sensitivity across the frequency spectrum. In practice, it needs to be scaled by a constant λ to fit psychological data. In our implementation, we follow Kelly’s CSF measurement [26].

Combining this with above, we obtain

τs( f ) =1/λ A( f ).

This threshold value is calculated based on contrast sensitivity measurement assuming pure sinusoidal stimulus. To convert it to a signal strength threshold measured using the standard deviation of the signal, we need to take into account that signal amplitude scales with both contrast and mean signal intensity, and there is A √2 factor between the amplitude and standard deviation of a sinusoidal signal. As a result, a threshold value defined on signal standard deviation can be computed as

τσ ( f ) = μ’ / √2 λ A( f )

where μ is the mean intensity value. Based on Crozier’s law [21], [24], we have

θσ ( f ) = τσ ( f )/ k

We can then define the mapping between σ and σ` as

In (1), σ`x and σ`y are the mapped versions of σx and σy, respectively. They are bounded between 0 and 1, where 0 and 1 represent completely

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insignificant and completely significant signal strengths, respectively.

The local structural fidelity measure S local is applied to an image using a sliding window that runs across the image space. This results in a map that reflects the variation of structural fidelity across space. The visibility of image details depends on the sampling density of the image, the distance between the image and the observer, the resolution of the display, and the perceptual capability of the observer’s visual system. A single scale method cannot capture such variations. Following the idea used in multi-scale [16] and information-weighted SSIM [17], we adopt a multi-scale approach, where the images are iteratively low-pass filtered and down sampled to create an image pyramid structure [27], as illustrated in Fig. 1. The local structural fidelity map is generated at each scale. Fig. 2 shows two examples of such maps computed at multiple scales for the LDR images created from two different TMOs. It

is interesting to observe these fidelity maps and examine how they correlate with perceived image fidelity. For example, the structural details of the brightest window regions are missing in Image (b), but are more visible in Image (a). For another example, there are detailed structures in the top-right dark regions that are not easily discerned in Image (a), but are better visualized in Image (b). All of these are clearly reflected in the structural fidelity maps.

At each scale, the map is pooled by averaging to provide a single score:

where xi and yi are the i -th patches in the HDR and LDR images

being compared, respectively, and Nl is the number of patches in the l-th scale. In the literature, advanced pooling strategies such as information content based pooling [17] have been shown to improve the performance of IQA algorithms.

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Fig 2. Framework of multiscale structural fidelity assessment

However, in our current experiment, these advanced pooling methods did not result in notable performance gain in the proposed structural fidelity measure. The overall structural fidelity is calculated by combining scale level structural fidelity scores using the method in [16]

where L is the total number of scales and βl is the weight

assigned to the l-th scale. There are several parameters in the implementation of our structural fidelity model. First, when computing Slocal, we set C1 = 0.01 and C2 = 10, and we find that the overall performance of the structural fidelity model is insensitive to these parameters within an order of magnitude. Second, to create the fidelity map at each scale, we adopt the same setting as in the SSIM algorithm [15] by employing a Gaussian sliding window of size 11×11 with standard deviation 1.5. Third, as in [16], we assume a viewing distance of 32 cycles/degree, which can represent signals up to 16 cycles/degree of resolution without aliasing, and use 16 cycles/degree as the spatial

frequency parameter when applying the CSF in to the finest scale measurement, the spatial frequency parameters applied to the subsequent finer scales are then 8, 4, 2, 1 cycles/degree, respectively. Fourth, the mean intensity value in (6) is set to be the mean of the dynamic range of LDR images, i.e., μ = 128. Fifth, when combining the

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measures across scales, we set L = 5 and {βl} = {0.0448, 0.2856,

0.3001, 0.2363, 0.1333}, which follows the psychophysical experiment results reported in [16]. Finally, in order to assess the quality of color images, we first convert them from RGB color space to Yxy space and then apply the proposed structural fidelity measure on the Y component only.

B.STATISTICAL NATURALNESS

A high quality tone mapped LDR image should not only faithfully preserve the structural fidelity of the HDR image, but also look natural. Nevertheless, naturalness is a subjective quantity that is difficult to define quantitatively. A large literature has been dedicated to the statistics of natural images which have important significance to both image processing applications and the understanding of biological vision. An interesting study of naturalness in the context of subjective evaluation of tone mapped images was carried out in which provided useful information regarding the correlations between image

naturalness and different image attributes such as brightness, contrast, color reproduction, visibility and reproduction of details. The results showed that among all attributes being tested, brightness and contrast have more correlation with perceived naturalness. This motivates us to build our statistical naturalness model based on these two attributes. This choice may be oversimplifying in defining the general concept of statistical image naturalness (and may not generalize to other image processing applications that uses the concept of naturalness), but it provides an ideal compromise between the simplicity of our model and the capability of capturing the most important ingredients of naturalness that are related to the tone mapping evaluation problem we are trying to solve, where brightness mapping is an inevitable issue in all tone mapping operations. It also best complements the structural fidelity measure described in above, where brightness modeling and

evaluation are missing.

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Fig 3 Histograms of (a) means (fitted by Gaussian PDF) and (b) standard deviations (fitted by Beta PDF) of natural images

Our statistical naturalness model is built upon statistics

conducted on about 3,000 8bits/pixel gray-scale images obtained from that represent many different types of natural scenes. Fig. 3 shows the histograms of the means and standard deviations of these images, which are useful measures that reflect the global intensity and contrast of images. Recent studies suggested that brightness and contrast are largely independent quantities in terms of both natural image statistics and biological computation [32]. As a result, their joint probability density function would be the product of the two. Therefore, we define our statistical naturalness measure as

N = (1/K) Pm Pd

where K is a normalization factor given by K = max{Pm Pd }.

This constrains the statistical naturalness measure to be bounded between 0 and 1.

C.QUALITY ASSESSMENT MODEL

Given a tone mapped LDR image, we now have two available measurements, structural fidelity S and naturalness N, which are given by above equations respectively. These two quantities can be used individually or jointly as a 2D vector that characterizes different aspects of the quality of the LDR image. However, in most applications,

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users would prefer to have a single quality score of the image.

Therefore, an overall quality evaluation that combines both quantities is desirable. In particular, we define the following 3-parameter function to combine the two components

Q = aSα + (1 − a) Nβ

where 0 < a < 1 determines the relative weights assigned to the two components, and α and β defines the sensitivities of the two components, respectively. Since both S and N are upper-bounded by 1, this overall quality measure is also Upper-bounded by 1.

V. VALIDATION OF QUALITY ASSESSMENT METHOD

The validation process is conducted by comparing our objective quality assessment results with subjective data. Two evaluation metrics are employed which are given as follows.

1) Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient (SRCC) is defined as

where di is the difference between the i -th image’s ranks in subjective and objective evaluations. SRCC is a nonparametric rank-order based correlation metric, independent of any monotonic

nonlinear mapping between subjective and objective scores.

2) Kendall’s rank-order correlation coefficient (KRCC) is another non-parametric rank correlation metric computed as

where Nc and Nd are the numbers of concordant (of consistent rank order) and discordant (of inconsistent rank order) pairs in the data set, respectively.

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The proposed TMQI is the only objective quality measure being

tested. To the best of our knowledge, almost no other method has been proposed to compare images with different dynamic ranges. The only exception is the method proposed in [14], which creates probability maps to distinguish between visible (supra threshold) and invisible (sub threshold) degradations. The probability maps are shown to be useful in classifying image distortion types but are not meant to be pooled to produce an overall quality score of a tone mapped image. As a result, direct comparison with the proposed method is not possible.

VI. RESULTS

Fig 4 images generated with different parameter Q, S, & N values

Fig. 5 Run time versus the number of image pixels of the proposed algorithm

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Fig 6. images generated with different parameter Q, S, & N values

VII. CONCLUSION

An objective model to assess the quality of tone mapped images is developed by combining a multi-scale structural fidelity measure and a statistical naturalness measure. The proposed measure not only provides an overall quality score of an image, but also creates multi-scale quality maps that reflect the structural fidelity variations across scale and space. TMQI is designed to evaluate grayscale images only, but most HDR images of natural scenes are captured in color. One simple method to evaluate tone mapped color images is to apply the TMQI to each color channel independently and then combine them. Color fidelity and color naturalness measures may be developed to improve the quality measure. Simple averaging is used in the current

pooling method of the structural fidelity map. Statistical naturalness measure is based on intensity statistics only. Advanced statistical models (that reflects the structural regularities in space, scale and orientation in natural images) may be included to improve the statistical naturalness measure. Using TMQI as a new optimization goal, many existing TMOs may be redesigned to achieve better image quality. Novel TMOs may also be developed by taking advantage of the construction of the proposed quality assessment approach. Finally, the current method is applied and tested using natural images only. The application scope of HDR images and TMOs is beyond natural images. For example, modern medical imaging devices often capture HDR medical images that need to be tone-mapped before visualization. The

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TMQI and optimization methods may be adapted to these extended

applications.

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