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BIOLOGY PREAMBLEThis is an examination syllabus drawn up from the curricula of the member countries ofthe West African Examinations Council. It should be used alongside the appropriateteaching syllabus(es) of the country where the candidates are domiciled.This examination syllabus is divided into three sections: Sections A, B and C. Section Ais for all candidates, Section B is for candidates in Ghana only and Section C is forcandidates in Nigeria, Sierra Leone The Gambia and Liberia.AIMS AND OBJECTIVESThis syllabus is designed to assess candidates’1 .

2.

understanding of the structure and functions of living organisms as well asappreciation of nature;acquisition of adequate laboratory and field skills in order to carry out andevaluate experiments and projects in Biology;

3. acquisition of necessary scientific skills for example observing, classifyingand interpreting biological data;

4. acquisition of the basic relevant knowledge in Biology needed for futureadvanced studies in biological sciences;

5.6.

acquisition of scientific attitudes for problem solving;ability to apply biological principles in everyday life in matters that affectpersonal, social, environmental, community health and economic problems;7. awareness of the existence of interrelationships between biology and otherscientific disciplines.

SCHEME OF EXAMINATION

There will be three papers: Papers 1, 2 and 3, all of which must be taken. Papers 1 and 2will be a composite paper to be taken at one sitting.

PAPER 1: Will consist of fifty multiple-choice objective questions drawnfrom Section A of the syllabus (the section of the syllabus whichis common to all countries). It will carry 50 marks and last for 50minutes. 1


PAPER 2: Will consist of six essay questions drawn from the entire syllabus.The paper will be put into three sections, Sections A, B and C.Section A: Will consist of four questions drawn from Section A ofthe syllabus.Section B: Will be for candidates in Ghana only and will be drawnfrom Section B of the syllabus (ie the section of the syllabusperculiar to Ghana). It will consist of short-structured questions.Section C: Will be for candidates in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, The

Gambia and Liberia and will be drawn from Section C of thesyllabus (ie the section of the syllabus containing material for thosecountries only). It will also consist of short-structured questions.Candidates will be expected to answer two questions from SectionA and all the short-structured questions from either Section B orSection C.Each question in Section A will carry 20 marks while thecompulsory short-structured questions in Sections B and C willcarry 30 marks. The total score will be 70 marks. The paper shalltake 1 hour 40 minutes.PAPER 3: Will be a practical test (for school candidates) or a test of practicalwork (for private candidates) lasting 2 hours and consisting of threesections: Sections A, B and C.Section A: This will consist of two compulsory questions drawnfrom Section A of the syllabus, each carrying 25 marks.Section B: This will be for candidates in Ghana only. It willconsist of one question drawn from Section B of the syllabus andwill carry 30 marks.Section C: This will be for candidates in Nigeria, Sierra Leone,The Gambia and Liberia. It will consist of one question drawnfrom Section C of the syllabus and will carry 30 marks.Candidates will be expected to answer all the questions in

SectionA and one question in either Section B or C. The paper will carry atotal score of 80 marks.

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DETAILED SYLLABUS

CONTENTS

SECTION A(For all candidates)

NOTES

A. Concept of Living1. Classification

Classification of objects into living and non-living, giving examples of each group.Viruses should be mentioned as a linkbetween living and non living things.

(a) Living and non-living things

(b) Classification of livingthings into Kingdoms:Monera, Protoctista (Protista),Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.

Kingdom Monera (Prokaryotes), single-celled, motile or non-motile organismswithout definite nucleus e.g. bacteria andblue-green algae.Major characteristics of the major phyla ofKingdoms Protoctista and Fungi.Kingdom Protista (Eukaryotes), single-celled,motile or non-motile organisms. Cellstructure complex with definite nucleus e.g.Chlamydomonas, Amoeba.Major phyla of Kingdom Protoctista include:Rhizopoda, Zoomastigina, Apicomplexa,Ciliophora, Euglenophyta, Oomycota,Chlorophyta, Rhodophyta and Phaeophyta.

Kingdom Fungi (Eukaryotes), mainly non-motile organisms composed of hyphaecontaining nuclei e.g. moulds, mushroomsand Rhizopus.Major phyla of Kingdom Fungi include:Zygomycota, Ascomycota andBasidiomycota.Kingdom Plantae (Eukaryotes), mainlymulticellular non-motile organisms whichcontain chlorophyll that enable them tophotosynthesize e.g. mosses, ferns, pines, oilpalms and yam plants.Characteristics of the major divisions andclasses: Bryophyta (Hepaticae, Musci),Lycopodophyta, Filicinophyta,

Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta andAngiospermophyta (Monocotyledoneae and

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Dicotyledoneae).Kingdom Animalia (Eukaryotes),multicellular motile organisms that feed onother organisms e.g. corals, worms, insects,snails, fishes, frogs, snakes, monkeys cows.Characteristics of the major phyla and classesof Kingdom Animalia.The external features of the followingorganisms should be mentioned: cockroach,butterfly, Tilapia, toad/frog, lizard, domesticfowl/pigeon.

(c) Differences between plants and

animals.2. Organization of life

(a) Levels of organization(i) cell (single-celled

organisms):Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium

The examples should be used to illustratedifferentiation and specialization inorganisms.(ii) Tissue: Hydra

(iii) Organ (storageorgan) bulb, rhizome and heart.

(iv) System/Organ System: Inmammals, flowering plants -reproductive system, excretory systemetc.

(b) Complexity of organizationin higher organisms:advantages and

The significance of different levels oforganization including volume/surface arearatio should be mentioned.disadvantages

.

3. Forms in which living cells exist:

The structure of these organisms in relation tothe forms of existence should be studied toillustrate dependence and interdependence.

(a) Single and free-living:Amoeba, Paramecium,Euglena, andChlamydomonas

4


(b)(c)

(d)

Colony: Volvox

Filament: SpirogyraPart of a living organism:Cheek cells, onion root tipcells and epidermis of fleshyleaves.

Distinguish groups of cells that form tissuesfrom those that form colonies or filaments.

4. (a) Cell structure and functions of cell

components.Cell structure should include: Cell wall, cellmembrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, cytoplasmicorganelles: mitochondria, lysosomes,chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum,ribosomes, centrosomes, Golgi bodies,chromosomes. The function performed byorganelles should be known.

(b) Similarities and differences between

plant and animal cells.5.

6.

The Cell and its environment: Physical andBiophysical processes.

The significance of these processes should bementioned as factors that affect cell activitiesin its environment.

(a)(b)(c)

diffusionosmosisactive transport

Haemolysis, plasmolysis, turgidity andcrenation should be mentioned.

Properties and functions of the living cell(a) Nutrition

These should be mentioned as processesoccurring within living cells.

(i) Autotrophic(photosynthesis)

Nutrition in Euglena, Chlamydomonas andSpirogyra should be mentioned.(ii) Heterotrophic

(holozoic) Nutrition in Amoeba and Paramecium shouldbe mentioned.(b) Cellular

respiration A simplified outline of the chemicalprocesses involved in glycolysis and Kreb'scycle; Reference should be made to the roleof ATP.

Definition and processes of:(i) aerobic respiration(ii) anaerobic respiration(iii) energy release

The importance of anaerobic respiration infood processing should be mentioned.

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(c) Excretion(i) Excretion in single-celled aquatic

organisms. Diffusion by body surfaceand by contractile vacuole.

(ii) Waste products of metabolism. Reference should be made to carbon

dioxide,water and ammonia as examples of wasteproducts.

(d) Growth

(i) Basis of growth - cell division(mitosis), enlargement anddifferentiation.(ii) Aspects of growth:Increase in dry weight, irreversible

increase in size and length and increasein number of cells.

(iii) Regions of fastest growth in

plants.Observation of root tip and shoot tip arerequired.(iv) Influence of growth hormones

andauxins.

Regulation of growth by hormones should bementioned.(v) Growth curvatures

(Tropisms) Types of tropisms should be demonstrated.

Microscopic examination of the differentregions of growth and development: region ofcell division, elongation, differentiation andmaturation.

(e)

(f)

Development: Enlargementand differentiation.

Processes that result in primary and secondarygrowth.Movement

(i) Organelles for movement: cilia andflagella,(ii) Cyclosis.

(g) Reproduction:Types of reproduction.

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(i) Asexual: fission, budding andvegetative propagation.

Prepared slides of:(a) fission in

Paramecium(b) budding in yeast and Chlamydomonas;

should be observed and drawn.(ii) Sexual: Conjugation, formation ofmale and female gametes(gametogenesis), fusion of gametesfertilization)

Prepared slides of conjugation inParamecium and Spirogyra should bestudied. The process of meiosis should bementioned.

7. (a) Tissues and supporting systems: Skeleton

and supporting systems in animals:The location and arrangement of skeletal andsupporting tissues in animals should be

(i) Biological significance. mentioned. Candidates should be familiar

withthe general plan of mammalian skeleton and thedifferent types of joints. They should be able toidentify, draw, label and state the functions ofthe individual bones listed in the contentcolumn. Detailed structure of the skull will notbe required. Histological structure of bones andcartilages will also not be required.

(ii) Skeletal materials, e.g. bone,cartilage and chitin.

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

Types of skeleton:exoskeleton, endoskeleton andhydrostatic skeleton.

Bones of the vertebralcolumn, girdles and long bones ofthe appendicular skeleton.

Mechanism of support in animals.

(vi) Functions of skeleton in animals:Protection, support, locomotion andrespiratory movement.

Candidates should be able to explain how thesefunctions are performed. The relationship ofskeleton and muscles during movement shouldbe used to illustrate the different functions ofthe skeleton.

(b) Different types of supporting tissues in plants. The different types of supporting tissues:

turgidparenchyma, collenchyma, xylem (wood)sclerenchyma should be studied.

(i) Main features of supporting tissuesin plants. Candidates should be able to cut and

draw thelow power of the T.S. of stem and root of aherbaceous plant and label the different tissues;epidermis, cortex and stele.

(ii) Functions of supporting tissues inplants: strength, rigidity (resistanceagainst the forces of the wind andwater), flexibility and resilience.

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8. Transport System:

(a) Need for transport:(i) surface area/volume ratio.(ii) substances have to move greater

distances.Source of materials and forms in which they aretransported and where they are transported toshould be studied.Media of transport: cytoplasm in cells, cell sapor latex in most plants and body fluid ininvertebrates.(b) Transport in

animals. Candidates should be familiar with the generalcirculatory system. Open circulatory systems ininvertebrates. The names of the blood vesselsresponsible for transporting excretory products,gases, digested food and other nutrients shouldbe mentioned.

(i) Structure of the heart, arteries,

veins and capillaries.

(ii) Composition and function ofblood and lymph.

(iii) Materials for transport:excretory products, gases,digested food, and othernutrients.(c) Transport in

plants(i) Uptake and movement of water

and mineral salts in plants. Description of uptake of water and mineralsalts from the soil into a plant. Movementof water and mineral salts through the plant.Experiments using eosin solution to showwater and mineral salts uptake.

(ii) TranslocationMovement of organic materials from leavesto roots. Basic theories (Pressure flowhypothesis and cytoplasmic streaming)underlying translocation.Ringing experiment to demonstrate thattransport of synthesized organic nutrientsoccurs through the phloem.

(iii) Transpiration

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Advantages and disadvantages oftranspiration. Types of transpiration.Environmental factors affecting transpiration.Determination of the rate of transpiration.

(iv) Movement of water to

the apex of trees andherbs.

Physiological factors affecting the rise ofwater in the xylem: Root pressure,transpiration, cohesion- tensionmechanism, adhesion, water potentialgradient. Experiments to measure the rate oftranspiration.9. Respiratory

System:(a) Body surface: cutaneous, gills and lungs.

Characteristics of respiratory surfaces in thesesystems should be studied. Respiratory organsof insects should be mentioned.

Candidates should be able to observe, draw andlabel the respiratory organs of a bony fish (e.g.Tilapia) and a small mammal (e.g. rat)(b) Mechanisms of gaseous

exchange infish, toad, mammals and plants.

Respiratory movements in these animals shouldbe mentioned. The mechanisms of opening andclosing of stomata should be mentioned.10. Excretory Systems and Mechanisms

Types of excretory systems: Kidney, stomataand lenticels

Characteristics of excretory organs in thesesystems should be studied. Candidatesshould observe, draw and label the excretoryorgans of a small mammal (e.g. rat).Explanation of the concept of excretion inplants. Excretory products of plants (water,carbon dioxide, oxygen, alkaloids, tannins,gums, resins and acids) should be mentioned.

11. Regulation of Internal Environment

(Homeostasis)Osmoregulation, excretion and maintenance ofacid-base balance should be mentioned. Theconditions that affect functions of the kidneysuch as the water and salt content of the blood,environmental temperature should also bementioned.

(a) Kidney: Structure and functions

Excretory products such as urea, water, salts,uric acid should be mentioned.

(b) Liver:

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Functions of the liver.

Candidates should be able to identify the liver;and its position relative to the gall bladder, bileduct, pancreas, duodenum and stomach.

(c) The skin:

Structure and function.

Candidates should observe, draw and label themammalian skin. The regulation of internalenvironment by the skin should be emphasized.

12. Hormonal Coordination(a) Animal

hormones:Site of secretion, functions andeffects of over and under-secretion.

Endocrine glands: pituitary, thyroid, adrenal,pancreas, gonads and their secretions should bementioned. The stages in the metamorphosisof toad and the role of thyroxine should bementioned.

(b) Plant hormones

The effects of auxins on lateral buddevelopment, leaf fall and initiation ofadventitious roots should be mentioned.Reference to crop harvesting, growth and weedcontrol should be made.

13. Nervous Coordination

(a) The central nervous system(i) Components of

thecentral nervous system

(ii) Parts of the brain and theirfunctions; cerebrum, cerebellum,medulla oblongata, hypothalamus Candidates should be able to locate the positionand their functions

of the brain and spinal cord in a dissectedvertebrate and identify the various regions of

(iii) Structure and function of the Spinal the brain.

Cord.(b) Peripheral Nervous

System.(i) Somatic Nervous

System(ii) Autonomic nervous

system.Functions of the sympathetic andparasympathetic systems only.

(iii) Structure and functions of theneurone. Candidates should observe, draw and

label aneurone from a slide.

(iv) Classification of neurones.

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Afferent (sensory), efferent (motor) andintermediate neurones should be mentioned

(c) Types of nervous actions

(i)(ii)

(iii)

The reflex arcReflex and voluntary actions Candidates should perform experiments

toillustrate reflex actions such as blinking of theeyes, knee jerk and withdrawal of hand fromhot objects.

Differences between reflex andvoluntary actions.

(iv) Conditioned reflex and its role onbehaviour.

Candidates should be able to enumerateconditioned reflexes such as salivation,driving a car, walking and swimming.

14. Sense Organs: Structure and function of

the(a) Eye.

Ear.

Candidates should examine the mammalian eyenoting the shape, colour and positions of theoptic muscle and optic nerve.

(b)Mention should be made of eye defects andtheir corrections.

15 (a) Reproductive system of mammals(i) Structure and function of male and

female reproductive systems.(ii) Differences between male and female

reproductive organs.Candidates should examine and draw dissectedmale and female small mammals showing thereproductive organs. They should also drawsperm and ovum from prepared slides.

(iii) Structure of the gametes(sperm and

ovum)(iv) Fertilization, development of

theembryo and birth.

(v) Birth control

Explanation of the different methods of birthcontrol.

(b) Metamorphosis in insects, life histories of

butterfly and cockroach.

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These examples should be used to illustratecomplete and incomplete metamorphosis. Theperiod it takes to develop from egg to adultshould be studied. The different stages in thelife history of butterfly and cockroach should bedrawn and labelled.

(c) Comparison of reproductionin fish, amphibian, reptile, birdand mammal.

Reference should be made to the method offertilization, number of eggs and parental care.

(d) Reproduction in floweringplants

(i) Arrangements of floral parts of anamed insect-pollinated flower and anamed wind-pollinated flower.(ii) Structure and function of the

male andfemale parts of a flower.

(e) Pollination in Plants(i) Types of pollination(ii) Features of cross-pollinated and self-

pollinated flowersNamed examples should be used to illustrate thetypes of pollination.(iii) Agents of

Pollination(iv) Kinds of placentation: axile, marginal

and parietal. The features of the flower should be relatedto the agents of pollination.(f) Process of development

ofzygote in flowering plants:Fertilization. Pollen grains germinated in sucrose

solutionshould be observed, prepared slides or chartsshowing various stages of embryodevelopment in flowering plants should beobserved and drawn.

(g) (i) Types of fruits (classification).(ii) Structure of fruits Fruits should be classified into dry and

fleshyfruits.The internal structure of a leguminous fruit,orange, maize and tomato should beexamined and drawn.

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(h) Dispersal of fruits and seeds: Agents of

dispersalThe following fruits should be studied asexamples to show the features that aid theirrespective methods of dispersal. Sunflower(achene) Combretum, cotton, Crotalaria/bean,Desmodium, Bidens sp. Tridax sp. and Coconut.

Distinguishing differences between a fruit and aseed should be mentioned.

B. Plant and Animal Nutrition

1. Plant Nutrition(a) Photosynthesi

s:(i) Process of photosynthesis

and itschemical equation

Biochemical nature of photosynthesis,photoactivation of chlorophyll resulting in theconversion of light energy to ATP and thereduction of NADP (Biochemical detail is notrequired)

(ii) Light and dark reactions

(iii) Materials and conditionsnecessary for photosynthesis(iv) Evidence of photosynthesis The translocating and storage of excess

food asa result of photosynthesis should be mentioned.Test for starch in green leaves should be carriedout.

(b) Mineral requirement of plants Fate of the products of photosynthesis

shouldbe mentioned.

(i) Mineral nutrition: Macro and

micro-nutrientsMacro elements should include: carbon,hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium,phosphorus, magnesium, sulphur, calcium andiron. The micro elements should include:copper, manganese, zinc and boron.

(ii) Soil and atmosphere as sources of

mineral elements.

Candidates should distinguish between foodproduced and mineral elements.

2. Animal Nutrition

(a) Food substances; classes and sources

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(b) Balanced diet and its importance

Local examples as sources of food substanceshould be given. Reference should be made tofood relationship between plants and animals.Importance of each class of food in a balanceddiet should be stressed. Candidates shouldrelate the idea of balanced diet to their own diet.Malnutrition and its effects on humans should bementioned.

(c ) Food tests

(d) Digestive enzymes:Classes, characteristics and functions

Tests for starch, reducing sugar, protein, fats andoil should be carried out.Candidates should perform experiments toshow that ptyalin in saliva changes cookedstarch to reducing sugar.Candidates should know source, site of action,substrate and effect of each digestive enzyme.Experiments to show the characteristics ofenzymes, including effects of pH, temperatureand concentration should be carried out.

(e) Modes of Nutrition(i) Autotrophic: Photosynthesis,(ii) Heterotrophic: holozoic, parasitic,

symbiotic and saprophytic.

(f) Alimentary System: Named examples should be used to

illustratedifferent modes of nutrition.Alimentary tract of different

animals.Comparison should be made using dissectednamed bird and mammal.Description and functions of parts of thealimentary canal and modification of parts toreflect their digestive functions should bementioned.

(g) Dental Formula

Meaning of dental formula. Determination ofthe dental formulae of mammals.Arrangements of teeth in the jaw bones of 14


(h) Feeding in protozoa and mammals

herbivores, carnivores and of humans.Importance of dental care in humans.C. Basic Ecological

Concepts Reference should be made to feeding habits inprotozoa and mammals.

1. Ecosystem:

Components of the ecosystem and sizes(a) Ecological components:

environment, biosphere,habitat, population, bioticcommunity and ecosystem.

Examples and explanation are required.

Importance of ecological factors common toall habitat should be mentioned. Theimportance of ecological factors topopulation of animals and plants should bestressed.

(b) Components of the

ecosystem:Biotic and abiotic2. Ecological

factors:Ecological factors in aquatic andterrestrial ecosystems

3. Simple Measurement of EcologicalFactors.

Candidates should measure some of theecological factors including humidity,temperature, wind speed, rainfall and lightintensity.

(a) Physical factors:Climatic, topographic andgaseous.

(b) Edaphic factors: Chemicaland physical composition,moisture content and soiltexture.

Candidates should be able to classify organismsas producers, consumers and decomposers.

4. Food webs and trophic levels(a) Autotrophs and

Heterotrophs

(i) Producers: autotrophs

(ii) Consumers: heterotrophs

(iii) Decomposers

Aquatic and terrestrial producers, consumersand decomposers should be known.

(b) Trophic levels energy

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relationships

(i) Food chain

Candidates should illustrate food relationshipsin a food chain and food web using specificexamples.

(ii) Food web

(c) Energy flow

(i) Food/Energy relationship in aquatic and

terrestrial environment.(ii) Pyramid of energy and Pyramid of

numbers.

Non-cyclic nature of energy transfer should bementioned.

(d) Decomposition in nature Candidates should be able to

construct andexplain pyramid of energy, pyramid ofnumbers and point out the major differencesbetween them.

(i) Decomposers:(micro and macro-decomposers)(ii) Gaseous products Candidates should observe

demonstrations toshow that carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide,heat energy are released during decomposition.

(iii)Role of decomposers

6. Ecological Management:(a) Biological Associations

Type of associations: Parasitism,symbiosis, commensalism andsaprophytism.

Features of biological importance associatedwith each type should be mentioned. Namedexamples should be used to illustrate theseassociations.

(b) Adaptation of organisms to

habitats.

Adaptations of plants and animals toenvironmental conditions with particular

(c) Pollution of the atmosphere

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reference to differences in habitats should bementioned.

(i) Nature, names, sources and effectsof air

pollutants.

Examples of air pollutants should includecarbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, oxides ofnitrogen, smoke, smog, dust and particlesreleased into the air from factories.

(ii) Effect of noise

Health hazards and damage to the environmentshould be emphasized.(d) Water and Soil Pollution

Type and effects of pollutants.

Harmful effect of noise from generators,aeroplane and electronic sound gadgets, e.t.c.should be mentioned.Water and soil pollutants to be studied include:synthetic substances (detergent), insecticides,artificial fertilizers, herbicides, sewage,domestic and industrial wastes, crude oil anddecaying organic matter. The health hazards andharmful effects of water and soil pollutants onorganisms should also be mentioned. Mentionshould be made of oil spillage and its effects.

7. Ecology of population(a) Ecological

succession(i) Structural changes in species composition,

variety or diversity and increase innumbers.

(ii) General characteristics and outcomes of

succession(b)

(c)

Primary succession.Succession in terrestrial and aquatichabitats.

Candidates should study succession in anabandoned farmland, lawn, and in a pond over aperiod of time to discover a definite sequenceof colonization by plants.

Secondary succession, climaxof the succession: characteristicof a stable ecosystem. 17


Reference should be made to population.(d) Factors that affect population

size: natality, mortality,emigration, immigration, foodshortage, predation,competition anddiseases.

(e) Preservation and storage of foods

Description of various methods of preservingand storing food. The use of ionizingradiations (x-ray, etc) should bementioned. Explanation of the biologicalbasis of preserving and storing food. Localmethods of preserving food such as drying,salting and smoking should be mentioned.

(f) The life of selected insects;(i) Weevils and cotton strainers.

External features of weevils and cottonstainers, their mode of life, adaptationto their habitats and their economicimportance.

(ii) Control of pests

8. Microorganisms: Man and health(a) Carriers of microorganisms

Various methods of pest control: physical,chemical biological, etc; and their advantagesand disadvantages should be mentioned.

(b) Microorganisms in action(i) Beneficial effects in nature, medicine

Effects of micro-organisms on our bodiesshould be mentioned.and

industries.Examples of carriers: housefly; mosquitoes;tsetsefly should be mentioned.

(ii) Harmful effects of microorganisms,diseases caused by microorganisms:cholera, measles, malaria and ring worm.

Candidates should perform experiments onfermentation, curdling of milk etc. to illustratethe beneficial uses of microorganisms.(c) Towards better

Health(i) Methods of .controlling harmfulmicroorganisms: high temperature,antibiotics, antiseptics, high salinity and

The diseases should be studied with respect tothe causative organisms, mode of transmission 18


dehydration.

and symptoms.

(ii) Ways of controlling the vectors.

Effects of these methods on the micro-organisms should be mentioned.

(d) Public Health:The importance of the following towards themaintenance of good health practices:

Methods of controlling housefly andmosquito should be studied.(i) Refuse and sewage

disposal. Candidates should be familiar with the propermethods of carrying out these public healthpractices in their community.

(ii) Immunization, vaccinationand inoculation (control of diseases).

Various forms of immunization should bementioned.Explanation of the terms immunization,vaccination and inoculation. Candidatesshould be able to show how these terms arerelated.

D. Conservation of Natural Resources:1. Resources to be conserved: soil, water,wildlife, forest and minerals.2. Ways of ensuring conservation

The meaning and need for conservation ofnatural resources should be mentioned.Problems of conservation should bementioned in relation to economic and socialdevelopment, overgrazing and poaching.The following should be studied:(a) agencies responsible

forconservationE. Variation in Population (b) conservation

education(c) conservation laws1. Morphological variations in the

physicalappearance of individuals

(d) benefits of conservation.

Variation can be classified into morphologicaland physiological or continuous anddiscontinuous.

(a) size, height and weight

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(b) colour (skin, eye, hair coat ofanimals) Candidates are required to measure

heights andweights of pupils of the same age group andplot graphs of frequency distribution of theheight and weight.

(c) finger prints

Observe and record various skin colour, colourpattern of some animals (cow, goat, rabbits),colour pattern of plants (maize cob and leaves).

2. Physiological Variations

(a) Ability to roll

tongueMake finger prints and classify them intoarches, loops, whorls and compounds.(b) Ability to taste

phenylthiocarbamide (PTC)

(c) Blood groups (ABO)

classification)F. Biology of Heredity (Genetics)1. Genetic terminologies

2. Transmission and expression of characteristics in

organisms.Definition of the following basic geneticterms such as gene, genotype, phenotype,dominant, recessive, allele, locus, test cross,and back cross.

(a) Hereditary variation

Reference should be made to characters thatcan be transmitted from generation togeneration such as colour of skin, eye, hair,blood group, sickle cell, shape of face andnose.

(b) Mendel's work in genetics

(i) Mendel’s experiments

Mendelian traits

Mendel's experiment with red and whiteflowered peas should be mentioned.(ii)

(iii)Mendel’s experiment on monohybrid anddihybrid inheritance should be mentioned.Mendelian laws

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3. Chromosomes: The basis of heredity

(a) Structure

Reference should be made to dominant andrecessive characters in plants and animals.

Candidates should observe chromosomes inpermanently prepared slides of cells and roottips of onion or lily. Candidates should studythe structure of DNA and gene replication usingmodels and charts.

(b) Processhereditary characters from parentsto offspring.

of transmissionof

4. Probability in genetics (Hybrid formation).

Segregation of genes at meiosis andrecombination at fertilization should be used toexplain the process of transmission ofhereditary characters from parents to offspring.

5. Linkage, sex determination and sex linked

characters.Computation of probability is not required.

6. Application of the principles of heredity in:

Explanation of the terms linkage, sexdetermination and sex linked characters suchas haemophilia, colour blindness, baldnessand hairy ear lobes.

(a) Agriculture

Data on cross-breeding experiments should bestudied.(b) MedicineExamples of new varieties of crops andlivestock obtained through cross-breedingshould be mentioned. The advantages anddisadvantages of cross-fertilization, out andinbreeding should be explained.

G. Adaptation for survival and Evolution. The application of knowledge of heredity

inmarriage counseling with particular reference tosickle cell anaemia and rhesus factor should bementioned.

1. Behavioural Adaptations in Social Animals.

(a)(b)

TermitesBees

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Candidates should be able to identify thevarious castes of social insects.The division of labour in social insects and theroles of different castes should be stressed.Examples of communication among animalssuch as contact notes and warning cries shouldbe mentioned. Reference should be made tobasking by lizard, territorial behaviour in birdsand lizards and behaviour of other animals underunfavourable conditions-hibernation andaestivation. The behaviour of an organism as amember of a group and the effect of groupingon the behaviour of an organism should bementioned.

2. Evolution.

Candidates are expected to know theevolutionary trends in plants and animals suchas from simple to complex structuraladaptations and from aquatic to terrestrialorganisms.

(a) Evidence of evolution.

The role of mutation in evolution should bementioned.

(b) Theories of evolution The following evidence of evolution

shouldbe mentioned: Paleontology (fossil records),comparative biochemistry, geographicaldistribution, comparative anatomy andphysiology, adaptive radiation, comparativeembryology and systematics.The contributions of Lamarck and Darwin tothe development of the theory of evolutionshould be mentioned.

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SECTION B (For candidates in Ghana only)

A. Introducing Biology

1. Biology as a science of life

The meaning of biology. Candidates must beable to differentiate between a living thingand an organism. The two major branches ofbiology: Botany and zoology; specializedareas: bacteriology, molecular biology,histology, cell biology, ecology etc.

2. Procedure for biological work

Description of skills required by biologists intheir work. The scientific method: Identifyingthe problem, defining the problem,hypothesizing, experimenting, recording,analyzing and concluding. Description offollowing steps for writing report on

3. Importance of Biology biological experiment or investigation:

Aim,hypothesis/ scientific framework, materials/drawing of set-up, method, results/

4. Body symmetry, sectioning and

orientation observation, discussion and conclusion.Application of biology to everyday life.Careers associated with the study of biology.Description of the following terms :(i) Body symmetry (bilateral and radial)(ii) Sectioning: longitudinal and

transverse and vertical(iii) Body orientation of specimen:anterior, posterior, lateral, dorsal andventral views).

5. The microscope Distinction between

(i) posterior and anterior views

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(ii) dorsal and ventral views(iii) transverse and longitudinal sectionExamination of simple light, compound lightand stereoscopic light microscopes andidentification of the various parts.Handling and caring for microscopes. Useof the light microscope to observeprepared slides. Techniques involved in thepreparation of temporary slides of animal andplant cells. Mounting varieties of specializedeukaryotic cells. Drawing of cells as seenunder the microscope.

6. Biological drawings

Resolution and magnification ofmicroscope. Determination of magnificationof drawings. Measuring lengths usingcompound light microscope. Electronmicroscope should be mentionedAppropriate headings for biological drawings.Magnification/ size of biological drawings.Quality of biological drawings e.g. clarity oflines, neatness of labels, labels of biological

B. Cell Biology

1.

2.

Movement of substances into and out of drawings.cells: Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Nucleic acidsExplanation of the process of endocytosis( phagocytosis and pinocytosis) andexocytosis.Explanation of the term nucleic acid. Typesof nucleic acids: Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Basicchemical differences between DNA andRNA.

3. DNA structure and replication,RNA transcription.

Description of double helix model ofDNA structure by Watson and Crick.Processes of DNA replication and RNAtranscription.

4. Protein synthesis

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Description of the process of proteinsynthesis. The roles of m-RNA, t-RNA,and r-RNA and ribosomes in proteinsynthesis must be emphasized. Importanceof protein synthesis. Examples of proteinssynthesized by humans.

5. Cell cycle

Explanation of the of the term cell cycle.Phases of the cell cycle [Interphase: G + S +G2 phases, Mitosis: M phase( karyokinesis and cytokinesis)]. Theprocesses of mitosis and meiosis and theirimportance. Preparation of a squash of onionroot tip and observing stages of meiosis underthe microscope. Observing stages of meiosisin plant and animal cells (Permanent slidesmay be used).

C. Life Processes in Living Things

1. Amoeba, Paramecium, andEuglena

2.

3.

Spirogyra and Rhizopus External structure and life processes of

Amoeba, Paramecium, and Euglena.Mounting of Paramecium and Euglena underthe compound light microscope.Mosses and

ferns Structure of Spirogyra and Rhizopus.Nutrition and reproduction of Spirogyra andRhizopus. Identification of stages ofconjugation of Spirogyra.Structure of mosses (Brachymenium andFunaria) and ferns (Nephrolepis,( Platycerium, Phymatodes). Descriptionof external features of mosses and ferns.Nutrition and reproduction in mosses.Reproduction in ferns.D. Diversity of Living Things

1. Characteristics of some of theorders of Class Insecta

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2. Identification of organisms usingbiological keys

Orders of Class Insecta (OdonataOrthoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera,Hemiptera, Diptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera,Dictyoptera, and Neuroptera).

E. Interactions in NatureSoil Identification of organisms using

numberedand dichotomous keys. Construction ofidentification keys.

F. Mammalian Anatomy and Physiology

1. Dissection of a small mammal

Identification of mineral salts (Ca2+, Fe2+,Fe3+, Mg2+, K+, SO4 -, NO3 -, PO4 -) in a soilsample. Soil reclamation.

The arrangement of internal organs ofmammals. Functions of the internal organs.Candidates should be able to cut open achloroformed mammal (guinea pig, rat,mouse and rabbit) and draw the internalorgans.

2.

3.

4.

Transport:Structure of the mammalian heart.Cellular respiration

Movement:(a) Muscles

Mechanism of the heartbeat: excitation andcontractions (SAN, AVN, Purkinge tissue)Determination of respiratory quotient (RQ) ofdifferent substrates. Explanation of thesignificance of RQ.

Types of muscle (Smooth, striated andcardiac muscles). Description of how musclesbring about movement.

(b) Skeletal tissues Explanation of sliding filament model

ofmuscle contraction.

5. Reproduction(a) Secondary sexual characteristics

Description of the structure of skeletaltissues( Bones and cartilage).(b) Prenatal/Antenatal

care Physical changes that occur in males andfemales during puberty. The role of hormonesin the development of secondary sexual

26


characteristics in humans.G. Plant Structure and

Physiology Meaning of antenatal care. Antenatal visitsrequirements. Nutrition and diet. Exerciseduring pregnancy. Benefits of the use ofnatural products by mother and child.

1. Morphology of monocotyledonousand dicotyledonous plants.

External features of monocotyledonous anddicotyledonous plants. Functions of roots,stems and leaves of monocotyledonous anddicotyledonous plants. Differences betweenmonocotyledonous and dicotyledonousplants. Modifications of roots, stems andleaves.

2. Transport:Guttation

3. Reproduction:Floral formula

Biological principles underlying guttation.

H. Humans and their EnvironmentDetermination and writing of the floralformulae of the following flowers:Flamboyant (Delonix), Pride of Barbados(Caesalpinia) and Rattle box (Crotalaria).Floral diagrams are not required.

1. Integrated water resourcesmanagement.

2. Health and hygiene

(a) Drug abuse

Description of the integrated water resourcesmanagement (IWRM). Explanation of howIWRM can reduce undesirable change in theenvironment.Definition of terms: health, hygiene, andsanitation. Means of achieving personalcleanliness/ hygiene.

(b)

(c)

Community health

First Aid Explanation of the term drug abuse.Consequences of drug abuse.

I. EvolutionRecombinant DNA

Technology

Importance of town planning and its effectson health of the community.Explanation of the term First Aid. Differentmethods of administering First Aid.

J. Biology and Industry

1. Biology and water industry

27


(a)

(b)

(c)

Contamination of water

Explanation of the term Recombinant DNATechnology and state its application.

Identification of pollutedwater Candidates should carry out

experiments totest water samples for bacterialcontamination.

Waste water treatment

The use of Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD) in the measurement of the level oforganic pollution in water.

2. Biology and fishing industry

(a)

(b)

Fish stock management Description of biological processes of

purifying sewage. Cesspit activated sludgeprocess should be mentioned.

Fish farmingExplanation of why fish is an efficientconverter of plankton into flesh.Description of ways of conserving fishstocks in water bodies.Importance of fish farming. Advantages anddisadvantages of fish farming.3.

4.

5.

Biology and food industry:Food additives

Biology and agriculture

Biotechnology

Explanation of the term food additives.Identification of the categories of foodadditives (Naturally occurring and artificialfood additives). Health implications in the useof food additives.Explanation of the biological principles bywhich fertilizer, pesticides, selectivebreeding, resistance to disease and irrigationcan respectively lead to successfulagriculture.Explanation of the concept of biotechnology.The use of micro-organisms in the

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manufacture of food such as cheese, yoghurt,kenkey, bread and butter. The role of micro-organisms in the production of alcoholicdrinks and organic acids. The role of micro-organisms in pharmaceutical, tanning andmining industries.

6. Biological fuel generation

Explanation of the need for new sources ofenergy. The use of biogas, use of green cropsto produce ethanol, the generation ofhydrogen gas from chloroplasts should bementioned

SECTION C (For candidates in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, The Gambia and

Liberia)

A. Concept of Living1. Cell theory

2. Irritability as a basic characteristic of

protoplasm(a) Types of responses: taxis and nastism The cell theory including the work of

Hooke,Dujardin, Schleiden and Schwann should beoutlined.

(b) Environmental factors that evoke

responses; temperature, pH etc3. ExcretorySystems

(a) Diseasesof the kidney:Nephritis, kidney stone and diuresis,Their

29


effectsandremedies.(b) Diseases of the liver: infectivehepatitis, cancer of the liver and gallstones. Their effects and remedies.

Excretory organs of earthworm and insectsshould be mentioned.

4. Sense organs.

(a) Nose.

(b) Tongue.

(c) The skin.

The process of perception of smell including theroles of sensory cells in nose and olfactorylobes should be studied.

Experiments should be carried out to determinethe different areas of the tongue associated withdifferent tastes. The association between theorgans of taste and smell should be mentioned.Mention should be made of taste buds.

5. Reproduction(a) Courtship behaviour in animals:

(i) Pairing(ii) Display e.g. peacocks(iii) Territoriality(iv) Seasonal migration

associated with breeding inherrings, eels and birds.

The function of the skin as a sensory organshould be emphasized.

(b) Metamorphosis and lifehistory of housefly.

Courtship pattern in male and femaleanimals and territorialism in lizards shouldbe observed.(c) Adaptive features

in adeveloping animal:(i) Yolk in egg of fish, toad and birdsfor nourishment(ii) Placenta in animals

The content (yolk and albumen) of birds' eggshould be examined

(d) Germination of seeds

(i)which affect developing embryo.

Essential factors

Candidates should observe the connection of thefoetus to the mother and the adaptive features of

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(ii) Types of germination

the placenta, umbilical cord and amnion in adissected pregnant rat. The meaning of

B. Plant and Animal Nutrition oviparity and viviparity should be mentioned.

1. Nitrogen cycle

Experiments to show the importance ofoxygen, adequate moisture and suitabletemperature, should be carried out.2. Modes of nutrition:

autotrophic, chemosynthetic, carnivorous

The stages in hypogeal and epigeal germinationshould be observed and drawnplants

3. Alimentary System(a) Alimentary tracts of different

animalsThe names and roles of bacteria involved innitrogen cycle should be mentioned.Candidates to observe root nodules inleguminous plants.

(b) Description and function of various

parts. Examples of carnivorous plants should bestudied.

4. Feeding habits(a) Categories: Carnivorous, herbivorousand omnivorous

Comparison should be made using dissectedearthworm, grasshopper/cockroach to show theimportant features of the alimentary canal.

(b) Modifications and mechanismsassociated with the following habits; filterfeeding, fluid feeding, feeding adaptation ininsects, saprophytic feeding, parasitic feedingetc.

Use a bird and cockroach/grasshopper to showmodifications for functions

C. Basic Ecological Concepts1. Ecological Components:

Lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, niche

Mosquito larva, housefly, butterfly, cockroach,adult mosquito, maize weevil, rhizopods,tapeworm should be used to illustrate thedifferent types of feeding mechanisms andvarious modifications.

2.Population Studies by Sampling

(a) Population size(b) Dominance(c) Density

Candidates are expected to explain and giveexamples of the terms.

3. Energy transformation in nature:(a) Energy loss in the

ecosystemCandidates are required to carry out a project todetermine population density by counting theindividual types of plants and animals and record

(b) Solar radiation: its intake and loss at

31


the earth's surface.

such count in a given plot.

(c ) Energy loss in the biosphere. Laws of thermodynamics and its

application toecological phenomena should be mentioned.The laws of thermodynamics should be used toexplain energy flow across tropic levels.

4. Nutrient Cycling in Nature(a) Carbon Cycle:

Candidates should discuss energy as a limitingfactor in primary production i.e production ofautotrophs.

(i) Process of carbon cycle(ii) Importance of carbon in

nature.Reference should be made to harvest as ameans of measuring primary production.

Candidates should be able to draw the carboncycle, list the sources of carbon (burning,respiration, decay) and discuss the relativeimportance of the cycle.Reference should be made to carbon dioxide-oxygen balance in nature.Candidates should carry out experiments toshow absorption of carbon dioxide and releaseof oxygen during photosynthesis.

(b) Water Cycle:(i) Importance of water cycle,(ii) Importance of water to livingorganisms.5. Ecological Management: Tolerance,

Minimumand maximum range

Candidates should carry out experiments toshow the presence of water in expired air andthat water is given off during respiration.

6. Habitats Candidates should perform experiments toshow the limit of tolerance of Tilapia to variousconcentrations of salt solution or sensitivity ofwood lice to temperature.

(a) Aquatic habitat: marine, estuarine fresh water

under the following headings:(i) characteristics of habitat (ii) distribution of plants and animals in the habitat, (iii) adaptive features of plants

and animals in the habitat.

Measurement of physical factors: temperature, salinity, light intensity, turbidity, current, pH, should be carried out.

(b) Terrestrial habitat: marsh, forest, grass land,

arid land should be studied under the following headings:

The pattern of distribution including dominant types and seasonal changes of population, size of organisms in the habitat should be noted.

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(i) characteristics of habitat (ii) distribution of plants and animals in

habitat.

The measurement of the physical factors, temperature, relative humidity, light, wind, and pH should be carried out.(c) Balance in

Nature Reference should be made to edaphic factors. Dynamic equilibrium population

and population density.

The effect of physical factors on distribution of plants and animals should be mentioned.

7. Relevance of Biology to Agriculture: The process by which carnivores

maintain a constant population should be mentioned. (a) Classification of plants based on life

cycle(b) Effects of agricultural practices on

ecology(i) Bush burning

(ii) Tillage Effects of human activities on ecologicalsystems should be mentioned.

(iii) Fertilizer

(iv) Herbicide/pesticide

(v) Different farming methods 8. Microorganisms: Man and His

Health.

(a) Microorganisms around us(i) Microorganisms in air and water(ii) Groups of microorganisms: bacteria,

viruses, some algae, protozoa and some Microorganisms in air, water and expired airfungi. should be observed and identified by

theircolour, pattern of growth and appearance oftheir colony.

(b) Microorganisms in our bodies and food

33


Microorganisms under the finger nails, mouthcavity, expired air, and decomposing foodsubstance should be observed and identified bytheir colour, pattern of growth, and appearanceof colony.

(c) Public HealthFood hygiene and health organization.

D. Application of Variations

1. Crime detection Reference should be made to the roles

ofnational and international health organizationsin maintenance of good public health.2. Blood

transfusion The uniqueness of each individual's finger printshould be mentioned in relation to crimedetection.3. Determination of

paternity Reference should be made to importance ofknowledge of blood groups in bloodtransfusion and determination of paternity.

E. Evolution1. Adaptation for survival

(a) Factors that bring about

competition(b) Intra and Inter-species

competition Reference should be made to the factors suchas food, space, water, light and mates whichorganisms share and form the basis ofcompetition.The effects of intra-species competitionshould be observed by growing manyseedlings of maize in a small area, while theeffects of interspecies competition can beobserved by planting many seedlings ofmaize and pepper in a small area.

(c) Relationship betweencompetition and succession

Candidates should observe competitionand succession on a moistened exposedslice of bread over a period of time.

2. Structural Adaptation for;

(a) obtaining food(b) protection and defense(c) securing mates for

reproduction(d) regulating body temperature(e) conserving water Candidates should observe

examples of34


organisms that show structural adaptation forobtaining food, escaping from enemies,securing mates, regulating body temperatureand conserving water.

3. Adaptive Colouration(a) Plants and animals(b) Colouration and their

functions

Candidates are required to observe examples ofadaptive colouration in plants and animals.

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Documents

Web viewawareness of the existence of interrelationships between biology and other. scientific ... Monera, Protoctista (Protista), Fungi ... Comparison should be made using