Volcanic Islands

editorial Volcanic Islands _by ANTONIOS POMONIS

dOSSIC''TUOlCanlCISlandS

Hellenic Aegean Active Volcanoes: Contrasting perspectives for sustainable development _by GEORGES E. VOUGIOUKALAKIS

The Beauty and Threat of The Azorean Volcanoes ~by J.L. GASPAR, G. QUEIROZ & T. FERREIRA

A brief natural history of Mount Etnaby DR. CLELlA BURGi, DR. FRANCESCO MUSMECI

Montserrat under the threat of Soufriere HiIIs Volcano: Managing the crisis ---l!

by SIMON R YOUNG

Eruption of Miyakejima and some problems of the volcanic activity on insularvolcanoes in Japan _by SHIGEO ARAMAKI

ISlanders or. uior+,Virtual Polyclinic on the Cres-Iosinj Archipelago _by ANAMARIJA MARGA N

Consortium of italian small islands schools: a challenge to isolation _by CRISTINA MOSTACCI, GUARINO ERMELlNDA

Rapa Nui. Te Pito O Te Henua: The Earth's Navel _by C!PRIANO MARíN

Calvia Local Agenda 21. A sustainable strategy for a tourism destination _by JAVIER BUSTAMANTE

B7 -AStrategyforthe Future _by REET KOKOVKIN

CUlcure cno cradlCional hnOWledQe

Canary Island Openwork. Tradition and Science __by LUIS BALBUENA CASTELLANO

MiIIsof the past, windsof the future Molinsde Campos _

InSUlaS DaQe

Why and Howto Plan the Island's Information Society _Euro-Caribbean RES Forum. An island alliance in favour of sustainable energies _The State of the Art of Renewables in the Caribbean _by INDRA HARAKSINGH

Emergencywater managernent .by BRUCE DURHAM, JEAN-Luc SALL, LAuRE SIMON

Medisinitiatives _Doñana Regeneration Project. A model for coastal wetlands recovery __

unesco s DaQe

UnderwaterCultural Heritage in danger _Thirty Yearsof MaBj A new Biosphere Reserve Network _The Small Island States before the Johannesburg World Summit _

OOOhreulews _

announcemencs _

--.JOInand SUDDorc JnSUla _

5

7

13

17

20

27

31

33

35

41

43

45

49

525357

63

6566

67697072

77

tnsulaInternational Journal ofIslandAffairs

ISSN 1021 - 08t.tJuly 2002Year 11 N° 1

Editorial Board

Editor:

Pier Giovanni d' Ayala

Co-editor:

Cipriano MalÍn

Scientific Advisory Committee:

Prof. Salvino Busuttil, MaltaDr. Ronald G Parris, BarbadosProf. Nicolas Margaris, GreeceProf. Patrick Nunn, FijiProfG Prakash Reddy.IndiaProf. Hiroshi Kakazu, JapanDr. Henrique Pinto da Costa, SiloTomé e PrincipeProf. Lino Briguglio, Malta

Production coordinator:

Giuseppe Orlando

Graphic designer:

Luis Mir Payá

Published by INSULA, the lnternational Scientific Council for Is-land Development. with the support ofUNESCO.

Articles published in this journal do not necessarily reflectthe opin-ions of INSULA or of UNESCO.

Material appearing in this journal cannot be reproduced without theprior permission oíthe Editor.

•ms ula ,Ole lnternational Journal oflsland Affairs is distributedfree to INSULAs individual and institutionalmembers. For subscrip-tions and infonnation. please "lile lo:

Insulac/oUNESCO1, rueMiollis

75732 Paris, FRANCETe!.:+33145.68.40.56,Fax: +33145.68.58.04

E-mail: [email protected]

Produced by: TENYDEA S.L. Canary IsIands

4 International Journal of IsIand Affairs

Back cover: Waha 'ula ~ís/lOrCenler m Hawai 't ¡ólcanaesNauonal Park burns from anadvancing lava flow.

The Pythons, outstandtng land-scape of the island of SaintLucia, venue of the Euro-Car-ibbean RES Conference held inMay 2002. Pholo by P G. d'Ayala

Cava: The Island af Slrambab. GOllache pamling byananymalls. 19; Cenlllly.

VolcanicIslands

by ANTONIOS POMONIS

one hundred years ago. the town of Saint Pierre on Ihe Caribbean island ofMartinique was devastated by an eruption of the Mount Pelée volcano. Saint Pierre was atthe time the "pearl ofthe West Indies", a town proud ofits electric light, bustling port, rumdistilleries, and its theatre that was an exact copy ofthe Grand Theatre in Bordeaux. Despitesome warning in the form of loud explosions and ashfall in the two weeks leading to the dayof the disaster, nothing could prepare the people of Sai nt Pierre for what happened when thetown was waking up for Ascension Day on May 8. At 8:02 in the morning there was a blindingflash, and then a sound Iike the roar of thousands of cannons. A burning hot cloud of gasesand other materials rushed down from the volcano and reached the town in less than t'IVOminutes, Ofthe 26,000 inhabitants only two survived lo Iive and tell what happened.

,-

To commemorate the 10001 anniversary ofthese events TNSULA is dedicating this issue tovolcanic islands. Most volcanic islands are found near the tectonic plate boundaries of ourplanet. The majority and most populous of the world's volcanic islands are found at thesubducting edges of the Pacific plate (in Japan, Aleutian islands, New Zealand, Tonga,Vanuatu, Papua-New Guinea, Indonesia. the Philippines, as well as the Mariana, and Izuislands). Other subduction zones with volcanic islands are found in the Caribbean (LesserAntilles) and the Mediterranean (in Italy and Greece). Volcanic islands are also found in theAtlantic Ocean where the sea floor is spreading (Iceland. Azores, Ascension and Tristan daCunha). Finally there are the numerous "hotspot" volcanic islands located far from plateboundaries but formed by the extrusion of magma rising from chambers that lie deep beneaththe sea floor (among these are the Hawaiian, Cook, Marshall, Réunion and Galápagos is-lands).

In the articles prepared for this dossier we read about the experiences of three islands inJapan (Miyake and Oshima) and the Caribbean (Montserrat), in managing the threats posedby erupting volcanoes. There is also an article about the volcanic islands of the Azores, aswell as articles about the Mediterranean volcanic islands addressing the relationship be-tween the volcanoes and sustainable development strategies.

Each inhabited volcanic island has a unique set of circumstances depending on its mor-phology, historie pattern of settIement and eruptive history ofthe volcanoes that are respon-sible for their existence. The spectacular volcanic forms add to the attractions of theseislands but the threat of eruptions makes these beautiful ecosystems more vulnerable and inconstant need of thoughtful and sustainable rnanagement.

International Conference

lhe Fire between Air and WaterVolcanic Islands in Science and Myth

Preservation and Valorisation

The Italian National Commission forUNESCO - with the collaboration oftheRegion ofSicily - is organising the In-ternational Conference The Fire be-tween Air and Water - Volcanic Islandsin Science and Myth: Preservation andImprovement. The conference will beheld in Lipari Castle, in the Aeolian Is-lands. recently admitted to the UNESCOWorld Heritage List.

The conference intends to cclebratethe 30th anniversary ofthe World Her-itage Convention on the protection andconservation of the World cultural andnatural Heritage, through an inter andmultidisciplinary approach at the issuein the light of sustainable development.

The cvent aims primarily to under-stand how the cultural, natural and an-thropological heritage of oceanic andMediterranean islands is viewed andused by the local population: how it ismanaged. preserved and irnproved bylocal authorities, according to the spiritofthe convention and the principIes ofsustainable dcvclopment.

lipari,29th September to 02nd October 2002

Suggestions andproposals \ViII allowto solve problemsconcerning volcanicparks a11 over theworld. Such importantcontributions will beregarded as tools forthe conservation andirnprovcrnent ofWorld Heritage.

The participants to the conferencewill be able to contribute to the defini-tion of such parks in a multidisciplinaryperspective.

A photo exhibiíion by E.S.A. on the\

observation of the Earth from space,as well as an exhibition on territorial

The Lipari Castle, a Spantsh fortifica/IOn dated of 16'h Century.

landscape planning in the Sicily Re-gion, will be organised. Some well-known movies shot in the Aeolian Is-lands (Vulcano, L'avvcntura, 1Ipostino,Stromboli. Kaos. Caro diario) will havea late-night showing. There will alsobe a show of the Opera Siciliana deiPupi, which bclongs to UNESCO In-tangible Heritage.

6 International Journal of Island Affairs

The education of young people willbe discussed on the fourth day of theconíerence. The latter will also includethe awarding of a prize to the winner ofthc International Competition for thecreation of a poster symbolising thenew UNESCO Pilot Project World Her-itage and Dialogue amongst Cultures.On the same day the intemational fo-film Open Doors to Young People onUNESCO Heritage Preservation and Im-proverncnt, and a round table on vol-canic and volcanic-archaeologicalparks will be held.

Steering Committee of Conference:

Italian National Commission for UNESCO

(CNI).

P zza Firenze 27·00186 Roma

Tel.: ++ 3906.68.73.723

Fax: ++ 3906.68.73.684

E·mail: [email protected]

Organising Committee:

Assessorato Beni Culturali e Ambientali e

Pubblica Istruzione.

Via delle Croci, 8·90143 Palermo.

Tel.: ++ 3909169.61.17.02

Fax: + + 39091 69.61. 705

E·mail: [email protected]

Hellenic AegeanActive Volcanoes:

Contrasting perspectives forsustainable development

IntroductionThe islands of Santorini and Nisyrosare two marvelous active volcanoes ofthe Aegean Sea, which present veryinteresting differences as well as com-mon aspccts, concerning the point ofview of vlnsula".

The first island, Santorini, is world-wide known, with increased tourist in-terest. without this fact to be correlateddirectIy and in a catalytic manner withthe existence of the active volcano.Nisyros, on the other hand is almostunknown and undeveloped, but in re-cent years is experiencing a significantincrease in tourism activity due to theexistence of an active volcano on theisland.

Both islands are facing the challengeof íollowing the way of sustainable de-veloprnent, a way that nowadays seemsto be like Iollowing the rough way ofvirtuc, which is proving to be the onlypossible way, for any kind of furtherdevcIopment.

The birth of the islandsFive million years ago, the land ofAegies,the subaerial Alpine mountain chain thatoccupied the area of present-day AegeanSea. was fragmented and sunk below thewaters of a beautiful blue sea.

The push ofthe Anatolian lithosphericblock, which slips westward along theNorth Anatolia fault, and the uplifting hotcurrents which are triggercd by the north-ward subducting African lithosphere,

stretch and dip large portions of theAegean continental crust.

1n the same time. volcanoes come toreinforce the battle of the land againstthe sea. The magma generated in theSouth Aegean area due to the subduc-tion of the African lithosphere, findsoutpouring paths in three broader ar-cas: The Saronic gulf, where it buildsup 1110stof the Egina island and theMethana península: the central Aegeanarea wherc it builds up the islandgroups ofMilos and Santorini, and fi-nally in the eastern Aegean where itcreates the Nisyros and neighboringislets as well as the western.part ofKosisland.

Santorini and Nisyros are the twoyoungest and 1110stactive volcanoesalong the South Aegean Active Vol-canicArc.

Santorini began to build-up approxi-mately 700,000 years ago. The hugeshield volcanoes from basaltic andesiteand the rhyodaciticdome compIcxes withthick lava Ilows, were cre-ated from the quasi-con-tinuous effusive vol-canic activity, and weredemolished every 20,000years during tremendousexplosive eruptions. Vol-canological studies haveestablished that twelvesuch events have oc-curred on Santorini.

LU(]5(j)

OO

b, GEORGES E. VOUGIOUKALAKIS'

The last and most famous eruptionwas manifested between 16-l0-1625BC.during the Late Bronze Age. when amarvelous civilization. related to theMinoan civilization ofCrete. was Ilour-ishing on Santorini. For this reason thiseruption has been called "the Minoaneruption". Archaeological diggings thatstarted in 1967 have unveiled thc mainsettIement on the island at the time ofthe eruption. near the present-dayAkrotiri village, This ancient settlementwas buried underneath the volcanictephra layers and is thus very well pre-served. Today visitors can marvel inthe wonders unveiled underneath theash by walking around this ancient set-tIement, gaining an insight about theIife and culture in Santorini that flour-ished 3.600 years ago (Fig. 1).

• Volcanologist. Researcher in the Institute

of Geology and Mineral Exploration of

Greece.

Fig. 1. A par/ of the La/e Bron:e Age settlement, near thepresent-day Akrottrt village, ve/y well preserved by the burialunderneath the Minoan eruptton volcanic tephra layers.

THI~"

Nca and Paica Karnenipost-Minoan Intracaldera

centers

/"'"-'-... /. ,/

THIRASIA

Fig. 2. A bird's eye view VIG a 3D computer model of the present day Santorini (a.k.a. Thira)topography showing the caldera and the nearby isl ands (note that the vielV IS [rom thenorthwest).

The Minoan eruption shaped the is-land group of Santorini in it's presentstate (Thira. Tirasia and Aspronisi is-lands) creating a huge caldera that hasbeen invaded from the sea in it's big-gest parto composing a landscape ofunique beauty and great geological in-terest (Fig. 2).

Following the Minoan eruption, vol-canic activity continued with calm ex-trusive activity focused at the centralpart of the caldera, building up a sub-marine volcano. The submarine vol-cano emerged for the first time in 197Be. Since then, eight effusive calmeruptions built up the islets of Paleaand Nea Kameni. The last eruption wasmanifested in January 1950, creating onNea Kameni the youngest land on theEastem Mediterranean.

Nisyros is even younger thanSantorini! The oldest subaerial volcanicrocks ofthe island have an age less than150.000 years. During a 100,000 yearsperiod a 600-meter high stratovolcaniccone has been built up, with a 7-km diam-eter at its base. After this, two large ex-plosive eruptions demolished the cen-tral part ofthe volcano creating a circularcaldera with a diameter of 4 km. A hugedome complex then filled up most ofthecaldera depression (Fig. 3). This volcanicactivity is roughly estimated to haveended al about 30,000 -15,000 years be-fore present. Since then the superheated

8 Inlernalional Journal of lsland Affairs

geothermal fluids that are hosted in theNisyros substratum, over the presentshallow magma chamber, trigger hydro-thermal explosions, blasting the cover-ing fonnations. Ten impressive craters ofhydrothermal explosions decorate thesoutheast part of the caldera floor (Fig.4). The last ofthem was created in 1887.

PhysiographyThe island ofNisyros is situated in thesoutheasternAegean (longitude 36°35'north, latitude 27°10' east) in the Do-decanese group of islands. It covers

an area of 41.2 square kilometers andreaches a height of 698 metres. It issurrounded by -l other small uninhab-ited islands, the largest ofwhich is Yali.followed by Pyrgousa (or Pergousa),Pahia and Strongyli.

Despite its rugged outline and rap-idly shifting contours, access is possi-ble to almost every part of the island.As well as an adequate network ofroads, there are dozens of paths lead-ing to every comer of the island. Thelarge number of trees is another char-acteristic feature ofNisyros,justifyingits description as the only 'green' ac-tive volcano in the Aegean. A few ofthese are what remains ofthe originalindigenous vegetation (Quercusmacrolepsis - the semi-evergreen andsmaller variety of the Turkey oak:Quercus coccifera - a shrub-sized oakwhich is the host plant of the coccidinsects from which important red dyeswere extracted in antiquity; Pistaciaterebinthus - the turpentine tree orterebinth from whose yellow-marked'violet galls that Ilower in winter, a deepyellow dye was produced and was usedfor coloring silk material imported fromthe Orient and O/ea europaea sy/vestris- the wild olive or oleaster). We knowof the latters existence on Nisyros

3D Slmplilied ~ological map 01 Nisyros Ishmd

Forrnancns1. submenne lavas2 First subaenal cone3 Tephra from the two

large explosive eruptions4 Lavas between tbe two

largee~¡ons5 Younger lavas6 Recent deposrts

/ Fault

Calderanm

O Hydfothermal erater

, Fumalole

• Hotspnng

,_ Topographlc helght (m)

J.. Port

'X' Quarry

ICII Monastery

r' M31nroad

Roo'""'"

Fig. 3. A 3D computer model of the present day Nisyros topography showtng locauon of theisland's present-day settlement s and the caldera thot IS partly filled by a dome complex(western part).

30,000 years ago: its fossilized leaveshave been identified in layers of ashfrom that date. Most ofthe trees grow-ing on the island now were introducedby settlers (olive, fig, almond, oak andterebinth). In total more than450 indig-enous species make up the dense floraof this beautiful island.

Ofthe same range and variety as theflora is the fauna of the island.

The morphology of the island coastis directly dependent on the kind of rockof which it is composed. AJmost all thewestern and southeastern coastline issteep with thick lava reaching down tofue water 's edge. The northern and east-em shores are more even, with a numberof sandy coves. Along the southerncoast small bays alternate with cliffs.

The mean annual temperature is17yc. with the lowest (l0°C) duringFebruary and the highest (26°C) dur-ing July.

The island has no reserves of drink-ing water, as the rains are scarce (Iessthan 500 mrn/year). The only spring ison the eastern slopes, near the Mon-astery of Panayia Kyra, and the waterit produces is negligible. Cisterns col-lecting rainwater have solved the prob-lem in the past. This is why one en-counters them everywhere on one'swalks, most of them abandoned now.Today, a modern sea water desalinationunit has made the problem less acute.

In contrast to the drinkable water, hotsprings abound in the island, with tem-peratures between 40 and 70°C.

The Santorini island group is situ-ated in the central Aegean (Iongitude36°25' north, latitude 25°25' east) andbelongs in the Cyclades group of is-lands. It covers an area of 86 squarekilometers and reaches a maximumheight of565 metres.

Its fauna and flora is poorer thanNisyros, as the Minoan eruption didnot allow the survival of any form oflife. Trees are rare due both to the ab-sence of water and the strong windsprevailing in the area.

The morphology ofthe coasts is con-trolled by the caldera: in its interior are

found steep rocky cliffs with smallsandy beaches at the bottom thatcan only be reached by boat. Inthe outer perimeter of the islandare developed extensive low pro-file sandy beaches.

The mean, minimum and maxi-rnum annual temperatures are al-most the same to those in Nisyros.

Even though rainfall on Santoriniis really limited (Iess than 400 mm/year), the lowest layers of theMinoan tephra host an opening tothe sea aquifer, which is todayheavily exploitcd from a largenumber of wells. Hot springs arefound on fue Kameni shoreline andin 3 other sites on the shores.

Brief historie noteSantorini as well as Nisyros have a his-tory of many centuries. On both is-lands, signs of Neolithic settlementsdating from the 5UI century BC, havebeen recorded.

It seems that on Nisyros, habitationhas been uninterrupted over these 25centuries. Life on the island flourishedduring the 4uI century BC, and in the12ul_13ul century BC.

Its population at the end of the 19uI

century was around 5,000 inhabitantsand has since been diminishing to thepresent-day population of927. The ag-ricultural production (almonds. grapes.olives, figs, oak apples), the piscatorialand the cattle-breeding activity (ox,pigs, goats) are not any more sufficient.

Thus, the inhabitants turned to emi-gration, towards AJexandria, Smyrna(Izrnir), Constantinople (lstanbul) atfi rst, and later on toward North Americaand the city of Athens.

In Santorini, the human presenceseems to be interrupted only for a pe-riod of2-3 centuries, between 1600-1300BC, due to the Minoan explosion. Forthe rest of the periodo the island acts asan important commercial alld culturalcenter in the region.

Despite the serious of the lack ofwater, agricultural production was al-ways developed.

LiIJen(f)OO

Fig. 4. Stefanos, the biggest of the ten im-presstve craters of hydrothermal explosions,wht ch decorate the southeast pan of theNisyros caldera floor.

The famous delicious wine ofSantorini was the basic product. Thequarrying ofpumice during the 19uI and20U1 century was another economic ac-tivity. The waterproofing of the SuezCanal slopes was materialized with theash of the Minoan eruption.

However, the main wealth-producingactivity remained the conunercial navy.

The role of Santorini merchants andshipmasters was decisive, in what itconcerns the transport and distributionofthe East Mediterranean goods fromthe Bronze Age till the last century. Atthe eve of the 20uI century, there wereestablished some manufacturing enter-prises (tomato processing and textilefactories), which worked thriftily forsome decades.

The island population was alwayscounting some thousand people. AI-though the catastrophic earthquake of1956 was the reason for massive emi-gration, mainly to Athens. the devel-opment of the island re-started, fromthe 70's, with fue rising tourist interest,and the commissioning of thearchaelogical excavations in Akrotiri.

The present-day permanent popula-tion numbers almost 10,000.

Current situationNisyros. bclongs lo thc islands of theAegean Sea, that are called "Ole islandsofthe infertile line. They owe this titlelo their remotc location and lower levelof development and lo thc problernaticconnections and comrnunications withthe main Greek islands and the main-land of Greece.

isyros unlike many other islands inGreece. does not have airport, whilstits small port is not able lo serve prop-crly, the safe transpon of passengersand goods, living thc islands isolatedduring periods of rough seas.

Despite this Nisyros is bcuer oíf thansornc other small and remote islands,mainly due to cxistence of the pumiccquarry. on Ole small island of'Yali, whichis lying 5 km NW ofNisyros. The quarrycxports around 900.000 tons of excellentquality pumicc. ensuring occupation for80 Iamilies and an income of 1.5 millionEuro lo Ú1e rnunicipality of the island.The second source of income is tour-ism. The island disposes circa 700 bedsand hosts yearly around ·l.000 visitorsstaying al lcast a fcw days on the is-land. However. the tremendous major-ity of the Nisyros visitors (- 60.000 per-sons/year) stay on the island. only forIew hours. They usually arrive from theneighboring island of Kos and after aquick tour of thc caldera to admire Ú1eintense hydrothcrmal activity they visitMandraki. thc main town of thc island(Fig. 5). before they return to Kos. The"volcano" that brings these visitorsdoes not ensure their stopover.

The agricultura I production is nowa-days very lirnitcd, whcrcas animalbreeding and its by-producís (rneat.cheese and milk) are plcntiful, as arethe piscatorial products.

Fig. 5. A Vlel!' of Mandraki, the matn town of.\'IS,I'I'OSisland.

10 lntcmational Journal of lsland ..vffairs

The c1cctrical powcr demand is 500 KWannually, bcing imported with sub aque-ous linkagc with Ole island ofKos, whercit is produced with oil combustion.

Water demand on a yearly basis isabout 100.000 cubic meters. Until re-cently the major part of this. was pro-vidcd by boat transport Irorn the main-land. Reccntly. a scawater desalinationfacility with revcrse osmosis. and pro-duction capacity of 3·W cubic metersper day has been put into operation.and is expccted to ensure all the watersupply needed. The pause in the in-dustrial activity combincd with thc lowlevel of tourism development, had animpact on thc standard ofliving of thcislanders and perhaps contributed toits gradual depopulation. On the otherhand the natural cquilibriurn oí Nisyrosis wcll prcscrvcd and the increasingnumber of visitors gradually appreci-ates this advantage. In recent yearsaucntion has also been paid to the ar-chitectural heritage which is wondcr-fully presented in a book entitled" isyros: History and Architecture ofan Aegean Island" (see references).The single and most serious problemremains thc animal breeding activity.The number of free grazing goats onthe island is quite large and threatensthe natural balance of the rich florafound on thc island.

In contrast to Nisyros, Santorinipresents a di1Terent set of problcms andexpcricnccs. Its present-day cconomyis based mainly on thc tourist industry,which was rapidly dcvcloped, duringthe last thirty ycars.

The discovcry by excavation ofthe lateBronze Age settlcments and Ole unparal-lelcd vicw of thc caldera, havc conse-crated it as high-lcvel tourist resort.

It no", has -1-5.000 beds that servcannually I mili ion visitors. It possessesan airport capablc to host chartcr flightsand a satisfactory port Iacility.

Quarrying activity has been prohib-ited for the last ten years.

Due to the tremendous growth Intourism activity, the agricultural activ-ity has been reduced mainly to the pro-

Fig. 6. r ¡el\' of Fira, Santoriru 's matn 10l\'n

\1'1111 many butldings rtght on the caldera rtm.

duction of the famous Santorini wine.Three and halfthousand acres are cul-tivated with vineyards. which produce-1-,000tons ofVS.O.Pwine.

The water requiremcnts are until nowrnct by pumping the local wells.

Howcvcr continuous over-pumpingcaused the invasión of seawater intothc aquifer, which has aífectcd the qual-ity of thc water. Asmall quantity of wateris produced from a desalination unit,with rcvcrse osmosis of seawatcr in thecommunity ofIa.

Natural hazardsOne ofthe main threats that the inhab-itants of both islands Iacc. is that ofthc natural hazards. Living upon anactive volcano and in an arca of highscismicity, the guarantee ofthe inhab-itant life and investrncnts sccurity. isone of thc main preconditions for rcgu-lar socio-cconornic living and devclop-rncnt. The seismic hazard is thc biggestproblem that encounters Santorini. Thetsunami generating magnitude 7.-1-carthquake of July 1956 caused 53deaths and ruined 529 buildings onSantorini. Tsunami waves during thiscarthquake reached the height of 25meters in Amorgos Island and 20 me-ters in Astipalea Island and along \\ ithdamagc from ground shaking wouldhave scvcre consequences.

Despite the fact that new construc-tions are much better and thcy adhereto strict seismic design requirements. theconstruction of hundreds of buildingson the highly desirable land parcels thatIie on thc edge of Ú1espectacular calderawall are quite vulnerable (Fig. 6).

The volcanic hazard causes Iewcrproblems. Santorini is the Aegean \'01-

cano. that has been studied cxtensivcly

and today we have constructed a reli-able model of its behavior. According tothis, the major expected volcanic event,a tremendous explosion ofMinoan type,is considered impossible to be mani-fested in our days. Such events. inSantorini, present a steady period of re-currence that exceeds 15,000 years. As3,600 years intercede between theMinoan eruption and now, we can con-sider that the island is not in danger fromsuch kind of events. The most probablevolcanic event to be manifested todayis a11eruption similar to the subaerialeruptions ofNea Kameni, in 1925-28 and1939-41 (Fig. 7).

These eruptions were mild and theydid not cause serious problems to theSantorini inhabitants

The risk of such an event may evenbe characterized as negative, as it isexpected to increase the flow of tour-ists, as they will come to enjoy theunique spectacle and scenery.

Unfortunately, the medium or long-term prediction of these events is notpossible. However a short-term predic-tion (from few months to one year) ofthe reactivalion ofthe volcano may bescientifically possible, based on all therecordings, data and information forthe precursory phenomena of the pre-vious analogous eruptions. TheSantorini Volcano Observatory hasbeen in operation since 1994, equippedwith a variety of integrated networksfor the monitoring of the main physicaland chemical parameters (earthquakes,lemperature and chemical compositionof the hot fluids and gases. grounddeformation, etc.). These observationnetworks guarantee the on time record-ing of any kind of precursory phenom-ena ofimminentvolcanic activity. Thecorresponding volcanic hazard map forsimilar events has been drawn (Fig. 8)and several possible scenarios havebeen elaborated for the evolution ofthevolcanic activity, with instructions forensuring the safety of the inhabitants,visitors and investments.

From the recorded data of the rnoni-toring networks of the volcano, we know

that today the volcano is under com-plete repose (forfurther information, visitthe web site: www.Santorini.net/ismosav).

Earthquakes affect Nisyros, every 15-30 years, mostly in the fonn small localseismic crisis, which last for two or threeyears. The earthquakes are of smallmagnitude (usually less than 5 on theRichter scale) and shallow depth, cre-ating unpleasant situations when theactivated faults and fractures traverseinhabited areas. The last seismic crisisin the region, was registered during1995-1998, and caused damages to afew houses of Mandraki. Except thelocal earthquake. Nisyros is in dangeralso due to the Iarge seismic events thatis possible to be manifested in the sur-rounding area: the wider area ofKos-Rhodes, is a region of high seismicity,with maximum expected magnitudesreaching 7.8. The last such event in theregion occurred in 1926.

In contrast with Santorini, Nisyrosdoes not dispose a volcano observa-tory. Monitoring of the volcano is real-ized intermittently through different re-search programs. The picture that wehave at present is that the volcano is in

VOLCANIC HAZARD ZONATION MAPFROM A HISTORIC-TYPE VOLCAr:JIC ACTlVITY

IN SANTORINI

Nw-9-'s SANTORINI ISLAND GROUP

Fig. 7. The Neo Kameni volcantc center m

eruption. The date, visible In the photo, IS 2-1January 1928.

LQ)en(f)OO

HAZAROOUS ZONES FROM:

•• r:t='::rv:s~~~r::~' ·1:(T~s~~:.~:tólnd•• Ph'lNIticuploSIOI'I$ •• ~;=~:;::aObllbilitYI

u~"owsandBallistic PfOfed"es

"Tlun"'$SANTORINI VOLCAHO LABORATORV lG.M.E. G. \IougfouU~I"s. 1tM

o 1 2km~

Fig. 8. The volcantchaz ard map of theSantortnt islandgrol/p, showt ng theprobable po sttton of[uture erupttve centersas well as the presentoday settlements androad network on Thira.

rest. The establishment of a pennanentvolcanic observatory on the island isnevertheless considered a necessity.

Current problems andperspectives forsustainable developmentBoth Santorini and Nisyros face withthe same pungency the challenge ofsustainable development. Regardlessof the big differences between them,both are close to their Iimits concern-ing their potential for further develop-ment unless a differenl vision of islanddevelopment is gradually developed.On Santorini an extensive infrastruc-ture has been developed to serve tour-ists that crowd the island during thethree months of summer, while in theremaining part of the year life on the

island better resembles that of the olddays. This infrastructure has been de-veloped in a rather haphazard way, with-out much consideration of possiblelong-term effects. The local authoritiesare always stmggling to catch-up withthe rapid pace of local speculative de-velopments. Some ofthe environmen-tal issues that need to be addressedare the management ofliquid and solidwastes, the adequacy of water supplyand the sufficiency of energy supplies.

The production and use of alterna-tive renewable energy sources, is non-existent on both islands, despite thefact that they dispose abundant sun,air and inexhaustible quantities ofgeothermal fluids. The energy demandin Santorini during the summer is quitehigh and efforts need to be made toexplore the exploitation ofthe plentifulrenewable energy resources. Santoriniis in dire need of better water supplywhich could be provided if a plant simi-lar (though of much bigger capacity)to the one operating in Nisyros, wasput in place. Unless these and otherproblems are addressed in a proper andthoughtful way, the long-term viabilityof the extensive investments on the is-land is questionable.

Likewise one of the basic prerequi-sites is the turn towards the "qualita-tive" development oftourism, with im-proved services, extension of thetouristic period, the development ofaIternative products-services (peripa-tetic, geological, archaelogical, thera-peutic and congressional tourism). Atthe same time, the continuation andstrengthening of the existing agricul-tural production, is essential in orderto avoid an economy that relies on asingle source ofincome. In addition itwill provide aIternative employmentduring the winter months and will main-tain the supply ofproduce that is muchappreciated by the visitors (the localwine, fava split pea s, capers, tomatoesand other products are part of the localfolklore so much loved by the tourists).

Nisyros, is also on the crucial point,where is called to draw it's future trail

12 International Journal of Island Alfairs

of development. In this case, a priori isexcluded the extensive tourist evolu-tion, due to the following reasons• At first. objectively, is its geographi-

cal position. Lying between two over-developed islands (Kos and Rhodes)with a given small dimension and lim-ited land available for basic infra-structure; massive tourism is practi-cally unattainable.

• The second reason is that this kind ofevolvement would have devastatingeffects on the sensitive environmen-tal balance, which was preserved un-til now for thousands of years, andwould thus turn away today's visi-tors, who are selecting Nisyros for itssuperior environmental conditions.

Nisyros is exceptionally privileged tohave the opportunity to draw the layoutof its future tourist development policy,focusing mainly to the munerous attrac-tions of alternative tourism (outdoors,geological, archaelogical, and curative).In parallel measures must be undertakenfor fue revitalization of agriculture, in thetraditional as well as in modern manner(greenhouses, etc) which wi1l allow si-multaneously the avoidance of the WlÍ-

lateral economy and would complementthe quality of the services provided.

It is also urgent to provide incentivesfor the farmers to drastically reducetheir flocks of goats that are damagingthe floral diversity of the island. Theexploitation of the renewable energyresources is also a must for Nisyros, assun, wind and mainly the immensegeothermal energy resources that itpossesses, can assure energy au-tonomy including the supply of theexisting sea-water desalination facility.

As conclusion, we can repeatredundantly, fue statement of the in-troduction that -the only way for fu-ture development for both islands- isthe one of sustainability.

Vo1canic activity, which endowedboth islands with astonishingly uniquebeauty, does not seem to represent aserious threat for the future, and inany case, it is possible to take proper

measures for the protection ofthe citi-zens and their goods.

Main referencesDI PAOLA, G.M., 1974. Volcanology and

petrology of Nisyros Island (Dodecanese,

Greece) Bull. Volcanol., 38: 944-987.

DOUMAS CH. (1983). Thira: Pompeii ofthe

ancient Aegean, London 1983. Thames and

Hudson.

DRUITTT.H., EDUARDS L., MELLORS R.M.,

PYLE D.M., SPARKS R.S.J., LANPHERE M.,

DAVIES M. & BARRIERO B. (1999)

Santorini Volcano. Geological Society, Lon-

don, Memoirs 19.

ECONOMAKIS, E. (2001). Nisyros: History

and Architecture of an Aegean Island".

Published by Melissa Publishing House, in

Greek and English. ISBN 960-204-232X.

FOUQUE, F. (1879). Santorini et ses erup-

tions. Mason et cie, Paris.

FRANCALANCI, L. VARECAMP, J.C.

VOUGIOUKALAKIS, G. DEFANT, M.J.

INNOCENTI, F. & MANETTI, P (1995) Intri-

cate processes occurring in the convect-

ing, fractionating and assimilating magma

chamber of Nisyros volcano, Aegean are,

Greece. Bull Volcanol. 56: 601-620.

FYTI KAS , M. & VOUGIOUKALAKIS, G. (1995).

Volcanic hazard in the Aegean Islands. In

NATURAL RISK AND CIVIL PROTECTION,

edited by Tom Horlick-Jones, Aniello

Amendola and Riccardo Casale. Published

by E & FN Spon, 1995, Brussels, 117-130.

FYTIKAS M., VOUGIOUKALAKIS G.,

DALAMPAKIS P, BARDINTZEFF J.M. (1998)

Volcanic hazard assessment and civil

defense planning on Santorini. In "The Eu-

ropean Laboratory Volcanoes", Proceedings

of the 2d Workshop, Santorini, Greece - 2

to 4 May 1996. Edited by Casale R., Fytikas

M., Sigvaldasson G. & Vougioukalakis G.

pg 339-351. EUR 18161 EN

KELLER, J., REHREN, TH., STADLBAUER,

E., (1990). Explosive Volcanism in the Hel-

lenic Arc: a Summary and Review. In "Thera

and the Aegean World 111", vol 2, 13-26.

The Thera Foundation London.

MARINI, L., PRINCIPE, C., CHIODINI, G,

CIONI, R., FYTIKAS, M., AND MARINELLI,

G., 1993. Hyd rothermal eruptions of

Nisyros (Dodecanese, Greece). Pastevents

and present hazard J. Volcanol. Geotherm.

Res., 56: 71-94.

VOUGIOUKALAKIS, G. (1993). Volcanic

stratigraphy and evolution of Nisyros is-

land. Bull. Geol. Soco Greece, vol. xXVIII/

2,239-258 (in Greek with English abstract).

VOUGIOUKALAKIS G. (1998). Blue Volea-

noes: Nisyros. Published by the Regional.

Council of Nisyros, in Greek, English and

German.ISBN 960-86215-1-8.

''0 'he Beautyand 'hreal

of'heAzorean

Volcanoes

30° 28° 26°

40°Corvo••Flores

Gra iosa

S. orge Terceira

Faial "- ~ •.•"Pico

"-S. Miguel

Santa Maria••

38°38°

30° 28° 26°

Fig. 1 Geographic locauon of the A:-ores archipelago.

L(\j(Jj(f)OO

by J.L. GASPAR*, G. QUEIROZ* & T. FERREIRA'

IntroductionThe Azores archipelago is located inthe North Atlantic Ocean and consistsof nine inhabited islands (Fig.l). De-spite some uncertainties about the ex-act date of discovery, it is known thatthe Azores were first settled by thePortuguese in the second quarter ofthe15th century. At present, about twohundred and fifty thousand people livein fue Azores, with S. Miguel Island fuehome of half of them. Agriculture wasalways the main economic livelihoodof the Azoreans.

hills west oftheir shelters. To discoverwhat was happening, a priest cJimbedthe hills lo investigate. A track was cutthrough the dense vegetation that cov-ered the area and at the end he reacheda point frorn which he couId overlookwhat we now call the Fumas Caldera.According to his report, vapour wasrising from a depression covered withwhite material and where vegetationdidn't exist. The vapour sometimesglowed red indicating that it was re-lated with incandescent lava and notto a simple fumarolic field. "-

This first historical account has beeninterpreted as being the description ofan eruption at Gaspar Crater, duringwhich there was an early phase of ex-plosive activity preceding fue arrival of

The Baptism of FireThe first seismic and volcanic phenom-

enon reported to have occurred at theAzores took place during fue settlementof S. Miguel Island sorne-time between 1439 and 1443 50·

(Queirozetal., 1995; Guestet al., 1999). The first set-tlers ofS. Miguellanded onthe south coast of the is-land in the si te of thepresent Povoacáo village. '*0"

From the beginning theywere in great fear beca usethey felt continuous earthtrernors and heard loudnoises .. During the night 30"','-.,. .,_, ,,_. --.J--~"w

they observed Iightningand tongues of fire comingfrom a point behind the

EURASIAN PLATE

AFRICAN PLATE

Fig.2 - Main tectonic features in the A:-ores Regton: MAR -Mid-Atlanuc Ridge; EAFZ - East A:-ores Frature Zone; TR- Terceira Rift; GF - Gloria Fault.

the first settlers, followed by fue em-placement and growth of a trachytic lavadome as witnessed by the priest.

Geological SettingThe Azores were formed several mil-lion years ago and throughout the cen-turies were many times considered tobe part of the legendary Atlantis. Pres-ently, fue Azores origin is discussed inthe context of the complex processesthat result from the interplay of theAmerican, Eurasian and Africanlithospheric plates (e.g. Searle, 1980).

The Azores Triple Junction is domi-nated by three main tectonic features(Fig.2): the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR),which crosses the archipelago betweenthe islands of Faial and Flores with ageneral N-S direction; the East AzoresFracture Zone, which extends E-W fromfue MAR to the Strait of Gibraltar, in-cJuding the Gloria Fault; and the TerceiraRift, which trends NW-SE along a linedefined by Graciosa, Terceira and S.Miguel islands, that comprises, in a widesense, the WNW-ESE fracture systemsofFaial, Pico and S.Jorge islands.

While the boundary between theAmerican and the Eurasian and Africanplates is well established by the MAR,

* Centro de Vulcanologia da Universidade

dos Acores, 9501-801 - Ponta Delgada,

Acores, Portugal

the location and nature of the eastembranch of the Azores Triple Junction isstill subject to discussion. Madeira andRibeiro (1990) discuss some of thegeodynamical models presented for thiszone of the North Atlantic and ernpha-sized the transtensile regime of theTerceira Rift, a leaky transform structureas proposed by several authors.

Seismic ActivityThroughout more than fíve hundredyears of history, strong earthquakes haveaffected the Azores. The fírst big eventtook place on the 22nd of October 1522and reached the maximum intensity ofX(Modifíed Mercalli Scale, MM-56) on S.Miguel Island (Machado, 1966). VilaFranca do Campo, the capital of theAzores at that time, was destroyed notonly due to the earthquake, but also be-cause it was buried by a major landsliderelated with the collapse of a neighbour-ing hil!. About five thousand peopledied, houses were destroyed and all theexistent infrastructures were disrupted.

Since then, about 30 important earth-quakes have been reported in the archi-pelago, causing thousands of deathsand severe damages. The most recentone occurred on the 9tll of July 1998and reachcd a maximum intensity ofVIIl(MM -56) on Faial Island. With a magni-tude of 5.8 and an epicentre at 8 km NNE

29 28

29 28

of the island, theevent caused eightdeaths and signifi-cant destruction inmost of the ruralvillages, due tothe fragility of theconstructions andsome recognizedgeological site ef-fects. The neigh-bouring islands ofPico and S. Jorgewere also affected.Another earthquake that is still in thememory of all the people of the Azoresis the one that occurred on the 1st ofJanuary 1980 causing about 60 deaths.This event reached a magnitude of7.2and strongly affected Terceira, Graciosaand S. Jorge islands.

The review of instrumental data for thelast twenty years of activity clearly dern-onstrates that almost all Ú1eseismicity inthe Azores region took place along theTerceira Riftandattl1eMAR(Fig.3). Tec-tonic and volcanogenic seismic criseswere frequent during this periodo

- -/'1

e¡

·'j~it~~;~;">i"',,,~~;;;~\S"'.,.·"<f~

Fig.3 - Sei smtcuy map of the A::ores for the 1980-2000 period(data from SIr7SA).

Historical EruptionsLike the seismicity, also the volcanic

activity at the Az~res is closely relatedwith the Terceira Rift and the MAR. About30 volcanic eruptions, usually accompa-

27 26 25"

I t ~ ~1998-2000

'~~ 1~~16719~ _~1~3 15 ~ 1902

1958~.•

• 2 .•17'8

1800

.•1720 .•

1662 !sj

"~~1638 652 .• 14f143

• '15'631630~907 1564

1911

Á'" o 2D .,""

~ !:J

27 26 25

Fig.4 - Historical eruptions recorded at the A::ores stnce de 15th century (Modified from

Weston, 1964, with data from Queiro: el al., 1995 and Queiroz, 1997).

14 InternationaI JournaI of IsIand Affairs

nied by seismic swarms, were registe redsince the beginning of the settlement ofthe islands (Weston, 1964) (Fig.4).

The eruptive history of the Azoresis illustrated by phenomena of differ-ent nature and magnitude. In land, themajority ofthe events were dominatedby Strombolian and Hawaiian eruptivestyles with basaltic scoria and lavaflows as the main volcanic products.Eruptions ofthis nature occurred at S.Miguel (1563 and 1652). Terceira(1761), S. Jorge (1580 and 1808). Pico(1562, 1718, 1720) and Faial (1672).This type of eruption is not the mostsevere that can happen in the Azoresbut despite this these past eventsha ve caused the death of some peo-pie and animals, and gave rise to con-siderable damages. Houses were de-stroyed. roads were cut and produc-tive soils were buried.

More explosive eruptions, marked bymagmatic and hydromagmatic phases,took place at S. Miguel Island. Fogo Vol-cano erupted in 1563 and ashes mantledall the eastem part of the island. Afterthe previously mentioned 1439-43 event,a subplinian hydromagmatic eruptionoccurred in 1630 in Fumas Volcano, dur-ing which about 100 people lost theirlives due to pyroclastic surges (Cole etal., 1995). Moreover, purnice and ash fallcovered almost all the island reachingas far as Santa María island about 80 kmto the south.

Naturally, the majority ofthe recordedhistorical eruptions took place at sea(Chaves, 1960). In the memory ofall the

I,Azoreans remain the 1957-1958 vol-canic eruption ofCapelinhos Volcano,close to the western coast of Faial Is-land. The event showed Surtseyancharacteristics during the first stagesofactivity and changed to Strombolianand Hawaiian styles when the accumu-lation of ashes around the vent pre-vented the entrance of seawater intothe crater.

More recently, on December 1998,another submarine volcanic eruptionstarted 10 km NW of Terceira lsland,being characterized by the productionof the so-called basaltic lava balloons(Gaspar et al., 2000). ThisAzorean typeof submarine volcanic activity is be-lieved to be related with very fluid andgas-rich basaltic magmas. The reinter-pretation of several records of subma-rine volcanic events clearly shows thatthis is a conunon type of eruption allover [he world,

Volcanic HazardsThe recent eruptive activity recorded atS. Miguel, Terceira, Graciosa, S. Jorge,Pico and Faial islands emphasize thatnew volcanic events can affect any ofthese islands in the future, Taking intoaccount the nature of the existing erup-tive centres and the associated depos-its it is clear that volcanic hazards in theAzores are related with lava flows,pyroclastic falls, pyroclastic flows,pyroclastic surges and mudflows(Gaspar et al., 2000). lndirect hazardsinclude volcanogenic and tectonic earth-quakes, landslides and tsunamis. Evenduring quiescent periods volcanic gasesrepresent a real threat in inhabitedplace s such as Fumas village, insideF1IDlascaldera (Baxter et al., 1999).

Monitoring and CivilProtectionFrom time to lime, the Azoreans facenot only earthquakes and volcaniceruptions but also landslides andfloods. There is no doubt about theimportance of natural hazards assess-ment and risk mitigation in the Azores.

The seismological monitoring oftheAzores regio n is being undertaken bythe Azores Seismological SurveyingSystem (SIVISA) a network managedby the Centre of Volcanology of theAzores University and the Meteoro-logical Institute that comprises nearly40 seismic stations.

The Azores Volcanological Monitor-ing System (SlMOVA), a network man-aged by the Centre of Volcanology ofthe Azores University assures the vol-canological monitoring of the Azoresarea using geophysical, geodetic andgeochemical techniques. Geophysicalmonitoring comprises the SIVISA net-work complemented with digital port-able seismic stations. Ground deforma-tion measurements are made using GPS.Finally, geochemical monitoring in-volves the regular sampling and analy-sis of gas discharges in fuma roles andwaters, as well as mapping and con-tinuous monitoring of diffuse soil gasemissions, namely CO2.

Both SIVISAand SlMOVAare linkedto the Azores Civil Protection RegionalService (SRPCA) that has its centralheadquarters at Terceira island. If anincrease of seismic and/or volcanic ac-tivity is detected the SRPCBA is imme-diately advised and the regional/rnu-nicipaJ emergency plans can be acti-vated. To improve the civil protection'scapacity of response the local govern-ment recently installed a new commu-nications system establishing a perma-nent radio link between all the islands.

Despite the above mentioned organi-zation it is clear that natural risks remainvery high in the Azores and futureevents will probably result in severaJvictims and severe damages. Authori-ties need to give more attention to thissubject. It is necessary to reinforce thestructure of the old edifices and reviewthe land use planning taking into ac-count the impact of geological and me-teorological events. The research onnatural hazards, the development oftheexistent monitoring networks and theimplementation of alert and warning sys-tems are becoming a priority. Finally, astrong effort needs to be made in theeducation and preparedness of the lo-cal people and the media in order to guar-antee an adequate human response incase of an emergency.

LU(]S(f)OO

Volcanic LandformsNumerous volcanic features dominatethe landscape of the Azores islands.The oldest and deeply eroded volcaniccomplexes can be observed at SantaMaria Island where piles ofbasaltic pil-low-lavas alternate with the onJy ma-rine sedimentary beds known in thearchipelago. These sedimentary layerswere formed several millions years agoand indicate that important seawaterlevel changes occurred before the birthof the other islands.

More recent volcanic landforms arepresent in all the other islands.Trachytic central volcanoes with surn-mil calderas, occasionally with lakes,are related with the most explosiveevents. Pico Volcano in Pico island isthe most prominent basaltic eruptivecentre of the Azores. It is the highestmountain ofPortugal, reaching an alti-tude of2351 meters due to the accumu-lation oflava flows and minor basalticpyroclasts during several volcanic erup-tions. Smaller volcanic landforms ob-served in the Azores include cinder andspatter cones, pumice cones, hydro-volcanic centres and domes.

Present-day ActivitySeveral fumarolic fields and hot springs,associated to some of the most activesubaeriaJ and submarine volcanoes, de-fine the nonnallevels of the volcanic ac-tivity in the Azores. Additionally, theeruption that started on 1998 NW ofTerceira Island continued until ApriJ2000.and new signs of weak activity in thearea were recorded during August 200 l.

The seismic and volcanic data of thelast 20 years reflect a particular situa-tion in the triangle defined by Graciosa,S. Jorge and Terceira islands. Since the1st of January 1980 earthquake, theseismicity centred in that zone remainedat low levels while volcanic activity in-creased. We interpret this fact as COt1-

sequence of the injection of new magma

following the rupture caused by the 1980earthquake and its aftershocks. Also the9th of July 1998 earthquake may havebeen related with this magma rising phe-nomenon being the result of the accu-mulated tensions in the margins of thepresent-day low seismicity area.

The seismovolcanic activity locatedin other places of the Azores Plateauduring the same period, such as the oneobserved in the MAR and at SeteCidades Volcano, suggests that magmarising was not confined to the Graciosa-S.Jorge- Terceira triangle. A mantleplume with a tree-like head may havebeen responsible for the simultaneousfeeding of different volcanic systems.

ReferencesBAXTER, P, BAUBRON, J.C & COUTINHO,

R. (1999) - Health hazards and disaster

potential of ground gas emissions at

Fumas Volcano, Sáo Miguel, Azores. Jour-

nal of Volcanology and Geothermal Re-

search, 92, 95-106.

CHAVES, A. (1960) - Erupcóes submarinas

nos Acotes. lntormacces que os

navegantes podem prestar sobre tal

assunto. Sep. da Acoreana, V(5), 1-50.

BATES R. & JACKSON, J. (1980) - Glossary

of Geology. American Geologicallnstitute,

751p.

GASPAR, J.L., QUEIROZ, G. & FERREIRA,

T. (2001) - Riscos geológicos na reqiác dos

Acotes. Plano Regional de Emergencia.

Relatório Técnico-Científico 01/CVARG/

2oo1,23p.

GUEST, J.E., GASPAR, J.L., COLE, P.,

QUEIROZ, G., DUNCAN, A., WALLENSTEIN,

N., FERREIRA T. & PACHECO, J.M. (1999)-

Volcanic Geology of Fumas Volcano, Sáo

Miguel, Acores, Joumal of Volcanology and

GeothermaJ Research, 92, 1-29.

HIRN, A., HAESSLER, H~, HOANG TRONC,

P, WITTLlNGER, G. & MENDES VICTOR,

L. (1980) - Aftershock sequence ofthe Janu-

ary 1, 1980 earthquake and present-day

tectonics in the Azores. Geophysical Res.

Lett., 7, 501-504.

MACHADO, F. (1966) - Anomalias das

ointensidades do terramoto de S. Miguel

(Agores) em 1522. Bol. Mus. Lab. Miner. Geol.

Fac. Ciencias de Lisboa 10(2): 109-117.

MADEIRA, J. & RIBEIRO, A. (1990) -

Geodinamic models for the Azores triple

junction: a contribution from tectonics.

16 International Journal of lsland Affairs

GlossaryBasalt

A basic volcanic rock that characteristically

is dark in colour, contains 45% to 54% silica,

and generally is rich in iron and magne-

sium.

Basaltic scoria

A pyroclast of basaltic composition with ir-

regular shape and usually very vesicular.

Cinder cone

A volcanic structure of conical shape pro-

duced by the accumulation of loose frag-

mented material (pyroclasts) frequently of

basaltic composition.

Fracture zone

A set of parallel faults that is present along a

significant extension, either on land or on

the sea floor.

Hawaiian eruptive style

A type of volcanic activity obviously very

common on Hawaii islands. These eruptions

are mainly effusive and very popular for their

spectacular lava fountains. They produce

mainly lava flows and very little or no

pyroclastic material.

Hydromagmatic activity

A volcanic eruption that results from the in-

teraction of magma and surface or subsur-

face water.

Hydrovlocanic centre

A volcanic structure resultant of the accu-

mulation of fragmented material produced

during hydromagmatic activity.

Leaky transform

A type of transform fault where the motion

between the two blocks is oblique and di-

vergent from their q,oundary.

Mantle pluma

A feature related with a hot spot in the man-

tle or in the mantle-nucleus interface

MAR (Mid-Atlantic Ridga)

A continuous mountain range with 1-3

km in elevation, about 1500 km in width

and over 84000 km in length extending

through the Atlantic Ocean. It is a very

fractured structure with a central rift val-

ley and is the place where new oceanic

crust is formed.

Spatter

Very fluid pyroclasts that are still plastic when

they fall.

Spatter cone

A low, steep-sided con e of spatter built up

on a fissure or vent and usually formed of

basaltic material.

Strombolian eruptive styla

A type of eruption named after the Italian

volcano Stromboli. It is characterised by ex-

plosive bursts of red-hot pyroclastic frag-

ments that usually reach up to 100 metres

above the crater. The ejected material is usu-

ally of basaltic composition.

Subplinian eruptive styla

Plinian eruptions are the most explosive and

most dangerous. Subplinian eruptions are

smaller in magnitude but also produce huge

volumes of ash and pumice that are blasted

into the air along with a lot of different gases

The ash will build up very quickly once air

born and produces columns that can reach

several kilometres high.

Surtseyan aruptive style

A type of volcanic activity named after the

eruption of Surtsey, Iceland in 1963. It is

characterized by the explosive interaction of

seawater and magma producing highly frag-

mented pyroclasts.

Trachyte

A fine-grained, light coloured and generally

porphyritic extrusive igneous rack having

alkali feldspar and minor mafic minerals as

the main components.

Trachytic lava dome

A steep-sided mass of viscous lava of

trachytic composition, extruded from a vol-

canic ven!. Usually with a circular shape and

spiny, rounded, or flat on top, its surface is

often rough and blocky as a result of frag-

mentation of the cooler, outer crust during

growth of the dome.

Transtensile regima

A regime of crustal deformation in oblique

zones of ocean spreading that consist of

severaJ stepped transform faults. It combines

both extension and strike-slip motions.

no Vale das Fumas (ilha de S.Miguel,

Acotes) na primeira metade do Século xv.Acoreana, VIII(l), 131-137.

SEARLE, R. (1980) - Tectonic pattem oflhe

Azores spreading centre and triple junction.

Earth and Plane!. Sci. Lett., 51, 415-434.

WESTON, F. (1964) - List of recorded vol-

canic eruptions in the Azores with brief re-

ports. Bol. Mus. Lab. Min. Geol. Fac.

Ciencias de Lisboa, 10(1),3-18.

Tectonophysics, 184,405-415.

QUEIROZ, G. - Vulcáo das Sete Cidades (S.

Miguel, Acores): história eruptiva e avaliacáo

do hazard. Tese de doutoramento no ramo

de Geologia, especiaJidade de Vulcanologia.

Universidade dos Acores, Departamento de

Geociéncias, 226p.

QUEIROZ, G., GASPAR, J., COLE, P, GUEST,

J., WALLENSTEIN, N., DUNCAN, A. &

PACHECO, J. (1995) - Erupcóes vulcánicas

A brief naturalhistoryof

Mount Etna,Sicily

IntroductionVoJcano Etna is the symbol of Iife anddeath of Sicily, an island with inunensewealth in cultural and natural history.The natural environment around thevoJcano is the resuIt of an ample workin which the imprints ofman are fusedwith the elements ofnature, giving lifelo an extraordinary landscape, articu-lated in numerous ecosystems charac-lerised by the interaction of the con-tinuous eruptive activity and the ac-tions of the sea nearby. Mount Etna isthe greatest voJcanic edifíce ofEuropeand the most elevated mountainousrelief in the Mediterranean basin. Withits voJcanic products it covers a sur-face of around 1.260 Km2, reaching atthe summit craters, a height of around3.350 meters above sea leveI. TheEtnean voJcanic structure develops inthe extreme southern border of thePeloritani-Madonie mountain chainthat stretches along the northern shoresof Sicily. Situated in proximity of theoriental coast of Sicily, Mount Etna isdelimited on the north and west by theriversAlcantara and Simeto, and to thesouth by the Plain of Catania. The areacovered by its voJcanic products em-braces 37 townships of Catania prov-ince. Its south-eastern periphery is oc-cupied by the intensely urbanised met-ropolitan area of Catania, stretchinguphill from the coast and up to 800meters elevation with population ofaround 700.000 inhabitants. Higher upthe demographic density decreases,

LQj(f5(j)OO

0' DR. CLELlA BURGi*, DR. FRANCESCO MUSMEC/*

partially embracing the lerritories 007townships, with population of around250.000 inhabitants. The upper parís ofthe voJcano belong to the RegionalPark ofEtna that was founded in 1987and extends over an area ofaround 590Km2 The Park is divided into four zonestwo of which, A and B are the widest(450 K.Il12)having an elevated degreeof protection. The other two zones, Cand D, are more marginal, and the de-velopment of certain human activitiesis allowed.

The volcanology ofMount EtnaFrom the volcanological-geologicalpoint ofview we deal with a complexbui Iding (mul tiple voJcano) constitutedby the overlap and coalescence of erup-tive products issued in time throughdistinct feeding systems., Its studywith modern scientific criteria has be-gun since the dawns of the develop-ment of Geology as an independentscience, during the second half of the19th century. Above all, three eminentresearchers, Lyell, Sartorius vonWaltershausen and Gemmellaro haveidentifíed two main centers of activity:one which corresponds to today's erup-tive activity (the Mongibelloy, and theother related to a more ancient upriseand feeding system (the Trifoglietto).After the first eruptive demonstrations,that happened many mi llion years ago,sub-aerial basaltic eruptions followedone another, similar to those of the vol-

canoes of the oceanic islands. Themagma, probably originating at depthof hundreds of kilometers, rising upalong systems of regional fractures,before "stagnation" in magmatic reser-voirs at a depth of around 20 kilometers.The existence of such reservoirs is re-lated to the development ofthe numer-ous volcanic con es that have devel-oped on the sides of the voJcano andare characteristic of the Etnean land-scape. Activity ofthe last 30.000 yearshas shaped the voJcano in its presentconic form, constituted of alternationsof lava and the products of more vio-lent explosive activity (plinian type oferuptions) often accompanied bycaldera collapses, and sometimes withmechanisms of glowing pyroclasticclouds and mud flows (lahars) which

* University 01 Catania,

Facufty 01Polítical Sciences.

are less common in Etna. Phenomenaof this type have been common up toaround 3.000 years ago and it is sus-tained that they could have provokedthe exodus of Sicanis, frightened by thefires of the Etna and impoverished bythe destruction ofthe crops in the west-ern parts of Sicily. The activity of thelast millennia has been relatively calm,primarily characterised by the issue offluid lava, with temperatures bet:ween1.100° and 1.050° c., covering surfacesof some square kilorneters, with flowsthat exceptionally poured on lengthsof over ten kilometers. In the last 350years, for which the recording of theeruptive events can be considered ex-haustive, around seventy eruptions areregistered, with a very irregular distri-bution pattern both in time and space.

The natural environmentThe natural landscape, developed afterthe last Ice Age (around 12.000 yearsago), and is typically Mediterranean (upto 1.000-1.200 meters.) witholive grovesin the lower slopes and pines, oaks,chestnuts and hollies in the upper parts.Up to 1.800-2.000 meters, wefind denseforests of beech tree, accompanied insome areas by the rare and endemicEtnean birch tree. Black volcanic sandsare colonised by endemic-species as theSaint spino or the violet ofEtna. In theelimatic and geo-morphological sever-ity of the upper reaches of Etna only afew plants survive, such as the endemicRumex, the Antemide ofEtna, the Sene-cio aetnensis and the Robertiataraxacoides. A volcanic desert existsat altitude above 3000 meters.

18 Inlernalional Journal of lsland Affairs

The fauna of the Etnean area, in-eludes animals coming from the northbut al so from the south, through theancient connections between Sicily andthe north-African territories. TheEtnean habitat is extremely varied in-eluding coastal, lava, volcanic desert,and damp forest zones. In such habitatendemic species from the Diplopodis,Blattoideis, Eterotteris, Ornotteris,Coleopters and Imenotteris taxonomieshave made Etna their home. Among thevertebrates the reptile Lacerta siculacielopica is of particular interest as itlives just on the island Lachea, thatconstitutes a protected area, today.There is also the rare dog speciesnamed the "Cirneco of Etna", that hasadapted to the sour terrestriallava, onwhich it succeeds to move easily in vir-tlle ofits particular anatomical charac-teristics. \

Agricultural activityThe areas in the foothills of mount Etnaare characterised by agricultural activ-ity and by marvellous examples of coun-try houses and austere village homes.The landscape is, in fact, derived notonly from the volcanic activity and theelimatic influences, but also from thelong history ofhwnan activity in the area.At first, man developed silvo-pastoralactivities, devoting, subsequently, tothe cultivation ofthe land. Today in theEtnean area we can find good vineyards,as well as orchards of apple, pear, hazel,pistachio and strawberry. Remarkable isalso the cultivation ofprickly pear, cit-rus fruit, almond andfig trees.

The cultivation of pistachio is mostwidespread on the western slopes ofEtna. Originating from the Near East,

the plant was introduced by the Ro-mans and in Sicily it found the idealhabitat resulting in production of thehighest quality. Its intensive cultiva-tion in the territory of Bronte has be-gun as early as the 7th century AD.Very sought to enrich confectioneryand ice-cream shops, and to season alot of foods, the pistachio is consid-ered the "green gold" of the Mediter-ranean gastronomy. The more repre-sentative areas for grapevine produc-tion are situated in the north-easternand south-western slopes, up to the1.000 meters elevation. From the selec-tion of the Etnean vineyards excellentwines with intense flavour and tastewere born. The fruit tree orchards canbe found on higher ground and up tothe altitude of 1.500 meters on thesouth-western and eastern slopes. Par-ticularly, the district lying between therivers Simeto and Alcantara with itspeculiar microelimate is ideal for theharvest of fruits of excellent qualitysuch as the reknown varieties of pears"coscia, butirri and garofano".

Mount Etnaand human cultureBasaltic stones are commonly used inthe construction of churches, houses,farms, fences and other structures ex-pressing the intrinsic symbiosis be-tween man and the resources offeredby the environment. For at least a thirdofthe Sicilian population, Etna is morethan an extraordinary, complex and unu-sual volcano. It is a symbol of affilia-tion and identification, not only in frontof the whole world, but also in com-parison to the rest of the island. It is agiant that is able to do everything andto which everything is owed, much asin the ancient pantheistic civilisations.In fact, for the "children of the Etna"the volcano is just "a muntagna". Asif it was not necessary to distinguish itfrom the other volcanoes and moun-tains. For the greatest part the peopleof the region around Etna have cometo terms with living so near this majes-tic and dangerous mountain which is

viewed as their peaceful but unpredict-able neighbour. According to somesources, the region around Etna hasbeen inhabited as early as 40.000 yearsago. Neolithic remains from around6.000 years ago have been found in thearea ofMendolito, along the banks ofthe Simeto river. The region has sub se-quently been settled by Greeks. Ro-manso Vandals. Byzantines, Arabs.Norrnans, Svevis, Angioinis andAragonesis that, during the millenniaand in different ways, have left indel-ible traces in the local dialects, tradi-tions, folk arts, architecture, literatureand religious celebrations.

Etna itself represents the ideal stageof the imaginary and the marvellous,where for a long time myths and leg-ends have been placed. where altarshave been erected for the celebrationof cults and religious practices. Sincethe fire represents the passions thatclimb toward the absolute, beliefs tiedup to the volcano and the surroundingterritory are innumerable. Epics as thatof the forge of Hephaestus the god offire, the furious struggle betweenU1ysses and Cyclops, the philosopherEmpedocles who leapt into the craterin order that he might be thought ofgod, the yearning and unlucky lovebetween Aci and the sea-nymphGalatea, but also the medieval beliefsthat set on Etna the mouths ofthe hell,

are an eloquent and incomplete testi-mony. Etna has inspired thinkers andwriters of every epoch such as the trav-ellers ofthe Grand Tour or the WunderReise in the 8lh century when they as-cended Etna, on their mules, with thesacred terror that inspired a place sowild. Arriving on the peak. at the firstlights of a day dreamed for a long timeand that would be no longer forgotten,they were inebriated by the sun rise,the enchantment, ofthat cheerful com-pleteness that made thern similar toangels and gods. ~.

This immense patrimony of naturaland cultural resources makes theEtnean territory a primary tourist desti-nation that must be valued and guardedwith care and respect.

EpilogueThe Etnean territory is an excellentground for multidisciplinary studiesthat would enrich our knowledge aboutthis wonderful monument of nature thathas inspired all the people that havebeen blessed with its acquaintance.

The group of multidisciplinarians fromthe ISVl Institute and of the UNESCOCenter in Catania, is constituted, at themoment, by Ole following scholars:- Prof. Renato Cristofolini - University

of Studies in Catania - Faculty ofMathematical, Physical and NaturalSciences.

- Prof. ALfredo Petralia - University ofStudies in Catania - Faculty ofMath-ematical, Physical and Natural Sci-ences.

- Prof. Sebastiana Lagona - Universityof Studies in Catania - Faculty ofLet-ters and Philosophy.

- Prof. Maria Elisa Brischetto - Univer-sity of Studies in Catania - Faculty ofPolitical Sciences.

- Dot1.Clelia Burgi - University ofStud-ies in Catania - Faculty of PoliticalSciences.

- Dot1. Francesco Musmeci - Univer-sity ofStudies in Catania - Faculty ofPolitical Sciences.

- Prof. Ofelia Guadagnino - member ofthe Institute of search and formationISVl and ofthe UNESCO Center inCatania.

- Ing. Giuseppe Fumari - Digital Mul-timedia- Technologes

LU(J)(f)OO

ReferencesAA.W., "Mount Etna Volcano", Mem. SocoGeol.

It, vol XXIII, Roma, 1982.

Chester D. K., DuncanAM., GuestJ. E., Kilbnum

C.R.J., "Mount Etna, lhe anatomy of a volcano'.

Chapman & Hall ed., Londra, 1985.

Cristofolini R., Corsaro RA, Ferito C., 'Variazioni

petrolchimiche nella successione etnea: un

riesame in base a nuovi dati da campioni di

superficie e da sondaggi." Acta Vulc, 1991.

Cristofolini R., Imposa S., Patané G. "1983,

Etna cronaca minore di un evento storico",

Tringale ed. Catania, 1984.

Poli E. "11Parco nazionale dell'Etna, valori e

problemi del paesaggio vulcanico attivo',

Quademi della ricerca scientifica n. 98, C.N.R.,

Roma, 1973

r-,,-•••••=RXlD .~, ••.•ArIripo

MontsCrrat?~ G-Ic••••.

~i ~1 Q

4 km

Fig. l. Map of Montserrat showing places mentioned in thetexto Topographic contours are in feet. Jnset shows the loca-tion of Montserrat in the Lesser Antilles island arco

§ince the middle of 1995, theEastem Caribbean island ofMontserrathas been host to violent activity at theSoufriere Hills volcano. The island isless than 100 km2 in size, with the vol-cano comprising the southem third ofthe island (Fig. 1). The capital town.Plymouth, lay on the lower flanks ofthe volcano, just 3 km from the activecrater (Fig 2a), and almost two thirdsofthe island's 11,000 population livedwithin 5 km ofthe volcano's summit atthe onset of activity.

The Soufriére Hills volcano (SHV) isan andesitic stratovolcano' at least170,000 years old. The volcano itselfand the surrounding deposits provideabundant evidence for the nature ofprevious volcanic activity: namelylong-lived dome-forming- eruptionswith generation of pyroclastic Ilows'and some mild explosive activity. Thisstyle is typical of the volcanoes of theLesser Antilles island are. Pyroclasticflows from a dome-forming eruption atMt Pelée on the nearby island ofMartinique in 1902 killed a1most 30,000people in the worst volcanic disasterofthe 20th century. Thus both geologi-

20 InternationaI JournaI of IsIand AtTairs

MonlserralunderlheIhrealofSoufriereNills Volcano:ManagingIhe crisis

cal and human history pointed to a po-tentially dangerous volcano whichwould impact severely on a small is-land nation.

Two factors in particular carried spe-cia1 weight in the assessment of vol-C31ÚChazards and risk on this, small,island. The first was the potential foran eruption of such a magnitude that itwould impact severely on the wholeisland. Was such an eruption possible?lf so, then what were the chances itwould happen? And could sufficientwaming be guarantecd so as evacua-tion of the island was possible? Thesecond factor was the possible longev-ity of the eruption. Even if safe to doso, could the islanders survive the pro-longed loss and probable destructionofmost housing, key infrastructure andfarming lands? And what future wouldthe islanders have when and if the vol-cano once again became dormant?

The scientific input to managementof this volcanic crisis went above andbeyond that provided in any previousvolcanic disaster, perhaps any previ-ous natural disaster. This scientific in-put was required th3111<:sto the nature

by SfMON R YOUNG*

of the problem, and was possiblethanks to the high level of monitoringand research which was undertakenunder the auspices of the MontserratVolcano Observatory (MVO).

Both scientists and disaster manage-rnent officia1s c1imbed a steep learningcurve during the first two years of thecrisis. The importance of effective com-munication between these two groups,as well as between them and the generalpub lic. cannot be underestimated. Thelow loss oflife (20 people. all within anevacuated area c1assified as extremelyhigh risk) relative to the number of'prop-

erties destroyed (housing for about6,000 people), and the extended lengthoftime that key infrastructnre remainedoperational (port and main industrialcomplex until hours before being effec-tively destroyed, airport until minutesbefore almost being destroyed) bothsuggest that the combination of scien-tific knowledge and administrative dili-gence provided an effective basis forsuccessful disaster management.

* Chief ScientistjDirector, Montserrat Volcano

Observatory, 1996-2000

This paper outlines the role playedby scientific knowledge in theMontserrat volcanic crisis. It describesthe evolution of volcanic hazards as-sessments for fue island, and fue devel-opment of quantitative risk assess-ments. It will highlight in particular thoselessons learnt from fue Montserrat ex-perience, which are most important foreffective management of volcanic cri-ses on other islands around the world.

The Island of MonfserrafMontserrat was named by Columbusand colonised by Catholic priests ex-pe11ed from a neighbouring island in1632.1t has been under both British andFrench rule at various times during itscolonial history, and is now a BritishOverseas Territory. There is a Gover-nor representing the British Head ofState, and a locally-elected governmentand parliament. High-revenue tourismwas the main source of income Ior theisland at the onset ofthe eruption, witha rice-processing plant and an olfshoreUS medical school also contributingsignificantly to foreign earnings. Agri-culture was almost entirely undertakenon the flanks of the volcano, and mostproduce consumed locally. Links to the

outside world were via a small airporton the central eastern coast and a corn-mercial port in the capital, Plyrnouth.

Natural disasters have struck the is-land many times, with the 1989 passageof Hurricane Hugo most prominent inthe memory. Hugo damaged 95 % ofthe housing on Montserrat, and mostkey infrastructure had to be rebuilt.Considerable UK and other interna-tional aid money was spent onMontserrat in the six years betweenHugo and the onset of activity at SHV;almost all of it on infrastructure rede-velopment in and around Plymouth.

Volcanic Hisfory ofMonfserraf and TheEasfern CaribbeanMontserrat is a small volcanic island(-100 km-) Iying towards the northernend of the Lesser Antilles island arc,on the eastern side of the CaribbeanSea (Fig. l ). The volcanic are Iies ap-proximately 250 km to the west of theboundary between the Atlantic Plateand the Caribbean Plate. The AtlanticPlate is moving slowly (10-40 mm/year)westwards and is subducting beneaththe Caribbean Plate. The active arecomprises 11 volcanic islands, from

Grenada in the south to Saba in thenorth, with an underwater volcano 10-cated north ofGrenada called Kick 'EmJenny. The northern part of fue chainhas, to its northeast side, an outer areof older volcanic islands now sub-merged and covered in coral.

The active are is about 5 million yearsold, and has 11 volcanoes which haveshown unrest in the past 500 years orso (Table 1). The island ofMontserratis - 4 million years old and comprises 4distinct volcanic centres: Silver Hillsin the north, Centre Hi11s, the activeSoufriere Hills, and South SoufriereHi I1s(Fig. 1). Volcanic activity has gen-erally migrated southwards throughtime: the style of volcanism has re-mained the same throughout the is-land's geological history.

Prior to the onset of the current erup-tion, fue youngest known deposits onMontserratwere-16.000yearsold. Workundertaken after the onset of the currenteruption revealed a deposit of - 4,000years old ~;vhichis thought to be associ-ated with fue sector collapse"event whichformed the scarfeature (English's Crater)which dominates fue current morphology.An even younger series of deposits wasalso identified in fue Tar River valley,

LQj(J5(f)OO

~.Table 1. Volcanoes of the active segment of the Lesser Antilles island are

Volea río Island Population Historical seismic Historical or last pre-name of island unrest' historie volcanic activity" 3

Mt St Catherine Grenada 92,000 7 < 1,000 SPKick 'Ern Jenny Underwater n/a 1939, 1943, 1953, 1965-66,

(Grenadines) 1972,1974,1977Soufriere St Vincent 111,000 ?1780, 71880, 1718,71784,1812-14,71880,

1945-46 1902-03, 1971-72, 1979Sulphur Springs (Qualibou) St Lucia 145,000 1990 1766Mt Pelée Martinique 371,000 1792,1851-52,1902-05,1929-32Morne Patates / Morne Plat Pays Dominica" 71,000 1849,1937-38,1967,1971Nalley of Desolation / Micotrin, 1974, 1976, 1985-86, 1994-95 - 735 SP, 1881, 1997

1997,1998-99Morne au Diable/Morne Diablotins Dominica" 71,000 71765,1841,1893 > 30,000 SPLa Soufriere Guadeloupe 413,000 1962 1680, 1696, 1797-98, 1809, 1837

1843 1903, 1956 1976·77Soufriere Hills Montserrat 11,000 1897-98, 1933-37, 1966-67 - 380 Sp, 1995-Nevis Peak Nevis 9,000 1831-35,1926,1947-48, No data

1950-51, 1961-62Mt l.iarnuiqa St Kitls 32,000 1988 71692,71843TheQuill St Eustatius (Statia) 2,500 - 1600 SPThe Mountain Saba 1,300 - 330 SP

Notes:

1. ? = before a date denotes that the nature of the event is poorly recorded.

2. Dominica has a number of volcanic centres - they have been split into northern and southern groups for this tabulation.

3. Dates in italics are for pre-historic activity dated by radiocarbon methods, SP denotes years before present.

dated at 350 to -l00 years old.The lack of any historical documenta-

tion of this last eruption suggests thatit occurred just a few years or decadesprior to colonization ofthe island in 1632.There was thus no recorded surficialvolcanic activity on Montserrat prior tothe onset ofthe current eruption in 1995.However, there were three episodes ofshallow earthquakes which have beentenned 'failed eruptions'. Such periodsof seismic unrest are common in the Car-ibbean volcanoes: most such periodsare not followed by an eruption.

The three episodes of seismic unrestwere in 1897-98,1933-37 and 1966-67;the thirty year periodicity of these epi-sodes extrapolates to renewed unrest inthe mid-1990s. Each episode comprisedshallow, sub-volcano seismicity inswanns. Earthquakes in 1934 had an es-timated magnitude ofmore than 4, andcaused widespread damage in the vil-lages all over the south of Montserrat.

Elsewhere in the Caribbean, historicalactivit:y has been common (Table I).Significant volcanic activity is knownat 4 centres; La Soufriere onGuadeloupe ..Mt Pelée on Martinique,the Soufriére of St Vmcent and Kick 'EmJenny. Seismic unrest is recorded from afurther 6 of the active volcanoes in thechain. One particular month stands outin Caribbean volcanic history; May 1902.Mt Pelée and the Soufriére of St Vincentboth erupted within days of each other,and both caused mass casualties; about1,500 in St Vincent and an astonishing30,000 at Mt Pelée, where all but twopeople in the capital, St Pierre, died.

Eruptive Activity at TheSoufri ere Hills Volcano,1995-2001The ongoing eruption ofthe SoufriéreHills volcano began on 18 July 1995with the opening ofa phreatic' vent inthe summit crater of the volcano closeto the island's highest point, ChancesPeak. However, the onset of surfaceactivity was preceded by an intermit:-tent seisrnic crisis which started in 1992and peaked in late 1994.


Fig. 2a. Plymouth 1I'1Ih the Soufriére Hillsvo/cano brooding behtnd, October /995.

Fig. 2b. Pyroclasuc flows reaching the sea althe end of {he Tal' River va/ley, June 1996.

Phreatic activity continued for fourmonths, with four major explosions pro-ducing heavy ashfall in the capital, Ply-mouth, immediately downwind of thevolcano. The first of these, on 21 Au-gust 1995, prompted the first evacua-tion of southern Montserrat (see be-low). A short period of possible domeextrusion occurred in late September1995, followed by a return to phreaticactivity, with explosions on 31 Octo-ber, 4 November and 9 November be-ing the most si.gnificant events.Seismicity associated with this earlyphreatic activity was significant, witha number of earthquakes felt within 5km ofthe volcano.

Continuous extrusion of viscousandesitic lava in the form of a domebegan on 15 November 1995 within themain phreatic crater. Lava extrusion wasnot confirmed untillate-November dueto poor visibility at the summit of thevolcano; southern Montserrat was thenevacuated for a second time as the sci-entifíc team assessed the rate of domegrowth. If the dome was growingquickly. that would have indicated rapidmagma rise, leaving little time for dis-solved gases to be lost. Gas-rich mag-mas reaching the surface are prone toviolent explosions and generation ofpyroclastic flows. As it was, domegrowth was slow, and there were no

indications of explosive activity, so thatthe evacuation order was lifted after amonth.

Lava continued to reach the surfacein the crater until 10 March 1998. bywhich time almost 300 million cubicmetres of laya had been extruded. Ex-trusion rates remained low during theearly months of dome growth, and roseunevenly thereafter. The first signifi-cant pyroclastic flows occurred in lateMarch 1996 in the Tar River valley,which led from the open. eastern sideof the sumrnit crater to the sea, 2 kmaway. These flows and other signs ofincreasing magma production rateprompted the third and final evacua-tion of southern Montserrat on 3 April1996. Flows fírst reached the sea on 12May. and over the next 4 months, a se-ries of prolonged dome collapses oc-curred, sending pyroclasticflows downthe Tar River valley to the sea for peri-ods ofmany hours (Fig. 2b). Althoughthese flows did not directly threatenany inhabited areas, ashfall from theseand other eruptions periodically oc-curred over the whole ofMontserrat.

A particularly long and violent domecollapse on 17 September 1996 culmi-nated in the first magma tic explosión",which deposited ash and pumice on theinhabited village of Cork Hill and sur-rounding areas, and led to the destruc-tion of houses in Long Ground, the east-ern village closest to the growing lavadome (which had been evacuated manymonths before). Magma ascent contin-ued, and the dome had soon reachedthe size it had been prior to the 17 Sep-tember collapse. A two-month period ofno dome growth followed: instead ofreaching the surface, magma was beinginjected beneath the dome, causingstresses on the crater walls and leadingto the possibility of lateral explosions'and sector collapse. By the end of theyear. however, dome growth had re-sumed in a vigorous marmer (Fig. 3).

Dome growth continued at a steadyrate throughout the first half of 1997,with periodic dome collapses produc-ing pyroclastic flows in the Tar River

L

valley lo the east and the White Rivervalley to the southwest. The northernIlanks ofthe volcano carne under threatin May 1997 as dome growth switchedto that area, and on 25 June. a largedome collapse sent pyroclastic Ilows 6km towards the airport and over .J. kmtowards the village of Cork Hill. Anumber of villages were destroyed orsevercly damaged, and 20 people whohad ventured into the evacuated areato tcnd crops were killed.

Rapid dome growth continued, lead-ing to a major dome collapse in earlyAugust which produced pyroclastic110wswhich destroyed the capital, Ply-mouth, to the west ofthe volcano (Figs-la). This dome collapse was Iollowedby a series of 12 Vulcanian explosions"at intervals oflO to 14 hours, praducingtall convective columns" (up lo 12 km)and fallout of ash and pumice over all ofMontserrat. A further major dome col-lapse occurred on 21 September:pyroclastic 110wsfrom this collapse de-stroyed the airport and several eastemvillages which had been spared on 25June. A succession of75 explosions fol-lowed at an average interval of9 hours;the COIWlillS reached 13 km height (Fig.-lb) and ash and pumice was again de-posited over all of Montserrat.

Dome growth rate peaked towardsthe end of 1997, with more dome col-lapses in early November, and the mostviolent event of the whole eruptionearly on 26 December. This event wasvery similar in character to that fore-cast ayear earlier, and resulted in thedevastation of 9 km" of southwesternMontserrat. A small sector collapseproduced a debris avalanche'? with .J.km run-out, and was followed immedi-ately by a dome collapse with violentlateral explosions to the southwest.Pyroclastic surges 1 1 completely de-stroyed the villages of St Patrick's andMorris and caused severe damage toall property south of the outskirts ofPlymouth. A small tsunami 12, whichcame ashore midway up the west coastof Montserrat with a wave height ofabout 1.5 m, was also generated.

Fig. 3. f/gorolls dome growth highlighted alntght by strong g/Oll'lI1g of the dome, De-cember 1996.

Following ÚUS event, dome growth rap-idly recommenced, and continued at ahigh rate until early March 1998, whenmagma supply to the surface abruptlystopped. For the next 20 months, no newdome growth occurred, although explo-sions, pyroclastic 110wsand lahars" con-tinued to occur. In late October 1999, aperiad of particularly heavy rainfall fol-lowing the passage of two hurricanesprompted increased phreatic activity, andin early November, ('\YO phreatomagmaticexplosions" occurred synchronous withan increase in volcano seismicity indica-tive of magma movement.

Fig, 4a. Plymouth after its destruction bypyroclasttc flO1VS, September 1997.

Fig. 4b. Typical eruption column from aVulcanion explosion, October 1997.

A new dome appeared in the mainphreatic crater in mid-November 1999,and grew slowly until entirely collaps-ing on 20 March 2000 in one ofthe larg-esl pyroclastic flow-generating eventsof the eruption. This was the first timethat such a large proportion of an ac-tive dome had collapsed. and the eventwas thought to have been promptedby a short period of extremely intenserainfall in the hours prior to the onsetof collapse.

Dome growth again recommencedalmost immcdiatcly, and the dome grewat a variable, but generally quite slow,rate until July 2001, when a large por-tion of the dome again collapsed in aseries of large pyroclastic flows in theTar River valley. Dome growth restartedirrunediately and is ongoing at the timeofwriting (November 2001).

LlJfñrJ)OO

Volcanic Hazards andCrisis Management

Severa1 volcano hazard assessmenlshad been undertaken for Montserratprior lo the onset of unusual seismicactivity beneath the volcano in late1992. The most thorough study wasundertaken in the mid-1980s by re-searchers from the Seismic ResearchUnit of the University of the WestIndies based in Trinidad. This projectwas sponsored by the United Nations,and resulted in detailed assessment ofpast eruptions of the Soufriére Hillsvolcano and primitive computer-aidedmodelling of hazardous phenomenafrom likely eruptive activity. The studywas presented in a report to authori-ties on Montserrat but unfortunatelywas not given sufficient attention inthe years that followed. Elements of thestudy were a1so published in the aca-demic literature, from where they rap-idly resurfaced at the onset of surfaceactivity in July 1995.

In retrospect, the report proved accu-rate and shou1d have provided an earlywarning to authorities on Montserrat. Itcould have had an especially significantimpact had it been used as part of theplanning process for rebuilding of key

infrastructure during the early 1990s inthe aftermath ofHurricane Hugo. As itwas, the report appears to have beenblown away in Hugo, and all ofthe keyinvestment in infrastructure onMontserrat since 1989 was lost to thevolcano within a decade.

The National Disaster ManagementPlan for Montserrat published in early1995 did not even recognise a volcaniceruption as a potentially disastrousevent. despite more than 2 years ofanomalous seismic activity beneath thevolcano which reached a peak in No-vember and December 1994. The onsetof volcanic activity thus found the is-land unprepared. The earlier hazardassessment was eventually re-discov-ered, although for a time, poor photo-copies of a colour map in an academicjoumal served as the hazard map forevacuation planning purposes.

The first evacuation of southernMontserrat took place immediately af-ter the first large phreatic eruption on21 August 1995. Eastern villages closeto the open eastem side of English'sCrater were evacuated a few days ear-Iier. The Belham Valley (Fig. 1) servedas the northem limit of the evacuatedzone to the west: the zone to the easthad its northern limit to the south ofthe airport. This evacuation lasted 2weeks, whilst the scientifíc team as-sessed the likelihood of immediate andsignificant magma tic eruptions.

A second evacuation of southerntowns and villages occurred at the be-ginningofDecember 1995, whendomegrowth wasfirst definitively recognised.Evacuation- of eastem villages againoccurred first, along with vulnerablepopuJations to the west (e.g. hospitalpatients, old people etc). This evacua-tion did not encompass such a large areaas the first evacuation, as scientists wereby then better aware of what phenom-ena might be expected. This evacuationlasted a month; however, residents ofsouthern Montserrat were warned ontheir return that if dome growth contin-ued, a third and probably long-lastingevacuation would be required.


Fig. 5. i olcontc risk map from June 199-, at the endof the pertod of mtcro-management oi volcantc haz-ards on Montserrat. 'A' denotes the area of highestrtsk, with each successtve zone declimng In risk. Theevacuation status of each zone varied wtth alert level,which in turn depended on the day-to-day activity ofthe volcano.

A comprehensive re-assess-ment of hazards was under-taken by the newly-formedMontserrat Volcano Observa-tory in early 1996, and this as-sessment was continually be-ing updated as the eruptionprogressed. These hazard as-sessment updates included

. two separa te parts; one con-centrating on the evidence ofpast eruptions of SHV andsimilar volcanoes elsewherearound the world; and theother concentrating more onthe rnonitoring data and grow-ing understanding of the vol-cano itself. The longevity ofthe SHV eruption enabled

.data generated by researchscience to feed back into themonitoring programme andhazards assessments, an unu-sual and positive factor.

The third evacuation oc-curred on 3 April 1996,prompted by several days of increas-ingly rapid dome growth, longer runoutpyroclastic flows in the Tar River val-ley, 3l1d evidence for higher gas pres-sures in the dome itself. The evacua-,tion was ongoing as the firstpyroclastic flow with runout of greaterthan 1 km occurred. The evacuationarea included Plymouth, Harris andmost of the eastern villages south ofthe airport. However, SOl11eofthese ar-eas had daytime access for either resi-dents or workers.

Hazards assessments for SHV frommid-1996 beca me possibly the mostdetailed ever attempted for an active,potentially explosive, volcano. The pri-mary reason for this was the lack ofspace on the island that would allowthe country to function effectively at acomfortably safe distance from the on-going volcanic. eruption. As a result,micro-management of the areas underthreat from the volcano was necessary(Fig. 5). This enabled key infrastruc-_ture to continue functioning whi 1stkeeping risk levels acceptably low.

Montserrat Volcano Risk Map6 June 1997

. Evacuation zones were altered to al-10\V for different phases of activity, andzones had different rules applied to themdependent on the alert level reCOl11-mended by the scientific team and rati-fied by the management authorities. Al-though complex, this system worked welluntil overtaken by events in the sununerof 1997.After the tragic events of25 Juneand the loss of the airport, sea port anddestruction ofPlymouth, fueBelham Val-ley once again became the southern limitof occupation on Montserrat, and it willessentially stay that way until eruptiveactivity has ceased completely.

Aiding the hazard assessment andmicro-management process was theability of the scientific team to achievea form of consensus over potentiallycontentious advice. This was able tohappen due to a number of factors, mostimportant of which were the expertelicitation process instigated at the startof the eruption (and described furtherbelow) and the fact that the MVO actedas the fulcrum and mouthpiece for allscientists working on the volcano.

The Development ofQuantitative RiskAssessmentThe loss of life during events of 25June 1997 and the increasingly explo-sive nature ofthe volcanic activity dur-ing the second half of 1997 promptedrevision of the risk assessment proc-ess. The assessment of volcanic haz-ards by the scientific community andthe subsequent communication of ad-vice to the authorities managing thedisaster had to be conducted in a pub-licly accountable manner. The destruc-tion or near destruction of most of allof the key infrastructure around theflanks ofthe VOlc3110(most importantlythe sea port, airport (Fig. 60) and rice-processing plant) effectively ended theneed for micromanagement of evacua-tion zones. This simplified the alert andhazard map system, and relieved pres-sure on the scientists considerably.However, the larger questions of thesafety of the entire island and the po-tential longevity of the eruption rap-idly came to the fore as the authoritiesrealised the full implications of large-scale evacuations and los s of infra-structure. Was the northern part of theisland safe enough to justify large-scale rebuilding of housing (Fig 6b)and infrastructure?

The scientific staff at the MVO con-cluded that the advice they were nowbeing asked to give would have hugeimplications on the Iuture ofMontserrat. Thus, sufficient rigour andaccountability had to be included in theadvice-giving process to stand the testoftime and intense scrutiny. A quanti-tative risk assessment (QRA) was un-dertaken in December 1997, includingextensive discussions of past and [u-ture volcanic activity, data from themonitoring operations and ongoinglaboratory research, and expertelicitations to deduce the probabilitiesand uncertainties for activity at thevolcano over time periods of6 monthsto 5 years. Both qualitative and quanti-tative information was gathered on thevulnerability of people and property on

1.n 1 ._ .... ...••... , ..•......••••.•..•.. o ••••••••••••••• _ •• ,_0 •• o •••••••••••

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: --+- Present pccoiencn

: .. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: -'-Vvho!e popn rroved__ ._0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••• -. tozones2&1

tTiJ

Stnd exclosrcozone

Number of Pataüñes N

LUen(j)

OO

FIg. 7. One of the outputs from the quantuauve risk assessmen/s IS a cumulattve probabilttyplot for fatalities from volcantc acttvtty. Thts example, from the December 199- assessment,

shows the possible reductton 111 sacie/al rtsk by various different evacuation scenarios.

ogy and results by the UK's Chief Sci-entific Advisor and a panel of his ownexperts. That review confirmed fue va-lidity of the work, and the risk assess-ment has been updated every 6-12months since then.

As anticipated, fue hard risk numberswhich were released as a result of theQRA provided fue managing authoritiesand indeed fue community at risk withsufficient infonnation to make short andlong-tenn decisions regarding evacua-tions and sustainability of the island.Very substantial economic and redevel-opment aid flowed into Montserrat fromearly 1998, with new housing. govern-ment buildings, a heliport and other keyinfrastructure rapidly being constructedin the north of the island. Assistedrelocations, mainly to fue UK, peaked inlate 1997, and fue population remainingon the island declined to about 3,500.As redevelopment has continued, fuepopulation is slowly rising again. al-though the habitable part of the islandcan perhaps support only half of theoriginal population. Montserrat'seconomy is still heavily supported by

. the UK, but budgetary aid is slowly be-ing reduced. The continuing volcanicactivity still looms large in the con-sciousness of all Montserratians, bothat home and overseas, but fue high levelof scientific monitoring and the trust that.has developed between the scientificte31TIand the population both providesecurity and confidence in fue future offue island.

the island, including estirnations on fuelikely life loss and property loss undereruption scenarios ofincreasing sever-ity.

The final output from the assessmentprovided risk information for variousareas on the island under variousevacuation scenarios, for both personaland societal risk (Fig. 7). This risk in-fonnation was easily understandable tomanaging authorities whilst at fue sametime being fully defendable throughscientific and mathematical investiga-tion. The gravity of this work was high-lighted when the UK Govemment or-dered a review of the QRA methodol-

~.

Fig. 6a. Destruction of the airport terminaland coverage of the apron and par/ of themnway by pyroclastic jlows, October 1997.

Fig.6b. Construction of housing in the northof Montserrat lo accommodate some of thoseperm anently di splaced from the south byvolcanic acuvity, January 2000.

Discussion of Key DisasterManagement IssuesThe ongoing volcanic crisis onMontserrat has highlighted a numberof important issues relating to disastermanagemcnt in a11island setting.

Nowhere to runThe geography of an island seuing, es-pecially if the island is srnall, the \'01-cano large. or key infrastructure is 10-cated in a potentially hazardous area.immediatcly creates a cha11engefor dis-aster managers. For example. onMontserrat, a moderatcly conservativeapproach such as evacuating everyonewithin 10 km of the volcano was notpossible without evacuating the entireisland (and thus depopulating an entirecountry). The options were limited tomicro-managed evacuations heavily de-pendent on good scientific information.or on an ultra-conservative approachwhich would have meant evacuation ofthe entire island, with dire consequencesfor the Montserratian community Thelatter was contemplated a number oftimes by Montserrat's disaster manage-ment authorities. Rapid evacuation inthe face of compelling scientific infor-mation that the entire island might bein danger was a1soan option, but again,the island setting made planning forsuch an eventuality extremely difficult.

Maintaining use ofkey infrastructureAir and sea links are an island's life-lines: without them, no island can func-tion. On many small islands, Iew loca-tions are viable for air and sea port fa-cilities. On Montserrat, both ports werewithin striking distance ofthe volcano,and both were able to operate withinareas otherwise evacuated for morethan ayear. This gave -suíficient timeIor an emergency sea port facility to becompleted. Over -l years on. there isstill no fixed wing landing capability onMontserrat, severely hampering theeconomic well-bejng ofthe island.

The value of scienceThe value of high quality, multi-dimen-sional scientific monitoring of a volcanic


cruption cannot be underestimated formost islands. Small populations oflenmean Iew if'any traincd specialists, so in-temational teams are often required to in-stall and run monitoring networks. Thisalmost always has a positive influence onlocal interest in science, and also bringswith it research expertise and resources.Without excellent science,micro-manage-ment of volcanic hazards on Montserratwould not havc bcen sustainable, be-cause risks would be impossible to quan-tifyand ÚlUS would be unacceptable,

Formalising risk analysisWith extensivo scientific knowledge anda large pool of intemational experts,quantification of risk on Montserrat wasachieved for the first time in an ongo-ing natural disaster. The presentaiionof defendable, consensus risk informa-tion to disaster managers recast the re-lationship between scientists and au-thorities on Montserrat. It also enabledthe population at large to see at last thehard infonnation which scientists aremeant to deal in.

CornmunicationsPerhaps the most important lesson thatshould be learnt Irom the Montserratcxpcrience is that good communicationin a crisis is vital.to successful disas-ter management. Communication be-tween scientists enables consensusand a single, authoritative voice. Com-munication of the consensus to authori-ties enables the decision-making proc-ess to proceed in a timely and effec-tive way. And communication betweenscientists and the public at large de-velops trust which, in turn, willlead tosuccessful disaster management.

Communication in an island settingis perhaps even more important thanelsewhere. Island populations are of-ten small, and nunours or misinforma-tion can spread quickly. Trust can beslow to develop, especially for new-comers. And islands provide few hid-ing places, few ivory towers for scien-tists to retreat into. On Montserrat, theobservatory and its scientists have be-come part of island Iife. The value ofthat is beyond measure.

Glossary1. Andesitic stratovolcano: A stratovolcano is

one made up of many layers of lava, ash

and volcanic clasts built up during the

course of many eruptions. Andesitic refers

to the dominant composition of the mag-

matic products - andesites are more sili-

ceous than basalts and less siliceous than

dacites.

2. Dome-forming: Volcanoes which erupt

high viscosity magma often produce lava

domes. As magma reaches the surface, it

is degassed sufficiently not to explode,

but is too viscous to run away from the

vent, so a pile of rubbley lava forms, a

dome.

3. Pyroclastic flow: A mixture of ash, rock clasts

and gas which moves fast (up to several

hundreds of mph) down the flanks of a

volcano as a density current. Pyroclastic

flows are commonly caused by collapse of

parts of a lava dome or explosive eruption

column.

4. Sector collapse: A sector of the volcanic

edifice collapses in the form of a landslide

either connected with volcanic activity or

due to other factors such as hydrothermal

alteration.

5. Phreatic: driven by steam from heated

groundwater, activity can include explosions

and gas, steam and ash venting.

6. Magmatic explosion: explosion driven by

rapid release of dissolved gases through

depressurisation as magma reaches the

earth's surface.

7. Lateral explosion: An explosion directed not

vertically but laterally, often occurs after a

sector collapse.

8. Vulcanian explosion: Short-duration mag-

matic explosion with relatively small amount

of material ejected.

9. Convective column: An eruption column in

which the heat of particles in the column

heats and entrains surrounding air, so pro-

ducing convective rise of air and particles as

in a thunder head.

10. Debris avalanche: Large landslide of usually

cold debris from the flank of a volcano.

11. Pyroclastic surge: Highly mobile portion of

a pyroclastic flow, lacking large clasts, often

associated with a flow, but may occur inde-

pendently.

12. Tsunami: Often known as a tidal wave, a

long wavelength intra-ocean or intra-Iake

wave triggered by seafloor movement or

displacement of a large volume of water at

the surface.

13. Lahar: Indonesian term used for mudflows

and mudslides on a volcano.

14. Phreatomagmatic explosion: An explosion

which is driven by a combination of

groundwater and magmatic gases.

+

Niijil1!1

Kozushim,,,

Miy,k.¡; •••D

Mikurajilla Q

Fig. 1. Map of {he Izu Islands

Out of80~d activevolea-noes in Japan, about 20 occupy themajor parts of sma1ler islands that con-stitute the island are. People living onthese islands are literally clinging to theneck of the high-rise volcanic cones,most part of which are submerged be-low the sea level.

The life on these islands may be sim-ple. natural and beautiful, as the resi-dents of the crowded cities would tes-tify, but in the rare cases of severe vol-canic eruption, the islands may turn tothe place offear and desperation.

Miyakejima is one of the Seven Is-lands in the Izu Island Are thatstretches to the south ofthe Izu penin-sula and into the Philippines Sea, im-mediately to the south of Tokyo. Allseven islands are volcanic in origin andhave a long history of repeated erup-tions (see Table 1 and the map in Fig-ure 1).

Past Voleanie Disasterson The Izu Island AreAogashima volcano, 360 km S of To-kyo, started erupting in the year of 1781and reached a climax with an eruptionthat occurred in April 1785. When therescue party approached, the wholeisland (3.5 km x 2.5 km wide) wasshrouded by a dense cloud of smoke

Eruplion ofMiyakeiima andsome problems of'he volcanicactivity on insularvolcanoes in Japan

and ash. Through the cloud sharpsparks of magma tic explosions occur-ring at the top crater (-1-23m above thesea level) illuminated the scene andwere accompanied by a deafeningsound of explosions. The 3 small boatsavailable for the rescue operation at thetime, were not sufficient to accommo-date a1l the islanders. About 200 peo-pIe were saved but more than 130 wereleft on the burning island. No oneknows what happened to, those leftbehind but it is believed that they haveperished before the reoccupation oftheisland, that started 50 years later.

A similar tragedy occurred in 1902, atIzu-Torishima (2.7 km across), 530 km Sof Tokyo. When a big eruption cloudwas reported by a nearby fishing boat,no contact could be made with the is-land. After the eruption was over, it wasfound out that a1l of the island's 125residents lost their lives during the vio-lent eruption.

In those times, it was very difficultfor the islanders to evacuate their is-land quickly especially when the seawas high. Today, thanks to the modernport facilities and the numerous sea-worthy vessels available, ihe evacua-tion of an island's residents in times ofvolcanic crisis is more feasible thoughthe task is not at all easy.

LQj(]S(f)OO

by SHIGEO ARAMAK/*

Reeent Voleanie CrisisManagementMiyakejima eruption(June 2000 -present)Volcanologists have concluded that theIife and safety of the islanders will bemuch improved if the onset of futurevolcanic eruptions could be forecast.In recenl years, it became clear that bymeasuring many pararneters of vol-canic activity, foretelling an eruptionmay be feasible in some cases. WhenUsu volcano, in Hokkaido island innorthern Japan, showed signs of ac-tivity in March, 2000, the onset oflocalearthquake swarm was quickly judgedas the clear forerunner of an eruption.Three days later, when the volcano ac-tually started erupting, more than10,000 residents in the danger zone hadalready been evacuated.

Similarly in the evening of June 26.2000, when an earthquake swarm startedin the western part of Miyakejima is-land, 180 km S ofTokyo (Fig.I), scien-tists wasted no time lo declare an emer-gency and reconunended the immedi-ate evacuation of the island. The last

* Professor Emeritus, Earthquake Research

institute, University of Tokyo

2-12-16, Toyotama-kami, Nerima-ku, Tokyo

176-0011 Japan


three eruptions that occurred inMiyakejima in 1940, 1962and 1983,wereall basaltic fissure eruptions along theslopes of the island's cone. AlI threeeruptions were short lived (l5-30hoursduration) and preceded by very short(less than 4 hours) precursory earth-quake swarms. So, in Miyakejima fol-lowing these well established pattemsof eruptive sequences of the past, thevolcanologists expected the earth-quake swarm was to herald theflankeruption which would soon break outfrom the fissures formed along the ra-dial cracks on the mountain slope. Thenext day, June 27, about 16 hours sincethe beginning ofthe earthquake swarm,a small submarine eruption was ob-served 300 m off the west coast of theisland, just at the center of the earth-quake swann. By then, all the residentsliving in that area (more than 2000 peo-pIe) had been evacuated to safer areasin the northern and eastem sides oftheisland. However, a few hours later, thearea of swarm moved further away tothe west ofthe island. At the same time,tiltmeters and GPS stations indicated areversal ofinclination, i.e., a shrinkingof the volcanic edifice following theprevious expansion which was indica-tive of shallow magma intrusion. AlI ofthese observations suggested that theunderground crack migrated westwardsaway from the island and so did theunderground magma.

As a result the evacuation order wascalled off on June 29 and the residentsreturned to their homes. Unfortunately

soon afterwards the situation took atum for the worst. After about 10 daysof quiescence, mild eruptions startedat the summit crater accompanied byweak swarms of unfelt shock beneaththe crater. By July 9, the sumrnit areastarted to collapse. New field observa-tions, especially with the use of GPS,tilt meters and gravity meters. indicatedthe central part ofthe volcano, i. e. theisland itself, was shrinking probablydue to the withdrawal of the under-ground magma. It may be argued that apiston-like block possibly several hun-dred meters across and a few kilometerstal! was gradually sinking into the largermagma chamber at depth. In the periodfrom July 9 to August 18, the scientistseven argued a step-wise descent of ablock into the magma chamber. Thiswas evidenced by a regular pattem ofepisodic earthquake swarms and peri-odie changes oftilt and inflation-defla-tion of the volcanic edifice. The Au-gust 18 phreatomagmatic eruptionprobably marked the end of the steadybut stepwise sinking of the block in apiston Iike motion and possibly thewithdrawal of the magma.

What caused the draining of such alarge arnount (0.5 km') ofmagma to theunderground? Ti e answer was to besoon found way off the coast ofMiyakejima. A large-scale earthquakeswarm started migrating from the west-ern shore of Miyakejima towards thenorthwest and after three days itreached near Niijima island about 25 kmNW ofMiyakejima. This linear swarm

July 6.2000

Fíg. 2. Radar images of Miyakejima showing the [ormation of a caldera al the top of thevolcano, following the summit collapse caused by the draining of the magma. Pho by theGeographic Survey Institute of Japan.


clearly indicated the northwestwardpropagation of a major open crack inthe upper crust into which the magmabeneath Miyakejima could have beendrained. The size of the vertical crack.about 25 km long and 10 km deep, isextraordinary but with some past ana-logues in the general area of the IzuIsland Are. The crack was probablyformed parallel to the regionalcompressive stress field produced bythe northwestward advancing of thePacific plate against the Philippine Seaplate. The large size of this tectonicmega-crack is reflected by the occur-rence of more than eight magnitude-6class earthquakes along the line, indi-cating probably the largest energy re-lease event in the area since the begin-ning of modem seismic observation.From GPS deformation studies, thewidth of the crack is estimated in theorder of 1 metre, a comparable valuewith the magma withdrawal atMiyakejima.

As a result ofthe magma withdrawalthe volcano summit at Miyakejimastarted to collapse and this processcontinued until the end of August. Bythen a caldera 1.6 km across and 400 mdeep was formed. Accompanyingphreatomagmatic eruptions deliveredconsiderable ash fall all over the island,producing minor mud flows after heavyrain falls. A few incidents of large pro-jectiles falling close to the inhabitedarea and the generation oflow-tempera-ture pyroclastic surges produced bythe collapsing eruption column raisedmuch fear among the residents and thewholesale evacuation ofthe island wasfinally called.

AlI the residents, about 3800.left theisland by September 3. At about thesame time, a very large volwne of sul-phur dioxide gas (S02)' began escap-ing from the sununit caldera. The dailyoutput of gas fluctuated from 20 to 70thousand tons. This outrageousdegassing phenomenon made the is-land uninhabitable as the atmosphericconcentration of S02 could exceed thesafety level of3 parts per million (ppm)

at any moment depending on the windcondition. The outgassing of S02 atthis high rate continued for more thanone year and is without any doubt aworld record. No other volcanoes haveever been known to have emitted thismuch amount of gas. The outgassingphenomenon must certainly be relatedto the withdrawal ofthe basaltic magmawhich in turn left the conduit linkingthe summit caldera with the magma res-ervoir underneath to stay open and letthe gas out.

Most ofthe evacuated islanders wereaccommodated in the Greater Metropoli-tan Tokyo area on the mainland (Honshuisland). They still remain there. at thetime of my writing (October, 2001). morethan one year since they were forced tohastily evacua te the island following theunprecedented volcanic phenomena wehave just described.

The Izu-Oshima eruptien of 1986For the Tokyo authorities accepting

people from the Izu Islands because ofa sudden volcanic eruption was thesecond such experience in recent years.In November, 1986, an unexpected fis-sure eruption at Izu-Oshima volcano (inOshima island, Fig. 1), led to a surpriseevacuation of about 10,000 people fromthe island to Tokyo.

Another basaltic stratovolcano imme-diatelyN ofMiyakejima, Izu-Oshima alsohad a record of frequent eruptions. Inthe evening ofNovember 15, 1986. theeruption started from the pit crater ofthe central cone called Mihara-yama. Bythe night the lava discharge was so largethat the fire fountain reached up to 500m high. During the following severaldays the eruption rate decreased gradu-ally but the pit was filled and overflowedwith lava. As tourism was the main in-dustry of the island, people (islandersand visitors) were very happy with theseemingly safe display of the lavasplashes and mild explosions, Howeverat 16:15 hours, November 21, a fissureeruption started with a curtain of firereaching the height oí more than 1.000m withi n 30 minutes. The fissure crossed

Fig. 3. Peopleevacuattng fromMiyakejim a(September 2000,photo by Yomlllrl

Shimbun).

the caldera floor in NW-SE directiongradually extending to the SE. Scientistson the caldera floor and tourists on thecaldera rim made a hasty retreat takingthe only road leading to the foot of themountain. After dark, the tissure ex-tended to NW crossing the caldera rim.The spectacular night scenes of gíow-ing fountains were being broadcast real-time by all the competing network sta-tions throughout Japan as it was veryeasy to send helicopters from the met-ropolitan Tokyo area. On the island se-vere earthquakes were frequently feltwith intensity ofup to VII on the Modi-fied Mercalli scale of seismic intensity(a scale that mea sures the effects ofground shaking upon people and build-ings, ranging from 1to XII). This addedto the worries of the inhabitants and theyreadily accepted the instruction toevacua te the island when it was an-nounced by the town mayor who wasofficially in charge of the civil defenceauthority. The 6-hour-long evacuationoperation was carried out in a spectacu-lar scale and mostly without seriousproblems. The town authority of'Oshimawith the help of the police and tire de-partments quickly set up a weIl coordi-nated operations center. Tokai Kisen, thelocal company that operates exclusivelythe ferry and bus transportation serv-ices of the island was asked to evacua tethe entire population. Alanned by thelive TV broadcast of the eruption, thegovernment of the Metropolitan Tokyoacted quickly and with the coordinationof the national govenunent, organizedthe immediatc dispatch of all the avail-able vessels nearby the island. Up to 40

Ll)(J)(f)OO

vessels, big and small, swarmed aroundthe island, on which only two ports wereavailable for the evacuation. Many fac-tors contributed to the success of thisemergency evacuation, but the most im-portant were: the relative calmness ofthe sea. the existence of pre-arrangedevacuation plans. the courageous elfortof the staff operating the local power-generating plant to sustain the electricpower supply throughout the evacua-tion and foremost the strong feeling ofintimacy and close cornradeship amongthe local people.

Most ofthe 10,000 residents of Izu-Oshima were moved to Tokyo wherethey were asked to stay with their rela-tives or at make-shift facilities such ascommunity auditoriums and gymnasi-ums. One month after the eruption, theevacuation was caIled off. The peoplewere able to come backjust in time tocelebrate their Christmas and NewYear's holidays at home.

The impact of the 1986 Izu-Oshimaeruption to the govermnent was enor-mous. The volcanic surveillance andmonitoring systems ofthe Izu-Oshimavolcano were beefed up with more in-stnunentation such as seismic, electro-magnetic and gravity networks most ofthem telemetered to the MetropolitanTokyo. The total system of telecornmu-nications including the emergencymobile networks has been reviewed andreinforced. The govermnent ofMetro-politan Tokyo asked the volcanologistsand other specialists to make an over-aIl assessment of the volcanic disas-ters of the Seven Islands of Izu and torecornmend a risk mitigation plan. In

addition the government decided tolaunch a project encouraging thepreparation and publication of hazardand risk mitigation maps around theactive volcanoes of Japan, a projectwhich was overdue for the country thathas so many active volcanoes.

Effects on the Lifeof the IslandersThe publicity due to the eruption af-

fected the islanders ofOshima in twodifferent ' vays. The economic assist-ance given to the island helped muchto improve the infrastructure of the is-land, but people still feel uneasy aboutthe possibility of scaring away thetourists beca use of the fearful impres-sion of the volcanic eruption. As iscommon to al! the insular communi-ties, the recent slowdown of economicactivity in Japan has dealt a seriousblow to the economic well-being of theislanders. Miyakejima was anotherexample, but the grim picture hasturned to desperate after the eruptionthat occurred in the summer of the year2000. For the Greater Tokyo with apopulation over 10 mil!ion, it wasphysically and economically not diffi-cult to accept 3,800 evacuees fromMiyakejima. The most crucial pointthat rendered the evacuation morepainful was the inability to predict theduration that the islanders would haveto endure staying away from theirhomes. Such a prediction was not pos-sible due to the unusual nature ofthiseruption. People were told to evacu-ate the island quickly with a very lim-ited amount of their belongings athand. After arriving in Tokyo, eachfamily was assigned to individualhousing without much considerationon the physical integrity of the localcommunity in the island. So añer sev-eral weeks when people realized thatthey will have lo stay in Tokyo longerthan they expected, it was almost im-possible to re-establish the commu-nal integrity as the islanders werethinly dispersed in the vast urbansprawl of Tokyo. The assistance of-

30 Inlernalional Journal of Island Affairs

Fig, 4. Miyakejtma island In late September 2000, wtth the newly formed caldera clearlyvistble. Atrport and port [actltttes are also seen In the foothills of the volea no (Photo taken byT Kaneko on 29 September, 2000)

fered to the islanders would appearluxurious lo the citizens ofthe devel-oping countries in other parts of theworld, but their quality of life proveddependent more on their emotionaland human way of communicatingwith their farnily and friends than onthe materialistic aspects. Just imaginean elder lady who had been tendingdaily chores for her family in their sim-ple house surrounded by the richnatural beauty of the island now stay-ing alone at a brand-new housing unitin a high-rise apartment building runby the metropolitan government. Thenew life in the city's high-rise build-ings, with the high-speed elevators,the underground railways, the auto-matic telling machines and numerousother things that she would have toadjust to, is so different and hardercompared to her way of life on the is-land. Her husband is away for the tem-porary job he could get and so are her

children who are more ready to adaptwith the city life.

Thus the case ofMiyakejima. is giv-ing us much to think and learn. Thegovernment is working hard toreestablish the infrastructure of the is-land, the road network damaged by themud flows, etc. with the hope that theislanders may be able to come back inthe very near future. The outgassingrate from the sumrnit caldera is slowlydecreasing, but still holding a highenough level to keep the residentsaway. Meanwhile, the local and met-ropolitarr governments with help fromthe volunteers and specialists are try-ing to improve the evacuation opera-tions piece by piece for the better liv-ing of the evacuees. We hope by thetime of the return of the residents totheir homes, the civic society wil!learnmore for mitigating the volcanic dis-asters which are unavoidable for thepeople living in the Japanese islands.

Table 1: Size and population 01 the seven Izu Islands

Island Area km2 Population

Izu-Oshima 91.1 9408

Toshima 4.1 293

Niijima 27.8 3122

Kozushima 18.9 2221

Miyakejima 55.5 3785

Hachijojima 72.6 9245

Virtual Polyclinic onthe Cres-Ioiini

Archipelago .

em3H3 is a Mediterraneancountry with about a thousand islandsand 120,000 islanders. Every island is aspecial ecological community with

small medieval towns. The inhabitantshave traditional occupations. They arefishermen, shipbuilders, sailors, farrn-ers but every family is today involvedin tourism in some way. The islandpopulation in Croatia is older in aver-age than the mainland population dueto migrations that are still present.Within that old population the percent-age of chronical patients is bigger thanin the mainland. We have no hospital son the islands, and two years ago regu-lar specialist medical care that has beenprovided by regional c1inical hospitalcenters was cancelled.

In the surnmer time our coast and is-lands are visited by 5 núllion tourist fromall over the world. This multinational

poulation that outnumbers the entirepopulation of Croatia needs our medi-cal care and has some special medicalstandards and requirements.It was inthese circumstances that 1conunencedmy work in May 1997. In my consulta-tion office on the Cres Losinj archi-pelago, where 1am the only internist onsix islands with 13,500 people.

The Cres-Losinj archipelago consistsof6 inhabited islands and about 30 un-inhabited rocks and rocky islands. Theinhabited islands are Cres, Losinj, Unije.Susak, Srakane, and llovik. They belongto the third group of islands that aremost remote from the mainland and the,nearest hospital. The transpon to thehospital in optimal meteorologycal con-ditions from Cres to Rijeka city lasts 2hours and 30 min, and from the Losinjisland one hour more. For small islandslike Unije, Srakane. Susak and Ilovikphysicians visit by a small aeroplaine orby ship.

In 1999 with a group of colleaguesfrom the mainland hospitals 1 startedtelemedical consultations. Slowly wesolved the majority of the problems inthe specialist care domain. In May 20001 started a pilot project "Virtual Poly-clinic on the Cres Losinj Archipelago"with Prof. Sven Loncaric from the Fac-ulty of Electronycal Engeneering inZagreb. The project was approved byour Ministry of Science and Technol-ogy, supported by Croatian PresidentStjepan Mesic and the Academy of Sci-ence, and was included in the Plan for

by ANAMAR/JA MARGAN *

thc informatisation ofthe country in thetwenty first century.

In Croatia this telemedical special-ist consulation system was the first inthe outpatient medical care. Being firstto start such a system we had to make adefinition ofVirtual Polyclinic as medi-cal institution for providing a special-ist medical consulting service in remoteareas using telematic technologies".

The aim of the Project is to evaluatetelemedical consultations as a new diag-nostic system in providing medical carefor islanders and tourists and to try toestablish an organised specialist consult-ing network using telematic technologies.

My consultation office is the firsttelemedical unit on the Cres Losinj ar-chipelago and in Croatia. For three years1worked alone but today my collabora-tors are Dr. Senka Stojanovic.a generalpractitioner who recently started to workwith me and Dr. Igor Prebilic.

The consultation office is located in36 m2 It is equipped by standard elec-trocardiogram, holter ECO, Tele 12chanel ECG, ultrasound SiemensSonoline Prima unit, and a small labora-tory system that provides us with a11the standard laboratory data withintwenty minutes. The personal compu-ter is connected to the Internet, printer.scanner and digital camera as neces-sary equipment for teleconsultations.We use a ISDN telephone line.

* Specialist in Internal MedicineINTERNIST'S SURGERYCons 11, 51 557 Cres - Croatia

When we need a teleconsultation wecreate virtual patient records that con-sists of a tex11131part with the history ofdisease, laboratory data, clinical exami-nation data and a section with ultrasoundimages, digital camera images or ECGimages. The software that we use allowsus to communicate directly with our con-sultants who receive the same virtualpatient record on the screen of their com-putero They reply to our request withinstructions for further diagnostic pro-cedures or recommendations for medi-cal treatment and future controls within2-1-hours. lfwe need urgenl answer westimulate mobile phones of our consult-ants with message on the screen thatthey recived an urgent request for con-sultation. lf we have cardial patients inan urgent condition we sit them downand record their ECG This is transmit-ted to the special hospital for cardio-vascular diseases "Magdalena", Theyhave a 24-hour call centre, so we receivethe answer to our request at once.

Our telemedical system is used alsoto avoid frequent visits to our consul-tation office by our patients on distantIarms in the remote areas of the islands.

We created a telemedical intrainsularnet that connects the Health Centre inMali Losinj, Veli Losinj, Krk, and smallhealth units of general practise in Cres,the island ofSusak, and Malinska city.That intrainsular net is connected tothe hospital s oñ the mainland whereour speciaJist consultants work. In oneyear we extended our consulting netfrom 5 to 33 consulting specialists in10 hospitals and medical institutionson the mainland.

On the 28tl• July 2001 the Presidentof the Republic of Croatia StjepanMesic officially opened OUTVirtualPolyclinic. Our guests of honour wereMinister of Health Prof. Ana Stavljenic


Rukavina, Minister of Building andConstruction Radimir Cacic. Presidentof the Academy of Science Prof. AsimKurjak. Director-general ofMicrosoftCroatia Miroslav Radman and Minis-ter of Health of France Dr. BernardCoushner. Among OUTother guestswcrc all the Director-generals of theClinical Hospital Centers on the main-land that are our partners in the Projecl,and rnany of our specialist consultants.

The project has proved to be verysuccessful. We have made some 200tcleconsultations for more than a hun-dred patients. We have controlled somepatients using the telemedical systemfor over two years. Most of them areislanders but we have a lot of foreigncitizens as well. One trip to the main-land costs 125US$ by emergency car.and 20US$ by bus.

In the first 10 months only my con-sultation office saved 3,625US$ on thecost of the emergency car for urgentcases, and 1,680US$ on the cost ofthebus for regular patients. This makes atotal of5,305US$ saved, and our initialinvestment in the equipment was5, 125US$. Therefore, we have alreadypaid back our investment, and on aver-age we have saved 48US$ per patient.

The project is not yet finished so wedo not know the data for the otherlelemedical units in OUTArchipelago.In the Mali Losinj Health Care Centrethey spent 14,375US$ for transport toClinical Hospital Centre in Rijeka until30tl• ofSeptember. In that time we savedfor them 5,305US$, 26% of which fortransportation cost.

Telemedical consultation has been avery successful tool for the improve-ment ofthe medical care on the Archi-pelago. OUTpatients have been able toreceive the care they needed at horne,and they have received it quickly fromthe best specialists in the country.Their confidence in the service theyreceive is therefore high all the time.

Telernedicine has also improved medi-cal care for tourists. This is very goodfor the tourist industry on the Archi- .pelago. With a more reliable medical care

system tourists will return, and in greaternumbers. The telemedical consultationsystem offers reassurance to those tour-ists with ChrOIuCdiseases and to thosewith small children. Any tourist desti-nation must also be a safe destination.

Although our project is not yet fin-ished and will be prolonged for one yearmore, our Ministry of Health decided toextend the same system to the Islandsof Vis, Solía and Lastovo by the end ofthis year, and within following two yearsto all the other Croatian islands. We areproud that our system will be used onthose islands, being hem the most re-mote islands in our country.

We believe that introducing informaticsystems in all Croatian health institutionswill be the ground plan for telemedicalconsultation as routine medical service,Life on the islands will no longer be syno-nym for isolation. lsolated islands will bethose without informatic systems forcommunication. We have such islandsin our big cities whose medical adviceswe cannot use simply due to the lack ofInternet connection.

We have succeeded to advice in con-sulting some foreign hospitals. Our aimis to coopera te with other countries ofour South-East European Region andthe Mediterranean region as well.

In Dubrovnik we have been invitedto present the Project in the Regionalmeeti ng of South-East European Coun-tries in the field of telemedicine fromNovember 8th to 12tl1 • 200 l.

Our work promotes a new model Iorspecialist consulting medical care thatwe have tested in practice for two years.We have proposed to our Ministry ofHealth to include this model in the so-cial security system and in the new Lawfor medical care.It is already includedin the new Law for the islands.

Consortium o,ilalian small islandsschools: a challengelo isolalion

The situation of school inHa/-ian small islands (44 islands, 35 com-munes, 270.000 inhabitants, 80.000 stu-dents) is critical and very far from satis-fying needs of knowledge, culture, so-cial and productive development of peo-pie, particularly of young people.

They live insularity as isolation, anunpleasant situation till tourist comesin sumrner, particularly in July and Au-gust. Full time employement is difficultwhere economic activity tends to behighly seasonal in its nature. So, island-ers need to fill these gaps by allowingthem to identify their own educationaltraining needs and develop programmesthat will benefit them and their area.

School is the only education and pro-fessional agency in small islands.Teachers are always temporary andthey change every year beca use thereare difficulties in reaching and livingthere, without an institutional aid.

But School Institution often forgetsOUT particular needs, because of thesma11number of students in our schoo!.

So, we must use Internet, multimediaand new learning technologies toavoid precariousness and isolation.Consortium is a mean to constitute avirtual school of small islands. openedto european insular realities, in orderto reach these important aims:• changing the existential disquiet, the

isolation, in a cultural resource, theinsularity;

• forming a bargaining power, able tonegotiate with centralized and local

by CRISTINA MOSTACC/*, ERMELlNDA GUARINO*

institutions, in order to improve in-struction, professional training.: so-cial standings of islanders.The first Congress ofItalian sma11is-

lands schools, held on 21-22 Septem-ber in S. Domino (Tremiti lslands, Italy),with an important presence ofteachers,local authorities, education practition-ers and delegates of parents associa-tions, underlined the serious contradic-tion emerging between the potentialdevelopment ofthese communities andtheir inadequate opportunities.

The rising of awareness about thepotential ofthese territories, the role ofInstitutes, the importance of social soli-darity, face cultural alienation and de-population that are real risks causedby this contradiction and mn by theseterritories. We must understand that in-vestments in training and school arepriority for the future of islands. Thisawareness must invest national andregional councils, local authorities and,of course, school organs.

For these rcasons it was importantto work out a package of essential andreal requests. We worked on identify-ing and analysing this platform, think-ing over experiences and problems in-troduced by the members of congress,by ministerial directors, university pro-fessors, provincial managers.

Our aim is to enable everyone thatwants it to access to the Internet andemail near to where they Iive and cre-ate a shared understanding be able toidentify and trasmit the specific goals.

To identify the goal s, aims and objec-tives when developing these initiativeswe consider the following questions:1 What do you want or hope to achieve2 why do you want to achieve this3 who will benefit as a result

So, the main elements of OUT pro-granune are:• constitution of a Consortiwn of small

island schools as official representa-tive from institutional interlocutors

• the reqúest of a modernization of theexisting legislative requirements onschool governance and supportmeasures for small islands, as loansfor three year projects directed to re-covering school failure, supplemen-tal)' benefits for teachers and employ-ers stating their availability to stayin small islands for the whole project,lodging facilities etc.Considering the strong peculiarities

of small islands, autonomy of manage-ment must be guaranteed, avoidingunifications with other schools of dryland for organizational and administra-tive purposes. Problems are very dif-

. ferent and often incompatible.More generally, sma11 islands ask

specific policies going further on thenumber of students and the territorialdimension and thé definition of a min-isterial special project, coordinated with

~egions having srnall islands in theirterritory and ANCIM, in order to pro-

* Istituto Comprensivo AutonomoFavignana (TP) - ItalyE-mail [email protected]

vide all schools with multimedia instru-ments. telematic tools, networks, sup-port services, specialist resources andloans for their management and longlifeupdating. Our airn is:a) integrate direct with remote training

(network training, video confer-ences, programmes in videotapes )

b) break isolation carrying out projectsopened lo the territory, to reach asmany children as possible and actas á community resource, availableto parents, with strong links to otherschools and the wider community

e) promote exchanges among differentschools in order to point out differ-ences and consonances, creating online newspapers, school websitesand e-mail access.

d) make operativeCIP (Centri TenitorialiPermanenti) activities in every school,addressed to the cultural growth ofadults leamers

e) require specific mea sures in UE

funds for small islands schools andspecific loans for school buildings(including gyms, meeting and con-ference halls, equipped roórns forcomplementary activitres) as build-ing new rooms is very difficult insmall islands, because ofthe dirnen-sions ofthe territories and the inad-equacy of loans, often insufficient,so it is very important to restructureold buildings.

COriSOrtilU11is supported by ANCIM(Association ofall the italian small islandcommunes), by our Universities, parentsassociations, The Island Comrnissionmembers regions list, INDIRAAssocia-tion, the Biblioteca di DocumentazionePedagogica, some departements of ourMinistero della Pubblica Istruzione ..

Groups of northem European islandsas : Association pour la promotion et laprotection des lles du Ponnant (AP.P.I.P.),the Irish Islands Federation, The Asso-ciation ofSmall Danish Islands. The Na-tional Association for the Sweedish Ar-chipelago are interested in our Censor-tium, because they share our aim to com-pare life of young people on Islandsworldwide and esperiment the new tech-nologies to create a 'net among all theEuropean schoóls. AlI these islands, inspite of the fact that they are so distance,

so different, are all small islands . withsimilar problems and difficulties.

In the recent past there was an inter-esting experience among islands of dif-ferent European regions.

Three years ago, "Teleinsula" projectwas drawn up by Eolie, Samos, Ma-deira and S"J' islands. Their aim was topromote the distance learning ofyoungand adult people, in order to solve theisolation in small islands, and the useof these technologies with e-tourisrn,e-medicine and whatever is connected .with public service.

We are interested in developing con-tacts with any islands of South East ofEurope in Mediterranean basin, be-cause we consider fundamental thecooperation among s111a1lislands forexchanging informations, setting upcornmon projects, developing humansources and promoting understandingbetween cultures and exchanges be-tween the civil societies involved.

CONSORTIUM OF ITALlAN SMALL ISLANDS SCHOOLS

SCHOOLS TAKING ALL ITALlAN SMALL ISLANDS SCHOOLSPART IN CONSORTIUM

CONSORTIUM ISTITUTO AUTONOMO COMPRENSIVO "B. MINEO"SECRETARIAT 91023 FAVIGNANA TP

OUR AIMS: • integrate direct with remote training (network training,video conferences, programmes in videotapes)• break isolation carrying out projects opened to the territory, to reachas many children as possible and act

as a community resource, available to parents, withstrong links to other schools and the wider community

- • promote exchanges among different schools in order to pointout differences and consonances, creat-ing on line newspapers,school websites and e-mail access.

- ·make operative CTP (Centri Territoriali Permanenti) activities inevery school, addressed to the culturalgrowth of adults learners

• require specific measures in UE funds for small islands schools

NEXT I • a PON action (project), in order to promote long distance training and learning for teachers and adultsPROJECTS •. "Niky Project",how to go around ·the world and study among different islands, using a satellite

broadcasting in long distanc;e learnig• music laboratories for the islands of italian archipelagos. A media.terraneo.sound• An islands portal. A web site for islanders, opened to EU inhabitants

• A EU project for european and mediterranean insular schools (INTERREG)

NEXT EVENTS • Genova 27 February-1 March 2002Salone delle Tecnologie Educative e Didattiche• Roma Pala-EUR 20-21 March 2002Forum Scuola-Somedia,Consortium of italian small islands schools:

The new reality for the Italian School. Speaker: Cristina Mostacci, headmaster• RAI MarchTG for children: "studing in a small island"• Favignana (Egadi islands) September 200211National Congress otltalian small islands schools

34 lnlernalional Journal of lsland Affairs

Te Pito OTe Henua

The Earth·sNavel

In the middle of the Pacific Ocean, located at some 1200 milesfrom the nearest land, Rapa Nui is the paradigm of insularity.Throughout their history, Rapanui islanders have sufferedfrom the most bitter side of the insular situation and have,at the same time, created one of the most beautiful andimaginative cultures in the world, a true song to life thatonly an island is able to generate.Therefore, it is not a coincidence that these people have,from the beginning, called their island "Te Pito O Te Henua",which in Rapanui language means "The Earth's Navel". Thissingular view is an example of the traditional effort madeby islanders of all latitudes to maintain our own world, andat the same time to face the big challenges of new timesmarked by globalisation. ~.

Acc<>nling tolegend,onan stratethat Rapanuiculture developederratic trip from the mythical land of in a continuous way and aside from ex-Hiva seven young people sent by King temal influences, starting from one mi-Hotu Matu'a as explorers to the so- gration of people without return. Nev-called "Extreme Matrix" reached the is- ertheless, there are other diffusionistland. Subsequently the King and his hypotheses not yet demonstrated thatfamily reached the island in two big justify the cultural changes of the mostpahl and settled down there. flourishing period of Rapanui culture,

This legend endoses the first distinc- around 1200 AD., based on sporadictive feature of the human presence on contacts to cultures proceeding frOI11thethe island, as stated by the Hawaiian Andean afea.archaeologisl Patrick McKoy: "human The development of Rapanui soci-colonization of this piece of land in ety and culture extremely exemplifiesSouth-eastern Pacific, probably under- the typical insular processes where ataken by a sole group just once, is among period of rnagn ificence alternates withthe 1110stsurprising and marvellous sudden collapse, accelerated develop-deeds of the old world". Most archaeo- ment and decadence due to resourcelogical researches effectively demon- depletion.

by C/PRIANO MARíN'

During its cultural flourishing, the is-land developed an advanced and so-phisticated megalithic art without com-parison in Polynesia. Throughout 500years, the Rapanui society achievedbuilding some 300 monwnental altars(ahu) an~ more than .600 giant humansculptures (moai) were carved onstone, a really astonishing activity ifwe take into account the size ofthe is-land and the population of the time.Craftjobs predominated, and a sophis-ticated maritime culture, which evenincluded tunafishing, was established.

After this expansive phase, the in-crease ofpopulation, which largely ex-ceeded 10,000 inhabitants, and environ-mental degradation caused by resourceoverexploitation, led to a cultural andenvironmental collapse without prec-edents that started at the beginning ofthe 17th century. The dark times start,when practically all the moai wereknocked off, farnine broke out and sodid, eventually, the war, with the twoextreme symbols of massive develop-ment of deadly tools and cannibalismtowards the defeated groups.

This article is the result of our own adaptation of

documents, data, and witnesses basically pro-

vided by: Ema Tuki Ika (CONADI - Corporación

Nacional de Desarrollo Indígena), Edgard Hereveri

(Cabañas Vai Moana), Mitzi Acevedo (AMBAR),

Soledad Gazmuri, and Jesús Cante Oliveros.

AlI this ends in the rise of a new wor-ship, the veneration of the man-bird(tangata manu'y, whose ceremonialcentre was the village of Orongo. Atthe end of this dark period the island'spopulation was reduced from 10,000 to2,000 inhabitants ..

Rapa Nui,an open-air museumIn spite of spoliations and the passof centuries, the countless marks ofthis magnificent and troubled pasthave turned the island into an authen-tic and unrepeatable open-air mu-seum, with more than 1000 archaeo-logical sites on an area of only 166km2 It is a really high density thatsurpasses spectacular situationssuch as Minorca and other Mediter-ranean islands.

Furthermore we should consider thatwe are in front of a unique heri tage out-standing for its singularity and diver-sity where, beside the mentioned moaiand ceremonial structures, we find re-mains ofhouses, villages, quarries and

workshops, house-caves, rupestrianart, and also a well-preserved ceremo-nial vi lIage.

But beside the tangible remains, theisland hosts an exceptional intangibleheritage, a jewel of alive culture in ahomogenised world that also has itsown language. Ethnographical herit-age is really varied and it is under acontinuous creative process, evenmore after thc recenl and continuousexchange with other Polynesian cul-tures.

The importance and uniqueness ofthe archaeological heritage of the is-land was recognised since early times,through the creation of the Rapa NuiNational Park in 1935 and the declara-tion of the whole island as a NationalHislorical Monument. Afterwards, in1995, UNESCO inscribed the area of theNational Park, which covers about 40%ofthe island, as a World Heritage Site,mentioning explicitIy the imaginativepower oflhis island society that devel-oped an exceptional culture in completeisolation.

The so-called "moai factory" IS located on the Raru Raraku volcano. 11 is one of theemblematic places on the tsland that J0111S together Ihe natural beauty of a volcantc conewtth a lake wtthtn lis crater and the tmpresstve stone quarrtes where the "moat " werecarved, petroglyphs, boal houses and one "a/III" at the base of the volcano. In thesequarries more than 1,000 statues were carved, and some -100 rematn there still unfin-ished, 111 different phases of the work, other were discarded or were left durtng theirtransfer. 11 is an authentic open-air museum, a book open on the evolution and develop-ment of thi s astomshi ng megaltthic arto Al present an ambitt ou s Pilot Plan for theImprovement and Development of Tourist, Interpretation and Conservation Services IS

being developed.

36 Inlernational Journal of Island Affairs

Meeting the outsideworld, a history wellknown to islands.The entry ofRapa Nui into westem civi-Iisalion is an example of the idea andbehaviour that continental countrieshave had with respect to the islandworld. Islands have always been forthem utopian territories, exotic placesbetween sky and sea that could be yetappropriated and spoiled. This viewforgets that islands are and have al-ways been the result of a fusion be-tween the islanders and these piecesof land surrounded by sea. Island peo-ple have always been circumstantialobjects annexed to islands.

On Easter Sunday of 1722, the inhab-itants of Rapa Nui descried some dif-ferent sails on the sea. It was the smallfleet led by the Dutch explorer JacobRoggeveen. After a first friendly con-tact. the landing and meeting with theislanders acquires a dramatic tinge,being the first act of a history that willbe too often repeated. It is said that thebalance of this meeting was a tableclothand a few hats lost for the Dutch peo-ple and thirteen Rapanui dead men.

The situation experienced byRapanui people in these first years ofcontact was highly vulnerable, beingimrnersed in a deep process of conflictsand social disintegration, differentlyfrom other Polynesian cultures that werein full development. The subsequentvisits followed the same pattern of as-saults and abductions, curiously com-bined with expeditions of missionaries.naturalists and erudite people whomanaged to supply tools and notionsto improve the islanders' living condi-tions. French naturalists, Americanwhale hunters. and expeditions suchas the James Cook's one. alternated thescientific interest and good treatmentwith rape and murder.

But the worst had not yet arrived.Between 1862 and 1863. the then calledEaster Island turned to be the target ofthe slave port of Callao. A Spanish cor-vette and seven Peruvian boats burstinto the island on December 23rd. 1862.

Evolution of the population in Rapa Nui

/r:/

\ ~\ »><, /"-....... ~

Source: CNE 1992, SASIPA 2000

causing a large number of deaths andcapturing 394 Rapanui people. Fromthis moment slaver raids coritinuouslyfollowed one another, and in only threeyears population, which had previouslyincreased to 4500 inhabitants. was thenreduced to less than 2000.

In this second ill-fated decade darn-age was unstoppable. In fact, añer theparalysation of slave raids thanks to in-temational pro tests, the few people thatcould retum brought with them ilLnessessuch as smallpox and tuberculosis. Ac-cording to missionaries' reports, popu-lation falls from 2000 inhabitants in 1864to not more than 600 in 1869. Owing tothese and other reasons, such as thecompulsory emigration of most survi-vors together with the missionaries in1877, the population reached its lowestlimit of 111 inhabitants. Of this smallnumber of people, 36 had descendants,who are the direct ancestors of present-day Rapanui society.

For this reason. it is really startlingto see today's Rapa Nui, where morethan 3000 descendants are living andadore their island, and we are aston-ished to see islanders' tremendous ea-pability of adaptation and anxiety forsurviving, demonstrated throughouttheir singular histories.

A land at stake: the keyof present-dayterritorial structure.Whoever is not from the island, despitebeing an islander, finds it dillicult tounderstand the present -day territorialconfiguration and land use before ap-proaching the big dispute on land own-

ership. The history of this spoliation isalso a singular one.

The origins of the dispute for landsgo back to 1868, after the slavery dis-aster and decimation by epidemics. Itis in that year that the adventurer Jean-Baptiste Dutroux Bornier landed at theisland, as a commission agent of theBrander Trading Company, with thetask to dedicate the island to sheepbreeding for wool production. He de-clares his sovereignty on the entire is-land and its inhabitants, starting vio-lent conflicts with lile disagreeing mis-sionaries and local groups, forcingthem to abandon Rapa Nui bound forTahiti and Mangareva. Therefore theBrander & Dutroux BornierCompanytums to be the maximum authority andactual owner of the islandxNeverthe-less, on an August Sunday of 1876Dutroux Bomier was found dead closeto his house at Mataveri.

Missionaries returned to the island.a Catholic governmcnt was proclaimedand a Rapanui couple was nominatedas King and Queen. In the meantimethe Brander Company continued its ac-tivities enlarging its businesses to thetrade of archaeological objects.

During that time the island was oftenfrequented by the Chilean navy and fi-nally, after several contacts and nego-tiations promoted by Captain PolicarpoToro Hurtado, Chile included the socalled "Easter Island" under its sover-eignty, after verifying that no other na-tions claimed it. Clearly they did not takeinto account the Rapanui people whoat thatmomentwereonly201 in number.The act ofincorporation was settled with

The Government of Chile atolla',~ .•..~ .~(¡~

declared Easter Island a .'l~'" ~<.Historie Monument by g ~DecreeN.45360fJuly ~ §23'd, 1935, due to its '\ ~"'~

~ o~great singularity and ar- C;c. PAT\l\1l'

chaeological and ethnographic relevance.

In the Berlin meeting of December 1995,the UNESCO declared Rapa Nui National Park

a World Heritage Site, in agreement with the

World Cultural and Natural Heritage Conven-

tion. In the report of the 19'" Session of the

Committee it is specified that: "The Commit-

tee concluded that Rapa Nui National Park

contains one ofthe most remarkable cultural

phenomena in the world. An artistic and ar-

chitectural tradition of great power and im-

agination was developed by a society that

was completely isolated from external cul-

tural influences of any kind for over a millen-

nium. The substantial remains of this culture

blend with their natural surroundings to cre-

ate an unparalleled culturallandscape".

Public explanation of the Tekena Toro Treatythat \Vas signed on September ')" 1888 alHanga Roa Pito o le katgna. Photo sup-plied by Joél Hucke-Atan, Prestdent, TribalGroups Tupahotu Rsktnkt Koro Orongo.Sovereignty of Easter Island (Rapa Nui}\Vas handed over lo the Republic of Chileon September ')'h, 1888 by agreement be-tween the Rapa Nui King Atamu Tekena,representtng the Chiefs of the lsland andNavy's Corvette Captain Policarpo ToroHurtado who represented the Governmentof Chile. In I/1Istransfer of sovereignty; RapaNtu Chiefs reserved their own rights andtnvesutures, as 11 IS clear In the documentssenl by Policarpo Toro Hurtado /O the Chil-ean authonties, that say: "The understgntngChiefs of Easter Island declare to cede for-ever and without reserves the full sover-eignty of the mentioned tsland lo the Gov-ernment of Chile, and at the same lime wereserve our o\Vn tules of Chiefs of which weare invested and that \Vepossess al presento.In this treaty is the ongl/1 of the dispute onland, as the Rapa Nut people constderedthat they only ceded the soveretgnty of theisland 1/1 change of help 1/1 education, trans-port and technology, never toking In/O ac-count, as it IS logical, the renunciation lothe ownership of thetr lands.

the signature of a Treaty with the repre-sentatives of the island. This was theorigin of the conflict because Rapanuipeople always argued that the Treatyspeaks of cession of sovereignty and,logicall y, no mention is made about ces-sion ofland ownership.

Owing to the difficulties to maintainits control on such a far territory, in 1895the Government of Chile rented the is-land to the French trader EnriqueMerlet, who transformed the islandersinto true slaves. They were relegatedto mere tenants, depriving them of alltheir possessions and rights, forbiddingthem even to fish. One of the first meas-ures adopted was to use guns to cor-ner a11the population within a reservenot larger than 100,000 m2, where nowa-days the village of Hanga Roa is 10-cated. This is the reason why at presentHanga Roa is still the only significantsettlement that concentrates a11popu-lation and their activities.

At the start of the next century, therights are transferred to the Easter Is-land Exploiting Company. which in turncede them to a Scottish company thatintensified even more the sheep farmingbusiness. In Aprill929, the Chilean Gov-emment put an end to the concessionto the Exploiting Company and the StateTreasury orders the National Propertiesdepartment to inscribe Easter Island'slands under its name; this order was notfulfilled due to unknown reasons.

Finally, in 1933 all the Rapa Nui landsare inscribed as properties ofthe ChileanNational Treasury. applying an article ofthe Civil Code that says: "Property of theState are all those lands that, being 10-cated within the National territory. haveno other owner''. The inscription waspublished within the newspaper "ElHeraldo de Valparaiso", obeying to theregulations' fonnalism to make public thisright. As said by the Rapanui representa-tive Alberto Hotus, such a bureaucratictidiness is surprising if consider thatValparaiso's newspapers on1y started toanive on the island in 1987.

In order to regularise this anomalyadministratively, a decree of 1979 es-


tablishes the regularisation of owner-ship through granting domain titlesfreely to actual owners. This decree didnot satisfy Rapanui people's expecta-tions, since they have always claimedthe re-establishment of ownership situ-ation as it was when the Treaty wassigned, maintaining the traditionalmanagement methods. In order to ex-press their dissatisfaction, islandersdecided to re-constitute the "Consejode Ancianos" (Old-men Council) as thehighest expression of the island soci-ety top deferid the ancestral andcommunitarian property of the island.Islanders' requests started to open their"ay very slowly, beginning a compli-cated process for the return of lands.

The challengesof the futureAs it happens on most islands of theworld, tourism turned to be a basic ac-tivity for the island. Tourist expecta-tions for a sensitive and extremely sin-gular destination like Rapa Nui are cen-tred on the quality of landscape andsea, on its most powerful cultural herit-age and, more particularly, on the localpopulation's behaviour and capabilityofintegration into this process. Withinthis context, the land issue and territo-rial planning are basic aspects to takeinto account.

Beside the fact that the return oflandsis an historical, undeniable right, it isimportant to meditate about the possi-ble future risks in comparison withother insular processes. The other side

of the coin is that the shameful con-finement of the Rapanui populationwithin the limited area of Hanga Roaturned to have a positive effect in tennsofland planning. One ofthe most sur-prising things on Rapa Nui is that, inspite ofbeing an island that opened itsdoors to tourism, most of its territory ispractica11y untouched. emphasizing itsmagnificent natural and culturalland-scape free ofbuildings and infrastruc-tures. It is regrettable to verify throughour own experience that on other is-lands as fragile as Rapa Nui, the firstphase of strengthening as tourist des-ti nation has been marked by aunmethodical rush for land occupationaimed to build new resorts, almost al-ways carried out by foreign investors.

Unfortunately, this is a very frequentprocess carrying with it a wealth ofcolonising infrastructures, such as newroads, electric and telephonic aerialcabling, and supply grids. Without get-ting an appropriate view, the miragecaused among islanders by the newtourist industry can turn to be the worstdestructor of the island's territory andquality oflife, which are the main basesof its offer. Among the several casesexisting, let us compare the processesoccurred on mature destinations suchas the Canary Islands, Balearics, or Ja-maica, based on multiple new occupa-tions of the coastal area having a tre-mendously destroying "picking" effect.In these cases, the usual confusionbetween tourist product and buildingsector, where accommodation capacity

Innovation andtradttion start lomerge on Ihe IS-

land, in arder loenltghten nell'

perspectives offuture. The pholoshows a housetransformed, in-spt red In theboat-hou se ty-pology and plan.

slllvlvmg 111 a few botanic gar-denso Shrubs like the "hall hau"(friumfetta semitriloba), andthe rubiaceous Coprosma sp.have also disappeared. TheEaster Island Palm providedwood /01' the hulls of the greatsea canoes, lis sap produced asweet s)'rup and 11 yielded nu-tntious nuts.Nevertheless when thePolynesian colontsers reachedthe island only relict forestedareas remained, although theysttll covered a significant area.The loss o/ wooded areas and

floristic diversity happened 111a short laps o/tt me and was prob ably cal/sed by a 11Ighpapilla/IOn pressure 011natural resources thatbrought lo the blg crisis o/ the 17'h Century.bu/ t/1/S does no/ seem to be the only reason.

Among the severa! free species populattngthe ancient Rapa Nui [orests was the EasterIsland Palm, now extinct, related 10 the Chil-ean Palm Jubaea chilensis, the "toromiro" (80-phora toromiro) also exttnct m the wild but

has priority, brings to the consolida-tion of inadaptable, homogeneous andstandardised products. ending by la-belling the place as an exelusively "SW1

and sand" destination.Being aware that the tendency ofthe

international market is to advance to-wards destinations ofleri ng very seg-mented and specialised products, dif-ferentiated and well-integrated in theirnatural and social environment. it is sur-prising to see that one ofthe first piecesof lands returned to the Rapanui peo-pie is destined to host a standardisedand little imaginative product such asa new luxury hotel with annexed golfcourse out of the Hanga Roa area. Be-side its environmental impact. the mostserious thing is that a few, low-sensi-tivity tourism merchants have beenselling it as a novel solution on a11is-lands around the world since more thanten years. Once more, building and for-eign investment is mistaken for the de-

velopment of a tourist product. Touristoffer is always focusing on this aspect.as we forget that it should inelude acomplex ensemble of activities, someof them very little developed such asthe mari time ones.

This idea is still more surprising whenwe see that the number ofvisitors hasmaintained a really high growth rate,despite the Iact that this insular touristexperience is relatively young and thatIlights from the American continent areunjustifiably scarce. But when we ana-Iyse the structure of the ac~ommoda-tion sector, which ineludes ~ hotels and28 small residential resorts, we have toacknowledge the ability and imagina-tion of the Rapanui tourist entrepre-neurs who succeeded consolidating amodel very integrated in the beautifulgarden city of Hanga Roa, very welldistributed and grafted on to the socialsphere, bringing the nowadays scarceadded value of authenticity. For this

Going out from Sunday's mass,one o/ the mosl singular traditionsof the tsland. In the photo EdgardHereveri, on o/ the island's sus-/amable tourt sm promoters, thephtlologer Jesús Con/e, author o/the "Fundamental Grammar o/Rapa NIlI languoge'', CiprianoMarin of Lnsula and SantiagoVtlanova representtng the ICAEN,the instiuttion that IS promotingan international cooperationproject on Easter Island aimed toenergy sustainabihty and the so-IU/lOn o/ the waste problem.

Recen! works o/ the CNRS found that afier1650 a terrific transformation o/ the enVl-ronment took: place on the island, and eVI-dences were found suggesting that a pertodo/ ex/reme drought occurred. In this sense,Catherine Orliac, o/ the CNRS' PrehtstoncEthnology Laboratory. says that 111 the sec-ond half o/ the 17th century, the woodenplants are replaced by herbaceous spectes.This sudden, unexplamable change m theflora composiuon can have been caused bya major cltmauc change. For this reason aphenomenon like "Enso" (El Niño South-ern Osctllation) should be seriously takentnto account.1/ IS logical to think that the 11m menttonedfactors have probably converged, ortginat-II1g an trreversible envtronmental crisis anddemonstrating once more the extreme fra-su.» of rsland syst em s before suddenchanges and interventtons.

Among the enormous variety o/ singular ex-pressions that the tsland contatns, lI'e find thetraditional thread game called "km km ". Thtsexpression IS common 111 other Polynesian ts-

lands and it IS thought that the Rapa NIlI ex-pression comes from Toamotu islands. In thephoto: Isabel Pakarati, one o/ the persons whomost contributed /0 matntain this tradition IJn

the island.

reason it seems more correct to con-tinue with this particular acconunoda-tion model, created through local in-vestments and efforts, as well as toimprove the whole tourist offer rclyingupon sustainable development criteria.

Another extremely }mportant factorto be taken into account, with regardto small island development, is mobil-ity within the territory. The number ofcars existing on the island has in-creased rapidly (2,100 vehieles = 6 ve-hieles per 10 inhabitants), warning thatan uncontrolled dcvelopment wouldremarkably affect protected areas andarchaeological sites uses and methods

of access. That is why new mobilitycriteria and aIterna tive means oftrans-port are being introduced on many is-lands, avoiding those undesirable phe-nomena such as the one occurred onthe island of Lanzarote. This is an is-land as fragile as Rapa Nui, which wasdeclared a Biosphere Reserve severalyears ago. In very little time the uncon-trolled explosion ofmobility based onrent a car (53% of total displacements)and taxis, together with proliferation ofroads (0.50 km/km-), produced an in-credible damage to tourist quality withunforeseeable consequences.

These short references only try toemphasise the need to observe both

challenge of insularity lies in the factthat problems are cornmon but solutionsare unique and untransferable for everyisland universe.

mistakes and successes of other is-lands when it is time to consolidateone's own project offuture.

It has always been said that the great

Vai Moana huts are{he first lodging cen-tre of the island that IS

being certificated as aBiosphere Hotel, thesystem of the Respon-sible Tourism Institute,

an organisation associated to UNESCO.Val Moana's expertence is an indicotor ofnew orientation for tourist offer 011. RapaNui. Beside the environmental measuresspecific of ecolabels, the mitiatives of thissmall residential centre include a remod-elling of the structure based 011. the use ofarchitectural typologies inspired in thetraditional boat-house, the tncluston ofa large offer of activt ues linked lo thevalon sation of island's natural and cul-tural resources, and even the creation of

. an open centre of activities 011. Rapa Nuiculture (Hila Cultural Tál Moana), withznthe same touristy centre.

Tourists/Year in Rapa Nui

30000

25ooo1------------------------------:,. ••••••••....-/'

20000 +---------------------------/, ~ICC------

~ooot_-----------------------~-~-------

vooot---------------------~--~~----------

h~~---~~~~~~·--------5000

<l88 <l89 <l90 1991 1992 <l93 <l94 <l95 <l96 1997 1998 1999

Source: SERNATUR 2000

The agricultural system better known from an ar-chaeological perspective is the one characterised byfences called manavai, meaning "place of water".These structures are generally in the form of a roundenclosure limited by a thick double wal! of unworkedstones. These are typical island constructions, prod-uct of soil scarcity and adverse environmental con-ditions, as they preserve humidity and protect theplants from wind and sun, can be still observed in arange of similar typologies 011. many volc anic is-lands around the world.

Enrique Pakarati Ika, Governor of RapaNui island, handing a reproduction of a"rongo-rongo" tablet to Insula. The carv-ings of small board represent a hteroglyphic

wnttng of the IS-

land that has 11.01

been decipheredyet. The "rongo

rongo" IS a sys-tem o[ ideo-graph¡c com-municati on be-tween an Image-based writingand the use ofphonograms.

originally 67 111. number, were brought tothe island by the sages who accompanzedKing Hotu Matu'a. The original myths, ge-nealogic history and ceremonzal songs ofthis ancestral Polynesian culture were carved011. them, Nowadays only rem atn sometwenty ortgtnal boards distributed amongseveral mu seums and private collections

around the world.The last Rapa Nw sagesable to read and recite thesmal! boards dead asslaves In Peru b etween1862 and 1863, and withthem the secret cf this sa-

cred wnttng disappeared.

The "Man-bird" worship ceremony in the cer-emonial vtllage of Orongo, included the rect-tation of songs and prayers by the priestscal led "tangata maori rongo rango ", whoread them from images carved on smaIlwooden boards called "koahu rongo rango ".Oral tradition tells that these small boards,


In the South West of'he Mediter-ranean is placed Mallorca. On the west-ern coast of the Island of Mallorca, issituated the Municipality of Calviá.Calviá has a surface of 145 sq. Km and56 Km of coast.

The 80% ofthe Municipality are natu-ral areas. Its coastline with 5 lineal Kmof sandy beaches and numerous cliffshas an important environmental value.As tourism municipality Calviá is aprivileged area in terms offacilities andinfrastructure with many sport resorts,5 marines, maritime promenades, 4 golfcourses and leisure centres. Calviá has40.000 inhabitants and more than 1.6million visitors each year.

The tourist development of Calviá, themost important in the Balearic Islands,began with the first boom of internationaltourism in Spain at the sixties.

Since then, especially in the first twodecades. the model of tourism devel-opment has been based on short-terminterests, unlimited building out oftunewith local conditions, and an unsus-tainable exploitation of exceptionalnatural resources.

It was only at the end of the eightiesthat the effects ofthis inharmonious de-velopment became apparent. The of sunand beach type, the keystones of an ac-tivity that helped to finance the devel-opment of the Island, are degraded, thedemand is falling off, and more signifi-cantly, the quality, not only in terms oftourism spending, is on decline. Calviágrewfrom JDüü t040.000 inhabitants.

eaIvillLocal Agenda 21A sustainablestrategy fora tourismdestination

In the eighties the Town Councíl ofCalviá adopts a double policy: on onehand it makes an exceptional effort ofinvestment to reduce the debt carriedover from the earlier years, and on theother, it implements a policy of townplanning designed to uphold new tour-ist operations in the hope ofmodernis-ing, improving and diversifying the lo-cal tourist industry.

At the same time, the effect becomeevident: the deterioration of the envi-ronment and of the landscape, grossovercrowding of the tourist zone, thedifficulties ofbringing the installationsto update, a steady decline of the al-,lure of the region and the threat to lo-cal development which is heavily de-pendent on the tourist sector.

In the nineties, the town hall of Calviálaunches a series of progranunes de-signed to improve the environment, re-organise the flow of visitors. reclaimthe coastal area and c1ear out the hud-dled town centre, even demolishinghotels that were offensive to the envi-ronment. This plan was called "Calviáfor Excellence" .

And at the beginning of 95 in col-laboration with the Ministry of Com-merce and tourism, the Town Councildecides to unify the tasks in hand,freezing the approval of new urban-plans, and introduces the Calviá: LocalAgenda 21, based in Rio 92 Sumrnit,aimed at defining a new integral longterm policy to reorganise tourist andlocal development on a sustainable

¡" JAVIER BUSTAMANTE*

basis, and in which the key factor forfuture projects is the environment.

A key factor of the local agenda hasbeen to bring together the viewpoints,right from the start, of the different sec-tors with interests in the zone. Severalchannels of participation have beenenvisaged for this purpose: for generalmatters, The Forum of Citizens: for the-matic affairs, Special Commissions: andeven on subjects of general interest.polls andoconsultations for the public.

The most important aspect for the fi-nal strategy of the Local Agenda 21 isthat it counts on the widest possiblevoluntary support of the population

The method used by the experts isthe one known in the planning sphereas "rnethodology of aIternative sce-narios", widely used in long term plan-ning beca use of its descriptive capac-ity and for the possibilities which it of-fers to compare possible future alter-native situations, to which can bereached through the application of dif-ferent policies.

In this way, three alternative sce-narios emerge from each one ofthe keytopic areas: the present one. and twofuture scenarios; the tendency one andthe one known as integral rehabilita-tion scenario, which emerge ofthe cor-rection of the undesirable tendenciesby the introduction of suitable deci-sions. For each one of the areas the

* Calvia City [email protected]://www.calvia.com

same methodology has been appliedin order to get an identical resuJt.

Using more than 1000 indicators, thismethodology has allowed us to iden-tify which sectors are in a balance situ-ation and which ones in an unbalancedsituation.

The Observatory for the Local agenda21 proposes to collect and offer summa-rised, periodical and easily understand-able information on the evolution ofCalviá at social, econornic and environ-mental level, taking as a reference thesustainability of development and localquality oflife.

Comparing to 1997, in 2000 the indi-cators and the initiatives that have beenagain measured, the resuJts indicatesthat Calviá on the one hand has im-proved in the Areas of Cultural herit-age, Economy and Tourism, and in Lo-cal town-planning system, but on theother hand still have the Areas ofNatu-ral and ruralland and marine systems,and key environmental sectors (trans-port, water, energy, and waste), whichneed to be improved. But in general theglobal evaluation has improved.

As a mature tourism resort in theMediterranean all parts of the projectcouJd be applied in the Mediterraneanregion, from the methodology used tothe environmental decision taken. Webelieve our case could serve as an ex-ample for emerging tourism municipali-ties and also for mature ones, on howdo not repeat unsustainable practicesand how to integrate local populationin the process.

Prizes awarded- "Sustainable European Cities Award 97".

Brussels, November '97.

Awarded by the European Commission

(OG of Environmént) añd the "Sustainable

Cities and Towns Campaigns".

- "Good practice for improving the quality

of town life".

Oubai '98.

Selected by the United Nations.

- "Green Globe Award".

London, World TravelMarket, November '98.

Awarded by the "World Travel and Tourism

Council" -WTTC-


10 Strategic Action Lines1 TO CONTAIN THE HUMAN PRESSURE, .

LlMIT THE GROWTH ANO HELP INTE-

GRAL REHABILlTATION OF THE TERRI-

TORY ANO ITS COASTLlNE

2 TO SUPPORT THE INTEGRATION ANO

THE QUALlTY OF LlFE OF THE RESIOENT

POPULATION

3 TO PRESERVE THE NATURAL ANO MA-

RINE HERITAGE

4 TO RECOVER THE CULTURAL- HISTORI-

CAL HERITAGE

5 THE INTEGRAL REHABILlTATION OF THE

URBANAREAS

6 TO INCREASE THE QUALlTY OF CALVIA

AS A TOURISM OESTINATION: TO SUB-

STITUTE THE GROWTH FOR SUSTAIN-

ABLE OEVELOPMENT ANO LOOK FOR

THE INCREASE OF THE TOURISM EX-

PENOITURE.

7 TO IMPROVE THE QUALlTY OF THE PUB-

LlC TRANSPORT ANO TO PROMOTE CY-

CLlNG ANO WALKING

8 A SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF THE

ENVIRONMENTAL KEY FACTORS:WATER,

ENERGY ANO WASTE

9 TO INVEST IN KWNOWLEOGE RE-

SOURCES, TO OINAMISE ANO OIVERSIFY

THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM

10 INNOVATION OF THE MUNICIPAL GOV-

ERNMENT ANO THE WIOENING OF JOINT

PUBLlC-PRIVATE CAPACITY OF INVEST-

MENT

From the 40 initiatives the Forum of Citizens

agreed to begin with 15 initiatives they con-

sider urgent. ,

To ensure sustainability of the Municipality

through the main Urban Plan

2 Stabilizing in 10 years the drinking water

consumption to 19971evels.

3 Elaboration of a local plan to save up the

energy.4 Impulse to save up, recycle and reuse of

solid waste fixing aims to separate waste at

short, medium and long termo

5 Set up of a pilot project for rehabilitation of

quarries during to the closing ofthe dump-

ing site for rubble and separation, recu-

peration and recycling of material before

March 1999.

6 Begin public actions to transform the situ-

ation of public transport before Oecember

1998-07-16

7 A Moratorium for 5 years of important works

on the coastline as well as road infrastruc-

tu res of high impact.

8 Conclusion of the "Calviá Walk Way" in 5

years.9 Housing Plan "To live in Calviá" Construc-

tion and/or funding 150 homes/year

10 Pilot action to conserve the beaches in a

natural way before June 1999.

11 Creation of a helpline to start business be-

fore 31 Oecember 1998 and widening the

stimulation measures to small and medium

size enterprises.

12 To start a working plan to dynamise the

rural world and constitute an award and a

call for proposals "Rural initiatives in Calviá"

13 Environmental auditofthe Municipal build-

ing before 31 Oecember and engagement

of future facilities "eco-responsible"

14 Creation ofthe archaeological site "Puig de

Sa Morisca". Start before 31.12.1998

15 Creation of an office in Calviá: Local Agenda

21 to assess the citizens promotion and

awareness in the saving up of resources.

- "Award for the best initiative, work and mu-

nicipal effort in support ofthe environment".

Barcelona, March '99

Awarded by Arthur Andersen and Expansion.

- "World project, Expo 2000 Hannover".

Hannover, March 2000.

B7A Slralegyfor Ihe Fulure2002·2006

Baltic Sea Seven IslandsCo-operation Network

BornholmGotlandHiiumaa

RügenSaaremaa

ÁlandOland

§ince 1989 the largest islandsin the Baltic Sea have formed a com-mon interest group, "The Islands ofthe Baltic Sea". The islands that havebeen involved from the begi nning areBornholm (Denmark), Gotland (Swe-den), Hiiumaa (Estonia), Saaremaa (Es-tonia), Áland (Finland), and Oland(Sweden), Rügen (Germany), The geo-graphic position of the islands, in themiddle of the Baltic Sea, made themespecially aware ofthe emerging newopportunities, prompting the com-mencement of collaboration bet:weenthe islands.

At the dawn of the co-operation is-lands were belonging to three differ-ent political structures: Bornholm andRügen were the part ofEuropean Un-ion, Aland, Gotland and Óland be-longed to Nordic Countries and Esto-nian islands Hiiumaa and Saaremaahoped lo be liberated from the SovietUnion. It was difficult to imagine theco-operation in the fields such as de-mocracy or even tourism having So-viet troops still present in the country,and especially in the islands.

But already in 1994 politicalleadersof the islands signed the co-operationagreement called Baltic Sea Seven Is-lands (B7). Altogether - B7 represents300.000 inhabitants in thc Baltic Sea.

In 1995-1996 the seven Baltic Seaislands hadjointly compiled a programof action: The BaItic Sea Islands - a

by REET KOKOVKIN*

common strategy for the future, Theaim ofthe program was to increase theBaltic Sea islands' possibilities of uti-lising their development potential. Theoverall goal in the conunon strategy ofaction was to crea te the basis for morejobs a long-term sustainable develop-ment, as well as mutual enrichment ofthe islands and the world around them.

In 1997 B7 opened a permanent of-fice in Brussels to have better andcloser access toward institutions andprograms ofED. Successfully, the Of-fice has become to play the, role equalto the other working groups oí the B7,informing the organisation of thetrends in EU policy and mediating theinformation about the B7 to the deci-sion making institutions in Brussels.

The structure of the organisationconsists currently of Annual Confer-ence that has the decision-makingpower, Steering Conunittee ofpoliticalleaders of the islands: the board, con-sisting of senior officers of each islandplan, organises, co-ordinates, monitorand evaluates B7 activities: two work-ing groups (people to People, and En-vironment) elaborating and implement-ing conunon projects, and ad hoc focalgroups to investigate and carry outtasks defined by the B7 and within itspriorities. Since 2000 B7 has set up ayearly rotating status of Chairmanshipand Secretariat to be the communica-tion centre for the B7 for the year. In

2002 the Chairman is Oland to followby Hiiumaa in 2003. Web page onwwwb'r.org offers infonnation aboutthe organisation and serves as a com-munication tool between members.

In the beginning of 2001 the Strat-egy Group of B7 was once againformed. A Strategy for the Future. 2002- 2006 is the headline ofthe new strat-egy undér elaboration. Changes locome in the political status of BalticStates, and new INTERREG progranunewith new opportunities for memberstates requires different approaches forthe island co-operation as wel\.

Present Strategy c1arifies the B7 is-lands common objectives and needswithin the B7 Co-operation, and fonnsthe basis for lobby actions towardsnational govenunents and the ED. Is-sues facing the B7 islands are identi-fied as follows:• Marginalisation.• Istand constraints.• Competition for funding.• Urban areas are regarded as more at-

tractive by young people. investors.• Transport limiting developmeru.• Technological backwardness.• Limited tertiary education and train-

ing opportunities.• Total population and population in

employment decreasing.

* Member of the B7 Board, Hiiumaa

The long-term vision for the islandsis explained as to approaching a richer,smarter and happier population. Theyare also more in control of their owndestiny than in year 2001. Thereforethe priorities ofthe B7 islands' co-op-eration are: Transport, Education,Tourism, Environment and Energy,Business Development, ICT (Informa-tion & Communication Technologies),Democracy, inter-regional understand-ing, networking, Rural and Agro-busi-ness Development. Healthcare, Pub-lic Service Effectiveness, CommonHistory.

The Strategy formulates the B7 asan organisation to serve the interests

of its islanders and take advantage ofopportunities. This includes improvedcommunication and information(website: www.B7.org) as well as a bet-ter -defi ned role for poI iticians, particu-larly as lobbyists. B7 Board worksmore with the initiation and develop-ment of projects, co-ordinates withworkgroups and focus groups toachieve a balance of bottom-up andtop-down initiatives. Focus Groupsare used to develop strategies andposition papers for lobby activitiesand project development.

To develop islands through projectslarge and small The Strategy addressesto networking and exchange of experi-

ences within INTERREG III andPHARE programmes in addition to na-tiona! and other international funding.

"It is our hope that the strategyadopted by seven regions in five coun-tries, will be a comerstone for the futureco-operation within the B7. The Strat-egy sets out a number of high prioritycommon objectives. However a Strat-egy Document in itself does not createaction. There are important tasks thatremain to effectively present ourselves,and communicate our situation to theoutside world: to improve the interna!workings ofthe organisation and to im-plement the projects and events weprioritise - both grass roots and major".

Voleanoes' Vigilanee ProgrammeEight years after the great Rabaul eruption

(September 23, 1994)

Rbaul calde"isanactivevolcano located on the northem tip ofNew Britain island in Papua NewGuinea. The eruption began on Sep-tember 18 after less than a day of in-tense seismicity and the Rabaul Vol-cano Observatory and the Papua NewGuinea Emergency Services immedi-ately declared a code red state of erner-gency and evacuated the town ofRabaul. Because they had a volcanicdisaster response plan, the evacuationtook place prior to the start ofthe erup-tion. About 30,000 people were evacu-ated from Rabaul to the nearby townsofKerevat and Kokopo before the erup-

44 lnternational Journal of Island Alfairs

tion began. Two casualties have beenreported, a boy hit by a truck involvedwith the evacuation, and aman hit bylightning from the ash cloud, but thecasualty list is expected to grow.

This eruption has several importantlessons for volcanic hazards and riskmanagement. First, alllarge explosiveeruptions are not preceded by weeksto months ofincreasingly intense seis-mic activity. as was observed at Mt. St.Helens and Pinatubo. The period ofseismic activity at resurgent calderasmay precede the eruption by manyyears and be followed by a period ofquiescence and then the eruption. Thesecond lesson is ifwe build cities andcommunities in areas with severe vol-canic hazards, disasters not only can,but will, occur.

The Austra!ian Intemationa! Coop-eration Agency (AusAID) has as-signed 5,000 ntillions Australian Dol-lars to improve the volcanoes' vigilanceprogramme in Papua-New Guinea

where there are 14 active and 22 pote Il-

tially active volcanoes. Among the par-ticipants of this projects are the Aus-tralian Geologica! Survey, the RabaulVolcano Observatory (Papua-NewGuinea), the University of Tokio, theUniversity ofHokkaido (Japan) and theITER (Canary Islands).

Canary Island OpenworkTradition

and Science

IntroductionOpenwork is a craft that is worked onlinen, cotton or silk cloth. It was intro-duced in the islands by the Spaniardsin the 15th century. after they had beenconquered, although it is impossible todetermine exactly when it arrived to be-come one of the most popular crafts ofthe islands.

For some time, a team ofteachers andstudents from the "Viera y Clavijo" highschool in La Laguna, on the island ofTenerife, has been carrying out re-search into this work, mainly in an at-tempt to study the mathematical ele-ments that can be found in the finishedwork. To this end, they went to severaldifferent craft fairs and interviewed lacemakers to study their workshops, themodels they used, the way they work,how they market their products, etc.,and also to gather information aboutfue recent history of this craft.

From what we were told, in general,the weavers work at home and theirwork (almost always by commission)was sold to supplement the very lowincomes that were earned by the lessfavoured households of the island.

Justina explains her craft.(El Escobonal, Gütmar, Tenenfe)

Openwork for deco-

rating serviettes, ta-ble cl oth s, towel s,cushtons, etc.

There was a boom however, when anEnglish gentleman called Mr. Sparrororealised that this lacework had finan-cial potential. In 1901, he opened a com-pany in Puerto de la Cruz (Tenerife). toexport the lacework that was producedby up to 300 lace makers that he hadworking for him. He even oJIered thesecraftsmen inccntives, by offering twicethe price for models that offered somekind of original designo

As this initiative was successful, othercompanies were created in the íollow-.ing years. But, there was a major crisisaround 1918, which wiped out the com-mercial industry.The main reason for thisis to be found in the competition thatappeared on the market frOl~}openworkmade in other parís of the world (espe-cially Scotland and Japan), with lowerproduction costs, and therefore, cheaperthan the work done on fue island and,although the quality was slightly 10\Yer.íhis did not bother the undemandingbuyer. Thus, openwork was once againrelegated to the status of a cottage in-dustry among rural families. Later on,when there was a massive move awayfrom the countryside into towns, openwork appeared to be on the path to ex-tinction. But, there was a considerableincrease in awareness towards the craftsin general among the authorities in thelate 2001 century. Steps were taken to pro-tect and promote them, providing train-ing for new generations of craftsmenand creating channels to market theirproducts. In this sense, and with regardto open work in particular, the expertise

-<

b, LUIS BALBUENA CASTELLANO *

of the more experienced lace makers hasbeen certified and they give courses allover fue island to pass on their know-how to the younger generations and tomaintain fue tradition. Grants have alsobeen made available for creating work-shops for lace weavers to produce andsell their products.

1lJ

11

,.J

A frieze from thenothingnessOur work focussed on what is knownas thread work lace. To make lace ofthis kind, threads of fue fabric are pulledout in a single direction. within an areathat is first marked out on the fabricwhen the model is being designed. Theedges are reinforced with hem stitch-ing to prevent the cut threads frompulling free. From then on, it dependson the skill and the ingenuity of thelace makers who work the miracle ofturning a bundle of loose threads intothe open work they had plarmed.

In our fieldwork search for differentdesigns of open work, we discoveredfifty five different models.

A frte:e from nothing

* lES Viera y Clavijo, La Laguna (Tenerife),

"Isaac Newton" Mathematics Teachers Society

JIISlIna designing a lace work pattern (ElEscobonal, G/UmO/; Tenenfe)

Mathematics is fundamental forstudying and interpreting everythingthat happcns in our everyday lives. Ourobjective was to show which math-ematical concepts and elements wereused by lace makers in their craft. evenif they do not realise that they are us-ing them. In this paper, we will try toexplain the mathematics that is neces-sary for studying open work from thispoint of view. We do not go into anygreat detail, but, for anyone who is in-terested, there are experts who can helpyou to formalise the ideas used here,and take them further.

These mathematical elements showhow lace makers crea te a frieze fromnothing with a series of underlyingmathematieal concepts.

Some mathematicalconcepts

As we have already said,we are now going to in-

troduce the elementsthat will enable us to

analyse openwork patterns

mathematically

Symmetryabounds innature, but isthts leaf reallysymmetric?


Symmetry, in the strict sense of a m.ir-ror image, forms part of our civilisation'sideas ofbeauty. Aristotle (38-l-322 BC)wrote: "the forms that best expressbeauty are: order, symmetry and preci-sion."

If we consider symmetry in a broadersense, then it also includes notions ofbalance. similarity and repetition. Thiswhole set of concepts has been stud-ied in depth by mathematics, so we canstructure this component ofbeauty, sowidely used by man in the design ofmany everyday objects. in detail.

Repetuion of a module

Balance is one of the components ofS)'11U11etry.This refers to how repetitionsare designed. Ifwe have an isolated ele-ment, then it does not have baJance, asthere is no repetition. Balance can befound in abundance in creative man-made designs: ceramics, fabrics, embroi-dery, fretwork, open work, wall paper,etc.

Isometrics (understood as move-ments that maintain distances) are nec-essary for a mathematicaJ study and de-scription of lace work. They will helpus to classify the different models of

lacework.

Isometrics occur when the pat-tern undergoes one of the following

situations:• It is transferred from one place to

another (copying)• It is rotated in comparison with a

given rotation centre (rotation)• It is made symrnetric with respect to

an ax.is (axial synunetry)

• It is made axially symmetric and thenshifted (symmetry with shift)An Isomorphism is a movement that

maintains the shape ofthe figure once

the movement is made. This is whathappens, for instance, when a rectan-gle is rotated through 1800 with the cen-tre of rotation in the centre of the fig-ure. After the movement is made, therectangle maintains the same shape.

All figures have a set of isomorphismsthat depend on the shape in question.So, for example, a rectangle has four iso-morphisms: a square, eight and a trape-zium onJy has onc, its identity.

Rotational symmetry. Rosettes. It iseasy to see that a circle has an infinitenumber of isomorphisms. Any diameterthat you take is an ax.is ofax.iaJ syrnme-try and a circle has an infín.ite numberof diarneters. But any one of the infi-n.ite number of rotations centred on thecentre of the figure is also an isomor-phism. When there is a pattern that isrepeated in circular sectors of the samesize, within the circle, then the situa-tion changes radically, because thenumber of isomorphisrns is then fin.ite.A figure made in this may is called arosette. Each sector is called a petal.. This is a geometric element that is

frequently found in nature (especiallyin flowers) and it is widely used by man,almost always for decorative purposes.In open work, these rosettes are alsoessential as a solution for the cornersof the designo

Rosettes for the corners.

Following the criterion of whetherthere is symmetry or not in the petals,rosettes can be divided into t:wo ma.ingroups:Dihedral rosettes: these are rosettes

whose petals have an ax.is of symme-try. If they have n petals, they arerepresented by dn.

Cyclical rosettes: the petals of theserosettes do not have an axis of sym-metry. If a rosette has n petals, it isrepresented by en. (In the lace workthat we studied. we only found onecyclical rosette)

Cyclical rosette. C.¡

Friezes. - When a module is repeatedby repeating it along a strip of thecloth, then we say that it fonns afrieze. This is the mathematical modelused by most lace work.

There are only seven models of frieze,which are presented below with theRose-Stafford algorithm, using a nota-tion that is universally accepted. Wecan see that the concepts studiedabove are used in this.

Canary Island lacework and friezes

pmm2

This is without doubt. the most com-mon modeI. In our opinion, this phe-nomenon can be explained by the factthat there are two symmetry axes in thismodeI. If we accept the fact that sym-metry is one of the most outstanding

Classification algorithm. (Rose-Stafford)

no----- ••••••~ It is not a frieze

1'·;/

I•...~•...~I,......•,......• no

tI pmm21

yes I~~~IThere is horizontal symmetry? • ,...,...,...

"'1t

~

yes I ••..·~IThere is venical symmetry? •

"'1t

~

There is symmetry with a shift? yes ~----. ,.. ,..

"'1 t~

111I...11I...11I...1

t~

aesthetic elements in our culture, thenwe should not be surprised that, ingeneral, customers prefer open workwith these patterns to other patterns.

GfJ:nLL

This frieze was not found in any ofthe lacework studied. As one can see,the figure has a vertical synunetry axis,while the horizontal synunetry axis is ashift: i.e., the place where the symmet-ric shape of the first two trianglesshould be is left blank. In terms oflacework, this a problcm to be avoidedbeca use, on the one hand, it raises aes-thetic objections ando on the otherhand. it is difficult to leave empty gapswithout covering some of the threadsused for the embroidery.

Lace worker Juana Mesa, from LaOrotava, made the model that we gaveher and which solved this problem.

pm11

There are several models of lace workthat belong to this gTOUpoffriezes. Thiscould be due to their vertical symmetry.

p1m1

The fact that it has this horizontalsymmetry axis could indicate that thisshould be a common modeI. We onlyfound one module ofthis kind. But it isa pattern that is used in all workshops,with small variations between them.

p1a1

We found no open work that usedthis frieze. Apart from the reasons wehave already given in module pma2, inthis case, there is another interestingsituation that explains this. The stripsare embroidered longitudinally and, ingeneral, the patterns are merely re-peated. If you look at the frieze, youwill sec that the two spirals are not thesame, as one is dextro-rotatory (it ro-

. tates clockwise), while the other is levo-rotatory (it rotates anti-clockwise). i.e.,it is a symmetric pattern with a shift.Madam Juana Mesa once again helpedus by weaving patterns that we hadmade, in order to complete are collec-tion of lace work with all kinds of friezes.

Spiral sp112

There is lace work of this kind, al-though. in all of them, the centre of ro-tation is in the middle of the moduleand not at one end.

p111

This is the simplest of the friezes. inthe sense that it is created by merelycopying the embroidered pattern.which has no kind of symmetry. Theseare the most common after the modelpnun2. The models used include differ-ent versions oí the spiral. Most of themare clockwise spirals.

48 InternationaI Journal of Island Affairs

To commemorate World Mathemat-ics Year in 2000, we designed a book-mark that summarises all the above.

Roseftes and othermathematical elementsin open workThe rosctte is a geomctric element thatappears Irequenjly in lacework. It isuscd as a decoration in the middle of apiece of open work and, fundamentally.in the corners, as it is a way of fillingthe blank piecc o[ c1oth. Most rosettesaredihedral, maybe due to the syrnme-try presented by their petals and, insome cases, by the rosette as a whole.Wc only Iound one cyclical rosette.

In the different kinds of open work,we Iound models that presented inter-esting mathematical c1ements and con-cepts, such as, for example:

Step wise modules.

Sine Co-sine.

'f"·•.•. '111,~" I '. !"" "/"11 J, '4"" r,1, " '''1111"1" '111 IJtItItit" ¡t,•.•", 11k It I ti1,111. lo ••• '

o'lll'i&-.-:lIu" ••..••.••. ".'IU., '1I"h,. "

ti1 ¡'l' .... :..•..••.•.• • ""11' • la ..•• , I.. ili!f~I:' '¡I::iih::¡:;;i¡¡.::::',II:.1¡111111I • •• ': .••••.•••••••••• ·.:::111h •• ,••II:::',:,';:;U·,:.'I:;·.tl1 h•.·.,m!......•J.nu,':·,:::::.':' .lltll~·II:ti"",,, .n ••.••• ,••••,,, •••

~''.\I,,'~'"'" \'\~"~,\-'~\\.\"'" 1\\\'.\'.\'\ 'l'\''''\1" 'l'l~!""\\\\\1\ lb "'1 t la••• nl tlit'l'¡lit ¡ia Lo'

Geometric figures.

On the other hand, in the process ofmaking a piece of open work, the lacemakers carry out operations that are re-lated to mathematical concepts and al-gorithms. They are doing mathematicswithout realising it.

Using open workf or teachingObviously, work ofthis kind can be usedfor teaching mathematics, both inclasses and in maths workshops. Thereis a varied set of creative activities. Onthe other hand, the concepts and strat-egies that have been explained abovecan be simply transferred for mathemati-cal studies and analysis of elementssuch as floors, railing, fretwork, lace, etc.

By way of conclusion, governmentauthorities should be asked to maintaintheir awareness of'this kind of craft work,which represents part of the Canary Is-land identity, traditionally associated ,,,iÚ1women, to prevent it from disappearingin an age in which globalisation seems lowant to swallow everything up.

Decorating the lid of a box (Juana Miranda,Pon/anales, Aloya, Gran Canana)

Milis o, 'he pas',winds of Ihe fulure

MOLINS DE CAMPOS

Majorca:a land of windmillsMajorca is a land of windmills. One canusually be found in every single mu-nicipality, on its plains, perched on hill-tops or inside towns or villages.

The characteristics of the BalearicIslands' agricultural development havepartly been deterrnined by the archi-pelago's c1imatic conditions. Windmillswere built to overcome irrigation prob-lems due to a lack ofsurface rivers andstreams. They used kinetic wind energyand transformed it into mechanical en-ergy, to extract water from the subsoilby means of a plunger pwnp.

The type of windmill found in Ma-jorca is based on designs that date backto Alexandrian times and the first wind-milis reached Europe from Persia in the11th century. The first drawing of awindrnill to be documented dates backto 1468 and can be seen on the altar-piece of Saint George, by Pere Nigart,in Majorca's Diocesan Museum.

During the rniddle Age, the munberof windmills grew. Most were flounnills,but there were also watermills. AII hadrotors with sai1s or fabrico Windrnillswere not really put to use to extractwater from the ground until 1845, withthe work of the Dutch engineer PaulBouvy and the plan to drain the plainknown as the PIA de Sant Jordi. From

A project that is an exceptional example of imagination andmulti-valuation of island resources in the search of newdevelopment paths is being developed on the island ofMajorca, under the patronage of the Spanish Ministry of theEnvironment. The project of Campos is an excellent alliancebetween the heritage from the past and the new technologiesof the future, a multidisciplinary project joining heritagerestoration, landscape mainteilance, wind-energy production,search of new tourist products integrated and adapted to theenvironment and the recovery of local traditional productions.

then on, there was a spectacular in-crease in number. There are well overtwo thousand windmills on the islandofMajorca.

Campos: a municipality with environ-mental and natural assets, which can-not allow the deterioration of its tradi-tional, rural heritage.

Situated in the south of Majorca, ithas a surface area of approximately16,001 hectares (147 km"). Campos stilllooks like a rural town, with featurescharacteristics ofthe municipality's ru-ral landscape. In fact, throughout itshistory, the municipality has made itsliving primarily from agricu1ture andcattle rearing.

The first windrnills were very popu-lar among fanners and orchard?ownersin Campos as a means oftransforrningtheir arid properties into well?irrigatedorchards, where they could sow thewell?known, highlyvconsidered pota-toes, together with alfalfa for cattle feed.This led to the early days of milk pro-duction, now one of Campos' leadingeconomic activities.

Indeed, one ofthe first known wind-mills in Majorca belonged to a farmerfrom Campos, called Joan Taberner. Thewindmill was to be found at S'Hort d'en Grog, on the Santanyl road, and wasbuilt by the master carpenter, SebastiáRigo, in 1884.

According to the census of wind-mills used for extracting water from thesubsoil, which was carried out in 1941,557 windmills operated in the munici-pality of Campos and 54 were equippedwith oil and gasoline engines. Not allthe windrnills were to be found on fanns.Within the town itself there were five.used to water small orchards and gar-denso There were a1so 76 waterwheelsscattered about the municipality.

In addition to waterwheels and wind-mills for extracting water fr0111the sub-soil, there were also flourmills, used togrind grain for use by people and ani-mals.

However, in the second half of the20th century, due to technological de-velopments, new machinery was intro-duced, operated by explosion engines.As a result, older windmills were dis-carded and fell into disuse. In turn, thecrisis suffered by the Majorcan coun-tryside, which the Campos area is es-pecially affected by, has led to thegradual abandorunent of these ancientmechanical devices. Because of this,most of Campos' windmills are struc-turally now in a very poor state of con-servation,

Documentation and data supplied by José

Pascual Tortella, PhD. Industrial Engineer-

ing, Majorca.

The abandonment of an architecturalfeature of such extraordinary culturalvalue is also very damaging to the land-scape of the Campos area. The visualimpression ofthis neglected ruralland-scape, in most cases no longer inhab-ited, with its rural heritage (i.e. its tow-ers and windmills) in a state of aban-donment, leads one to feel that there isa lack of sensitivity towards the tradi-tional agricultural landscape and thepreservation of its ethnographic, cul-tural and environmental heritage. It iseven very damaging for the image of aregion with a high influx of tourists.

It is a social, cultural, aesthetic and en-vironmental duty to come IIpwith a solu-

. tion to this situation which forces PublicAuthorities and other interested partiesto take the necessary steps to ensure thatan answer is found to this problem.

Molins de Campos:a sustainable,global initiativeThe "Molins de Campos" project wascreated as a result of the reasons citedabove. The feasibility of the projectdepends upon its global approach tothe problem, based on guarantees offuture continuity.

For this reason, the project does 110tonly involve the windmills' structuralrestoration ' but it also has a global en-vironmental objective: to convert thewindmill into a generator of wind en-ergy? a c1ean, renewable source of en-ergy? whilst also carrying out a series

Restored windmill

ofparallel activities within the inunedi-ate vicinity, focused on promoting theuse ofwindmills and their adjacent landsin ways which willlead to the genera-tion of income and a number of differenteconomic activities, within the frame-. .work of the sustainable use of naturalresources and the protection of the en-vironment,

The global idea of the project seeksnot only the architectural restorationand obtaining wind power, but also tomake the mills turn into reference ele-ments for tourist use, as centres forcraftsmanship and valorisation of therural products of the area.

The "Molins deCampos" ProjectHaving carried out the experimentalstudy, in the light of the excellent re-suIts achieved, it was necessary to con-tinue with the initial objectives. Withthis in mind, given the high cost in-volved in the restoration of the wind-mills, it was decided to start by con-centrating on a first stage of the"Molins de Campos" project, whichwould focus on a group of about onehundred windmills.

Aside from any l,ogical financial jus-tification,the reaS9n for this restrictionwas al so to ensure the feasibility oftheproject by concentrating on a numberof windmills which? although large?offers reasonable prospects of success,given the material means and man-power available


The milis recovering process espe-cially cared after energy aspects, thatmeant a far from negligible technologi-cal challenge, since the project's engi-neering had to resolve aspects such asadapting traditional rotors to present-day generators, within investment con-ditions that allow investment recover-ing in an acceptable time space.

The restoration of the cultural herit-age that the windmills represent and therecovery ofthis aspect ofthe landscapewould provide visitors with the possi-bility of enjoying alternative leisure ac-tivities that are compatible with the con-servation of the environment (and themunicipality of Campos includes an areadesignated of "Special Interest to Visi-tors''). It would encourage activities (i.e,excursions, itineraries, museums, craftworkshops and markets sellingecologically?friendly produce).

Project aimsThere are four main aims behind theproject, which is planned to focus on a'figure of about 100 windmills:a) The restorationofthe windmills, in their

capacity as a part of historical herit-age, thus reducing and indeed improv-ing the negative visual, aesthetic andenvironmental impact of the windmillsthat presentIy exist in the area

b) The conversion of the windmill, byintroducing teclmology that will takeadvantage ofthe island's wind energy,and the introduction of a new innova-tion, the small?scale production ofelectricity for use, energy?saving and,indeed, to replace other sources of en-ergy.

e) The creation of a sustainable envi-ronment in association with the wind-mili, using the resources of the SUf-

rounding area. Designing and creat-ing the most suitable type of outdoorgardens and guaranteeing, above all,Majorca's biodiversity by the use ofnative island species of plants.

d) Parallel activities, which help to guar-antee the feasibility ofthe project asa whole. Introducing the concept ofsustainability to rural farms and to

the development oftourism and cul-tural attractions.

A tourist itinerary:The windmill routeJointly with the energy exploitation,milis restoration is a marvellous excuseto catalyse and revalorise cultural andtourist resources of the, that would betransformed in the core of a larger ex-tent operation aimed at the search ofmore integrated activities and the pro-motion of a more sustainable tourismin the area. Campos has a large numberof places of cultural and natural inter-est or which are part of the local herit-age. This is why one ofthe aims ofthe"Molins de Campos" project is to cre-ate a series of itineraries bet:ween thedifferent windmills and other places ofspecial interest. The milis route would

Plan of the municipolity of Campos

Presentation of the tntuauve at the Interna-ttonal Conference "Energy and Water In Smalll slands" he Id In Sas sart, Sardima (22-2-1November, 2001). Pedro Ballesteros (Euro-pea n Commission). AntOniO Rassu (Confer-ence prometer), C. Mortn (lNSULA) andAndreu Prohens (Mayor ofCampos).

include wetlands and saltworks suchas those existing in the area ofEs Trenc,whose salt production is documentedback in the 4th century B.e., the SantBlai Oratory whose construction datesback to the 13th century, just after theconquest ofMajorca by King Jaume 1,or the "Sant Joan de la Font Santa"Baths, whose natural waters have veryinteresting mineral properties.

The milis would contribute to therevalorisation of local products suchas cheese. Cheese production is no",not a seasonal activity, but one that iscarried out throughout the year. Cot-tage cheese also used to bé' a seasonalproduct, but now it is produced andthere is a demand for it all year round,above all at Easter. as it is used in thecooking oftraditional robiols (a pastryfilled with cheese).

/

In September 2002,

the politicalleaders of

most of the nation'splanetswillmeetin .Jo-

hannesburg for the

Summit on Sustain-

able Development in

order to reviewthe in-

ternational agree-

ments on the environment adopted over ten

years ago in Rio de Janeiro.

In the coming spring, at its meeting in Barce-

lona, the European Council will ? for the first

time? examine the extent to which different

European Union member states have corn-

plied with their environmental obligations by

analysing a series of indicators that will en-

able it to establish the progress achieved in

the application of the European Union Strat-

egy for Sustainable Development.

By the end ofthe year 2002,Spain will havea

National Strategy for Sustainable Develop-

ment. This must ensure the full process of

integration of environmental aspects into

each ofSpain's sectoral policies.

However, it is not always an easy task to fulfil

an aim such as the introduction of a sustain-

able model ofdevelopment, dealing with the

needs of current generations whilst taking

care not to endangerthose offuture ones.ln

some cases, the low level of income gener-

ated by production activities, the costs in-

volved in the changes to be introduced (which

are not only of a financial nature), a lack of

Public Authority promotion and a general in-

ertia in social decision?making, amongst

other factors, prevent us from reversing the

trends that threaten society's quality of life,

with a serious danger of economic, social

and environmental regression.

Precisely because of this, the 'Molins de

Campos' project is an initiative of extraordi-

nary importance because, with the restora-

tion of our dearly?loved Majorcan windmills,

it aims to make the recovery of our cultural

and historical heritage compatible with a sus-

tainable model of development.

For this reason, the 'Molins de Campos'

project goes one step further than mere ar-

chitectural restoration work. Its objective is to

offer a global environmental solution to ex-

isting problems, promoting the sustainable

use of natural resources by enabling Wind-

milis to be used for the generation of wind

energy and also inciuding in the project a

series of parallel activities focused on boost-

ing economic activity and social welfare,with

the utmost respect for the environment.

..J

1. '

L

Jaume Matas Palou

Spanish Minister of the Environment

·InWhyand How

lo Plan Ihe IslandlsInforma.ion Society

PlanningManual

In the last decade, information andcommunications technologies have be-come so pervasive that they have givenrise to a number of new concepts suchas the Information Society, the DigitalRevolution and the Knowledge-BasedEconomy. The fact that these technolo-gies are already influencing, directly orindirectly, the lives of many people isnot disputed, nor is there any doubt thatthey will continue to affect a growingnumber of people. At a regional level,the development or acceleration of theinformation society necessitates anumber of pre-conditions: amongstthese are widespread access to ad-vanced teleconununications infrastruc-ture and affordable services, a criticalmass of demand, and the ski11sto useand develop ICTs and their applications.

Private sector telecommunicationsoperators are concentrating their atten-tion in the most lucrative markets wherereturns on investment are both greaterand faster. This agglomeration effect isbenefiting the richer, more densely popu-lated and least peripheral areas and leav-ing the poorer, more sparsely populatedand more peripheral regions at a furtherdisadvantage, If less favoured regionsin general, and insular regions in par-


Web site: www.teleinsula.com

ticular, are to grasp the benefits andopportunities that the infonnation soci-ety has to offer, they need to engage instrategic and concerted actions to ac-celerate its development.

No two regions are identicaI. In anislands context, some island territoriesare large and some are small. Some is-land regions are archipelagos whilstothers are large territories in their ownright. Some islands are relatively pros-perous whilst many are relatively poor.Some islands are located close to themainland, many others are quite iso-lated, but they are a11dependent on airand sea transportation that can be sub-ject to disruption. Like mainland re-gions, island regions also vary in theiradministrative, legal and cultural char-acteristics. Variations such as thesemake it more difficult to define a singlemethodology that will be appropriateto all in all circumstances.

The MEDIS Models for EuropeanDigital Islands project created a Plan-ning Manual to provide help to thosewho are responsible for, and involvedin, the development of a regional infor-mation society strategy and actionplan. The intention has been to pro-vide, as simply and clearly as possible,

a step-by- step guide in the form oftips,tools and templates to be used as asupplement to earlier guides.

Despite the important variations thatexist, the methodological approach of-fered in this Manual has been tried andtested in 28 regions that also displayedsignificant differences and there isgood reason to believe that most proc-esses proposed for developing an in-formation society strategy and actionplan can be applied in island regionsand territories. This experience hasbeen further enhanced by the studiesconducted during the Medis projectand the use ofthe method presented inthe manual in a pilot experience on theEstonian island ofHiiumaa.

The methodology and especially thetools mentioned in the manual havebeen customized to suit islands withlimited previous experience in planning,but can equally well be used in largercommunities or by experienced plan-ners. By using the manual, the plannershould be able to avoid mistakes andfutile work. One of the virtues of themanual is that it makes it easier to re-peat the work after a few years, takingadvantage ofthe lessons learned in thefirst round of planning.

's'ond Cooperotion Sustoinob'e Energy Forum

Euro-Caribbean RESForumAn island alliance in favour

o, suslainable energiesMore than 100 Europeanand Caribbean delegates met on May30-31,2002, on the island ofSaint Lucíawith the aim to start the first Euro-Car-ibbean cooperation Forum in favour ofthe deployment of Renewable EnergySources in the Caribbean Region.

Participants included representativesfrom Caribbean and European island gov-enunents, the renewable energy indus-try, renewable energy service providers,utilities,consultants, íntemational organi-

lnsula 's Secretary-general Pier G d 'Ayala chairtng one of the conference sessions 1I'Ilh thep arttctp att on of European lndu stry managers and Caribbean agencIes and governmentsrepresentatives.

Extraet from the Message of

Dr. Kenny D. AnthonyPrime Minister o, Saint Lucie

The development challenges fac-

ing the world today are a mani-

festation of the North- South di-

vide. Globalization and Informa-

tion Technology are mooted as

the means through which weaker nations can

bridge this divide. The argument is that by

creating a level playing field on which all are

guided by common rules, each has the same

opportunity to benefit. This logic is attractive

but flawed. It is silent on the issue of capacity

to play on this field. At the same time the mag-

nitude and scale ofthe environmental crisis we

face underscore the interdependence of na-

tions and the need to narrow the divide in

pursuit of our individual and collective devel-

opment aspirations. This dilemma presents us

with opportunities to fashion global institutions

and cooperative arrangements that speak to

common goals, differential capabilities and in-

vestments in human development.

It is in !his context !hat I see !he Euro Carib-

bean Energy Forum. Whereas energy is central

to development, the fossil-based fuels used to

provide most of!he woríd's energy hold!he great-

est !hreat1o!he continued existerice of our planet

sations, regional organisations and rec-ognised experts. During these days par-ticipants could deeply analyse the actualpossibilities of cooperation betweenmain European and Caribbean actors re-lated with new rcnewable energy tcch-nologies, including industry and the rep-rcsentation ofkey sectors of application.such as the tourism sector.

The Euro-Caribbean RES Conferencehas been organised by a consortium ofinstitutions co-ordinated by INSULA,

as we know it. Our collective response must be a

reduction of the carbon intensity of our produc-

tion and consumption practices. To this end,

energy efficiency and !he greater exploitation of

renewable sources of energy are to be pursued

with an urgency !hat reflects !he gravity of !he

findings of!he Third Report of!he Inter Govem-

mental Panel on Climate Change. This response

will require inves1ments in technologies resident

in !he north. The Euro Caribbean Energy Forum

was conceived to meet this need by creating a .

place to initiate action in this direction. I con-

gratulate !hose who conceived !his idea and look

forward to !he Forum helping us and our Euro-

pean partners to meet !his challenge.

Wind farm on Curacao

made uup by !TER (InstitutoTecnológico y de Energías Renovables),EREC (European Renewable EnergyCouncil),NTUA-RENES (National Tech-nical University ofAthens) and IRT (In-stitute ofResponsible Tourism), with thesupport of the European Commissionand UNESCo. This initiative also reliedon the collaboration and support of theSt. Lucia Government and on the coop-eration of severaJ Caribbean govem-ments and institutions.

The initiative stenuned from the ideathat it is possible to establish an effi-cient co-operation framework based onCaribbean island countries' resolute beton renewable energy sources deploy-ment and the complementary Europeanexperience developed in this field dur-ing the last years. In particular, Euro-pean and Caribbean RET industry's ea-pability, together with ambitious and in-novative large-scale projects for RES onislands and the new policies developedfor the support of renewables, offer awide range for the support of new co-operation opportunities,

A group of participants after the signature ofthe agreements. lndra Haraksingh (presiden/of t he Caribbean Solar Energy Society),Arthouros Zervos (EREC - European Renew-able Energy Council), Ctpriano Marin (IN-SULA) , Mona White (Caribbean Energy In-forma/ion System), Ronald Parris (Presidentof Insula) and Bishnu Tulsie (Ministry ofPlan-ning Development, Environment and Hous-ing, Governmen/ of Saint Lucia).


EuroCaribbean RES ForumAn island alliance in favour of sustainable energies

Memorandum of UnderstandingWE, the participants at the 'EuroCaribbean

lsland RES Conference', meeting in Saint Lucia

on May 30th and 31st, 2002.

Reflecting on this Conference's important

exchange of experiences and ideas.

Considering that energy resources are fun-

damental to the future development of islands,

given their extreme dependence on imported

conventional energy sources which make them

vulnerable to the volatility of supply and envi-

ron mental degradation.

Recognising the economic impact of the cost

of imported energy sources on Caribbean Island

States and territories, and the need for diversifica-

tion of energy supply sources for energy security.

Taking into account that energy options are

determinant of other essential aspects of sus-

tainable island development, conditioning both

the adaptation and competitiveness of island

key sectors such as tourism, water manage-

ment, agriculture and transporto

Conscious of the need for a long-term view

that will promote the development of both the

large potential of improved energy efficiency

and the wider use of available renewable sources

of energy including wind, solar, hydropower,

geothermal and biomass.

Acknowledging the efforts made by the Car-

ibbean countries and territories in favour of large-

scale deployme"nt of renewable energy sources

through a wide range of national and regional

initiatives that will generate future projects, and

the opportunity to open a European window

for the support of theenergy sustainability in

the Caribbean islands.

Recognising the complementary roles of the

public and private sectors, and the need to

promote co-operation tools that will allow the

creation of actual market alliances with a re-

gional view.

Considering that the European industry of

renewable energy and island experiences can

effectively complement the substantial process

of renewable energy sources development in

the Caribbean islands.

Taking into account the role of new and re-

newable sources of energy efficiency in the sus-

tainable development of small island states, and

the need for international collaboration and co-

operation in that process as described in the

Barbados Programme of Action.

Accepting that in order to facilitate the effec-

tive participation of Caribbean Countries in the

Forum an appropriate coordination mechanism

will be established in the Region.

Agree:

1. To adopt, support and effectively contribute

to the constitution of a permanent co-opera-

tion Forum between European Union and

the Caribbean region to promote the active

participation of main European and Carib-

bean market decision-makers.

2. To promote collaboration with on-going na-

tional and regional initiatives in favour of re-

newable energies, operatively supporting the

Forum's tasks.

3. To support the establishment of new effec-

tive co-operation channels based on the

commitment of Renewable Energy indus-

tries and companies.

4. To contribute to the development of an ef-

fective system of information and promo-

tion of renewable energy technologies and

projects of mutual interest, taking advantage

of the opportunities offered by the new in-

formation technologies.

5. To request the support of the European

Commission for maintenance and consoli-

dation of the initiative.

6. To apply for the endorsement of those inter-

national, regional and national organisations,

governments and the private sector compe-

tent in the development and promotion of

initiatives in favour of energy sustainability

within the region.

7. To charge INSULA with the responsibility of

implementing this agreement within the frame-

work of its role as Secretariat to the Forum.

This responsibility will entail the formulation

of an ECRES Work Plan and its presentation

to the European Commission and other rel-

evant parties. This Work Plan will reflect the

main objectives and tasks of the Forum.

8. Once assurances for appropriate funding

have been obtained, INSULA acting as the

Forum Secretariat will proceed to propose

the legal and operational structure for the

implementation of the Work Plan. At this

point the participants in this Conference and

signatories of this Memorandum of Under-

standing will be invited to participate in an

ECRES Forum constitutive general assem-

bly.

9. This Memorandum of Understanding reflects

the first stage of the process of the estab-

lishment of the Forum.

10. To explore opportunities for the implementa-

tion of Renewable Energy projects in the Car-

ibbean under the aegis of the Clean Develop-

ment Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol.

The memorandum, approved by consensus, was signed by Ronald Parris (President of INSULA), Bisnhu Tulsie(Ministry of Planning Development, Environment and Housing, Government of Saint Lucia) and ArthourosZervos (EREC - European Renewable Energy Council), on behalfofthe Conference.

Message addressed to the Conference on behalf of Loyola de Palacio(Vice-Presidentof the European Commission)

The EuroCaribbean Renewable Energy

Sources Conference is a good example ofwhat

needs to be done to encourage the take up

and promotion of Renewable Energies by tos-

tering cooperation between all relevant market

players.

Energy constitutes a key field of our society

and is fundamental to ensure its economic

and social development. In a nutshell, this

means the welfare of millions of citizens.

The European Commission is anxious to

guarantee sustainable development, and has

been working hard on this objective during

severalyears.

Among the principal challenges with which

we have to cope, two in particular have an

extremely high importance:

• The imperative to ensure the security of

energy supplies

The degree of import dependency in energy

within the European Union has increased from

around 40% in 1985 to around 50 % today.

Moreover, if we do not develop an adequate

strategy and take the necessary measures,

the EU will be even more dependent. The

assessment and forecast done through our

Green Paper "Towards a European strategy

for the security of energy supply" adopted in

November 2000 by the European Commis-

sion, provides an indicative rate of about 70%

by 2030. The main part of the current energy

demand is covered by fossil fuels of which

Based on this background, the cen-tral objective of this initiative was theestablishment of a system of co-opera-tion and technology transfer on Renew-able Energy Sources and Rational Use

40% are oil. The Renewable energy sources

today have a share of about 6%. In this view,

the renewable energy sector has a real high

potential of development in order to rebalance

the overall energy supply sources. The cur-

rent trends of market penetration of these tech-

nologies are rather encouraging but there is a

continuing need for support. Therefore, our

market related activities are mainly focusing

on regulatory measures, and promotion pro-

grammes. In addition, we have the need to

bring down the costs of renewable energies,

and this we are tackling through the Commu-

nity Research and Technological Oevelopment

Programmes. At the beginning of next year,

the Commission proposes to strengthen sup-

port for energy efficiency and renewable ener-

gies in the European Union and in develop-

ing countries, through a new Programme

called "Intelligent Energy for Europe 2003-

2006". With an overall budget of 215 mili ion

Euros for the period 2003- 2006, "Intelligent

Energy for Europe" proposes to tackle the

barriers to the growth of markets for renew-

able energy and energy efficiency in the EU

as well as to strengthen our co-operation on

these matters with developing countries.

• The need to ensure sustainable develop-

ment by developing energy strategies

which respond to the Kyoto imperatives

and requests (reduction ofthe greenhouse

gases by 8% between 2008- 2012 in the EU)'.

ofEnergy, based on the creation oftheEuro-Caribbean RES Fonun as an op-erational tool. The Euro-Caribbean RESFonun is conceived as a permanent in-formation and co-ordination node for

Hon. Senator Calixte George, Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fi sheries of the SaintLucia Government, chatrtng one of the conference sessions, together with the representativesof ¡TER (M. Cendagorta) and ¡CAEN (D. Satué).

It is clear that to answer effectivelythese chal-

lenges, one will have to count on a balanced

approach, that takes account of social, eco-

nomical and political realities.

In this perspective, Renewable Energies will

have to playa major role in the short, medium

and long termo

Finally, may I stress the fact that the EC sup-

ports fully the initiative that you are carrying

out through the setting up of this Forum. This

will constitute an essential tool to ensure the

development of the Caribbean islands and al-

low them to facilitate their energy independ-

ence.

Moreover, the objectives outlined in the work-

ing programme of the Forum are highly valu-

able and similar to part of our initiatives related

on the EU Renewable Energy strategy - in par-

ticular when looking at your actions such as: i)

establishing systems of cooperation; ii) tech-

nology transfer; iii) rational use of Energy; iv)

networking by gathering all main actors and

stakeholders.

The Commission, who is also supporting

this event, will follow with great interest its out-

comes.

I would conclude by congratulating you for

having initiated this broad partnership between

the key actors and I wish you a very successful

Conference.

K. Kellner, A. Kotronaros, J. Riesgo

(May29th, 2002)

OG TREN 02

the promotion ofRES and RUE in theCaribbean market, tinking the Carib-bean demand for services and technol-ogy supply with the European offer andexperience.

The Minister ofPlanning, Devel-opment, Environ-ment and Hous-ing of the Gov-ernment of SaintLucia, Hon. Dr.Walter Francoisofficially pre-sented the Memorandum of Understand-ing at the OECS meeting of Ministers ofEnvironment held on Dominica. This isthe first step made at thelevel of Carib-bean Governments for the consolidationof the EuroCaribbean Forum, after itsapproval and launchingby the delegatesparticipating in the Conference.

Insula S Opentng Session chaired by Ronald Parrts, President of INSULA (Interna-nonal Scienttfic Counctl for Island Development), wtth the presence of Hon. AfanoMich ael, Acting Prime Mintster and Mtnister for Educauon, Human ResourceDevelopment, Youth and Sports of the Government of Saint Lucio, Bomfacius deJonghe (European Commission) and Arthouros Zervos (EREC European Renew-able Energy Council)

~lobiny-:[~ti •••••••• ~

.t. .> 1l:..::cóIltlhlp/"-~~,*",

v,~ ~"""!lJatuIo !]PetlO'\lbervincUool !J'o'~

EuroCaribbeanIsland RES Conference

1'----------' ~..~w .~_I •• bfIMSUlAE:

r

~~:~1~=::~:;:;~"IU.~~ co •••• 'n'OH.

IIoIhlO- I ~·!; •• oIl_ •• _ I ••••.••••..••.••.•f' ••••••••~•••.••• 5.....tL •

FoIow-lJpiscussion Group

(J!!11019

;u ••••='!1..c1O ~balemeru\ MICt<>SOIIInI !JE••..c.ribbolan 1••••••••..

Web-page of the Forum: www.eurocaribbean.o·rg

The ECRES FORUM, supported bya network of institutions, RE associa-tions. intemational organisations andauthorities ofboth European and Car-ibbean Islands, is generating an exten-sive process ofpartnership and identi-fication of opportunities of mutual in-terest. The Forum is, in fact, a Euro-pean window for the support ofthe en-ergy sustainability strategy in the Car-ibbean islands.

From a practical purpose, thc Forumaims to generate co-operation projectsthrough joining together several part-ners, public and priva te, Caribbean andEuropean, including RET industry, de-velopers, consultants, energy agencies,financial institutions and intemationalprogrammes.

56 Intcrnational Journal of Island Affairs

The main objectives ofthe Forum are:• To share infonnation and results derived from vi-

able projects and proposals for RET applications,including replication of successful island experi-ences.

• To help in the identification of present andfuture needs of the Caribbean islands and thecontribution that EU islands and industriescan provide in addressing such needs.

• To promote trade in renewable energy devicesand systems and facilita te the creation of anenabling environment for rapid market growth.

• To disseminate "state-of-the-art" RET, RUEand clean transportation technologies in Car-ibbean countries, taking advantage of new is-land experiences and of the European RE in-dustry.

• To support the Caribbean Island States' strat-egies aiming at sustainable development andenergy independence.

The Conference room durtng one of the sesstons.

Hon. Alano Mtchael, Acting Prime Mimster andMint ster for Educa/Ion, Human Resource De-velopmen/, Youth and Sports of the Saint LucioGovernment during the Opentng Session.

Meeting of the Eurotlanbbean RES Irnttauve Steering Committee a/ the UNESCO headquar-ters In Parts In January 2002.

Euro Caribbean Res ForumThe State 01 the Art 01

Renewables in the CaribbeanPossibilities, Realisations and Applicability

The implementation of Re-newable Energy technologies is gen-erally controlled by Govemment EnergyPolicies which are largely dictated bythe extent of the country's natural re-sources and its economic status. TheCaribbean islands are generally smallwith some ofthem having modest pub-lic services. In some of the islands theenergy sector is not highly developedand legislation regarding the environ-ment is minimal. The Caribbean regionlies in a strategic position for severalreasons, two ofwhich are its close prox-imity to Latin America with its abun-dance of natural resources. and thehigh insolation levels year round. Yetthe Caribbean has not capitalised onnor exploited these resources to an ac-ceptable leve!. The two main problemsare lack of adequate cohesion betweenLatin America and the Caribbean andlack of financial resources to developthe industries. Small Island Develop-ing States (SIDS) are particularly sen-sitive to Climate Change as many ofthem are vulnerable to the consequentsea level rise and ecological changes.Sea level rise can also affect offshoregas and oil exploitation and oil imports.Therefore exploitation of RenewableEnergy resources is critical for preser-vation of the fragile eco-system of theislands and security of the oil and gasindustry in the region.

Historical BackgroundLatin America and the Caribbean (LAC)have an abundance of energy resources

available. According to OLADE, oil andoil products constitute sixty percent ofthe region's energy mix. Nonetheless,the region is not sufficiently integratedto benefit from this wealth of resources.Crude oil is the main product importedby the LAC countries, in 1970 account-ing for 80.8 % of imports and then drop-pingto 53.3 %in 1992. Asofl970 crudeoil exports rose significantly, peakingin 1982 with 1,177,300,000 barreis.(OLADE). The main crude oil exportersare Mexico and Venezuela. Among theEuglish speaking countries, Trinidadand Tobago, a producer of natural gasand oil, has been the only exporter ofpetroleum since 1912. Barbados is theonly other producer among the islandsbut still remains a net importer of en-ergy. Venezuela, Brazil and Mexico arethe largest exporters of oil products ac-counting for approximately 70 % ofthetotal exports from the Region.

Most of the islands ofthe Caribbeanare relatively poor and continue tostruggle for survival. Petrolewn importscontinue to dominate the energy pro-file ofthe countries. Although the rateof integration of the Latin Americancountries and the Caribbean is slow,there are some positive developmentswhich will accelerate trade and energycooperation. These include CARICOM- the Caribbean Common Market;Mercusur - the Southern CommonMarket; The San Jose Accord; and theAssociation of Caribbean States. De-veloping countries hold 50 % of theworld gas reserves, yet they account

by I NORA HARAKSINGH *

for only 17 % of world consumptiondue to the technological developmentof the gas industry in industrialisedcountries. (OLADE). It is reported thatabout 25 percent of the world's popu-lation consumes about 80 percent ofthe global energy (Obasi, 2000). It isprojected that the GDP of developingcountries may grow 14-fold by the year2025, while that of developed countriesfive-fold. It is believed that natural gaswill become the most economical en-ergy source as an alternative to liquidhydrocarbons. It has been predictedthat natural gas and oil will continuethrough the period to 2025 as the prin-cipal form ofprimary energy althoughmany ofthe islands are becoming moresensitized about the importance of re-newable energy implementation.

Renewable EnergyProfile of the CaribbeanSituated in a tropical region with littleseasonal variations, the average insola-tion of 15-20 Mlxm-Zxday-I is roughlytwice the level found in many industri-alized countries. Therefore prospects forgood retums in investrnent in some re-newable energy technologies are en-couraging. Governments are recogniz-ing that renewable energy implementa-tion can also reduce the strain ofunem-ployment by providing additional jobsfor nationals thus significantly influenc-

*Department of Physics,

The University of the West Indies

St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago

ing the socio-eco,nomic conditions inthe region. With limited financial re-sources, it is encouraging to note thatmany studies have reported significantdecline in the unit cost of renewableenergy technologies within recent times.This applies to solar-thermal, biomassand in particular, photovoltaics.

The equivalent in barreis of oil of so-lar energy available in the Caribbean ismuch greater than the energy we useas imported fossil fuels. The big ques-tion is why such resources remainlargely untapped. The InternationalEnergy Agency states "The econom-ics of renewable energy are the largestbarrier to renewables penetration". Lowoil prices as well would have had anegative effect on the pace at whichalternative non-fossil fuel sourceswould be brought on stream. Some ofthe restrictions to implementation ofRenewable Energy technologies are:1 Lack of capital2 Shortage of hard currency3 Policy framework - subsidies, tax ex-

emptions, venture capital4 Utility resource acquisition proce-

dures that favor conventional tech-nologies

5 Transfer oftechnology Iimitations6 Lack oftrained manpower7 Lack of community and private sec-

tor involvement.

The Solar Water Heater industry isthe best developed, most mature andvibrant ofthe Renewable Energy tech-nologies in the region, but even this isfar from realizing its full potential. Hotwater consumption is influenced bycultural and social habits. Although inthe Caribbean región it is considered amarginalluxury, for the tourism indus-try, on which most ofthe Caribbean rely,it is a basic necessity. Entrepreneursworking in the solar water heater in-dustry have recognized this and havefocused attention on integrating solarenergy utilization with the advance-ment of the tourism sector. With onlythirteen solar water heater manufactur-ers in the region, both the manufactur-

58 lnternational Journal of Island Affairs

ing and distribution markets are poi sedfor rapid expansion if the appropriateenergy policies are adopted.

Solar crop-drying is one of the old-est of the renewable energy technolo-gies in the Caribbean. Drying of foodcrops is an important aspect of post-harvest technology as many of the is-lands are agriculture-based. The Uni-versity .of the West Indies has been thefocal point for research and develop-ment with respect to solar drying ofagricultural crops, fish and timber, andfOÍ"the dissemination of the technolo-gies in the region. Various designs ofsolar dryers have been developed andtested for their thennal efficiencies, andthe drying characteristics of differentagricultural products have been deter-mined. T11eapplieation ofthis technol-ogy is relevant for the islands; eventhe sma11fanner can find a dryer designat an affórdable cost. The largest solardryer, designed by the late ProfessorOliver Headley, uses the roof of a farmbuilding with an area of 130 squarekilometers and is used to dry hay at afarm in Barbados.

ISLAND PROFILES.The State of the Art ofRenewables andProjections for theFutu re

BarbadosBarbados has long been considered

a pioneer among the Caribbean islandsin Sustainable Development issues.The Government of Barbados estab-lished a National Commission on Sus-

tainable Development with a specificmandate to make the country a modeIof Sustainable Development incorpo-rating government departments, inter-est groups and the general public in itspolicy development processes. Havinga population of 266,400 resident peo-ple with an annual visitor populationof about 800,000, Barbados is one ofthe world's most densely populatedcountries. Two-thirds ofthe populationlive around the coastal region impact-ing heavily on the already fragile eco-system.

The island with the most successfulsolar hot water program is Barbadoswith 33,000 solar hot water systems(SHWS) installed. Apart from Barbadosand Jamaica, there are at best a fewhundred heaters installed in the otherislands. Barbados has over 55 hotelsbeing run on SHWS as opposed to fiveor less in any other Caribbean island.The reason for Barbados' success mustbe noted. In the early seventies theGovernment of Barbados recognizedthe benefi ts of employing SHWSthroughout the country and thereforeadopted the policy of offering tax in-centives for these systems under theFiscal Incentives Act of 1974. Within afew years sales of SHWS multiplied.

Wind power exploitation has an old traditionin the Caribb ean i sl an d s. The restoredMorgan Lewis Sugar Mili at Sto Andrew, Bar-bados.

Among the other projects in progressare the construction ofthe 17.3 kW PVsystem at Harrisons's Cave for Iight-ing, an 11.1 KW solar ice maker pro-ducing an average of one tonne of iceper day, and a 3 KW PV system atCombermere School for operating acomputer laboratory. It is hoped thatthe first project will expand to 140 kWto include charging the batteries forrunning the trams which transport visi-tors into the caves.

Projections for the future include16MW in wind turbine farms in theNorth of Barbados, a lOMW wastecombustion plant and a 2MW wavepower plant.

of its large expanses of land, develop-ment of its PV capacity for electrifica-tion of remote areas is feasible. Giventhe extent of silica resources of Guy-ana and natural gas in Trinidad, ajointeffort for manufacturing of PV cells isfeasible having the added advantageof savings on scarce foreign exchange.

This will be the focal point for all inputsfrom the public and the scientific com-munity with regard to technological de-velopments and for clissem.ination of in-formation to the publicoAmong the incentives offered are• A concessionary tax structure for

solar panels and tubes for water heat-ing and solar cells. Solar panels arenow zero rated.

• A 15 % external benefit from the elec-tric utility for RE projects lo ensurethat RE becomes a part of the elec-tricity generation m.ix.

Martinique and GuadeloupeTank-and-collector "bread-box" solarwater heaters are being manufacturedin Guadeloupe with installations in12,000 houses. There is a1so a 4.8 MWgeothermal plant in operation in

Guadeloupe.The Jamaican utility company hasequipped 30 households in re-mote areas with PV panels.while the PCJ has in-stalled about 77 so-lar street lamps inthe country.There are 3,800SHWS installedin Jamaica. Witha thriving tourismindustry, installa-tion of SHWS in ho-tels can result in signifi-cant savings, Althoughsome solar cookers are being' mar-keted in Jamaica, it is unlikely that thiswill make a significanl impact in theshort or medium tenn. Jamaica plans tobuild a 20 MW wind fann by early 200 l.

JamaicaJamaica imports over 90 % of its com-mercial energy needs in the form of pe-troleum products using roughly onethird of its foreign exchange earningsfor imported fuel. Indications are thatoil \ViII continue to be the main energysource with natural gas from Trinidad &Tobago being an option in the mediumto long tenn. Jamaica's high energy re-quiremenl can be attributed to the en-ergy intensive baux.ite / alurnina indus-try. The energy sector is governed bythe Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica(pCl). The Government has howeverrecognised that RE can play an impor-tant part in the energy I11Íxofthe coun-try. The National Resource Conserva-tion Authority (NRCA) has outlinedguidelines relating to the energy sectorciting the protection ofthe environmentas a primary objective of their energypolicy. The Ministry has established acentral energy conservation unit and aRE unir which will act as a facilitalor forall new and renewable energy projects.

An t nter-connected network wtth a diverstfied rangeo/ means o/ productt on (EDF ServicesArchipel Guadeloupe)

Guadeloupe is made up of two main is-lands - Basse Terre, with the volcano,and Grand Terre to the east of i1.Thereis a wind farm on La Désirade consist-ing of 20 turbines al 25 kW each, andone on Marie Galante consisting of25turbines at 60 kW each. In Martiniquethere seems to be so me small wind tur-bines industry.

GuyanaGuyana is a typical developing coun-try where the availability of reliablesources of energy could significantlyinfluence the prevailing interna1 socio-economic and demographic conditions.Included in its new policies is rapidadaptation and implementation ofREtechnologies. Reports indicate that theeconomy is on the rise giving an in-

centive to foreign and local com-panies to invest in RE

technologies. Furtherdevelopment of itshydropower resources,

biomass and biogas, wind andsolar thermal seemjustifiable. Because

Netherlands AntillesProspects Ior wind energy are encour-aging. Kodela, together with Nedwind,have signed the contract for a 12 MWexpansion ofthe existing wind farms inCuracao. Bonaire has proposals for 3MW and 4 MW wind farms, whileAruba is hoping to install a 3 MW farm.Existtng hydroelectric plants In Jamaica

With a flourishing tourism industry inAruba, SHWS utilization should con-tribute significantly to the energy mix.These projects can provide additionaljobs for some nationals, and when com-pleted, contribute to the national elec-tricity grid.

Puerto RicoPuerto Rico imports all its primary en-ergy producing fuels. Its limited land usehas led to extensive research in RE tech-nologies. It is believed that Puerto Ricoand the rest ofthe Caribbean are ideallysuited for widespread use of hybrid elec-tric vehicles. There is also a high de-mand for electrical energy in the tropicsfor air conditioning applications. There-fore solar assisted air conditioning sys-tems for the Caribbean is a necessity.Feasibility studies show that fromsimulations, the pay-back period forPuerto Rico is 5 years whereas for Trini-dad it is 10years. Payback time is a func-tion of annual solar fraction, electricitycost and tax incentives, and total instal-lation costs. Experimental performanceofthis technology was verified throughassessment of demonstration systemsin Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico.

St. LuciaManufacturing capacity for solar waterheaters is slowly expanding in St. Luciawhich, apart from its banana industry,depends heavily on tourism. The solarhot water market therefore looks verypromising. There are two manufactur-ers of SHWS in the island. Productionfor domestic use and export can create areal challenge for potential investors.Also prospects for Geothennal energyare good due to the existence ofthe sul-phur springs in Soufriere. This is aseven-acre crater, often referred to asthe only drive-in volcano, with morethan a dozen pools and hot springs ex-pelling large quantities of sulphur-ladensteam.

Trinidad & Tobago (T&T)At present the country's natural gasreserves are estimated at approxi-


mately 27 trillion cubic feet with a cur-rent production rate of about one bil-lion cubic feet per day. Crude oil andcondensate reserves are about 550million barrels with production levelsfor 1998 averaging 122,627 barreis perday. Almost 75% of the country's en-ergy consumption come from naturalgas. Electricity generation comes from100 % natural gas. In the last fouryears, the natural gas industry hasbeen growing at an average annual rateof lO%. The World Bank has rankedT&T as "an upper middle-income oilproducing country" which has led toan intensive industrialízation thrust.With oil prices on the decline theeconomy has been diversified awayfrom oil. The national Gas company ofTrinidad & Tobago includes in its stra-tegic objectives• Maintaining Trinidad & Tobago's

natural gas sector as one of the fast-est growing industries in the world

• Marketing natural gas to the rest ofthe Caribbean, given its price advan-tage when compared to other aIter-native energy sources, and its envi-ronmental attributes ofbeing a cleanburning fossil fuel.Given the above scenario, is there

any hope for RE penetration in T&T?Although world-wide concerns for thepreservation of the environment willperhaps dampen growth in world pe-troleum demand, the heavy invest-ments in petroleum infrastructure forproduction and consumption and theirlong pay-back periods will have anegative effect, at least in the case ofT&T. However, in the latest Energy-Policy Green Paper, section 4.6 dealswith "Development of New and Re-newable Energy Options". The gov-

ernment is interested in developingRenewable Energy technologies, inparticular solar, notwithstanding thecountry's wealth in terms of naturalgas and oi\. Recognizing that "marketprices of energy sources do not re-flect total costs particularly those re-lated to the environmental impact", theGovernment is committed to fully sup-porting "the local manufacturing ofcapital equipment for use in Solar En-ergy applications or other forms of al-ternative energy".

At present less than 1% of homesare equipped with solar water heaterswhile there are few small PV installa-tions in remote areas. Certainly the ho-tel industry in T&T can be opened upto accommodate SHWS, especiallywith the onset of new hotel construc-tions. If solar water heaters shouldpenetrate the T&T market to the extentin Barbados, the industry would gen-erate an income of 780 million T&Tdollars (about 130 million USD). With.the necessary Government and PowerCompany incentives, the prices can bemade attractive and the domestic mar-ket can experience a boost. Research isal so being conducted at the Universityof the West Indies Trinidad campus onSolar Dryers, Solar Cookers, Wind En-ergy and OTEe.

United States Virgin Islands(USVI)The USVI, comprising St. Thomas, St.Croix and St. John, have undertaken REinitiatives which have led to the forma-tion of the RE Centre responsible forsuccessful projects such as the Veter-ans' Memorial Park Solar Plaza, the So-lar and Wind Resource Assessmentstations, solar-powered street and traf-tic lighting, solar water heating for hos-pital and agriculture projects. Its big-gest showpiece is the privately financedHarmony Resort in St. John. This iscompletely solar and wind powered anduses 70 % recycled construction mate-rials. RE development was hindered bythe recent hurricane which devastatedthe country

RecommendationsMany developing countries currentlysubsidise energy supply or sell it farbelow the production costs. Institu-tional reíorrns are therefore necessaryto ensure true costs, including extemali-ties such as environmcntal effects, areestimated in order to correctly developenergy policies. Tighter standard s ofenergy efficiency and ernissions. regu-lations affecting energy users. and theintroduction of taxes are necessary toguide policy makers to achieve policygoals in the energy related field.

In Latin America and the Caribbeanpopulation is rising and the region's en-ergy use will rise by 60-85 % by 2025.(OLADE). Energy use and energy policy\ViUdictate the social and economic de-velopmcnts in the region. Energy eífi-ciency programs are urgently needed inthe region in order to reduce wastage dueto ignorance or malpractice. Thereforeenergy eillciency policies must embraceeconomic, political, cultural and domes-tic activities. To ensure security of en-ergy supplies, the regio n shouJd widenits relations with the Pacific Basin andEurope to be better able to establish itsown energy policies. Market stimulation,technological advancement, subsidy andcorporation with the utilities are all es-sential elements of a sustainable renew-able energy progranune. Financial con-straints \ViUhave adverse effects to thedevelopment of sound energy institu-

l lFOü-wau solar photovoltaic array on theroof of the Skeete s Bay fishing complex (Bar-bados). This powers a one-tonne-per daysolar ice-maker. Pholo: Oliver Headley.

tions and will force major changes inmacro-economic policies and wider par-licipation of the private sector. The manyproblerns associated with the total Gov-ernment control include politicaJ interfer-ence, organisational inefficiencies andinsufficient technical development.Therefore Ole solution entails liberalisa-tion and opening up of the economies.

The Role of the Sta teIt is the rcsponsibility of the State tocnsure the eíficient use of imported en-ergy and to encourage the cxploitationand development of indigenous energyrcsources. Thc Statc must playa broaderpoliticaJ and economic role by handlingeconornic policy, and must be responsi-ble for supervision, monitoring and en-forcement of standards and laws. Oneofkey roles is setting up regalatíon witheJIiciency inducing mechanisms such asproviding incentives for economic effi-ciency in the system by price controlusing economic criteria. Capital scarcity

ff'md farm on Curacao

and technological underdevelopment inthe region leave room for priva te sectorparticipation to ensure current suppliesand future market development. Overallpolicy formulation rather than purelytechnical and economic motives mustdictate the extent ofprivatization. Poli-cies must embrace the projected energydemands as well as protect the globalenvironment.

One school of thought supports thedevelopment of regional energy policies,but there are major constraints to thisdue to the differring energy situationsin the islands. It seems more feasible thatOleOrganisation Ior Eastern CaribbeanStates (OECS) draft a common energypolicy for its member states to ensurethat RE forms a distinct component ofOle energy generation mix. Legislationfor the entire Caribbean is needed toensure that utilities have an obligationto interconnect wi01small power RE pro-ducers at a reasonable cost.

ConclusionMost renewable energy technologies areclimate-sensitive. Therefore sustainableenergy development Illust always incor-porate issues on climate variability andchange (Obasi, 2000). The Caribbeanregion is a virtual powerhouse of solarand other renewable sources of energywaiting to be exploited. Ir has Ole ad-vantage of not having winters when hotwater demands can increase [TQmsum-mer by approximately 70 % in cold cli-mates. Solar water heaters for the tour-ism industry and dornestic and commer-ciaJ usage have perhaps the greatest po-tential. There is a general commitmentto the development of RE, but mattershave not gone very far beyond this. Themovcment towards greater implemcnta-tion of R E technologies is gainingstrength, but there is a large gap betweenpolicy goals and actual achievement.Clearly, much work still needs tobe done.Government fiscal incentives, greaterinfrastructurc Ior policy development as\VeUas joint venture partnerships areneeded in the Caribbean region for asmooth transition. A key factor for suc-

cess is the opening up of a liberalizedmarket with conunercial competition.This would boost investment opportu-nities resulting in higher efficiency andlower conunercial prices which are thedeciding factors for most prospectiveconsumers. Present estimations revealthat renewable energy accounts forabout 20 percent ofthe world's primaryconsumption. It is the hope that this fig-ure will increase many-fold in the nearfuture thus ensuring that energy con-servation is maintained and poLlutionofthe environment is minimised.

ReferencesBoopsingh, T.M. 1992. Energy needs of small

developing countries - The case ofthe Com-

monwealth Caribbean. The BritishAssociation

for the Advancement of Science. "Energy in

the NextCentury". United Kingdom.

Energy for Tomorrow's World - The Realities,

the Real Options and the Agenda for Achieve-

mento World Energy Council Commis-

sion.1993. St. Martin's Press Inc., New York.

Energy Planning Division. 1998. Energy Policy

Green Paper - Section 4.6. Ministry of Energy

and Energy Industries. Trinidad and Tobago.

González, J. 1999. Development of Solar Air

Conditioning Systems for the Caribbean Re-

gion. Sustainable Alternatives forTropicalls-

land States - SATIS '99. Puerto Rico.

Haraksingh, 1. 1997. Implementation of and Pos-

sibilities for Renewable Energy in the Caribbean

with Special Reference to Trinidad and Tobago.

SolarWorld Congress. Taejon, Korea.

Husbands, J. 1996. Solar hot water systems -

Incentive programs. The Barbados experi-

ence. SolarDynamics Limited. Barbados.

Obasi, G. O. P. 2000. Climate Change - Expec-

tation and Reality. Lecture at World Renew-

able Energy Congress - VI, Brighton, United

Kingdom.

OLADE (1996) Energy Prospects and Economic

Development in the 21st Century; The Out-

look for Latin America in a World Contexto

Organisation for Energy Cooperation in Latin

America and the Caribbean, OLADE. Quito,

Anthony Patterson (Ministry of Science and Tech-nology - St. líncent & Grenadines), Chrisune Lins(EREC-Ellropean Renewable Energy Expon Coun-cil), Jose Manuel Melím Mendes (AREAM - Ma-detra - Portugal), Mona Whyte (CEIS - CanbbeanEnergy Informauon System), Bishnu Tulsie (Minis-try of Planning, Development, Environment andHousing - SI. Lucio), Alfredo Curbelo (GEPROP -Cuba), and Ulrtc Trot: (Caribbean Planning [orAdaptation [o Global Climate Change), during oneof [he Eurotlartbbean RES Conference.

Ecuador.

Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica. 1999. Ja-

maica's National Energy Plan. Ministry of Min-

ing and Energy Jamaica.

Report on Barbados National Commission on

Sustainable Development. 1999. Ministry of

Environment,Energy and Natural Resources.

Barbados.

Trotz, N. 1996. Renewable Energy in Third

World Countries. Commonwealth Science

Council. United Kingdom.

Wright, R. 1999. Population, Energy Resources

and Environment with particular reference to

the Caribbean. Sustainable Alternatives for

Tropical Island States - SATIS '99 Proceed-

ings. Puerto Rico.

Florida""(U.S.A.)

Tf1" 50

Gull of Mexico, B,.,... ,. .• "" r..-.. The

•.•.• - ~ Bahamas,,'c.,s.!!IonO ~ CM(1."'- '*"" t""s...-"

-""Atlantic

Ocean

~ .•.......,...

Sea

Tropc 01 Canesr

.:.~'""b .~.~1I().c~

Cuba

Jamaica

.-n.o:... o __ o

Caribbean

Garden Adventure: How aSolar Water Heater works

Written by William Hinds, one ofthe Caribbean re-gion's leading experts in the field of renewable ener-gies, this sma11booklet is addressed to the young-est public with the airn to introduce children to theworld of renewable energies through every dayanalogies, experiments and interesting stories.


Author and Publisher:

William Hinds

18 Frere Pilgrim

Christchurch

Barbados


ISBN: 976-8079-23-1

••Our miss ion is to take rapid ac-

tion anywhere In the world to

manage emergency situations"

Thierry Vandevelde, Head of

Water Force, Vivendi Water.

W.c isessential tohu-man life and human health, especiallyin the context of crisis or poverty. Se-curing water supply, in any circum-stances, is therefore a core issue for allwater services professionals. This ishighly relevant to the internationalcommunity of Islands due to the im-pact of climate change combined withthe geology of many islands.

As the World leader in water produc-tion and distribution, Vivendi Water hasbeen continually developing innovativesolutions in order to manage water avail-ability problems. These solutions are partof the standard offer for Vivendi Water'sclients but there is also a responsiblity toprovide services to anyone in time of cri-sis especially in developing countries.

The process solutions rely on the ex-pertise of our staff and our business andtechnology centres that form VivendiWater.These include Generale des Eaux,Vivendi Water Systems with OTV,Opalium and Bekox, membrane special-ists such as Memcor and the USFiltergroup. Together they provide the expe-rience and process solutions rangingfrom mobile systems to water recycling,from seawater desalination to distribu-tion system rehabilitation. However,technology is not the problem. The keyis having the experience to select themost appropriate solution combinedwith the availablity ofthe best people.

Here are some examples of VivendiWater experiences and tools for emer-gency water management.

The Water Force:a Team with a MissionThe two major natural disasters in 1998- Hurricane Mitch in Nicaragua andthe Yangtze riverfloods in China moti-.vated Générale des Eaux / Vivendi Wa-

Emergency watermanagement

by BRUCE DURHAM* , JEAN-Luc SALL**, LAURE SIMON**

ter (part ofVivendi Environnement) toset up an emergency team to providehelp and assistance to the victims.

The team 's objective is to provide sup-port on the ground (NGOs, intemationalorganisations and government emer-gency aid forces) both with adequatema-terial and with know-how on water-re-lated issues. After these first experiences,Vivendi Water fonned a pennanent spe-cial operations group, the Water Force,made up of voluntary members from allVivendi Environnement business W1Íts.

Since its creation, Water Force hassent some 40 volunteers each year (a11Vivendi Water specialists) into the fieldfor a total of more than 1,000 days onsite. This is in addition to the emer-gency work completed around theWorld by the local business centres.

In emergency situations they havehelped repair water distribution sys-tems and supply disaster victirns withdrinking water, thereby avoiding thepossibility of epidemics.

The Water Force has been develop-ing a strong partnership with severalinstitutions and non-profit organisa-tions such as European Union, UNO,UNHCR, the Red Cross, the Frenchministries ofForeign Affairs, Defenseand Interior, NGOs like Care, Actioncontre la Faim, Secours Catholique,Caritas, Premiere Urgence, Médecins duMonde, Enfants du Monde, etc ....

These partners work with WaterForce in the field or contribute to itsfunding (Water Force's budget in 2000was 3 million euros, half supplied byVivendi Water/Générale des Eaux, halfsupplied by the institutional partners).Co-operation can cover several differ-ent phases:• emergency (China, Central America,

Balkans, Turkey, India ... )

• reconstruction and development(Nicaragua, Albania ... )

• technical and community healthtraining (India, Chad, Lebanon ...)

• advise on water strategy issues(Kosovo, Albania ... )

Op aforce -1 emergency mobile treatmentplanto Includes sand filter and dismfecuon.80 m 3 day. Dtmenstons: 1, -o lO 1,-15 m.Wetght: 250 kg without the filtertng sand.cleyet.merletiñopalium.com

Water' ForcePotabilisation unitsVivendi Water Force Standard CompactPotabilisation units (SCP) c1arify anddisinfect any surface or ground waterto achieve intemational drinking waterquality standards.

AIthough the technology is well es-tablished, engineering skills were nec-essary to develop «Water Force cus-tomised» equipment which can :• fit easily in a plane, a truck or pick-up,

in order to reach any place in the World:• operate under almost any local con-

ditions with supervision by unskilledoperators.In order to ea se their installation,

SCP s arrive in a single container or inparts for local assembly.

* Vivendi Water, Wirksworth, Derbyshire DE4

4BG UK. Tel. +441629821167 Fax.+44

1629825169

email: [email protected]

** Vivendi Water Generale des Eaux, 3 rue

Marcel Sembat, 44925 Nantes Cedex 9,

France. Tel. +33251 8461 03

email: jean-Iuc.salle@generale-<les-€aux.net.

[email protected]

Suspended solids settling, for in-stance. can be done either by a settlingskid integrated to the SCP or by a mo-bile settling tank kit. Filters and disin-fection units can travel separately butonce on the ground, are easily con-nected together in a few hours.

lfthe water network is damaged, mo-bile storage tanks. water fountains orindividual microfiltration devices canalso be used to provide the populationwith easy access to safe drinking water.

Potable water productionfrom floodwaterThe Mississippi floods in De Moines,Iowa (1993) flooded the dri nking waterplants serving 250,000 people.

Temporal)' automauc membrane sys-tems wcre supplied by Memcor to theArmy Corp of Engineers to treat thefloodwater to provide potable water forthe hospitals.

The 0.2 micron hollow fibre 111e111-brane system removes all suspendedsolids to produce a clarified water withturbidity of <0.02 NTU. The bacteriaand protozoa are removed to an effi-ciency of log 6 and viruses to log 2followed by disinfection with chlorineto protect the quality during storage,transportation and distribution.

Similar experience was gained in Eu-rope during the 2001 floods using thelatest subrnerged microfiltration systems(CMF-S) from Memcor. The CMF-S sys-tem above was treating íloodwater toprotect a reverse osmosis plant provid-ing boiler feed water for a large powerstation. CMF -S has smaller foot print andlower operating costs than CMF.

This PreMPT TM CMF-S arrives asa 12111long ISO container and will pro-duce between 3000 & 7,500m3 Idayof potable water dependingupon the quality and tempcra-ture of the feed water. PreMPTTM is also being used for re-verse osmosis pretreatment.

64 International Journal of lsland ,...Udll'

Gujarat Province, India 2001. After the earth-quake, mobile plants, storage tanks and drink-mg water [ountatns tnstalled by Waler Force andthe Red Cross allowed evel)' inhabitant easy ac-cess lo safe drtnking water.

Hubet Provtnce,China, 1988.After the terriblefloods of theYangt:e rtver dis-rupted the watersupply syst em,f 'rvendt Haler donated and installed 111'0 mo-btle water treatment units (600 m' day each).

Mobile clarification andmedia filtration unitsAn appropriate choice ofthe filtering me-dia (activated carbon íor instance) allowthese units to deal with specific contarni-nants in the resources (e.g. pesticides).

Mobile potablewater productiondesalination plantsReverse osmosis technology is highlyC0111pactand convenient for emergen-cies but as with most treatment sys-tems it also needs electrical power.They are used for municipal problems(drought conditions, permanent lack ofdrinking water resources, seasonal in-crease of water consumption. e.g. dueto tourism ... ) and industrial problems(stoppage or maintenance of rnainplants, ternporary need ofhigher waterquality, seasonal increases ofwater pro-duction, ... ). MobÍle compact plants

Reverse Osmosis skid

Contamer pre-commtssiontng

Transportatton and rapid operation

Memcor CMF mtcrofiltration skids

Submerged mtcrofiltration CMF-Streaung floodwater pre RO

can treat 50 to 500 m' lday and are avail-able with their own generators. Smallerunits can be installed on a truck. Feed

water salinity can be up to47,000 mg/l. These unitshave been used from CanaryIslands to the Red Sea.

. ; t-

IKARIAConference

MEDIS IHITIATIVE"European and National Policiesduring the New Programming Period2000-2006 for European Islands"Conference held on 1-3 November,2001 on the island of Ikaria

The Local Development Company of the

Greek Ikaria Province and the European Pro-

gram MEDIS (Models for European Digital Is-

lands) organized a Conference entitled "Euro-

pean and National Policiesduring the New Pro-

gramming Period 2000-2006 for European Is-

lands", from November 1" to 3,d, 2001.

The organization took place with the active

support of the Ministry of the Aegean, the Re-

gion of North Aegean, the Prefecture of Samos

and the local authorities of the Ikaria Island.

During the Conference, National and European

policies were set out for thematic areas such

as Land-Planning Design (as a tool for matur-

ing actions and projects for the 3,d CSF), Mild

Forms of Development (alternative forms of

tourism, alternative forms of energy, environ-

ment, therapeutic spas), Information Society,

RegionalOperational Programs (R.O.Ps.),Role

of Development Companies.

Particularemphasis was given in the develop-

ment of Information Society (IS) in the insular

regions of Europe, by presenting Ikaria as a

case study of the European Program MEDIS

coordinated by INSULA.

The National and European policies for the

development of ISwere discussed and experi-

ences concerning applications and services of

Information and Communication Technologies

in sectors such as administration, education,

health, business, innovation, regional devel-

opment etc. of other insular regions of Greece

and Europe were presented.

In the framework ofthe Conference, the most

important deliverables ofthe European project

TERRALORE,which is a program of land plan-

ning design and regional development imple-

mented under the coordination of the Ikaria

Province, were also presented. The design of

local development included proposals for the

creation of Local Observatories and Inter-mu-

nicipal Networks against the isolation and the

depopulation, and innovative studies based

upon the local potential and perspective.

Further, the peculiarity of the Aegean islands

was identified, with respect to other insular re-

gions of Europe and the adjustment of the

policies to the local reality was found neces-

sary.

Information Societyand SuslainableDevelopmentEuropean ConferenceOutermost regions, Insular regions: A contribution to theeconomic, social and territorial cohesion of the European Union

lt has been a while since the EuropeanUnion launched the first supportive ac-tions for the Information Society, in par-ticular with regulation and promotionactivities, and with the specific researchand development action lines includedin the different framework programmes.In particular it can be underlined thelauuching of the eEurope Initiative "aninfonnation society for all" in December1999 and the adoption of its Action Planby the European Council in Feira on 19-20 Juue 2000. This political initiative pre-tended to ensure that the European Un-ion fully benefits frorn the changes theInfonnation Society is bringing, and toaccelerate positive change in the Unionand that this change towards the Infor-mation Society is cohesive, not divisive.

Within this frarnework, and based onthe Conclusions of the Lyon Conference"Information Society 2000-2006, a newopportunity", December 200Q,as well asthose of the Sevcnth Conference ofPresidents of outermost regions, heldin Lanzarote on September 25th, 2001,the Government of the Canary Islands,jointlywithINSULA, UNESCO, CRPM,ELANET, CEMR and ERISA with thesupport of the Spanish Presidency andthe collaboration ofthe European Com-mission. organised a Conference on "In-fonnation Society and Regional Sustain-able Development" that was held in Ten-erife on 11-12Apri12002.

The conference was ofspecial inter-est to governments of island regionsor of regions that have archipelagos orislands, being them currently within theEuropean Union or in possible futuremember states, as well as to the gov-ernments of outermost regions. Partici-pants were representatives ofEuropeanisland's public administrations, interna-

tional bodies and organisations, re-search and development centres, uni-versities, companies from the informa-tion and telecommunications sector,operators, scrvice providers, etc. A se-ries ofEuropean projects for R+D, dem-onstration and complementary meas-ures was selected prior the Conferenceand invited to participate.

The meeting was an opportunity toprojecl delega les' expectations regard-ing the development ofthe infonnationsociety on a full European base andtook place in a decisive and importantmoment from the point of view oftheapplication of structural funds and re-search policy.

Aims ofthe Conference were to con-tribute lo allowing that those regions.their institutions. R&D centres. enter-prises and citizens play an important rolein the sixth frarnework programme of re-scarch and development, and take anactive part in the European ResearchArea, to identify means in order thatthese regions can benefit from the inno-vation, research and development po-tential of the European Union. and in-corporate them in the Mid Tenn Reviewoftheir Operative Programmes, to facili-tate the inlerchange and permanenttransfer of infonnation. knowledge, ex-periences aJld resources. in particularregarding the development ofthe "UIU-versal Service", to identify, analyse andpromote models of co-operation andsustainable development in our regionsand in neighbour countries ofthe corre-sponding geographical regions and tofoster the role of existing networks andassociations and to promote the devel-opment of new specific collaborationnetworks between our regions and be-tween them and other European regions.

Doñana Regenera'ion ProiectA model lor coaslal

wellands recoveryAerial imageof the Doñanamarshes.

W!h an area of more than50,000 ha, Doñana is one of the mostemblematic world coastal wetlands.Doñana National Park, besides being aRamsar site and a Special ProtectionArea for birds, was declared a BiosphereReserve in 1980 and inscribed on theWorld Heritage List in 1994. The Bio-sphere Reserve includes a buffer zoneofmore 26,000 ha, summing a total of77,260 hectares.

Doñana belongs to the small group ofcoastal wetlands within the three cat- .egories, together with San San-Pond Sak(Panama), Palawan (philippines), Dan-ube Delta (Romania-Ukraine), Ichkeul(Tunisia) and Everglades (USA).

Doñana has been an European refer-ence for natural areas conservation as,during its extensive experience had toface big management challenges andprovide with teclmical and scientific re-sponses to the several conflicts arisendue to the complexity of habitat con-servation mea sures and the humanpressure on environment: undergroundwater extraction, compatibility with cul-tivated areas such as rice fields, hunt-ing and areas with a high tourist pres-sure in its surroundings.

But in 1998, Doñana faces one of itsworst moments due to the breaking of apyrite pond belonging to a mining ex-ploitation, that caused the flooding ofmore than 2600 ha with high metal con-tent muds. Although the inuds did notreach the park itself, this accident causedred alert within all administrations andthe whole society. After an impressive

i}6 International Journal of Island Affairs

deployment of technical and human re-sources, the muds could be removedavoiding an ecological catastrophe withunforeseeable consequences.

What at the beginning appeared tobe one more regrettable accident due tolack ofplanning and foresight in naturalareas management tumed to be the startof one of the most important wetlandregeneration initiatives ever carried outin the whole planet. In reply to this situ-ation, the big water regeneration pro-gramme named "Doñana 2005" wassta.rted, supported by the Spanish Min-istry ofEnvironment, whose immediateenvironmental actions were funded withsome 100 mili ion ,US$. It is a projectwhose objectives are a lot more arnbi-tious than providing the mere solutionofthe problemscaused by the accident.It is also complemented by another im-portant action called "the Green corri-dor of Doñana", supported by the"Junta de Andalucía" that will be car-ried out within the buffer zone.

The methodology used to undertakethe water regeneration of this bigwetland is certainly an innovator one. AScienti:ficConunittee was created, amongother mea sures, that will supervise theongoing initiatives and would proposenew actions. Task of the Conunittee, ofwhich INSULA is a member since itsbeginning, is also to propose followingup systems, methods and indicatorswhich are the most suitable in terms oftime, in order that actions can be modu-lated both in time and space, taking intoaccount strictly scientific parameters

and creating a methodology of organicand experimental intervention in agree-ment with the natural features of a spacein constant change.

Among the actions of this first phasewhich can be considered as innovatorones, we find the reconversion to marshof more than 4,000 hectares of cultivatedlands, the penneability systems test, thedigitalised modelling ofthe marsh and itswater system through laser cartography,the creation of experimenting plots forecosystems restoring and recovering,integrated actions to reduce sedimentinputs due to envirorunent alteration andeven the introduction of advanced sys-tems of tertiary cleansing to guaranteethe highest quality of water inputs. A lo-cal reserve ofAphanius baeticus, an en-demic species recently found in this areawas also set, fed by cleansed water.

This is therefore an exceptional casein the history of conservation of coastalwetlands where, learning from the mis-takes made in the past, environmentaland scientific plans of very large ex-tent have been set.

Meeting of the Committee of Experts, chairedby Félix Manuel Pére: Miyares cf the SpanishMinistry of the Environment, General Coordi-natal' of "Doñana 2005".

un~UnderwaterCulturalHeritage indangerThe UNESCO Convention on the Protection of theUnderwater Cultural Heritage was adopted on Friday 2November 2001 by the Plenary Session of the 31 sI GeneralConference. This Convention is the first great internationalagreement aimed at the protection of UnderwaterHeritage, of outstanding importance for islands.

Shipwrecks are invaluable in recon-structing life-styles no longer existingand represent a buried treasure in termsofknowledge about life on board, boatconstruction and trade routes. A ship-wreck is a time capsule waiting to beunlocked since time stop s when a ves-sel founders.

At present, there is no internationallegal instrument which adequately pro-tects the underwater cultural heritage,which is increasingly threatened bypillage and natural damage. This hasled to the irretrievable loss of a vastpart of our collective cultural heritage.

The underwater cultural heritage is inmany cases cultural property with an in-ternational dimension. above all as a re-

The Sadana tsland shipwreck provides liS

with a glimpse of a lime of change 117the

suIt of the different origins of vesselsand their cargo. Yet the existing law ofthe sea, principally the United NationConvention on the Law of the Sea(Montego Bay. 1982), does not suffi-ciently ensure the protection of the un-derwater cultural heritage. Drafted with

\a view to offering general provisions forthe law of the sea and to regulating Ú1esca's economic resources, it includesonly two provisions (Articles 149 and303) referring specifically to archaeologi-cal and historical objects and establish-ing a sui generis obligation to protectthem. Furthermore Ú1eheterogeneity ofcontent and (geographical) scope of ap-plication of nationallegislations and un-certainties of international customary

Red Sea. The Ottoman Emptre, based 117[heanctent city of lstanbul, had controlled shtp-pll7g in the Red Sea and the Indian Oceanfor centurtes, but the presence of Europeans117search of [he same luxury 1I'ares [rom theFar East created a volaule situation, andt he Ottoman s with drew [rom the IndianOcean in the la/e 1""" century. But the prod-uct s of China and other ports remat nedhighly esteemed by the wealthy upper classesof Egypt and other parts of the OttomanEmpire as shown by customs hall se records.

law made Ú1eadoption of a specific con-vention oh the protection of the under-water cultural heritage vital.

Submerged buildings al Jamaica's PortRoyal.On the morntng of J1Ine 7''', 1692, a mas-slve earthquake 11ItJamaica. The tremors,which rocked the sandy pemnsula on whtchthe town \Vas butlt, caused butldtngs dis-appear beneath the sea. In 1981, the ln-stitute of Nautical Archaeology, 117coop-eratton with the Nauucal Archaeology Pro-gram al Texas A&Af Umversity and theJamaica National Heritage Trust, beganunderwater archaeologtcal mvestigationsof the submerged portton of Port Roya/.

INTRODUCTION TO THE UNESCO CONVENTION ON THE PROTECTION

OF THE UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE (2001)

The General Conference of the United Na-

tions Educational, Scientific and Cultural Or-

ganization, meeting in Paris from 15 October

to 3 November 2001, at its 31 st session,

Acknow/edging the importance of under-

water cultural heritage as an integral part of

the cultural heritage of humanity and a par-

ticularly important element in the history of

peoples, nations, and their relations with each

other concerning their common heritage,

Realizing the importance of protecting and

preserving the underwater cultural heritage and

that responsibility therefor rests with all States,

Noting growing public interest in and public

appreciation of underwater cultural heritage,

Convinced of the importance of research,

information and education to the protection and

preservation of underwater cultural heritage,

Convinced of the public's right to enjoy

the educational and recreational benefits of

responsible non-intrusive access to in situ un-

derwater cultural heritage, and of the value of

public education to contribute to awareness,

appreciation and protection of that heritage,

Aware of the fact that underwater cultural

heritage is threatened by unauthorized activi-

ti es directed at it, and of the need for stronger

measures to prevent such activities,

Conscious of the need to respond appro-

priately to the possible negative impact on un-

derwater cultural heritage of legitimate activi-

ti es that may incidentally affect it,

Deeply concerned by the increasing corn-

mercial exploitation of underwater cultural her-

itage, and in particular by certain activities aimed

at the sale, acquisition or barter of underwater

cultural heritage,

Aware of the availability of advanced tech-

nology that enhances discovery of and access

to underwater cultural heritage,

Believing that cooperation among States,

international organizations, scientific institu-

tions, professional organizations, archaeolo-

gists, divers, other interested parties and the

public at large is essential for the protection of

underwater cultural heritage,

Considering that survey, excavation and pro-

tection of underwater cultural heritage necessi-

tate the availability and application of special

scientific methods and the use of suitable tech-

niques and equipment as well as a high degree

of professional specialization, all of which indi-

cate a need for uniform governing criteria,

Realizing the need to codify and progres-

sively develop rules relating to the protection

and preservation of underwater cultural herit-

age in conformity with international law and

practice, including the UNESCO Convention

on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing

the IlIicit Import, Export and Transfer of Own-

ership of Cultural Property of 14 November

1970, the UNESCO Convention for the Pro-

tection of the World Cultural and Natural Her-

itage of 16 November 1972 and the United

Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of

10 December 1982,

Committed to improving the effectiveness

of measures at international, regional and na-

tional levels for the preservation in situ or, if

necessary for scientific or protective purposes,

the careful recovery of underwater cultural her-

itage,

Having decided at its twenty-ninth session

that this question should be made the sub-

ject of an international convention,

Adopts this second day of November 2001

this Convention.

Why the urgency?In some parts of the world, virtually nounderwater site has been left unpillaged.

Modern diving techniques havemade the seabed accessible to al!. Thishas led to extensive looting by treas-ure hunters who often disregard own-ership rights and scientific/archaeologi-cal methods of excavation. Theythereby damage the remainder of thesite and deprive the general public ofthese treasures. Likewise tourists div-ing, the fishing industry, pipe-layingand other activities on the sea-bed canharm or destroy the underwater culturalheritage. This increase in theft and de-struction results in the irretrievable lossof our common heritage. It is thereforea matter not only of necessity but of

68 International Journal of Island AJfairs

urgency to adopt an intemational in-strument in order to preserve the un-derwater cultural heritage.

There are in total about 20,000 underwa-ter archaeological sttes tn China. As onland, some of the underwater cultural her-it age IS also illegolly excavated. At thebegtnning of 1999, archaeologists 1I'0rk-zng underwater near Huaguang lsland ofthe Xisha lslands In the South China Seadtscovered a historie shtpwreck of the SongDynasty (AD 960-12-9) together wtth alarge area of drtfted antiqutttes.

Lord Howe lsland. The shtpwrecks formpart of the island's underwater culturalherttage. The sites retain detailed evr-

dence of vessel constructton, fit out, tradeand cargo, and what life was like aboardShIP, from the earliest days of the colon)'.They [orm a direct link to the earliestdays of the island's h,StOI)', settlementand development.

The Nuestra Señora de Atocha tragicallyended her voyage on a reef of the FlortdaKeys. In the summer of 1622, a fleet ofSparu sh galleons, includt ng the [amous

Nuestra Señora de Atocha and other shipsincludtng La Santa Margarita and NuestraSeñora del Rosano, lrere loaded wuh thewealth ofthe New World at Cartagena, Por-tobello, and Havana. Their cargoes con-tained treasures such as coppet; silver; gold,

tob acco, and tndtgo, along with privategoods smuggled by passengers to avoidgovernment taxes.

PUIlIC shtp, sunk In 265 E.e. durtng thelI'ar th at opposed Rome to Carth ago.Arqueologtcal Museum - Marsala (SICIly) .

Under (he waters of (heAngra do Herotsmo baythere IS an important her-:itage of shi pwreck s oflndi amans corning from

ASIG.

..•.•...~Thirty~-Years117 ofMaB

November 200 1marked the 30tl1 Anniver-sary ofthe UNESCO-MaB Programme.

On 9tl1 November 1971, the first ses-sion of the MaB International Co-ordinating Council was opened in Paris.under the chairmanship of the intema-tionally renovvned biologist Prof FrancoisBourliere, one ofthe íounding membersofthe Programme. Another ofthe found-ing members was Michel Batisse, whoorganized for UNESCO, in cooperationwith FAO, WHo. WMO and ICSU, theBiosphere Conference in 1968, which ledto the creation ofMaB. Tribute must be

paid to these visionary founders who. atthis early time, understood that conser-vation and utilization of naturaJ resourcescould not be separated, but that 311inter-disciplinary approach to science, coupledwith an understanding of the Iinks be-tween people and nature. was the onlyway to a sustainable future.

MaB has changed extensively in its30 years of existence - and continues soto do. It is now seen as instrumental inreconciling conservation and resourceuse in the field. or, in other words, pro-viding ways and means to implementthe Ecosystem Approach adopted inMay 2000 by the Convention on Bio-logical Diversity.

MaB1s most visible asset and opera-tional tool in this 21st century is theWorld Network ofBiosphere Reserves,which received a new ímpetus in 1995,

with the adoption of the Seville Strat-egy and the Statutory Frarnework. Thegroundbreaking role in heritage conser-vation 311dsustainable development ofthe World Network of Biosphere Re-serves has recently been acknowledgedby receiving the Prince of AsturiasAward for Concord in September 200 l.The Award cites its outstanding contri-bution "in opening new horizons ofknowledge and protecting and preserv-ing mankind's heritage".

Many countries have been organiz-ing special activities to celebrate MaBon the occasion ofits 30th anniversary,and thcse celebrations extended intoearly 2002. A key aspect of many cel-ebrations has been a focus on youth,showing there is much life left in MaBas we change 311dadapt to the chal-lenges of the decades ahead.

A new BiosphereReserve Nelwork

REDBIOSREDBIOS, a new network that com-prises Cape Verde, Morocco, Senegaland the Canal)' Islands (Spain), is ful-filling the interregional mandate oftheIBSICA project in enabling countriesfrom different world regions to co-op-erate and exchange their experience.Project activities are also co-sponsoredby Governments, such as Spain (Ca-llar}' Islands) and Mexico.

The IBSICA Project "IntegratedBiodiversity Strategies for Islands andCoastal Areas" is trying to implementsome of the results of the United Na-tions Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED) and, particu-larly the Convention on Biodiversity.Within this project. particular attentionsgiven to those countries having or pl311-ning biosphere reserves on islandsand/or coastal zones and to those coun-tries whose governments have aIreadysigned and ratified the Convention onBiological Diversity .:

The project aims at increasing localcapabilities for research, training andmanagement of sustainable use of re-newable resources, establishing an ex-change of information, research resultsand scientists, particularly with respectto preservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity, and disserninate knowl-edge of comparative research throughpublications or/and net:work databases.Furthermore, the project tries to iden-tify how to improve living conditionsfor the inhabitants of biosphere re-serves in islands and/or coastal zonesas a basic requirement for development,while special attention is given to ra-tional use of biodiversity for the ben-efit of local populations and the coun-tries concerned.

The Small IslandSlales before IheJohannesburgWorld Summil

Copy of the Declaration adopted at the Alliance of Small Island States Inter-regional preparatory meeting for the World Summit on Sustainable Developmentheld in Singapore from 7 to 11 January 2002

SINGAPORE DECLARATlON OF THE ALLlANCE OF SMALL ISLAND STATES INTER-REGIONAL PREPARATORYMEETING FOR THE WORLD SUMMIT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The Alliance of Small Island States

(AOSIS),

Having met in Singapore from 7 to 11 Janu-

ary 2002;

Reaffirming the objectives and commitments

ofthe Rio Declaration on the Environment and

Development and Agenda 21, the Bridgetown

Declaration and the Barbados Program of Ac-

tion on Sustainable Development of Small Is-

land Developing States (BPOA) and the out-

come ofthe 22nd Special Session ofthe United

Nations General Assembly (UNGA);

Being aware that the process of analysis and

evaluation of Agenda 21, leading to the Johan-

nesburg Summit, is important to the fulfillment

of commitments and the implementation of meas-

ures previously agreed by the international com-

munity at Rio ter mitigating and addressing the

urgent problems of sustainable development;

Recognizing thatthe BPOA represents a con-

crete express ion of Agenda 21,and that Agenda

21, the BPOA and the outcome of the 22nd

Special Session of the UN GA embody a

number of principies, which provide the inter-

national community with clear guidelines for

the promotion of the sustainable development

of Smalllsland Developing States (SIDS), and

take account oftheir unique characteristics and

circumstances, and their economic, social and

environmental vulnerabilities;

Noting the commonalities of priority issues

for sustainable development particular to SIDS

in sub-regional and regional submissions made

by SIDS regions to the WSSD;

Recalling that SIDS are recognized as a spe-

cial case and deserving of special treatment

because they are ecologically fragile and eco-

nomically vulnerable, they face particular con-

straints in their efforts to achieve sustainable


development, and their specific physical cir-

cumstances often make it difficult for them to

benefit from global economic development;

Recognizing that SIDS possess unique hu-

man, natural and cultural wealth and consti-

tute a crucial part of world heritage;

Recognizing also that the primary effort in

the implementation ofthe BPOA has been car-

ried out by SIDS themselves;

Emphasizing that issues for action identi-

fied in the BPOA in particular climate change,

oceans, energy, transportation, tourism, natu-

ral resources and biodiversity, natural and man-

made disasters, and land degradation remain

priorities for implementation;

Concerned that new and emerging chal-

lenges notably globalization and trade liberali-

zation, the spread of HIV/AIDS, as well as the

continued lack offinancial resources and insti-

tutional and human capacity, access to and

use of ICT,and compromise the ability of SIDS

to achieve sustainable development;

Underscoring that poverty remains a major

problem affecting the capacity of many SIDS

to achieve sustainable development, compro-

mising their ability to provide basic physical

and social services such as basic education,

health care, nutrition, water and sanitation; and

sustainable human settlements;

Reaffirming the critical importance of inten-

sified existing and new efforts ter capacity build-

ing fer SIDS;

Emphasizing the need for renewed interna-

tional action on the basis of the principie of

common but differentiated responsibility, as

stated in the Rio Declaration, and reaffirming

the vision that global and regional challenges

ter sustainable development demand the har-

monization of positions among all countries;

Recognizing that several SIDS have pursued

a number of development options inter alia inter-

national financial services to diversifytheir econo-

mies and participate in global trade in services;

Bearing in mind that the High Levellnterna-

tional Conference on Financing for Develop-

ment is to be held from 12-18 March 2002 at

Monterrey, Mexico, and expecting that its out-

comes will positively contribute to the World

Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD);

Reaffirming the importance that SIDS at-

tach to actively participating in the preparatory

process leading to the WSSD;

Welcoming the continued efforts of the

AOSIS to enhance the participation of SIDS in

negotiations of multilateral environmental and

trade agreements and to promote the sustain-

able development of SIDS, including in the

implementation of the BPOA;

Welcoming also the initiative by the Govern-

ment of Singapore, in its effort to help increase

the capacity of developing countries and SIDS,

in particular, in the field of sustainable develop-

ment and management of the environment,

to establish an Environment Academy;

Affirming the importance of partnership with

the private sector and local communities and

recognizing that all major groups have a role

to play in advancing sustainable development

Have agreed to:

Call ter international support to facilitate the

active participation of SIDS in the preparatory

process leading to the WSSD and the Summit

itself;

Accelerate national and regional implemen-

tation ofthe BPOA, and to requestthe interna-

tional community to provide adequate finan-

cial resources, transfer of appropriate, environ-

mentally sound technologies and assistance

for capacity-building for such national and re-

gional implementation, as agreed in Agenda

21 the BPOA and the outcome of the 22nd

Special Session of the UN GA;

Call for the establishment and identification

ofthe necessary resources for a global capacity

building initiative, learning from the experience

ofongoing initiatives including Capacity 21 and

the GEF CDI, by 2003. This initiative should be

coordinated across the UN system and engage

national, sub-regional and regional institutions

and mechanisms for delivery and support;

Support the strengthening and further en-

hancement of the significant partnership be-

tween civil society and the public sector in the

implementation of Agenda 21 and the BPOA;

Encourage urgent international and domes-

tic action to address climate change and its

consequences through inter alia, the early rati-

fication, entry into force and implementation

of the Kyoto Protocol, public awareness, rno-

bilization of resources for adaptation, prorno-

tion of renewable energy and energy efficiency

measures and capacity building;

Reiterate the call on the international corn-

munity to support and strengthen existing and

new capacity building efforts of SIDS in all its

aspects, and strengthen co-operation among

SIDS particularly in the area of technical co-

operation for sustainable development by sup-

porting SIDS initiatives, as exemplified by Sin-

gapore's initiative in setting up an Environment

Academy to further SIDS inter-regional collabo-

ration on environmental training;

Urge the international community to put in

placeappropriate mechanisms to supportSIDS

in their efforts to adjust to globalization and

trade liberalization, and call on the WTO to

recognize the special situation of SIDS and

ensure that in the elaboration of its Work Pro-

gram on Small Economies as a follow-up to

the Doha Ministerial Declaration, it takes due

account ofthe difficulties encountered by SIDS,

including effective operationalization of spe-

cial and differential treatment, and capacity

building initiatives;

Seek to establish a global sustainable energy

program, that can ensure that adequate, afford-

able and environmentally safe energy is avail-

able to promote the sustainable development

of SIDS, including the strengthening of the in-

stitutional arrangements within the UN system

to assist and support SIDS in their efforts to

achieve sustainable energy development and

promoterenewableenergyand energyefficiency;

Call for the mobilization of new and addi-

tional resources, including foreign direct in-

vestment, official development assistance and

debt relief, as well as innovative mechanisms

for the financing of development in SIDS;

Call also for special financial mechanisms or

instruments to enable SIDS to enhance their

national capacity to develop or exploit their

resources in a sustainable manner;

Establish policies and frameworks to foster

innovative partnerships for micro, small and

medium enterprises, including specially ear-

marked revolving financial mechanisms and

supportive human resource development ini-

tiativesto revitalizeruralproductive capacity,and

to enhancethe competitivenessofthe ruralsector

and stimulate employment opportunities;

Call for the establishment or strengthening

of policy and programs to manage the ocean

resources and jurisdictions in a sustainable

manner, the development of holistic island

system management and ecosystem-based

management approaches at the nationallevel,

the promotion of an integrated management

approach through a regional oceans and seas

policy with access to appropriate technology,

data management systems and related re-

search and capacity building;

Call also for the early operationalization of

the economic and environmental vulnerability

indices for the promotion of sustainable de-

velopment of SIDS and other vulnerable states,

and the use of these indices at the levels of

inter-governmental and international agencies,

as well as international support for the devel-

opment of a social vulnerability index to corn-

plement this work;

Call further on the international community

to provide technical and financial assistance to

enhance the ICT infrastructure of SIDS, and to

further develop SIDSNet and other regional

initiatives and networks;

Request that the preparatory process rec-

ommend that the WSSD reaffirms the neces-

sity of implementing fully the BPOA as a mat-

ter of urgency;

Request also that the preparatory process

recommend that the WSSD adopt a decision

for a cornprehensive review conference on the

BPOA in the year 2004 (Barbados + 1O);

Agree to establish an open-ended consulta-

tive contact group of AOSIS to further formu-

late the set of priority issues and initiatives on

the basis of the work begun during the AOSIS

Inter-regional Preparatory Meeting;

Submit this Declaration to the preparatory

process for its full consideration.

Towarclsthe Johannesllurg WorlclSummit on Sustainallle Development:Renewallle Energy, Development at LastThe Italian Ministry of the Environmentand the UNEP (United Nations Environ-ment Programme), relying on the sup-port of the G8 Renewable Energy TaskForce, organised a meeting in Rome, inJanuary 2002. Participants ofthe meet-ing were experts and representatives ofdeveloped countries and main develop-ing countries of Asia, Africa and LatinAmerica, as well as the main interna-tional financial institutions, big compa-nies of the intemational energy sectorand environmental organisations.

INSULA, represented by C. Marin (Vice Sec-retary-general), brought the insular viewwithin this Forum, as it had been consideredthat the singular aspects of insularity shouldbe contained in the view and strategy topresent in Johannesburg.Among the subjects discussed, the RES pro-motion model experimented within the variousactions supported by INSULA, the experiencesof the European Island OPET Network and theEuroCaribbean Forum as well as the whole is-land experience of the organisation were usedas proposal references for other regions.

Tourism,Biodiversityand Information

This publication stems from the"Entretiens de Port-Cros" on Biodiversityand Tourism, held in September 2000 withfue support of fue TOTAL Foundationand fue SCOPE.

The book makes an attempt to ana-lyse and put into perspective fue adap-tation of tourism to the new conditionscharacterising the post-industrial tran-sition, a transition marked by fue mostwidespread upsurge of globalisation infue history of mankind and by the rapidemergence of the information society.The "new generation" oftourism repre-sents the human activity that is bothmost germane and most affected by thecurrent and impendi ng processes of thistransition, including the extreme mobil-ity, rapidity and unpredictability ofchange.


The publication includes some thirtypapers about this subject, amongwhich, emphasising the islands' view,are the contributions ofPier Giovannid'Ayala and Cipriano Marín of IN-SULA, as well as the cases of Hawaii,Seychelles and Rapa Nui.

Edited by F. di Castri and V. Balaji

Backhuys Publishers, l.eiden, The

Nederlands, 2002, 504 pp.

ISBN 90-5782-107-9

Why and how toplan the future ofislands' InformationSocietyPlanning ConciseGuidelines

The MEDlS Models for EuropeanDigital Islands project had the objec-tive to create a Planning Manual to pro-vide help to those who are responsibleIor, and involved in. the developmentof a regional information society strat-egy and action plan. The intention hasbeen to provide, as simply and c1earlyas possible, a step-by-step guide in theform of tips, tools and templates to beused as a supplement to earlier guides.

The guidelines are an important helpto develop islands integration modelsand planningsystems in the Informa-tion Society.

Edited by INsulA with the support of Eu-

ropean Commission.

WhyandHowlo Planthe Islands'InformationSociely

Biosphere reserves:.Special places forpeople and natureThis publication presents an overviewof the biosphere reserve concept andits implementation. It has been pre-pared in 2000-2001 by the UNESCO-MAB Secretariat. as part of activitiesto mark the thirtieth anniversary of thelaunching ofMAB

The publication brings together a faíramount of hitherto dispersed informa-tion, and includes indications oí whereto find out more. It is designed essen-tially for 'diagonal reading and dippinginto'. Although it is wide ranging, with alargish bibliography, it c1early does notpretend to be comprehensive. It pro-vides insights, not a balance sheet. Itconcentrates on relatively recent activi-ties and publications but also includesan overview ofthe origins and develop-ment of fue biosphere reserve concept.

Published by UNESCO - February 2002.

http://www.unesco.org/mab/publications/

publications.htm

Cuban BiosphereReservesIn March 200 1,fue Cuban MAB NationalCommi ttee and fue Ministry of Science,Technology and Environment publisheda 53-page booklet on Cuban BiosphereReserves (Reservas de la Biosfera deCuba). Written and compiled by MariaHerrera (Chair of the MAB NationalCommittee), the booklet provides an

PlanningConcise

Guidelines

lB

overview of the historical developmentofthe national network ofbiosphere re-serves and a sununary ofthe main char-acteristics of each ofthe six existing bio-sphere reserves in Cuba: Sierra delRosario (designated as a biosphere re-serve in 1985), Peninsula deGuanahacabibes (1987), Baconao (1987),Cuchillas del Toa (1987) Buenavista(2000), Cienaga de Zapata (2000). Foreach reserve, information is provided onprincipal biophysical and ecological fea-tures, habitat types. human activitiesand impacts, natural resources, histori-cal and cultural values, scientific re-search and monitoring, and administra-tive structures.

~f".:"...1~

Edited by Herrera, M. 2001. Reservas de la

Biosfera de Cuba. Comité Nacional MAB de

Cuba, La Habana, 53 pp.

C/o UNESCO·Havana Office, Calzada 551

entre C y D Vedado, Plaza Ciudad, La

Habana, Cuba. Fax: (537) 3331 44.


ALASNewsletter

AII about salt

The ALAS project (AlI About Salt) isan interregional co-operation betweenfour European sites that produce saltfrom the sea. The main goal is relatedto the preservation and the develop-ment of these often traditionally runsalinas, their natural and cultural herit-age. their economy and social struc-ture. Salt museums and tourism are alsofactors that the project deals with andseveral publications will be an impor-tant outcome, useful also for other simi-lar sites.

ALAS was initiated as an attempt tobring some ofthe sites with traditionalsalt production together and to start

working on corrunon topics. The firstattempt to put up a progranune datesfrom 1997, when several people previ-ously had met at an Insula-UNESCOconference in Paris. The initiative ofALAS was taken by the Department ofGeography of the University of theAegean. This initiative is financed bythe European Corrunission within theECOS-Ouverture programme.

~ Ne-csletlerAl! Aboul S"II .•

NOfes(romthttdltor ----.»c- __ •.......•.•

~_""(~ •.._--...'....,T_"'-._ ...._c..:::::--~..•."

DISCOVERTHE

SOUTH

Discover the SouthGuide to the SouthWest of Tenerife

Published by:

AENAL

Kontourioti 1, GR-81100 MYTILENE, Grece

Edited by Hjalmar Dahm

[email protected]

\

García Márquez talked about 100 yearsof solitude. "Discover the South" talksof an even older solitude, trying to ex-press what an island hosts within its realcoreo Island's strength, sculptured in thefire ofbasalt and in the silence of a gazeat the sea. wraps up deeper histories al-most impossible to face. Traces of thepast ín the islands' present are scars dif-ficult to hide, are the hopeful marks oftheir own identity. "Discover the South"is not only an innovator tourist guidemade by islanders, is also a proposal fora pact. to show the tourist a more sensi-ble way to appreciate the world of islands.

Edited by Florentín Duque

Published by Planet Ediciones, Tenerife,

2002,184 pp.

ISBN 84-923966-7-9

Biosphere ReSeNeS

Asia-PacificMangrovesOkinawa WorkshopProceedings

In March 2000, a workshop on Asia-Pacific Co-operation on Research forthe Conservation of Mangroves washeld in Okinawa (Japan), organized bythe United Nations University (UNU),UNESCO-MAB and the InternationalSociety for Mangrove Ecosystems(ISME). The proceedings volume con-tains t:wenty contributions, grouped in

six sections: keynote presentations,monitoring and research, socio-eco-nomic studies, traditional knowledge,sustainable use and management, andcase studies.

Edited by:

United Nations University. 2000. Asia-Pacific

Cooperation on Research for Conservation

of Mangroves.

Proceedings of an International Workshop.

Okinawa, Japan. 26-30 March 2000. United

Nations University, Tokyo. 313 pp.


Web: http://www.unu.edu/env.

WISE PRACTICESlor conllictprevention andresolution insmall islandsResults of a workshopon 'Furfhering CoastalStewardship in SmallIslands' held inDominica, 4_6th July 2001

Small islands. pinpoints of land in aseemingly endless expanse of water.have been making theirs a 'special case'in a world increasingly dominated bycontinental countries. Their plight hasbeen described and discussed at glo-bal meetings such as the 'Earth SlU11-mit' in Río de Janeiro in 1992, and at the'Global Conference on the SustainableDevelopment of Small Island Develop-ing States' in Barbados in 1994.

However, besides obtaining world-wide understanding of their situation,and at the same time seeking extemalassistance to implement programmes ofaction for sustainable developrnent,such as the one agreed to in Barbadosin 1994, small islands also need to lookinward and to their island neighboursto see what they can do on thcir ownand together with the resources at hand.

Recognizing the valuc of hwnan re-sources in small islands, and especiallythe inherent self-reliance of islanders,UNESCO's interdisciplinary platfonn for'Environment and Development in CoastalRegions and in Small Islands' (CSI) hassought to work with small islands on theirpaÚ1Sto sustainability. Capacity buildingis at the forefront of these efforts, as spe-cilic initiatives have been launched andsupported in varying fields, including lo-cal and indigenous fishers' knowledge,conservation ofbeach, coral-reefand man-grove resources, disaster preparedness,ccotourism, to name but a few.

Edited by: Coastal Regions and Small

Islands (CSI) platform, UNESCO, 1 rue

, Miollis, 75732 Paris Cedex 15, France.

Fax: +331 45685808


website: http://www.unesco.org/csi

74 InternationaI JournaI of Island Affairs

Annals 01Tourism ResearchA Social SciencesJournal

"Annals of Tourism Research" is theworld's leading tourism academic jour-

. nal. While striving for a balance of theoryand application, Annals is ultimatelydedicated to developing theoreticalconstructs. Its strategies are to invite

and encourage offerings from variousdisciplines: to serve as a forum throughwhich these may interact; and thus toexpand frontiers of knowledge in andcontribute to the literature on tourismsocial science. In this role. Annals bothstructures and is structured by Ú1ere-search efforts of a multidisciplinary com-munity of scholars.The Journal's audience include Tour-ism Researchers in Anthropology, Eco-nomics, Geography, History, Manage-ment Science. Politics. Psychology.Regional Planning and Sociology.

Editor-in-Chief:

Jafar Jafari

Department of Hospitality and Tourism

University of Wisconsin-Stout,

Menomonie WI 54751, USA.

Tel: (715) 232-2339

Fax: (715) 232-3200

Email: [email protected]

Elsevier Science Ud. Pergamon

PO. Box 800 Kidlington,

Oxford OX51 DX, England.

Tel: 44-1865-843000

'Fax: 44-1865-843010

http://www.elsevier.com/

4e salon internationaldu livre insulaire.....-•..Ile d'Ouessant . Bretagne

4th Insular BookShow (Salon duLivre Insulaire)

As every year since 1999, the ·Hh Insu-lar Book Show (Ouessant, August 22-25, 2002) \ViIIopen with the results ofthe Insular Book Award. Sixty-six bookshave been submitted this year to thecvaluation of the jury chaired by the pi-anist Anne Queffélec, daughter of thenovelist passed away two years ago.

These works. novels or theatre plays,poetry collcctions, cssays and testimo-nies, scientific documents, art books -invite to a long trip, whose stops this

year will include Balearic Islands, Cor-sica, Sardinia, Sicily and the Veluce la-goon, Cuba, Haiti, Guadeloupe. Ja-maica, Martinique, Trinidad. Land ofFire. Mayotte and Reuníon. New Cal-edonia, Tahiti and Vanuatu. Iceland andIreland, and Glénan, Groix and Ouessantin mainland France. Editors are fromParis, Noumea, Ajaccio, Roscoff orMamoudzou, and authors. bothdebutants or well-known, are from thefour corners ofthe world.

Contact

Tel: + 33 (02) 98903332

Fax: + 33 (02) 98 90 03 48


Inlernational ConferenceRenewable energy sourcesfor islands,

tourism and water desalinationCrete, Greece 26-28 May 2003

Desalmatton Plant powered by a wind farm

on Syros island (Greece)

EREC, the European Renewable EnergyCOlU1Cil,which regroups the leading Eu-ropean RES industry and research as-sociations, is organizing a special topicconference on "RES for islands, tour-ism and water desalination" in Crete,between 26 and 28 May 2003.

Renewable energy sources are capa-ble of solving many problems related toenvironment protection, security of en-ergy supply and economic development.In addition to the benefits they offer ingeneral they are an especially suitableoption for diJferent geographical andeconom.ic sectors, such as islands andthe tourism sector. Furthermore, theirtechnological characteristics in diJferentfields of application, e.g. desalination,need to be taken into consideration. Th.isconference will focus on providing so-lutions for RES integration in inlands, .tourism and desalination.

The conference is organised by Eu-ropean Renewable Energy Council inco-operation with INSULA and the'Institut Catalá d'Energia.

RES and islandsFor islands the relationship betweenenergy and sustainable developmenthas been recognised for a number ofeconomic sectors, in particular trans-portation, tourism and rural develop-ment. Many islands have to face thefollowing preconditions:

• Islands have a very rich RES poten-tial most of which is not exploited yet.

• Most islands are extrernely depend-ent on outside energy.

• Elect.ricity generating costs can beten times higher than in other re-

. ,glOI1S.

• The environmental impact of conven-tional sources and technologies aregreater than on the ma.inland becauseof the fragile and vulnerable natureof island territories.

• New economic specialisation of is-lands, such as in tourism, creates anadditional energy demand, which isnot constant all over the year.

On the other hand, islands very of-ten have an abundant potential of re-newable energy sources (solar, wind,small-hydro and wave energy), whichpresents a valid option to foster theireconomic development. Nevertheless,there is still a big lack of awarenessabout the possibilities renewable en-ergy sources offer for the economic de-velopment of islands.

RES and tourismRenewable energy sources can have avery positive influence on the touristsector, not only in securing an unspoiltenvironment in holiday destinations butalso because they are capable offacingproblems caused by e.g. seasonal tour-ism (increased energy demand duringpeak-holiday times which can be satis-fied with renewable energy sources).

In a survey done among Europeantourists an unspoilt envirornnent wasconsidered as an important selectioncriterion for a holiday destination. Boththe White Paper and the Council Reso-lution on renewable sources of energystress that building up connections toother sectors and policy areas is CfU-cial for an increased market penetrationof RES. The sectors of renewable en-ergy sources and tourism seem to bevery promising for such a connection.

Desalination with RESThe provision offresh water is becom-ing increasingly important worldwide.In many areas, desalination could be ameans for increasing fresh water sup-ply. However, it is an energy intensiveprocess for which renewable energysources provide a valid and economi-cally interesting option.

Previous conferences on this subjectsuch as the "Mediterranean Conferenceon Renewable Energy Sources for Wa-ter Production", held in Santorini in

June 1996 as wel! as the conference"Policies and Strategies forDesalination and Renewable Energies",held in Santorini in June 2000, clearlydemonstrated the huge potential for re-newable energy technologies for fight-ing water deficits, in particular RESdriven water desalination technologies,Nevertheless. there is still a big infor-mation need on this subject to ensurethe dissemination of achieved experi-ence, policy practices and economicsof installations.

Conferenee objeetives:• inform on the options RES represent

for solving problems ofislands by, e.g.by promoting successful examples of100% RES supply of islands, therebystimulating other islands to take action

• Identify feasible 100% RES opportu-

nities in islands.• Identify suitable technologies and

exchange experience on successfulapplication ofthese technologies forislands and in the tourism sector

• Promote intemational co-operation infavour of developi ng renewable ener-gies on islands and the tourism sector.

• Indicate legal frameworks and regu-latory solutions that facilitate the in-tegration ofRES.

• Promote effective alliances and mar-ket strategies.

• Identify necessary awareness ac-tions that help to consolidate theessential role of renewable energiesin energy supply, quality of life andthe environmental protection.

• Training and education in renewableenergy in islands and the desalinationsector.

• Binomial Water-Energy. Identifica-tion ofappropriate technologies, bar-riers for RES - Desalination applica-tions in small and medium-sized is-lands.

• Disseminate information on specificpolicies, experiences and market op-portunities for desalination systemspowered by renewable energies.

• Encourage the development of a sus-tainable method of producing pota-ble water using RES.

Conteet:European Renewable Energy Council- EREC

Renewable Energy House

26, rue du Tr6ne

B-1000 Brussels, Belgium

Tel.: + 3225461933

Fax: + 322546 1934


www.erec-renewables.org

V Inlernalional con'erenceOn Technologies for the Rational Use

of Energy and Renewable EnergyHavana, Cuba. November 11-15, 2002

This fifth issue ofTECNOURE is aimedto create the known frarnework for ex-changing knowledge and experiencesin a businesslike climate not only onthe field of the RATIONAL USE OFENERGY (RUE) but on RENEWABLEENERGY as well. The Conference willbe attended by technicians and execu-tives related to energy efficiency andrenewable energy management of theprincipal national and internationalcompanies, project companies, repre-sentative energy service companies,scientific academic sectors and execu-tives of relevant ministries.

The evolution of the economy andthe environmental concem in the cur-rent world have enhanced the recogni-tion of the RATIONAL USE OF EN-ERGYand SUSTAINABILITYENERGYPOLICIES, as those pil!ars for a sus-tainable development of humani ty.

For this reason the development ofequipment and technologies for reduc-


ing energy consumption and green-house gas emissions. in practically allsectors ofproduction and services, hasturned to be techrlical areas in whichgreater advances have been achievedin the last years.

The achievement ofRUE as well as anEFFICIENTUSE OF RENEWABLE EN-ERGY is a complex problem, in whichnot only technological but also organi-zationaL technical. economical, socialand financial aspects intervene. Thesefactors are frarned in a specific energypolicy, whose solution depends on con-ditions ofthe economic and technologi-cal development of each country.

After the launching of theEuroCaribbean Fonun, this Conferenceis an excellent opportunity for Carib-bean Islands to consolidate new per-spectives for strengthening coopera-tion in sustainable energy.Subjects of the conference:l. Rational use of energy and renew-

able energy applications in industriesand service sectors.

2. Rational use of energy and renewableenergy applications in tourism andbuilding sectors. Bioclimatic solutions.

3. Experiences on Energy Service Com-pany activ:ities and Country EnergyProgrammes.

4. Business opportunities in Cuba inthe field of the rational use of energyand renewable energy.

5. Renewable energy for powering cen-tralized and isolated systems.

Conteet:Dr. Alfredo Curbelo Alonso

President of the Organizing Committee

GEPROP

PO. Box: calle 20 #4112 entre 41 y 47,

Playa - 11300 Havana, Cuba.

Venue: Comodoro Hotel

Telephone: 5372027096

Fax: 5372029372

E-Mail: [email protected]

Website: http://www.geprop.cu/

tecnoure.htm

~oln anoSUDDorc. InSULa

1':International Seientifie Couneil for Island Devel-opment (INSULA) was formally created in November 1989 asan international non-governmental organisation whose aim is tocontribute to shape island awareness and develop islands' com-mon future, supporting necessary co-operation and informationactions in the scientific and technological fields.

The aims of INSULA are to contribute to the econornic, socialand cultural progre ss of islands throughout the world, as to theprotection of island environment and the sustainable develop-ment of their resources. Within such a context, INSULA co-operates with UNESCO and other international organisations, aswell as institutions at the national or regional leve! sharing thesame goals and interests. Through its international andmultidisciplinary network of experts and researchers, INSULAcontributes towards balanced, sustainable development initiativesundertaken by island authorities.

Through its initiatives, INSULA seeks to facilitate or favour:• Technical co-operation in all fields relating to sustainable

island development with a special interest in island cul-tures and human resources development.

• The exchange of information and experience through thepublication and diffusion ofperiodicaljoumals, books andreports, using the international and multidisciplinary net-work represented by INSULA members.

• Inter-island agreements directed towards the defence ofislands' conunon interests in the framework of sustainabledevelopment, at level of governments and public adminis-trations as well as technical and scientific institutions.

For the attainment of its aims, INSULA promotes internationalco-operation projects, assists islands directly, organises serninarsand conferences at national, regional and international levels andpromotes a direct dialogue with and between the authorities and thepopulations of different islands and island groups. It also promotesco-operation and exchange of experience and expertise betweenislands of a given region as well as at the inter-regionallevel.

INSULA's task is to favour the passage from theory to prac-tice, supporting the actions which contribute to a sustainable andfair development of every island of the world.

•Inaula ,the International Journal of Island M-fairs, is published by the International Scientific Council for Is-lands Development. The aim of the journal is to create a world-wide forum for all those who consider islands as an important partof mankind's heritage deserving major attention. Contributors canuse the Journal to share news and views about the islands of theworld from a variety of perspectives, including the following:

1-Zw:EzOo:::>Zw

• Envirorunental management• Natural resources conservation

• Water• Liquid and solid waste management• Prevention of natural hazards

zO1-«--1

::::>Q.,

OQ.,

• Demographic trends• Health• Human geography, human resources• Education and training

Culture• Traditional knowledge

• General econornics• Tourism and Transports• Agriculture and aquaculture• Fishing and ocean resources• Bio-technologies• Industry and mining• Applied communication technologies• Renewable energy• International politics and policies

The journal will publish articles and communications thatprovide new insights and understanding about the subjects men-tioned above and invites authors to subrnit their studies and com-ments. Guidelines of style can be obtained from the editorialoffice at the address appearing below.

INSULA - The International Ioumal of Island Affairsis distributed free of charge to members ofINSULA

•Join and support Inaula,For individual and group membership in INSULA, see overleaf.

APPLlCATION FOR MEMBERSHIP OF INSULA

1wish lo beeome member ofINSULA, the International Seientifie Couneil for Island Development

1

1r

·11

I 1am paying the amount of by: .IIIIIIIIIIII Signature:

IIIIIL ~

,------------------------------------,I II Snrname: First Name: I

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Institution:

Address:

City: Country:

Telephone: Fax: e-mail:

Supporting members:

DDD

1200 Freneh Franes

Annual membership: Individual 400 Freneh Franes

lnstitution

2000 Freneh Franes (or more)

DCheque D Master Card DVisa D American Express

Cheques are lo be made inFreneh Franes payable loINSULA

Creditcardmunber: 00000 0000 0000 0000

Expiry date of eredit eard:

Date:

• •Inaula, e/o MAB - UNESCO: 1, rue Miollis, 75732 Paris eedex 15, Franee.Tel: (331) 45 68 40 56, Fax: (331) 45 68 58 04; email: [email protected]


Models for EuropeanDigital Islands

5F~BNORKPROG~MEDG-INFSO

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Objectives

• Providing an advanced picture of the state of the art about telecommunications andtelematic infrastrudures and services in European islands.

• Facilitating the provision of community services and the use of telematics in different sec-tors and activities such as health, social exclusion, transport and business.

• Defining and evaluating new models of telecommunications networks and telematic serv-ices for European islands and other isolated or geographically dispersed areas, where tele-education, tele-training, tele-work and e-commerce will not be the final objective but a setof useful instruments used for the benefit of the local communities and local authorities.

• Profiling alternative network telecom infrastrudure and services in the European islands,isolated and less developed areas with potential for use in 15applications.

• Helping local authorities to shift public strategies from infrastrudure conditioned to serv-ice oriented. .

www.teleinsula.comTeleinsula is more than a portal, a common access point for a networtkof services and applications. Its origin was the Teleinsula project and

now it is managed by the MEDISproject.

Participants:INSULA (Co-ordinator)

SILTANET Ud. - PROODOS S.A - ITER - CIES - ERIS@ - ANCINETUNESCO (Sponsoring partner) - CEMR (Sponsoring partner)

Documents

Volcanic Islands