Virtue and Natural Law

Natural law theory (Aquinas)

• Eternal law: law of nature governing universe• Natural law: governs what things should do or

be• A thing’s nature determines its function, and

thus its virtue (Aristotle)• So, eternal law determines natural law

What is natural law?

• General form: pursue good— what helps to perfect our nature— and avoid evil

• Goods are reasons to act• Principles of practical

rationality

Natural Law

• Principles for judging acts as reasonable or unreasonable

• They are objective, universal, and knowable

• Natural dispositions are guide

Dispositions and Precepts

• What natural dispositions do we have?• Kinds of natural law precepts:– Self-preservation– Biological welfare– Laws of reason

Self-preservation

• Our survival is a good— it gives us reason to act

• We have a natural disposition to survive, to protect ourselves

• Normally, things that violate that disposition are wrong

Self-preservation

• So, normally— in the absence of other moral considerations— it is wrong to– Kill– Injure– Attack

• Anyone, including oneself• Killing the innocent is always

wrong

Self-preservation

• Normally— in the absence of other moral considerations— we are permitted to do what we must to protect ourselves and survive

• So, we may– Defend ourselves– Use resources to survive

Biological welfare

• We have a natural disposition to seek to improve our own welfare

• Our welfare is a good; it gives us reason to act

• So, normally, we may seek– Food– Shelter– Companionship– Material goods

Laws of reason

• Our function is rational activity• Our rational nature gives us

dispositions• We are naturally disposed to

seek to– Know– Understand– Be reasonable

Conscience

• We have a natural disposition to pursue the good and avoid evil

• Conscience: natural law written on the heart

• We have the ability to tell right from wrong

• And a natural tendency to do right

Conscience

• There are no rules to tell us, in every case, what to do

• We must rely on practical wisdom: judgment, virtue

• But there are some absolute rules (do not kill the innocent, for example)

Goods

• Play• Beauty• Pleasure• Absence of pain• Achievement• Excellence• Inner peace• Harmony• Integrity• Happiness

• Life• Procreation• Social life• Knowledge• Rational

conduct• Authenticity• Justice• Friendship• Religion

Right action

• An act is right, or reasonable, if it– Aims at some good– Has no intrinsic flaws

• When is an act intrinsically flawed?• Look at act’s intention, objects,

ends, and circumstances

Intrinsic Flaws

• An act is intrinsically flawed if it– Has a flawed intention—

directed against a good (e.g., murder of innocent people)

– Has an object mismatched to its end (switching means and end— treating money as an end in itself, for instance, or material goods just as ways of getting money)

Intrinsic Flaws

• An act is intrinsically flawed if it:– Is directed at the wrong end (e.g.,

obsessive-compulsive behavior)– Is inappropriate in the circumstances

(e.g., singing in class, eating while teaching, etc.)

• There list of intrinsic flaws is indefinite; there may be other ways

The priority problem

• How can we choose among competing goods?

• Aquinas gives no definite answer• A moral rule is justified if it rules out

only choices that presuppose something false about basic goods

• Sometimes, there is no rule• We need practical wisdom