UNIT 4 IN-SITU CONSERVATION

Structure

4.0 Introduction 4.1 Objectives

4.2 In-situ conservation

4.2.1 In-situ conservation : Advantages, risk and opportunity

4.2.2 Biodiversity Conservation : International Efforts

4.2.3 India’s initiative for in-situ conservation

4.3 Protected Areas in India

4.4 National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuary

4.4.1 Concepts of Species

4.5 Biosphere Reserve

4.5.1 Definition

4.5.2 Characteristics of biosphere Reserves

4.5.3 Function of Biosphere Reserve

4.5.4 Structure and Design of Biosphere Reserve

4.6 Wetlands

4.6.1 Characteristics of Wetlands

4.6.2 Classification of Wetlands

4.6.3 Hydro geomorphic Classes

4.6.4 Wetlands in Drylands

4.6.5 Intertidal Wetlands

4.6.6 Functions of Wetlands

4.6.7 Protection and Rehabilitation

4.6.8 Wetland in India

4.7 Mangroves

4.7.1 Occurrence

4.7.2 Establishment

4.7.3 Zonation in Mangroves

4.7.4 Mangrove Ecology

4.7.5 Mangrove Biology

4.7.6 Species of Mangrove

4.7.7 Geographical Regions particularly in Asia

4.8 Coral Reef

4.8.1 Biology

4.8.2 Formation

4.8.3 Distribution

4.8.4 Ecology and Biodiversity

4.8.5 Threats

4.8.6 Protection and Restoration

4.8.7 Reefs in Past

4.9 Let us sum up

4.10 Check your progress & the key

4.11 Assignments / Activities

4.12 References / Further Readings

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4.0 INTRODUCTION

The 1992, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro, brought the topic of biodiversity conservation into the living rooms of the world and helped place this critical issue on the agendas of world leaders. While the ranks of those concerned with biodiversity seem to have diversified and increased, a basic understanding of what it is, what it means to mankind, and how it can be protected is still lacking.

In an effort to solve these problems, the World Conservation Union has attempted to clarify the definition and show the value of "biodiversity." Going beyond "genetic makeup," the IUCN interprets biodiversity to encompass all species of plants, animals, and microorganisms and the ecosystems (including ecosystem processes) to which they belong. Usually considered at three different levels--genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity--it is the complicated mosaic of living organisms that interact with abiotic substances and gradients to sustain life at all hierarchical levels (McNeely, 1990). Furthermore, each of these levels extends enormous, often immeasurable, economic and social benefits to mankind. Although it is recognized that a very high percentage of the total biodiversity exists in a small number of tropical countries, significant diversity also occurs in temperate zones and in aquatic ecosystems as well.

Biodiversity conservation is accomplished in a number of ways. During the last decade, plans for biodiversity conservation have been developed by the World Resource Institute and the IUCN with support from World Bank and other institutions. Basically, the conservation plan has an holistic approach and encompasses whole spectrum of biota and activities ranging from ecosystems at the macro level (in situ conservation) to DNA libraries at the molecular level (ex-situ consrvation). Ex-situ methods focus on species conservation in botanic gardens, zoos, gene banks, and captive breeding programs while in-situ methods use the conservation areas as "warehouses" of biological information.

4.1 Objective

The main aim of this unit is to understand and identifying appropriate management interventions for conservation of biological resources through in-situ for the benefit of our future generations. Such steps are :

To share the knowledge and experiance of biodiversity conservation;

To study the factors that lead to environmental degradation and overuse of biological resources;

To understand the strategy for in-situ conservation and use of appropriate technology to achieve the goals of in-situ conservation;

To study the importance and mechanism of protected areas, biosphere reserves, wetlands, mangrooves, and coral reefs.

4.2 IN-SITU CONSERVATION

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In situ means in the natural, original place or position; as in the location of the explant on the mother plant prior to excision. In situ conservation which include conservation of plant and animals in their native ecosystem or even in man made ecosystem, where they naturally occur. Thus in-situ conservation refers to protection zones and areas of high biological diversity. These areas, describd as natural ecosystems, will protect species with minimum human interference.

This type of conservation applies only to wild fauna and flora and not to the domesticated animals and plants, because conservation is achieved by protection of populations in nature. This method of conservation mainly aims at preservations of land races with wild relatives in which genetic exists and/ or in which the weedy/ wild forms present hybrids with related cultivars. These are evolutionary systems that are difficult of plant breeders to stimulate and should not be knowingly destroyed.

The in-situ conservation of habitats has received high priority in the world conservation strategy programmes launched since 1980. Institutional, arrangement, especially in countries of the developing world, have been emphasized. This mode of conservation has some limitation however; there is risk of material being lost due to environmental hazards. Further the cost of a maintaining a large portion of available genotypes in nurseries or field may be extremely high.

In-situ conservation includes a system of protected areas of different categories e.g. National parks, Sanctuaries, National Monument, Cultural landscapes, Biosphere Reserves, etc. One of the best methods to save wildlife species, which is on the road to extinction, is to put it in a special enclosure to reproduce. Sanctuaries and National parks, whose legal definition varies from country to country, best illustrate this.

4.2.1 Advantages, Risks, and Opportunities of In-situ Conservation

In-situ maintenance of biodiversity through the establishment of conservation and multiple-use areas offers distinct advantages over off-site methods in terms of coverage, viability of the resource, and the economic sustainability of the methods:

Coverage

A worldwide system of protected and multiple-use areas would allow a significant number of indigenous species and systems to be protected, thus taking care of the unknowns until such time as methods are found for their investigation and utilization.

Viability

Natural selection and community evolution continue and new communities, systems, and genetic material are produced (World Conservation Monitoring Center, 1992).

Economic sustainability

A country that maintains specific examples of biodiversity stores up future economic benefits. When the need develops and this diversity is thoroughly examined, commercially valuable genetic and biochemical material may be found.

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It is not sufficient to establish a conservation area and then assume its biodiversity is automatically protected and without risk. Many risks, both natural and man-created, remain. An extreme example was the near-obliteration of the entire remaining habitat of the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus r. rosalia) in 1992 by fire. Shaffer (1981) cites four broad categories of natural risk:

Demographic uncertainty resulting from random events in the survival and reproduction of individuals.

Environmental uncertainty due to random, or at least unpredictable, changes in weather, food supply, and the populations of competitors, predators, parasites, etc.

Natural catastrophes such as floods, fires, or droughts, which may occur at random intervals.

Genetic uncertainty or random changes in genetic make-up due to genetic drift or inbreeding that alter the survival and reproductive probabilities of individuals.

The greatest uncertainties, however, are often anthropogenic. The elimination of habitat to make way for human settlement and associated development activities is the most important factor contributing to the diminishing mosaic of biodiversity. These uncertainties can only be met with a full array of conservation programs, including those that use ex-situ methods.

Despite the long list of uncertainties and risk, there is hope for progress. In the last decade not only have pressures from the scientific community and the efforts of non-governmental organizations led to stronger language in international agreements, but segments of the development community have accepted the idea that a large degree of compatibility exists between the need to develop and the need to maintain biodiversity. Further acceptance depends, however, on a number of attitudinal adjustments on the part of many who call for in-situ conservation, as well as on a clearer understanding of the rationale behind it by those whose activities conflict with it. The success of conservation also requires a modification of how we cost economic goods and services in the short, medium, and long term.

Globally, the possibilities for undertaking in-situ programs such as national parks, biological reserves, and other conservation areas appear to be somewhat favorable. However, the status of these protected areas is often not healthy and unforeseen problems repeatedly arise. The establishment of the Gurupi Biological Reserve in the eastern Brazilian Amazon, for example, significantly increased the level of threat by causing a rush of illegal extraction of forest resources. This site is probably the most endangered conservation unit in the Amazon basin. Worldwide, the list of endangered protected areas is growing in number, and additional human-dominated activities such as water development, mining, road construction and resulting development, livestock grazing, poaching, logging, and other removal of vegetation continue to threaten their integrity (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991).

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4.2.2 Biodiversity Conservation : International Efforts

Biodiversity is the variety and variations occurring in nature, which has sustained the harmonious existence of life on earth. The components of this diversity are so interdependent that any change in the system leads to major imbalance and threatens the normal ecological cycle.

Acknowledging the need for conservation, the concern for conservation of biodiversity at global level figured for the first time. In the discussion at the UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972. The UNEP identified conservation as priority area in 197. It was only towards 1980’s that systemic and concentrated efforts to look at biodiversity conservation profile at international level started with constitution of an Ad hoc working group of experts on biological diversity by UNEP in 1987. Eventually an experts group was constituted by UNEP, which started it’s work in 1989.

“Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)” was one of the foremost issues discussed at the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) between June 3 and 14, 1992. A ceremony to mark the opening of the convention on biological diversity took place in the afternoon on June 5. This convention entered into force on December 29, 1993. Feranando Collor, the President of the Federal Republic of Brazil was the first to sign the convention, followed by India, and 155 other nations. At present, 166 countries are parties to the convention.

This international treaty is a historic treaty in that it not only reflects the commitment of global community for conservation and sustainable used of biodiversity but also visualizes sharing of benefits arising out of utilisation of genetic resources with the countries of origin.

Objectives : According to this, the main objectives of the convention are :

1. The conservation of biological diversity.

2. The sustainable use of components of biodiversity.

3. The fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization genetic resources.

Features : The main features of the convention are:

1. The authority to determine access to genetic resources rests with national governments and is subject to national legislation;

2. The commercial benefits arising out of the use of biological resources of a country will be shared with that country on a equitable and fair basis;

3. The access to the transfer of technology to developing countries will be provided under fair and most favorable terms mutually arrived at. In case of technology subject to patents such access and are consistent with the adequate protection of intellectual property rights.

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4. The developed countries will provide new and additional financial resources to enable developing countries to meet the agreed full incremental costs to them of implementing measures which fulfill the obligation of the convention; and

5. The extent to which developing country parties will effectively implement their commitments under the convention will depends on the effective implementation by developed country parties of their commitments under the convention related to financial resources and transfer of technology. The level of implantation by developing countries will also take into consideration the fact that economic development and poverty eradication are their primary and overriding priorities.

Each country/ nation shall as far as possible and as appropriate to take measure for in-situ conservation of biological diversity under article (8) of the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) which are summarized below :

a. Establish a system of protected areas of areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity;

b. Develop, where necessary, guide-lines for the selection establishment and management of protected area or area where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity;

c. Regulate or manage biological resources important for the conservation of biological diversity whether within or outside protected areas with a view to ensuring their conservation and sustainable use;

d. Promote the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of species in natural surroundings;

e. Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in areas adjacent to protected areas with a view to furthering protection of these areas;

f. Rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystem and promote the recovery of threatened species, inter alia, through the development and implementation of plants or other management strategies;

g. Establish or maintain means to regulate, manage or control the risk associated with the use and release of living modified organisms resulting from biotechnology which are likely to have adverse environmental impacts that could affect the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account the risks to human health;

h. Prevent the introduction of control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species;

i. Endeavour to provide the conditions needed for compatibility between present uses and the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components;

j. Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyle relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices;

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k. Develop or maintain legislation and/ or other regulatory provisions for the protection of threatened species and population;

l. Where a significant adverse effect on biological diversity has been determined pursuant to article 7 of CBD, regulate or manage the relevant processes and categories of activities and

m. Cooperate in providing financial and other support for in-situ conservation outlined in subparagraphs (a) to (l) above, particularly to developing countries.

4.2.3 India’s Initiative for In-situ Conservation

India is fortunately placed in a position of advantage. Ours is tropical country with a tremendous heterogeneity of environments ranging from tropical rain forests of Andaman and Arunachal Pradesh to the deserts of Rajasthan and Ladakh. It lies at the junction of the three biogeographical provinces of Africa, temperate Eurasia and Orient. As a result, it has rich biological heritage that qualifies it as one of the 12-megadiversity nations of the world.

The industrial nations, on the other hand, lie in temperate regions of the world that are quite poorly endowed with natural diversity. Also, many of these countries have suffered severe onslaught on nature till mid 19th or early 20th centuries. As a result, while these nations are far ahead of the tropical world in technologies, the bulk of biodiversity resides in third world countries.

India is, in a way a connecting link. We are not so rich in biodiversity as Colombia or Indonesia, nor so advanced technologically as Germany or Japan. But we possess both substantial levels of biodiversity and technological capabilities. So we must take the lead in steering the biodiversity convention in the direction of brighter scenario. Not only this, but being signatory to the convention, India has moral binding to adopt conservation measures as provided in various clauses of the CBD document.

Dr M S Swaminathan (1983) reviewed the scientific aspects of conservation. He suggested that the first step in conservation should be defining the categories of materials (plants/ genes) for preservation and the major methods preserving them.

In India, institutionalised management of biodiversity in situ started with the establishment of the first National Park, the Hailey National Park (now Jim Corbett National Park) in 1935. Following this, more than 500 PAs were set up representing a wide range of ecosystems. The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) proposed a biogeographic classification system recognizing ten zones divided into 25 provinces in which over 300 landforms were identified. The existing network of PAs was evaluated for its representativeness vis-a-vis the classification system. Sites were identified to fill the gaps and the suggested network recommended 148 National Parks and 550 Sanctuaries covering 200,000 sq. kms, which is about 5 % of the country’s total geographical area. These suggestions have found extensive support and already 4.76% of the total geographical area (excluding the open seas) has been brought under the system of Protected Areas (PAs). Currently there are 97 National Parks and 508 Wildlife Sanctuaries in the major biogeographic zones of India. The total extent of PAs includes 5 designated as World Heritage Sites, 15 Biosphere Reserves and 6 internationally significant wetlands of India have been declared Ramsar sites under Ramsar convention.

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Institutional efforts at in-situ conservation of endangered animals were initiated in the country about 30 years ago with the launching of Project Tiger. An all-India tiger census conducted in 1972 revealed that there were only 1,827 tigers in the country as against an estimated 40,000 at the turn of the century. Taking this as an indication of the deteriorating health of India’s wilderness, the Government of India launched the Project Tiger in 1973 with the support of WWF-International. 28 PAs in the country have been designated as Tiger Reserves. The 1993 census placed the tiger population at 3750.

The tiger has not been the only beneficiary a number of other endangered species such as the swamp deer, elephant, rhino and wild buffalo have received protection through Project Tiger. This programme has thus had a direct impact on conservation of biodiversity. The enhanced programmes introduced in the second phase of Project Tiger include the establishment of guidelines for tourism in tiger reserves, management of buffer areas, integration of local populations through eco-development programmes and establishment of Nature Interpretation Centres.

Indian holds the largest number of Asian elephants with 20,000 – 24,000 in the wild and nearly 3000 in captivity. The state of elephant in India was officially recognized in 1990 by the Government of India (GOI) when Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) set up a task force to prepare the baseline document for conservation project on the species. The task force identified several elephant reserves throughout the country. Gajatame or Project Elephant covering all the elephant states in country was formally launched in 1992.

Other special conservation programmes have also been initiated and these include the Indian Rhino, Lion, certain primates (Indo-UA Primate Project in Northeast India), and aquatic mammals especially river dolphins.

In-situ conservation of selected species of birds and reptiles have been fortified through captive breeding programmes. An Indo-British collaborative programme undertook captive breeding of the endangered white-winged wood duck.

The GOI started the crocodile breeding and management project in 1976 with FAO-UNDP assistance to save the three endangered crocodilian species namely the fresh-water crocodile, salt-water crocodile and the rare gharial. Eleven sanctuaries have been declared specially for crocodile protection including the National Chambal Sanctuary in MP, one of the largest in India.

More than 30 species of turtles and tortoises are known in India. Forest departments, autonomous institutions, universities and NGOs are jointly working on the conservation of turtles and tortoise in India. Captive rearing of fresh water turtles for reintroduction is being undertaken in the Chambal valley by the Uttar Pradesh State Forest Department. This is one of the major fresh water turtle conservation programmes in India. The Gahirmatha beach in the state of Orissa is the largest rookery for the Olive Ridley Turtle in the world. A programme to tag and monitor the nesting turtles has been launched by the WII in collaboration with M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF).

MoEF launched the biosphere reserve programme in 1986. The primary objective of this programme was to identify representative ecosystems, which are still in pristine condition and strengthen the conservation efforts keeping in view the livelihood needs

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of the people. The various implications and facets of this issue are being debated through a consultative process.

The Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) has identified 309 forest preservation plots of representative forest types for conservation of variable and representative areas of biodiversity. 187 of these plots are natural forests and 117 in plantations, covering a total area of 8500 hectares.

There are a number of Non Government Organisation (NGO) initiatives for in-situ conservation in the country. One of these is the WWF-India’s Community Biodiversity Conservation Programme. This programme, which has supported 46 projects throughout the country primarily, focuses on in-situ conservation of habitats, species and biodiversity conservation traditions of local communities with the active participation of the people.

NGO initiative has focused on Medicinal Plant Conservation Area Programme (MPCA) of the Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) has identified natural areas rich in medicinal plants in south India. With the collaboration of the State Forest Departments of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and leading community health NGOs, the FRLHT has established 30 MPCAs and is in the process of setting up 15 parks to store germplasm of threatened, rare and endemic medicinal plants.

4.3 PROTECTED AREAS IN INDIA

The depletion of biodiversity is an alarming problem all over the world. The World Conservation strategy suggests that the initial efforts of bio-diversity conservation should aim at establishment and maintenance of a network of protected Area (PA) system by making policy changes involving local people in the PA management and mobilizing financial resources for their conservation and protection. The strategies also lay down that considering the stress on environment, all countries should aim at earmarking 10% of their land area for PA network for biodiversity conservation.

The Commission of National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) of IUCN has been deliberating on this issue since 1978. In the Steering Committee meeting of the CNPPA held in 1993, a consensus was reached to have the following set of categories for the PAs. These are given below with the broad management objectives :

Category I Strict Nature Reserve / Wilderness Areas : Protected areas managed mainly for science or wilderness protection.

Category II National Park : Protected areas managed mainly for ecosystem conservation and recreation.

Category III Natural Monument : Protected areas managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features.

Category IV Habitat / Species Management Areas : Protected areas mainly for conservation through management intervention.

Category V Protected Landscape / Seascape : Protected areas managed mainly for

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landscape/ seascape conservation and recreation.

Category VI Managed Resource Protected Area : Protected areas managed mainly for landscape/ seascape conservation and recreation.

In India, PAs belonging to (categories II, IV, V, and VI) are being managed. Category I corresponds to the sanctum sanctorum of the PAs and Category III sometimes occur incidentally in various PAs, but very often these areas may be occurring outside the conventional PAs also.

National Parks in India fall in Category II, Sanctuaries come under Category IV and Biosphere Reserve under Category IV.

It can be seen that in National Parks, the main objective should be ecosystem conservation and recreation. The sanctuaries should fall under habitat/ species management areas, which are to be conserved through managemental intervention. Category V are areas basically maintained for the protection of catchment’s areas of rivers, sea coasts, and for recreation.

In India, the creation of national park, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves is an attempt to manage wildlife by defining protected areas (PAs). Wildlife therein is regularly monitored and necessary management strategies for their perpetuation and preservation are formulated and implemented. These protected areas not only benefit wildlife, but indirectly humans too. Their protection means the protection of entire ecosystem, which is necessary to continue to enjoy the benefit we may now receive from it.

The National Wildlife Database Cell of the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has been developing a National Wildlife Information System (NWIS) on the Protected Areas of the country. National Wildlife Database (NWD) is providing information on the conservation status of animal species, biogeographic regions, administrative units, habitat types and the network of protected areas in India, in a variety of formats and also providing an extensive bibliographic support for wildlife research.

The number of national parks and sanctuaries has increased from 33 in 1952 to a total of 221 by the end of December 1980 covering 2-3% of the total geographical area and 10% of the total forest area of the country.  Today, India has a network of 614 Protected Areas including 97 National Parks, 508 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 15 Biosphere Reserve, 7 Conservation Reserves, 25 elephant reserves and 2 Community Reserves covering a total of 156,548.49 km2 of geographical area of the country which is approximately 4.76%. 

The rich biodiversity in india has given shape to variety of cultural and ethnic diversity which includes over 550 tribal communities of 227 ethnic groups spread over 5,000 forest villages.

Under the United Nation World Heritage Convention, India has declared 5 PAs as World Heritage Site. These are :

i. Kaziranga National Park

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ii. Keoladeo Ghana National Park

iii. Manas Wildlife Sanctuary

iv. Nanda Devi National Park

v. Sunderban National Park

4.4 NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

National park or a sanctuary may be defined as an area, declared by state, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife therein, or its natural environment for their scientific, educational and recreational value. The definition adopted by IUCN (1975) is as follows :

A national park is a relatively large area where –

1. One or several ecosystems are not materially altered by human exploitation and occupation, where plant and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of special scientific, educative and re-creative interest or which contain a natural landscape of great beauty.

2. The highest competent authority of the country has taken steps to prevent or eliminate as soon as possible exploitation or occupation in the whole area and to enforce effectively the respect of the ecological, geomorphological or aesthetic features which have led to its establishment.

3. Visitors are allowed to enter, under special conditions, for inspirational, cultural and re-creative purpose.

A national park is an area dedicated to conserve the scenery (or environment) and natural objects and the wildlife therein. In national parks, all private rights are non-existent and all forestry operations and other usages such as grazing of domestic animals are prohibited. However, the general public may enter it for the purpose of observation and study. Certain parts of the park are developed for tourism in such a way that enjoyment will not disturb or scare the animals.

As per National Wildlife Database, June 2008, there are 97 existing national parks in India covering an area of 38,199.47 km2, which is 1.16% of the geographical area of the country (Table 4.1).  In addition to the above 74 national parks covering an area of 16,630.08 km2 are proposed in the Protected Area Network Report (Rodgers et al. 2002).  The network of parks will go up 171 after full implementation of the above report. 

Wildlife Sanctuary

A wildlife sanctuary, similar to national park, is dedicated to protect the wildlife, but it considers the conservation of species only and also the boundary of it is not limited by state legislation. Further, in the sanctuary, killing hunting or capturing of any species of birds and mammals is prohibited except by or under the control of highest authority in the department responsible for management of the sanctuary. Private ownership may be allowed to continue in a sanctuary, and forestry and other usages permitted to the extent that they do not adversely affect wildlife.

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The difference between a sanctuary and a national park is subtle and even confuging. Hunting without permit is prohibited and grazing or movement of cattle is regulated in sanctuary. But hunting and grazing are absolutely prohibited in national park which may be established within or outside a sanctuary i.e. the difference is mostly the interference of human or human activities in the area. In a sanctuary, the human activities are allowed but in a national park the human interference is totally prohibited.

Table 4.1 : State-Wise Break Up of National Parks

State/UTs Area of State(km2)

No. ofNPs

Area Covered

(km2)

% of State Area

Andhra Pradesh 275068 4 373.23 0.14Arunachal Pradesh 83743 2 2290.82 2.74Assam 78438 5 1977.79 2.52Bihar 94163 1 335.65 0.36Chhattisgarh 135194 3 2899.08 2.14Goa 3702 1 107.00 2.89Gujarat 196024 4 480.11 0.24Haryana 44212 2 48.25 0.11Himachal Pradesh 55673 2 1430.00 2.57Jammu & Kashmir 222235 4 3930.25 1.77Jharkhand 79714 1 231.67 0.29Karnataka 191791 5 2472.18 1.29Kerala 38863 6 558.16 1.44Madhya Pradesh 308252 9 3656.36 1.19Maharashtra 307690 6 1273.60 0.41Manipur 22327 1 40.00 0.18Meghalaya 22429 2 267.48 1.19Mizoram 21081 2 150.00 0.71Nagaland 16579 1 202.02 1.22Orissa 155707 2 990.70 0.64Punjab 50362 0 0.00 0.00Rajasthan 342239 5 4122.33 1.20Sikkim 7096 1 1784.00 25.14Tamil Nadu 130058 5 307.84 0.24Tripura 10486 2 199.79 1.91Uttar Pradesh 240926 1 490.00 0.20Uttarakhand 53485 6 4731.00 8.85West Bengal 88752 5 1693.25 1.91Union TerritoriesAndaman & Nicobar 8249 9 1156.91 14.02Chandigarh 114 0 0.00 0.00Dadra & Nagar Haveli 491 0 0.00 0.00Daman & Diu 112 0 0.00 0.00Delhi 1483 0 0.00 0.00Lakshadweep 32 0 0.00 0.00Pondicherry 493 0 0.00 0.00India 3287263 97 38199.48 1.16

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According to National Wildlife Database, June 2008, there are 508 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India covering an area of 118,236.94 km2, which is 3.60% of the geographical area of the country (Table 4.2).  Another 217 sanctuaries are proposed in the Protected Area Network Report covering an area of 16,669.44 km2. 

Table 4.2 : State-Wise Break Up of Wild life Sanctuaries

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State/ UTsArea of

State(km²)

No. ofWLS

Area covered( km²)

% of State Area

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Andhra Pradesh 275068 22 12599.19 4.58Arunachal Pradesh 83743 11 7606.37 9.08Assam 78438 18 1932 2.46Bihar 94163 12 2856.06 3.03Chhattisgarh 135194 11 3583.25 2.65Goa 3702 6 647.96 17.50Gujarat 196024 22 16440.94 8.39Haryana 44212 8 206.95 0.47Himachal Pradesh 55673 33 6171.00 11.08Jammu & Kashmir 222235 15 10312.25 4.64Jharkhand 79714 11 1945.58 2.44Karnataka 191791 21 3888.14 2.03Kerala 38863 15 1894.49 4.87Madhya Pradesh 308252 25 7158.40 2.32Maharashtra 307690 35 14152.69 4.60Manipur 22327 1 184.40 0.83Meghalaya 22429 3 34.20 0.15Mizoram 21081 7 680.75 3.23Nagaland 16579 3 20.34 0.12Orissa 155707 18 6969.15 4.48Punjab 50362 12 323.80 0.64Rajasthan 342239 23 5447.03 1.59Sikkim 7096 7 399.10 5.62Tamil Nadu 130058 20 2997.60 2.30Tripura 10486 3 403.85 3.85Uttar Pradesh 240926 23 5222.47 2.17Uttarakhand 53485 6 2418.65 4.52West Bengal 88752 15 1203.28 1.36UNION TERRITORIES Andaman & Nicobar 8249 96 389.39 4.72Chandigarh 114 2 26.13 22.92Dadra & Nagar Haveli 491 1 92.16 18.77Daman & Diu 112 1 2.18 1.95Delhi 1483 1 27.20 1.83Lakshadweep 32 1 0.01 0.03Pondicherry 493 0 0.00 0.00India 3287263 508 118236.94 3.60

4.5 BIOSPHERE RESERVE

The idea of 'biosphere reserves' was initiated by UNESCO in 1973-74 under its Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme. The MAB, launched in 1970 by UNESCO, is a broad based ecological programme aimed to develop within the natural and social sciences a basis for the rational use and conservation of the resources of the biosphere and for the improvement of the relationship between man and the environment; to predict the consequences of today's actions on tomorrows world and thereby to increase man's ability to manage efficiently the natural resources of the biosphere

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reserve. The approach emphasizes the importance of the structure and functioning of ecological systems and their mode of reaction when exposed to human intervention including impact of man on the environment and vice-versa. MAB is primarily a programme of research and training and seeks scientific information to find solution of concrete practical problems of management and conservation. MAB's field projects and biosphere reserves constitute the main goal of the whole programme.

The Indian National Man and Biosphere (MAB) committee identifies and recommends potential sites for designation as Biosphere Reserves, following the UNESCO’s guidelines and criteria. By april 2008, 15 biosphere reserves have been established in India and some additional sites are under consideration (Table – 4.3).

4.5.1 Definition

Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international designation made by UNESCO for representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large area of terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof. BRs are designated to deal with one of the most important questions of reconciling the conservation of biodiversity, the quest for economic and social development and maintenance of associated cultural values. BRs are thus special environments for both people and the nature and are living examples of how human beings and nature can co-exist while respecting each others’ needs.

These areas are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme, after receiving consent of the participating country. The world’s major ecosystem types and landscapes are represented in this network.

4.5.2 Characteristics of Biosphere Reserves

The characteristic features of biosphere reserves are

1) The biosphere reserves are protected areas of land and /or coastal environments wherein people are an integral component of the system. Together, they constitute a worldwide network linked by international understanding for exchange of scientific information.

2) The network of brs includes significant examples of biomes throughout the world.

3) Each br include one or more of the following categories:-

i) Brs are representative examples of natural biomes

ii) Brs conserve unique communities of biodiversity or areas with unusual natural features of exceptional interest. It is recognized that these representative areas may also contain unique features of landscapes, ecosystems and genetic variations e.g. one population of a globally rare species; their representatives and uniqueness may both be characteristics of an area.

iii) BRs have examples of harmonious landscapes resulting from traditional patterns of land-use.

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iv) BRs have examples of modified or degraded ecosystems capable of being restored to more natural conditions.

v) BRs generally have a non-manipulative core area, in combination with areas in which baseline measurements, experimental and manipulative research, education and training is carried out. Where these areas are not contiguous, they can be associated in a cluster.

4.5.3 Functions of Biosphere Reserves

Conservation

To ensure the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variations;

To encourage the traditional resource use systems;

To understand the patterns and processes of functioning of ecosystems;

To monitor the natural and human-caused changes on spatial and temporal scales;

Development

To promote, at the local level, economic development, which is culturally, socially and ecologically sustainable;

To develop the strategies leading to improvement and management of natural resources;

Logistics support

To provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and development;

Sharing of knowledge generated by research through site specific training and education; and

Development of community spirit in the management of natural resources.

Beneficiaries

Direct beneficiaries of biosphere reserves are the local people and the ecological resources and indirect beneficiaries are scientists, government decision- makers and the world community.

4.5.4 Structure and Design of Biosphere Reserves

In order to undertake complementary activities relating to biodiversity conservation and development of sustainable management aspects, brs are demarcated into 3 inter-related zones. These are (i) natural or core zone (ii) manipulation or buffer zone (iii) a transition zone outside the buffer zone;

The Core Zone

The core zone is kept absolutely undisturbed. It must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species, including higher order predators and may contain

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centers of endemism. Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important genetic reservoirs. The core zones also contain places of exceptional scientific interest. A core zone secures legal protection and management and research activities that do not affect natural processes and wildlife, are allowed. Strict nature reserves and wilderness portions of the site are designated as core areas of br. The core zone is to be kept free from all human pressures external to the system.

The Buffer Zone

In the buffer zone, which adjoins or surrounds core zone, uses and activities are managed in ways that protect the core zone. The uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing, which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within br, are likely to be permitted to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.

The Transition Zone

The transition zone is the outermost part of a biosphere reserve. This is usually not delimited one and is a zone of cooperation, where conservation, knowledge and management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the biosphere reserve. This includes settlements, croplands, managed forests and area for intensive recreation and other economic uses characteristics of the region.

In buffer zone and the transition zones, manipulative macro-management practices are used. Experimental research areas are used for understanding the patterns and processes in the ecosystem. Modified or degraded landscapes are included as rehabilitation areas to restore the ecology in a way that it returns to sustainable productivity.

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Table 4.3 Existing and Proposed Biosphere Reserves in India

A) Existing Biosphere Reserves, their Area, Date of Notification and Location

S No

Name of the Biosphere Reserve

Total Geographical

Area (km2)

Date of notification Location (state)

1. Nilgiri 5520.00 01.08.86 Parts of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala & Karnataka)

2. Nanda Devi 5860.69 18.01.88 Parts of Chamoli, Pithoragarh & Almora districts (Uttrakhandl)

3. Nokrek 820.00 01.09.88 Parts of Garo hills (Meghalaya)4. Manas 2837.00 14.03.89 Parts of Kokrajhars, Bongaigaon,

Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup and Darang districts (Assam)

5. Sunderbans 9630.00 29.03.89 Parts of Delta of Ganges & Brahamputra river system (West Bengal)

6. Gulf of Mannar 10500.00 18.02.89 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India & Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu)

7. Great Nicobar 885.00 06.01.89 Southern most islands of Andman and Nicobar (A & N Islands)

8. Similipal 4374.00 21.06.94 Parts of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa)

9. Dibru-Saikhowa 765.00 28.07.97 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts (Assam)

10. Dehang Debang 5111.50 02.09.98 Parts of Siang and Debang Valley (Arunanchal Pradesh)

11. Kangchendozonga 2619.92 07.02.00 Parts of North and West Sikkim (Sikkim)

12. Pachmarhi ** 4926.28 03.03.99 Parts of Hoshangabad, Chhindwara and Betul districts (Madhya Pradesh)

13. Agasthyamalai 3500.36 12.11.01(area extended on 30.03.05)

Parts of Thirunelveli and Kanya Kumari Districts in Tamil Nadu and Thiruvanthapuram, Kollam and Pathanmthitta in Kerala (Tamilnadu and Kerala)

14. Achanakmar - Amarkantak

3835.51 30.03.05 Part of Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh, Dindori and Anuppur districts of Madhya Pradesh (Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh)

15. Kachchh 12454.00 29.01.08 Parts of Kachch, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar and Patan districts of Gujrat (Gujrat)

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* Sites with bold letters have been recognized by UNESCO on World Network of Biosphere Reserves and proposals in respect of S. No. 4, 8, 11 and 12 are under consideration.

** Revised area (4981.72 km2) under consideration by GOI, MOEF, after due approval of the State Govt.

B) Potential sites yet to be designated as BR.

S No Name of Proposed BR States1 Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh 2 Thar Deserts Rajasthan3 Little Rann of Kutch Gujarat4 Kaziranga Assam5 Panna Madhya Pradesh6 North islands of Andaman Andman & Nicobar7 Abujhmarh Chhatisgarh8 Cold Desert Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh9 Seshachalam Andhra Pradesh10 Chintapalli Andhra Pradesh11 Lakshadweep islands Lakshadweep12 Singbhum Jharkhand

4.6 WETLAND

A wetland is an area of land consisting of soil that is saturated with moisture, such as a swamp, marsh, or bog.

As defined in terms of physical geography, a wetland is an environment "at the interface between truly terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic systems making them inherently different from each other yet highly dependent on both". In essence, wetlands are ecotones. Wetlands often host considerable biodiversity and endemism. In many locations such as the United Kingdom and USA they are the subject of conservation efforts and Biodiversity Action Plans.

The United States Army Corps of Engineers and the United States Environmental Protection Agency jointly define wetlands as "those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetations typically adapted for life in saturated soils. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas."

4.6.1 Characteristics of wetlands

Soils

Wetlands are found under a wide range of hydrological conditions, but at least some of the time water saturates the soil. The result is a hydric soil, one characterized by an

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absence of free oxygen some or all of the time, and therefore called a "reducing environment."

Vegetation

Plants (called hydrophytes or just wetland plants) specifically adapted to the reducing conditions presented by such soils can survive in wetlands, whereas species intolerant of the absence of soil oxygen (called "upland" plants) cannot survive. Adaptations to low soil oxygen characterize many wetland species.

There are many types of vegetation in wetlands. There are plants such as Cattails, bulrushes, Sedges, Arrowhead, Water Lilies, Blue Flag, and Floaters like common duckweed. Pondweed is also another type of plant that grows in wetlands, but it is not easily seen. Peatland can be dominated by red maple, silver maple, and Elm trees. Some types of trees in peatland can exhibit lower trunks and roots that have adapted to the wet surroundings by forming buttresses,like the cypress, enlarged root bases to better support the trees in the mucky soil. Trees can also form knees, raised roots that allow for gas exchange. Swamps can also have white Cedar, Tamarack, and White Pine. Below the canopy, there are often limited amounts of shrubs such as speckled Alder, Winterberry, and Sweet Gale.

Mangroves are a species of plant which typically thrive in coastal wetlands (called marine or estuarine environments). They are a special tree taxon that can survive in salty wetland water. Mangroves also provide the base for the wetland food chain. They are the producers in the wetland environment. Because mangroves add sulfur to the wetlands, it makes the water more acidic, therefore allowing decomposed matter in the water to biodegrade faster than it normally would, which in turn, provides more food for the organisms in the wetland ecosystem.

Hydrology

Generally, the hydrology of a wetland is such that the area is permanently or periodically inundated or saturated at the soil surface for a period of time during the growing season. The presence (or absence) of water is not necessarily a good method for identifying wetlands because the amount of water generally fluctuates depending on such things as rainfall patterns, snow melt, dry seasons, longer droughts, and tidal patterns. Often the same wetland can appear to be an open body of water some times and a dry field at other times due to significant fluctuations in water levels. The three water sources that contribute to wetlands are:

Precipitation falling within the wetland

Groundwater moving up or out from the subsurface of the wetland

Surface flow from the surrounding watershed or nearby water bodies (lakes, streams, oceans, etc.)

Location determines which of these sources will be contributing water to a wetland.

Topography

Generally, wetlands are located within topographic features that are lower in elevation that the surrounding landscape such as depressions, valleys, and flat areas.

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Topography plays an important role in determining the size and shape of a wetland by controlling where the water goes and how long it stays there.

4.6.2 lassification of Wetland

Below are terms used for various types of wetlands:

A bog or muskeg is acidic peat land (peat bog). A moor was originally the same as a bog but has come to be associated with this soil type on hill-tops. A moss is a raised bog in Scotland A fen is a freshwater peat land with chemically basic (which roughly means alkaline) ground water. This means that it contains a moderate or high proportion of hydroxyl ions (pH value greater than 7). A carr is a fen which has developed to the point where it supports trees. It is a European term, mainly applied in the north of the UK. A fresh-water marsh's main feature is its openness, with only low-growing or "emergent" plants. It may feature grasses, rushes, reeds, typhas, sedges, and other herbaceous plants (possibly with low-growing woody plants) in a context of shallow water. It is an open form of fen. A coastal salt marsh may be associated with estuaries and along waterways between coastal barrier islands and the inner coast. The plants may extend from reed in mildly brackish water to salicornia on otherwise bare marine mud. It may be converted to human use as pasture (salting) or for salt production (saltern). A swamp is wetland with more open water surface and deeper water than a marsh. In North America, it is used for wetlands dominated by trees and woody bushes rather than grasses and low herbs, but this distinction does not necessarily apply in other areas, for instance in Africa where swamps may be dominated by papyrus. A dambo is a shallow, grass-covered depression of the central and southern African plateau which is waterlogged in the rainy season, and usually forms the headwaters of a stream or river. It is marshy at the edges and at the headwater, but maybe swampy in the centre and downstream. A mangrove swamp or mangal is a salt or brackish water environment dominated by the mangrove species of tree, such as Sonneratia. Species A paperbark wetland is a fresh or brackish water environment dominated by the Melaleuca tree. A bayou or slough are southern United States terms for a creek amongst swamp. In an Indian mangrove swamp, it would be called a creek. A constructed wetland is artificially contrived wetland, intended to absorb flash floods, clean sewage, enhance wildlife or for some other human reason. A pocosin is a bog-like wetland dominated by fire-adapted shrubs and trees, found mainly in the southeastern United States on the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Seasonally flooded basins or flats. Inland fresh meadows. Inland shallow fresh water.

4.6.3 Hydrogeomorphic classes

The Hydrogeomorphic (HGM) Approach is a system developed by the US Army Corps of Engineers to classify all wetlands based on three factors that influence how they function: position in the landscape (geomorphic setting), water source (hydrology), and the flow and fluctuation of the water once in the wetland (hydrodynamics). There are seven classes (types) of wetlands in this system:

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Riverine

Depressional

Slope

Mineral soil flats

Organic soil flats

Estuarine fringe

Lacustrine fringe

This approach also intends to develop subclasses of wetlands to account for specific conditions of various regions.

4.6.4 Wetlands in drylands

In contrast to wetlands in other biomes (usually permanent and fresh water), wetlands in drylands are more diverse in their composition, depending on the local climate and other particularities of the surroundings. They can be fresh or saline, permanent, seasonal or temporary, filling intermittently or regularly.Wetlands in drylands can be attributed all values and uses of wetlands found in other biomes. However, given the stark contrast to their dry surroundings, many of these values are enhanced. This applies to the water balance where gradual release and storage of rainwater by wetlands amid drylands is crucial due to the unpredictability and incalculability of rain. During dry seasons, wetlands in drylands are also pivotal as refugia for wildlife, livestock and people. Moreover, biodiversity levels are higher than in wetlands in other major biomes, in particular because of the accessibility of water amid an otherwise very dry environment.

4.6.5 Intertidal wetlands

In intertidal wetlands the majority of natural stress comes from salinity and tidal movements. The intertidal wetlands must be able to survive extreme conditions of mainly salt water at high tide, fresh water at low tide and times of flood and brackish water at other times. The saline water is a very difficult condition for plants to survive in. The grey mangrove accomplishes this by excluding salt in the root system, salt glands in the leaf, and waxy leaves to minimize water loss. However it is vulnerable to changes in salinity levels. Changes to tidal movements through increased run-off or altered drainage can cause the roots of mangroves to be inundated for longer than normal periods affecting their pneumatophones. It can also be pushed past its threshold level if water quality is changed. Thus even healthy ecosystems are vulnerable to change. Some species such as oysters and molluscs have been used as indicator species, with any decline in their numbers indicating the ecosystem is under stress. A change in nutrient levels may also affect primary productivity and thus bring about change.

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4.6.6 Functions

Hydrologic

Hydrologic functions include long term and short term water storage, subsurface water storage, energy dissipation, and moderation of groundwater flow or discharge. e.g. By absorbing the force of strong winds and tides, wetlands protect terrestrial areas adjoining them from storms, floods, and tidal damage.

Biogeochemical

Nutrient cycling, retention of particulates, removal of imported elements and compounds, and the import and export of organic carbon are all biogeochemical functions of wetlands. Wetlands remove nutrients from surface and ground water by filtering and by converting nutrients to unavailable forms. Denitrification is arguably the most important of these reactions because humans have increased nitrate worldwide by applying fertilizers. Increased nitrate availability can cause eutrophication, but denitrification converts biologically available nitrogen back into nitrogen gas, which is biologically unavailable except to nitrogen fixing bacteria. Denitrification can be detected in many soils, but denitrification is fastest in wetlands soils. e.g. Intertidal wetlands provide an excellent example of invasion, modification and succession. The invasion and succession process is establishment of seagrasses. These help stabilize sediment and increase sediment capture rates. The trapped sediment gradually develops into mud flats. Mud flat organisms become established encouraging other life forms changing the organic composition of the soil.

Wildlife habitat

Wetland provide a safe and lush environment for many different species of fish, birds, and insects. It includes the mallard duck, the Sickleback fish, mangroves, and water moccasins.

Plant habitat

Like animals, their are number of plant communites that will only survive in the unique environmental conditions of a wetland. In the continental U.S. wetlands account for only 5 percent of the total land area but over 30 percent of the nation's vascular flora occur in wetlands. For example, Mangroves establish themselves in the shallower water upslope from the mudflats. Mangroves further stabilize sediment and over time increase the soil level. This results in less tidal movement and the development of salt marshes (succession). The salty nature of the soil means it can only be tolerated by special types of grasses e.g. saltbush, rush and sedge. There is also changing species diversity in each succession.

Value to humans

While many of the functions above are directly or indirectly beneficial to humans and society, wetlands are specifically valuable to people as places for recreational and educational activities such as hunting, fishing, camping, and wildlife observation. Wetlands are often filled in to be used by humans for everything from agriculture to parking lots, in part because the economic value of wetlands has only been recognized

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recently: the shrimp and fish that breed in salt water marshes are generally harvested in deeper water, for example. Humans can maximize the area of healthy, functioning wetlands by minimizing their impacts and by developing management strategies that protect, and where possible rehabilitate those ecosystems at risk.

Wetlands are sometimes deliberately created to help with water reclamation. One example is Green Cay Wetlands in Boynton Beach, Florida in the United States.

4.6.7 Protection and rehabilitation

Historically, humans have made large-scale efforts to drain wetlands for development or to flood them for use as recreational lakes. Since the 1970s, more focus has been put on preserving wetlands for their natural function—sometimes also at great expense. One example is the project by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to control flooding and enhance development by taming the Everglades, a project which has now been reversed to restore much of the wetlands as a natural habitat and method of flood control.

The creation of the treaty known as the Ramsar Convention (1971), or more properly "The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat", demonstrates the global concern regarding wetland loss and degradation. The primary purposes of the treaty are to list wetlands of international importance and to promote their wise use, with the ultimate goal of preserving the world’s wetlands.

Exclusion

Those responsible for the management of wetland areas often facilitate public access to a small, designated area while restricting access to other areas. Provision of defined boardwalks and walkways is a management strategy used to restrict access to vulnerable areas, as is the issuing of permits whilst visiting.

Education

In the past, wetlands were regarded as wastelands. Education campaigns have helped to change public perceptions and foster public support for the wetlands. Due to their location in the catchment area, education programs need to teach about total catchment management programs. Educational programs include guided tours for the general public, school visits, media liaison, and information centers.

4.6.8 Wetland in India

India become party to the Ramsar Convention in October 1981. Two important mandates of the convention are that the parties:

1. Designate at least one wetland in their territory for the list of wetlands of international importance and to conserve the ecological characetrisitc of the same and

2. Make wise use of all wetlands in their territory whether or not they are designate for the Ramsar list by developing National Wetland Policies.

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In accordance to Ramsar convention, India has designated the six internationally significant wetlands as Ramsar sites. These are :

i. Chilka Lake (1,16,500 ha)

ii. Keoladeo Ghana Natioanl Park (2,900 ha)

iii. Wular Lake (18,900 ha)

iv. Harike Lake (4,100 ha)

v. Sambhar Lake (2,873 ha) and

vi. Loktak Lake (26,600 ha)

4.7 MANGROVE

Mangrove ecosystem is a peculiar habitat found at the interface between land and sea. The term "mangrove" is being applied to the specific ecosystem of the intertidal world in the tropics and subtropics and the plant community of this ecosystem is termed as "mangrove vegetation".

Mangroves (generally) are trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics. The word is used in at least three senses: (1) most broadly to refer to the habitat and entire plant assemblage or mangal, for which the terms mangrove swamp and mangrove forest are also used, (2) to refer to all trees and large shrubs in the mangal, and (3) narrowly to refer to the mangrove family of plants, the Rhizophoraceae, or even more specifically just to mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora. Mangals are found in depositional coastal environments where fine sediments, often with high organic content, collect in areas protected from high energy wave action.

Mangroves are found extensively in the estuarine regions where mud-flats are wide and gently sloping. Besides estuaries, they also inhabit the intertidal regions of shallow bays and creeks where the environment is conducive for the growth of mangroves. Mangroves are flood buffers. They also help to stabilize climate by moderating temperature, humidity, wind and even waves. They are specially adapted to withstand salinity, wave action, and can grow in poor soils. They actually protect the land from the impact of the sea.

Growing in the intertidal areas and estuary mouths between land and sea, mangroves provide critical habitat for a diverse marine and terrestrial flora and fauna. Healthy mangrove forests are the key to healthy marine ecology.

4.7.1 Occurrence

The richest mangrove communities occur in tropical and sub-tropical areas, i.e., between the 30°N and 30°S latitudes where the water temperature is greater than 24ºC in the warmest month, where the annual rainfall exceeds 1250mm and mountain ranges greater than 700m high are found close to the coast. Mangroves are found practically in almost all the continents, excepting Europe, the Arctic and Antarctic. Luxuriant patches of mangroves are found on all the other continents but the best mangroves are found in Asia, especially in India and Bangladesh - the Sunderbans are the largest mangrove forest in the world both in size as well as biodiversity

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The total area of mangroves in India is about 6,740 sq. km, which is about 7% of the world's total area of mangroves. Of the total mangroves 80% are present along the east coast, mostly forming the Sunderbans, Bhitarkanika and the Andaman & Nicobar mangroves. The Gangetic Sunderbans is about 4,000 sq. km whereas Andaman & Nicobar is about 700 sq km. Besides, large rivers like Mahanadi, Krishna, Cauveri, Godavari also harbour major mangroves in their estuarine regions.

The remaining 20% mangroves are scattered on the west coast from Kutch to Kerala. The reason for such a restricted mangrove cover is the peculiar coastal structure and the nature of estuaries formed by the relatively small and non-perennial rivers except Narmada and Tapi.

4.7.2 Establishment

Under the right conditions like the formation of a mud-flat, growth of mangroves is initiated. Stabilization of mud-flats is a preliminary process in the establishment of mangroves. Pioneer plant species initiate this process. The roots of these plants help in binding the soil and also help the establishment of micro-organisms which further help in stabilizing the area. Stabilization starts from the land side and gradually shifts towards the sea. The pioneer plants are species like Porterasia coarctata and some members of the Cyprus family. These are slowly replaced by other mangrove plants and then these mangroves gradually spread towards the sea.

Once mangroves grow, the submerged banks are fully stabilized. Then the plants slowly reach a stage which is called the climax vegetation. A climax vegetation of mangroves is represented by the complete circle of life where there are different species of plants, animals (both terrestrial and aquatic) and micro-organisms forming an ecosystem called the tropical salt marsh or the mangrove ecosystem. In case the sediments are not stabilized, submerged banks are washed out. Thousands of deltas are formed and washed out every year before they can be stabilized. In the Gangetic delta this situation is quite common.

4.7.3 Zonation in Mangroves

Mangal along a tropical bay characteristically shows zonation. In India this zonation may be very distinctive (east coast of India) or merging (west coast of India). A very broad and general distinction would be:-

Proximal Zone (Front mangroves)

This zone is towards water front, subject to regular tidal effect where intensity of soil accumulation and inundation is a continuous process. The mangrove species in this zone are specially adapted with stilt roots, prop roots for stability and anchorage. Main species with these features are Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata. On rocky and coral reef substrata, Avicennia Spp, Sonneratia Caseolaris are also found. Both Avicennia and Sonneratia produce pneumatophores.

Middle Zones (Mid mangroves)

Above the Rhizophora/ Avicennia line luxuriant group of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. Cylindrica, Lumnitzera racemosa, L. littoralis, Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras

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corniculatum occur. Ceriops and Bruguiera develop a strong hold fast in the form of knee roots or bent roots as a special adoption for supporting the erect bole.

Distal Zone (Back mangroves)

Towards island area mangroves like Excoecaris agallocha, Heritiera littoralis and Xylocarnus spp occur. Both Heritiera and Xylocarpus produce buttresses. Generally the salinity is on lower side in this zone occurring towards hill sides where run off of fresh water is for a prolonged period. The duration of tidal submersion is low in this zone compared to front mangroves.

However, the zonation in mangroves is not so simple and varies from place to place. Every species has its own level of salinity tolerance. Estuaries on east coast show distinct zonation. The high salinity range on the east coast estuaries may be the principal reason for distinct zonation there. The range and force of tidal action also play a determinant role in creation and maintenance of zones as distribution of seeds or propagules is influenced by tidal action. Also, tides do influence the salinity in an estuary.

4.7.4 Mangrove Ecology

A mangrove is a plant and mangal is a plant community and habitat where mangroves thrive. They are found in tropical and sub-tropical tidal areas, and as such have a high degree of salinity. Areas where mangals occur include estuaries and marine shorelines.

Plants in mangals are diverse but all are able to exploit their habitat (the intertidal zone) by developing physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia, high salinity and frequent tidal inundation. About 110 species have been identified as belonging to the mangal. Each species has its own capabilities and solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods of coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species at any location within the intertidal zone is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, like tidal inundation and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors such as predation of plant seedlings by crabs.

http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mangroves 1. JPG

A cluster of mangroves on the banks of the Vellikeel River in Kannur District of Kerala, India

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Once established, roots of mangrove plants provide a habitat for oysters and help to impede water flow, thereby enhancing the deposition of sediment in areas where it is already occurring. Usually, the fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which are scavenged from the overlying seawater by colloidal particles in the sediments. In areas of the world where mangroves have been removed for development purposes, the disturbance of these underlying sediments often creates problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and biota.

Mangroves protect the coast from erosion, surge storms (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis. Their massive root system is efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough that its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in and is not re-suspended when the tide leaves, except for fine particles. As a result, mangroves build their own environment. Because of the uniqueness of the mangrove ecosystems and their protection against erosion, they are often the object of conservation programs including national Biodiversity Action Plans.

Despite their benefits, the protective value of mangroves is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow, so their effect on erosion can only be measured in the long-term. Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events like storm surges and tsunamis. Erosion often still occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through mangroves, just as new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment is accreting.

Mangroves support unique ecosystems, especially on their intricate root systems. The mesh of mangrove roots produces a quiet marine region for many young organisms. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, they may host a wide variety of organisms, including algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard substratum for anchoring while they filter feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy bottom as their home. Mangrove crabs improve the nutritional quality of the mangal muds for other bottom feeders by mulching the mangrove leaves. In at least some cases, export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs. The habitats also host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans. In Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, and India, mangrove plantations are grown in coastal regions for the benefits they provide to coastal fisheries and other uses. Despite replanting programs, over half of the world's mangroves have been lost in recent times.

4.7.5 Biology of Mangrooves

A wide variety of plant species can be found in mangrove habitat, but of the recognized 110 species, only about 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families constitute the "true mangroves", species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats and rarely elsewhere. Convergent evolution has resulted in many species of these plants finding similar solutions to the problems of variable salinity, tidal ranges (inundation), anaerobic soils and intense sunlight that come from living in the tropics. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangal—more than twenty species are uncommon. This is especially true in higher latitudes and in the Americas. The greatest biodiversity occurs in the mangal of New Guinea, Indonesia and Malaysia.

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A red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle

Adaptations to low oxygen

Red mangroves, which can live in the most inundated areas, prop themselves up above the water level with stilt roots and can then take in air through pores in their bark (lenticels). Black mangroves live on higher ground and make many pneumatophores (specialised root-like structures which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing) which are covered in lenticels. These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to thirty centimeters, and in some species, over three meters. There are four types of pneumatophore—stilt or prop type, snorkel or peg type, knee type, and ribbon or plank type. Knee and ribbon types may be combined with buttress roots at the base of the tree. The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate oxygen transport within the plant.

Limiting salt intake

Red mangroves exclude salt by having rather impermeable roots which are highly suberised, acting as an ultra-filtration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from the rest of the plant. Water inside the plant shows that 90%, and in some cases of high salinity, up to 97%, of the salt has been excluded at the roots. Any salt which does accumulate in the shoot is concentrated in old leaves which are then shed, as well as stored away safely in cell vacuoles. White (or grey) mangroves can secrete salts directly; they have two salt glands at each leaf base (hence their name—they are covered in white salt crystals).

Limiting water loss

Because of the limited availability of freshwater in the salty soils of the intertidal zone, mangrove plants have developed ways of limiting the amount of water that they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapour during photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. Anthony Calfo, a noted aquarium author, has observed anecdotally that a red mangrove in captivity only grows if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times a week, simulating the frequent rainstorms in the tropics.

Nutrient uptake

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The biggest problem that mangroves face is nutrient uptake. Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, there is little free oxygen. Thus anaerobic bacteria liberate nitrogen gas, soluble iron, inorganic phosphates, sulfides, and methane, which makes the soil much less nutritious and contributes to a mangrove's pungent odor. Prop root systems allow mangroves to take up gasses directly from the atmosphere, and various other nutrients, like iron, from the inhospitable soil. Gases are quite often stored directly inside the roots and processed even when the roots are submerged during high tide.

Increasing survival of offspring

In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. All mangroves have buoyant seeds suited to dispersal in water. Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangrove plants (e.g. Red Mangrove) are viviparous, i.e., their seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. Aegialitis, Acanthus, Avicennia and Aegiceras), or out through the fruit (e.g. Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Nypa) to form a propagule (a seedling ready to go), which can produce its own food via photosynthesis. When the propagule is mature it drops into the water where it can then be transported great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for weeks, months, or even over a year until they arrive in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, it will change its density so that the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to become lodged in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density so that it floats off again in search of more favorable conditions.

4.7.6 Species of Mangrove

The following listing gives the number of species of mangroves in each listed plant genus and family.

Major components

Family Genus, number of species Common name

Acanthaceae, Avicenniaceae or Verbenaceae (family allocation disputed)

Avicennia, 9 Black mangrove

CombretaceaeConocarpus, 1; Laguncularia, 11; Lumnitzera, 2

Buttonwood, White mangrove

Arecaceae Nypa, 1 Mangrove palm

Rhizophoraceae   Bruguiera, 6; Ceriops, 2; Red mangrove

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Kandelia, 1; Rhizophora, 8

Lythraceae Sonneratia, 5 Mangrove apple

Minor components

Family Genus, number of species

Acanthaceae Acanthus, 1; Bravaisia, 2

Bombacaceae Camptostemon, 2

Cyperaceae Fimbristylis, 1

Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria, 2

Lecythidaceae Barringtonia, 6

Lythraceae Pemphis, 1

Meliaceae Xylocarpus, 2

Myrsinaceae Aegiceras, 2

Myrtaceae Osbornia, 1

Pellicieraceae Pelliciera, 1

Plumbaginaceae   Aegialitis, 2

Pteridaceae Acrostichum, 3

Rubiaceae Scyphiphora, 1

Sterculiaceae Heritiera, 3

4.7.7 Geographical regions particularly in Asia

Mangroves occur in numerous areas worldwide. Mangroves occur on the south coast of Asia, throughout the Indian subcontinent, in all the southeast Asian countries, and

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on islands in the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, South China Sea and the Pacific. The mangal is particularly prevalent in the deltas of large Asian rivers.

The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in the world, located in the Ganges delta in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India. There are major mangals in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat. Other significant mangals include the Bhitarkanika Mangroves and Godavari-Krishna mangroves.

The Pichavaram Mangrove Forest near Chidambaram, South India is the second largest mangrove forest in the world. It is home to a large variety of birds—local resident, migratory resident and the pure migratory birds—and is separated from the Bay of Bengal by a lovely beach. It is one of those rare mangrove forests which has actually increased by 90% between 1986 and 2002.

There are large areas of mangroves in Oman near Muscat, in particular at Shinas, Qurm Park and Mahout Island. In Arabic, mangrove trees are known as qurm, thus the mangrove area in Oman is known as Qurm Park.

Iranian mangrove forests occur between 25°11′N to 27°52′N. These forests exist in the north part of the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea, along three Maritime Provinces in the south of Iran. These provinces respectively from southwest to southeast of Iran, include Bushehr, Hormozgan and Sistan & Balouchestan.

In Vietnam, mangrove forests grow along the southern coast, including two forests: the Can Gio Mangrove Forest biosphere reserve and the U Minh mangrove forest in the Sea and Coastal Region of Kien Giang, Ca Mau and Bac Lieu province.

Growing mangroves

Red Mangroves are the most commonly grown of all species, used particularly in Marine Aquariums in a sump to reduce proteins and other minerals in the water. People also may grow them just for their unusual appearance, either in Aquariums, or as ornamental plants, such as in Japan. In Hawaii, these plants are considered pests, while in Florida they are heavily protected.

Destruction

The United Nations Environment Program has estimated that a quarter of the destruction of mangrove forests stems from shrimp farming. Grassroots efforts to save mangroves from development are becoming more popular as the benefits of mangroves are becoming more widely known. In the Bahamas, for example, active efforts to save mangroves are occurring on the islands of Bimini and Great Guana Cay.

In popular media

The mangrove is used as a symbol in Annie Dillard's essay Sojourner due to its significance as a self-sustaining biome.

The manga series, one Piece has a forest of giant mangroves forming the Shabondy Archipelago, notable for creating a resin combined with the oxygen breathed out of

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the trees to create large bubbles used and manipulated by the local population for everything from transport to hotels.

4.8 CORAL REEF

Coral reefs are aragonite structures produced by living organisms, found in shallow, tropical marine waters with little to no nutrients in the water. High nutrient levels such as those found in runoff from agricultural areas can harm the reef by encouraging the growth of algae. In most reefs, the predominant organisms are stony corals, colonial cnidarians that secrete an exoskeleton of calcium carbonate. The accumulation of skeletal material, broken and piled up by wave action and bioeroders, produces a massive calcareous formation that supports the living corals and a great variety of other animal and plant life. Although corals are found both in temperate and tropical waters, reefs are formed only in a zone extending at most from 30°N to 30°S of the equator. Reef-forming corals do not grow at depths of over 30 m (100 ft), and temperature has less of an effect on distribution but it is generally accepted that no corals exist in waters below 18 °C.

4.8.1 Biology

The building blocks of coral reefs are the generation of reef-building , and other organisms that are composed of calcium carbonate. For example, as a coral head grows, it lays down a skeletal structure encasing each new polyp. Waves, grazing fish (such as parrotfish), sea urchins, sponges, and other forces and organisms break down the coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure. Many other organisms living in the reef community contribute their skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner. Coralline algae are important contributors to the structure of the reef in those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves (such as the reef front facing the open ocean). These algae contribute to reef-building by depositing limestone in sheets over the surface of the reef and thereby contributing also to the structural integrity of the reef.

Reef-building or hermatypic corals are only found in the photic zone (above 50 m depth), the depth to which sufficient sunlight penetrates the water for photosynthesis to occur. The coral polyps do not photosynthesize, but have a symbiotic relationship with single-celled algae called zooxanthellae; these algal cells within the tissues of the coral polyps carry out photosynthesis and produce excess organic nutrients that are then used by the coral polyps. Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water, which admits more sunlight. Indeed, the relationship is responsible for coral reefs in the sense that without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow for the corals to form impressive reef structures. Corals can get up to 90% of their nutrients from their zooxanthellae symbionts.

Corals can reproduce both sexually and asexually. An individual polyp may use both reproductive modes within its lifetime. Corals reproduce sexually by either internal or external fertilization. The reproductive cells are found on the mesentery membranes that radiate inward from the layer of tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some mature adult corals are hermaphroditic; others are exclusively male or female. A few even change sex as they grow.

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Internally fertilized eggs are brooded in the polyp for a period ranging from days to weeks. Subsequent development produces a tiny larva, known as a planula. Externally fertilized eggs develop during a synchronized spawning. Polyps release eggs and sperm into the water simultaneously. This spawning method disperses eggs over a larger area. Synchronous spawning depends on four factors: time of year, water temperature, and tidal and lunar cycles. Spawning is most successful when there is little variation between high and low tides. The less water movement there is over the reef, the better the chance that an egg will be fertilized. Ideal timing occurs in the spring, release of eggs or planula larvae usually occurs at night and is sometimes in phase with the lunar cycle (3-6 days after a full moon). The period from release to settlement lasts only a few days, but some planulae can survive afloat for several weeks (7, 14). They are vulnerable at this time to heavy predation and adverse environmental conditions. For the lucky few which survive to attach to substrate, the challenge comes from competition for food and space.

4.8.2 Formations

Coral reefs can take a variety of forms, defined in following:

Fringing reef – a reef that is directly attached to a shore or borders it with an intervening shallow channel or lagoon.

Barrier reef – a reef separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep lagoon.

Patch reef – an isolated, often circular reef, usually within a lagoon or embayment.

Apron reef – a short reef resembling a fringing reef, but more sloped; extending out and downward from a point or peninsular shore.

Bank reef – a linear or semi-circular in outline, larger than a patch reef.

Ribbon reef – a long, narrow, somewhat winding reef, usually associated with an atoll lagoon.

Atoll reef – a more or less circular or continuous barrier reef extending all the way around a lagoon without a central island.

Table reef – an isolated reef, approaching an atoll type, but without a lagoon.

4.8.3 Distribution

Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 square kilometres, with the Indo-Pacific region (including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific) accounting for 91.9% of the total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of that figure, while the Pacific including Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs only account for 7.6% of the world total.

Coral reefs are either restricted or absent from the west coast of the Americas, as well as the west coast of Africa. This is due primarily to upwelling and strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas. Corals are also restricted from off the coastline of South Asia from Pakistan to Bangladesh. They are also restricted along the coast around north-eastern South America and Bangladesh due to the release of vast quantities of freshwater from the Amazon and Ganges Rivers respectively.

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Famous coral reefs and reef areas of the world include:

The Great Barrier Reef - largest coral reef system in the world, Queensland, Australia;

The Belize Barrier Reef - second largest in the world, stretching from southern Quintana Roo, Mexico and all along the coast of Belize down to the Bay Islands of Honduras.

The New Caledonia Barrier Reef - second longest double barrier reef in the world, with a length of about 1500km.

The Andros, Bahamas Barrier Reef - third largest in the world, following along the east coast of Andros Island, Bahamas between Andros and Nassau.

The Red Sea Coral Reef - located off the coast of Egypt and Saudi Arabia.

Pulley Ridge - deepest photosynthetic coral reef, Florida

Many of the numerous reefs found scattered over the Maldives

4.8.4 Ecology and biodiversity

Coral reefs support an extraordinary biodiversity; although they are located in nutrient-poor tropical waters. The process of nutrient cycling between corals, zooxanthellae, and other reef organisms provides an explanation for why coral reefs flourish in these waters: recycling ensures that fewer nutrients are needed overall to support the community.

Cyanobacteria also provide soluble nitrates for the coral reef through the process of nitrogen fixation. Corals absorb nutrients, including inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, directly from the water, and they feed upon zooplankton that are carried past the polyps by water motion. Thus, primary productivity on a coral reef is very high, which results in the highest values per square meter, at 5-10g C m -2 day-1. Producers in coral reef communities include the symbiotic zooxanthellae, coralline algae, and various seaweeds, especially small types called turf algae, although scientists disagree about the importance of these particular organisms.

Coral reefs are home to a variety of tropical or reef fish, such as the colorful parrotfish, angelfish, damselfish and butterflyfish. Other fish groups found on coral reefs include groupers, snappers, grunts and wrasses. Over 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs. It has been suggested that the high number of fish species that inhabit coral reefs are able to coexist in such high numbers because any free living space is rapidly inhabited by the first planktonic fish larvae that occupy it. These fish then inhabit the space for the rest of their life. The species that inhabit the free space is random and has therefore been termed 'a lottery for living space'.

Reefs are also home to a large variety of other organisms, including sponges, Cnidarians (which includes some types of corals and jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including shrimp, spiny lobsters and crabs), molluscs (including cephalopods), echinoderms (including starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers), sea squirts, sea turtles and sea snakes. Aside from humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with visiting cetaceans such as dolphins being the main group. A few of these varied species feed directly on corals, while others graze on algae on the reef and participate in complex food webs.

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A number of invertebrates, collectively called cryptofauna, inhabit the coral skeletal substrate itself, either boring into the skeletons (through the process of bioerosion) or living in pre-existing voids and crevices. Those animals boring into the rock include sponges, bivalve molluscs, and sipunculans. Those settling on the reef include many other species, particularly crustaceans and polychaete worms.

Due to their vast biodiversity, many governments world-wide take measures to protect their coral reefs. In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including a Biodiversity Action Plan.

Algae and coral reef

Researchers found evidence of algae dominance in locations of healthy coral reefs. In surveys done around largely uninhabited US Pacific islands, algae consists of a large percentage of the surveyed coral locations. The algal population consists of turf algae, coralline algae, and macroalgae.

4.8.5 Threats

Human activity may represent the greatest threat to coral reefs living in Earth's oceans. In particular, pollution and over-fishing are the most serious threats to these ecosystems. Physical destruction of reefs due to boat and shipping traffic is also a problem. The live food fish trade has been implicated as a driver of decline due to the use of cyanide and disaster for peoples living in the tropics. Hughes, et al, (2003), writes that "with increased human population and improved storage and transport systems, the scale of human impacts on reefs has grown exponentially. For example, markets for fishes and other natural resources have become global, supplying demand for reef resources far removed from their tropical sources”.

Currently researchers are working to determine the degree various factors impact the reef systems. The list of factors is long but includes the oceans acting as a carbon dioxide sink, changes in Earth's atmosphere, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, biological virus, impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far flung reef systems, various pollutants, impacts of algal blooms and others. Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas and so the problem is broader than factors from land development and pollution though those are too causing considerable damage.

Land development and pollution

Extensive and poorly managed land development can threaten the survival of coral reefs. Within the last 20 years, once prolific mangrove forests, which absorb massive amounts of nutrients and sediment from runoff caused by farming and construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbors, are being destroyed. Nutrient-rich water causes fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas in suffocating amounts known as algal blooms. Coral reefs are biological assemblages adapted to waters with low nutrient content, and the addition of nutrients favors species that disrupt the balance of the reef communities. Both the loss of wetlands and mangrove habitats are considered to be significant factors affecting water quality on inshore reefs.

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Poor water quality has also been shown to encourage the spread of infectious diseases among corals.

Copper, a common industrial pollutant, has been shown to interfere with the life history and development of coral polyps. Fish Trade The hobby of keeping saltwater aquaria has experienced an increase in world popularity since the 1990s. Beyond sales of aquaria, air pumps, food, medications and other supplies, the primary product of the aquarium industry is fish. However, the world market is limited in the diversity of collected species. For example, among 4000 coral reef fish species, only 200–300 are exploited. Selection of species results from a demand for fish being highly colorful and being able to be maintained and fed in aquaria. The last point is very important in the choice of imported species.

Although a few fish species (e.g. Pomacentridae) can be reproduced in aquaria, 95% of exploited fish are directly collected in the coral environment. Intense sampling of coral reef fish, especially in South-East Asia (including Indonesia and the Philippines), has caused great damage to the environment. A major catalyst of cyanide fishing is poverty within fishing communities. In areas like the Philippines where cyanide is regularly used to catch live aquarium fish, the percentage of the population below the poverty line is 40%. In such developing countries, a fisherman might resort to such unethical practices in order to prevent his or her family from starving.

Most, 80–90%, of aquarium fish exported from the Philippines are captured with sodium cyanide. This toxic chemical is dissolved in sea water and released into fish shelters. It has a rapid narcotic effect on fish, which are then easily captured. However, most fish collected with cyanide die a few months after capture from extensive liver damage. Moreover, other fish species that are not interesting for the aquarium market also die in the field.

Dynamite fishing

Dynamite fishing is another extremely destructive method that fishermen use to harvest small fish. Sticks of dynamite, grenades, or home-made explosives are lit or activated and thrown in the water. Once the dynamite goes off the explosion brings about an underwater shockwave, causing the internal organs of fish to liquefy, killing them almost instantly. A second blast is often set off after the first to kill any larger predators that are attracted to the initial kill of the smaller fish. This method of fishing not only kills the fish within the main blast area, but also takes the lives of many reef animals that are not edible or wanted. Also, many of the fish do not float to the surface to be collected, but sink to the bottom. The blast also kills the corals in the area, eliminating the very structure of the reef, destroying the habitat for fish and other animals important for the maintenance of a healthy reef. Areas that used to be full of coral become deserts, full of coral rubble, dead fish and little else after dynamite fishing. With dynamite fishing especially around the Maldives in the Indian Ocean, have caused a vast majority of problems. With the rising sea level already the coral reefs act as a natural defence against flooding. With the dynamite fishing, the coral reefs are destroyed making the islands more vulnerable to flooding.

Bleaching

During the 1998 and 2004 El Nino weather phenomena, in which sea surface temperatures rose well above normal, many tropical coral reefs were bleached or

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killed. Some recovery has been noted in more remote locations, but global warming could negate some of this recovery in the future. High seas surface temperature (SSTs) coupled with high irradiance (light intensity), triggers the loss of zooxanthellae, a symbiotic algae, and its dinoflagellate pigmentation in corals causing coral bleaching. Zooxanthellae provide 95% of the energy to the coral host. Refer to Hoegh-Guldberg 1999 for more information.

Ocean acidification

The decreasing ocean surface pH is of increasing long-term concern for coral reefs. Increased atmospheric CO2 increases the amount of CO2 dissolved in the oceans. Carbon dioxide gas dissolved in the ocean reacts with water to form carbonic acid, resulting in ocean acidification. Ocean surface pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 since the beginning of the industrial era, and it is estimated that it will drop by a further 0.3 - 0.4 units by 2100 as the ocean absorbs more anthropogenic CO2. Under normal conditions, the conditions for calcium carbonate production are stable in surface waters since the carbonate ion is at supersaturating concentrations. However, as ocean pH falls, so does the concentration of this ion, and when carbonate becomes under-saturated, structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution. Research has already found that corals experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated CO2.

African and Asian dust outbreaks

Dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge moves into the Caribbean and Florida during the warm season as the ridge builds and moves northward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can also be attributed to a global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts across Korea, Japan, and the Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands. Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year; however, the flux of dust is greater during positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation. Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s. Studies have shown that corals can incorporate dust into their skeletons as identified from dust from the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa in Indonesia in the annular bands of the reef-building coral Montastraea annularis from the Florida reef tract. The relative abundance of chemical elements, particularly metals, has been used to distinguish soil derived from volcanic dust from mineral dust.

Destruction worldwide

Southeast Asian coral reefs are at risk from damaging fishing practices (such as cyanide and blast fishing), overfishing, sedimentation, pollution and bleaching. A variety of activities, including education, regulation, and the establishment of marine protected areas are under way to protect these reefs. Indonesia, for example has nearly 33,000 square miles (85,000 km²) of coral reefs. Its waters are home to a third of the world’s total corals and a quarter of its fish species. Indonesia's coral reefs are located in the heart of the Coral Triangle and have been victim to destructive fishing, unregulated tourism, and bleaching due to climatic changes. Data from 414 reef monitoring stations throughout Indonesia in 2000 found that only 6% of Indonesia’s coral reefs are in excellent condition, while 24% are in good condition, and

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approximately 70% are in poor to fair condition (2003 The Johns Hopkins University).

On September 24, 2007, Reef Check (the world’s largest reef conservation organization) stated that only 5% of Philippines 27,000 square-kilometers of coral reef are in “excellent condition” : Tubbataha Reef, Marine Park in Palawan, Apo Island in Negros Oriental, Apo Reef in Puerto Galera, Mindoro, and Verde Island Passage off Batangas. Philippine coral reefs is 2nd largest in Asia.

General estimates show approximately 10% of the coral reefs around the world are already dead. Problems range from environmental effects of fishing techniques, described above, to ocean acidification. Coral bleaching is another manifestation of the problem and is showing up in reefs across the planet.

4.8.6 Protection and restoration

Inhabitants of Ahus Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. While line fishing is permitted, net and spear fishing are restricted based on cultural traditions. The result is that both the biomass and individual fish sizes are significantly larger in these areas than in places where fishing is completely unrestricted.

It is estimated that about 60% of the world’s reefs are at risk due to destructive, human-related activities. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia, where an enormous 80% of reefs are considered endangered.

Organisations as Coral Cay, Counterpart and the Foundation of the peoples of the South Pacific are currently undertaking coral reef/atoll restoration projects. They are doing so using simple methods of plant propagation. Other organisations as Practical Action have released informational documents on how to set-up coral reef restoration to the public.

Marine Protected Areas

One method of coastal reef management that has become increasingly prominent is the implementation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). MPAs have been introduced in Southeast Asia and elsewhere around the world to attempt to promote responsible fishery management and habitat protection. Much like the designation of national parks and wild life refuges, potentially damaging extraction activities are prohibited. The objectives of MPAs are both social and biological, including restoration of coral reefs, aesthetic maintenance, increased and protected biodiversity, and economic benefits. Conflicts surrounding MPAs involve lack of participation, clashing views and perceptions of effectiveness, and funding.

Reef Restoration Technology

Low voltage electrical currents applied through seawater crystallizes dissolved minerals onto steel structures. The resultant white carbonate (aragonite) is the same mineral that makes up natural coral reefs. Corals rapidly colonize and grow at faster than normal rates onto these coated structures. The change in the environment

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produced by electrical currents also accelerates formation and growth of both chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other shell-bearing organisms. Within the vicinity of the anode and cathode is a high pH environment which inhibits the growth of filamentous and fleshy algae, which compete with coral for space. This, and the increased growth rates cease when the mineral accretion process stops.

The effects of mineral accretion is, however, only temporary. During the process the settled corals have an increased growth rate, and size, and density, but after the process is complete the corallites are comparable to naturally growing corallites in growth rate and density, and are about the same size or slightly smaller.

4.8.7 Reefs in the past

Throughout the Earth history, from a few million years after hard skeletons were developed by marine organisms, there were almost always reefs formed by reef-building organisms in the ancient seas. The times of maximum development were in the Middle Cambrian (513-501 Ma), Devonian (416-359 My) and Carboniferous (359-299 Ma), due to Order Rugosa extinct corals, and Late Cretaceous (100-65 Ma) and all Neogene (23 Ma - present), due to Order Scleractinia corals.

Not all reefs in the past were formed by corals: in the Early Cambrian (542-513 Ma) resulted from calcareous algae and archaeocyathids (small animals with conical shape, probably related to sponges) and in the Late Cretaceous (100 -65 Ma), when there also existed reefs formed by a group of bivalves called rudists; one of the valves formed the main conical structure and the other, much smaller valve acted as a cap.

4.9 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you would have achieved the objectives stated earlier in the unit. Let us recall what we have discussed so far.

1. India is one of the 12-megadiversity countries in the world. Around 1,27,000 species of microorganisms, plants and animals have been described in the country till date.

2. India has had a long history of conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. National strategies and plans for the conservation, sustainable and equitable use of biological diversity are rooted in the long and rich spiritual and cultural traditions of the country.

3. Environmental protection and conservation of natural resources emerged as key national priorities in India in the wake of the 1972 Stockholm Conference on Human Environment.

4. Between the Stockholm Conference and the Rio Earth Summit in June 1992, India developed an organisational structure and a legal and policy framework for the protection of environment and wildlife in the country, keeping in mind the need to simultaneously address the issues of poverty alleviation and natural resource conservation.

5. A Department of Environment was established in 1980, and was made a full fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985. Until 1980, the

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environment and forests of India were the concern of the Department of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Agriculture, respectively.

6. In June 1992, the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development was brought out by to lay down guidelines for integrating environmental considerations into India’s process of development.

7. India is one of the earliest signatories of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and became Party in early 1994. India has taken important steps in developing new strategies and further strengthening the existing strategies for effective conservation and sustainable use of its biological diversity. Government, Non-Government institutions and local communities have evolved various systems and approaches for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.

8. After India became Party to CBD, held wide-ranging consultations with sector-al Ministries and Departments of the Government of India, State Governments, experts, technical institutions and other stakeholders to delineate policies and programmes for further action, in order to consolidate, adapt and augment existing strategies for conservation and sustainable use and initiate new programmes based on a sound co-ordinated policy for future actions. The result of these consultations has been a framework National Policy and Action Strategy on Biological Diversity which is being further consolidated and pursued for assisted project to consolidate and detail this is visualised.

9. In - situ conservation through a system of Protected Areas included 96 National Parks and 510 Wildlife Sanctuaries covering a total area of 156, 000 sq. km. The total area covered by PAs has been increased since 1993. There areas representing the major biogeographic provinces of India and covering more than 5% of the total land area, The total extent of Protected Areas include 5 designated as World Heritage Sites, 15 Biosphere Reserves and 6 Ramsar sites, besides 28 Tiger Reserves.

10. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has initiated since 1993 a comprehensive ten-year programme in southern India across the States of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra for in situ conservation of the medicinal plants diversity in the Western and Eastern Ghats. This medicinal plants conservation network is aimed at conserving the natural resources used by traditional communities.

11. The approach of identifying and actively involving stakeholders in natural resource management is being seen as an effective and essential strategy for conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. The framework National Policy and Action Strategy on Biological Diversity of the Government of India recognises the importance of involving the stakeholders including women, in conservation policies and programmes.

12. Government is developing a national legislation to regulate access to biological resources, sustainable use of these resources and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of their use. The legislation will help achieve the three basic objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity viz. conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits derived from such use. A draft Plant Varieties Act has been prepared for consideration by the Ministry of Agriculture, which inter recognises and seeks to protect the interest of the traditional rural and fanning communities, who have made significant

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contributions to the conservation and enhancement of genetic diversity particularly at the intra-specific level.

13. India’s policies are designed to make the conservation of nature and natural resources the concern of all citizens of the country. Under the system of democratic of responsibilities enshrined in constitution amendment No.73 of 1993, local bodies consisting of elected representatives, one third of whom are women, have been entrusted with the responsibility of safeguarding the local environmental capital stocks. It is hoped these steps will lead to biodiversity conservation and enhancement becoming a people’s movement.

4.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS AND THE KEY

Tick the correct answer :

1. The ‘Wildlife Protection Act’ was passed in :

(a) 1949 (b) 1972 (c) 1912 (d) 1991

2. “MAB’ stands for :

(a) Man, Antibiotic and Bacteria (b) Man and Biotic Community

(c) Man and Biosphere (d) Meyer, Anderson and Bisby.

3. Which is characteristic component of mangrove vegetation ?

(a) Ficus religiosa (b) Rhizophora mangi

(c) Mangifera indica (d) Prosopis juliflora

4. The term ‘Biosphere’ is used for the zone of earth where life exists :

(a) On the lithosphere surface

(b) In the hydrosphere

(c) In the lithosphere and hydrosphere

(d) In the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere

5. World environment day is :

(a) 5 June (b) 14 Nov. (c) 2 oct (d) 28 Feb

Key :

1. (b) 19722. (c) Man and Biosphere

3. (d) Prosopis juliflora

4. (d) In the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere

5. (a) 5 June

4.11 ASSIGNMENTS / ACTIVITIES

It is compulsory for every student to complete an assignment/ activity/ project work from any known prospects of conservation of biological diversity espeially in-situ conservation. Explain the following (any one):

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1. Biological wealth of India and its conservation masurements2. Wildlife of India

3. Wildlife management with special reference to India

4. Protected Areas network in India

5. UNESCO and Biosphere Reserve Programme

4.12 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Agarwal A (1992). Jhum : Is there a way out? The price of forests. CSE, New Delhi.

Anonymous (2007). List of Protected Areas. An updated source of the Protected Areas list is the National Wildlife Database Cell. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.

Bloom DE (1995). International Public Opinion on the Environment. Science 269: 354-357.

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