VI. TAXONOMY - shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.inshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/6063/12/12_chapter 7.pdf · Schiffnerula and Meliola. The genus Schiffnerula is the member of an

81

VI. TAXONOMY

According to the red data book, Celastrus paniculatus Willd., Heracleum

condolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble, Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schumann,

Decalepis arayalpathra (Joseph & V. Chandras.) Venter and Nothapodytes

nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. belong to endemic, endangered and threaten category.

The study is mainly concentrated on association of mycorrhizal fungi but extended to

rhizosphere and foliicolous fungi. Foliicolous fungi represented two genera, namely,

Schiffnerula and Meliola. The genus Schiffnerula is the member of an ectophytic

black colony forming fungus, classified under the family Englerulaceae of bitunicate

Ascomycetes. It is characterized by the superficial mycelium with unicellular

appressoria, having Digitosarcinella, Mitteriella, Questieriella and Sarcinella

anomorph (synanamorph) states. Ascomata produced at the end of the short lateral

branches or sessile on the hyphae, initially flattened with radiate cells, later becomes

globose and the wall cells gelatinize; asci persistant, bitunicate, ovate to globose;

ascospores brown, uniseptate. This genus along with its synanamorphs represents

around 100 taxa in the world, while, more than 50 are known in India (Hughes, 1987;

Bilgrami et al., 1991; Hosagoudar, 2003). This genus represents with a single species, S.

celastri Hosag., Riju & Sabeena on the leaves of Celasrtus paniculatus Willd. The

plant Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. is being infected with the black

mildew fungi of the genus Meliola. The detailed observations revealed they belong to

two distinct species, namely, M. chandrasekharanii and M. dimidiatae. The other

three plants did not reveal any foliicolous fungi.

The rhizosphere fungi are saprobes or weak parasites, represented by 23

species distributed among 13 genera, namely, Absidia, Acrymonium, Aspergillus,

Cladosporium, Curvularia, Fusarium, Helminthosporium, Monilia, Mucor,

Penicillium, Rhizopus, Tricoderma, and Verticellium.

82

Classification of the fungi studied in nut-shell

Mycorrhizal fungi

Depending upon the anatomy of infection, mycorrhizal fungi are mainly

grouped into three, namely, Ectomycorrhizae, Endomycorrhizae and

Ectendomycorrhizae.

Mycorrhiza

Ectomycorrhiza Endomycorrhiza Ectendoycorrhiza

Ericaceous Arbuscular Orchidaceous

Fungi

Mycorrhizal

Fungi

Rhizosphere

Fungi

Foliicolous

Fungi

Non Mycorrhizal

Fungi

Fungi imperfecti Phycomycetes

Black Mildew

83

In Ectomycorrhiza - fungal hyphae penetrate between the cortex cells of the

rootlets. Fruiting body epigeal or hypogeal in nature.

In Endomycorrhiza - fungal hyphae penetrate inside the cortical cells but produce

no mantle and hartig net. Spores hypogeal.

In Ectendomycorrhiza - fungal hyphae produce both hartig net and intracellular

hyphal coils. Spores epigeal or hypogeal.

Endomycorrhizae are of three groups: Arbuscular Mycorrhizae, Ericaceous

Mycorrhiza and Orchidaceous Mycorrhiza.

Ericoid Mycorrhizae

Ericoid Mycorrhizae are found on the roots of Ericaceae members. They are

structurally intermediate between the Endomycorrhiza and Ectomycorrhiza. In

addition to intracellular penetration, there is a production of „hartig net‟ in

intracellular region.

Orchidaceous Mycorrhizae

These fungi belong to Basidiomycetes and Fungi Imperfecti and are

associated with orchid roots.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (AM fungi)

AM fungi have an extensive loose hyphal network that extends to a

considerable distance into the soil. Hyphae of these fungi are non septate with small

lateral branches. After the infection, these fungi produce arbuscules in the cortical

cells, which are structurally similar to haustoria of the higher fungi. These haustoria

are repeatedly and dichotomously branched and transfer nutrient to the plant. In

addition to arbuscules, some fungi produce intracellular or intercellular vesicles,

which are nutrient storage organs, or develop into reproductive structures.

Formerly, Mycorrhizal fungi were classified in the family Endogonaceae of the

order Endogonales. Since the type genus Endogone is not a mycorrhizal fungus, the

family Glomaceae in the order Glomales is proposed to accommodate all the vesicles

and arbuscules forming mycorrhizal fungi (earlier termed as Vesicular Arbuscular

Mycorrhiza).

84

The recent developments in the AM taxonomy with help of molecular

technicques along with morpho-taxonomy, Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are placed

in the Class Glomeromycetes of the phylum Glomeromycota consisting four orders

namely, Archaesporales, Diversisporales, Glomerales, and Paraglomerales with 14

families comprises of about 23 genera. Namely Acaulospora, Entrophospora,

Gigaspora, Scutellospora, Sclerocystis, Glomus, Paraglomus, Claroideoglomus,

Ambispora, Archaeospora, Geosiphon, Pacispora, Kuklospora, Racocetra,

Centraspora, Diversispora, Fuscutata, Dentiscutata, Quatunica, Redeckera,

Octospora, Rhizophagus, and Funneliformis. Among these 23 genera, the present

study represents 10 genera with 29 species.

http://www.taxonomy.nl/Main/Classification/193295.htm

http://www.taxonomy.nl/Main/Classification/193294.htm

85

Classification of Glomeromycota

Glomus

Sclerocystis

Racocentraceae

Glomeraceae

Glomerales

Glomeromycetes

Diversisporales

Pacisporaceae

Diversisporaceae

Enterophosporaceae

Dentiscutataceae Pacispora

Kuklospora

Diversispora

Quatunica

Fuscutata

Dentiscutata

Centraspora

Racocentra

Paraglomerales Archaeosporales

Geosiphonaceae Ambisporaceae Archaeosporaceae

Paraglomeraceae

Paraglomus

Geosiphon Ambispora Archaeospora

Claroideoglomeraceae

Claroideoglomus

Glomeromycota

Funneliformis Rhizophagus

Otospora

Redeckera

Acaulosporaceae

Acaulospora

Enterophospora

Scutelloporaceae

Scutellopora

Gigasporaceae Gigaspora

86

Glomeromycota

Glomeromycota Schüßler A, Schwarzott D & Walker C. Mycol. Res. 105: 1413,

2001

Glomeromycota having four orders namely, Archaeosporales, Diversisporales,

Glomerales and Paraglomerales. However this study representing only three orders

and provided its key for identification.

Key to the orders

1. Spores dimorphic … Archaeosporales

1. Spores not so … 2

2. Spores formed above the suspensor cell/lateral or intercalary

to the hyphae just below the vesicle … Diversisporales

2. Spores formed directly on the tip of fertile hyphae or in Sporocarps

… Glomerales

The Order Diversisporales

Diversisporales Walker & Schüßler, Mycol. Res.108: 981, 2004.

Hypogeous (underground) arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi having vesicles and

auxiliary cells. Fungi produce a wide range of spore types.

Type family: Diversisporaceae C. Walker & A. Schüßler, Diversisporales

The order Diversisporales has 8 families, namely Diversisporaceae,

Acaulosporaceae, Gigasporaceae, Dentiscutataceae, Scutellosporaceae,

Racocetraceae, Pacisporaceae and Enterophosporaceae. However, this study

represents only six families and provided its key for identification.

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Arbuscular+mycorrhiza

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Vesicle+(biology)

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Auxiliary+cell

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Species

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Spore

87

Key to the families of the order Diversisporales

1. Spores glomoid … Diversisporaceae

1. Spores not glomoid … 2

2. Spores formed sub-terminally on a hyphal tip … Acaulosporaceae

2. Spores formed on a bulbous suspensor cell … 3

3. Spore with one spore wall … Gigasporaceae

3. Spores with more than one spore walls … 4

4. Spores with a yellowish brown to brown

germination shield … Dentiscutataceae

4. Spores with a hyaline to sub hyaline, seldom light

Yellowish germination shield … 5

5. Germ shield simple, generally 1-2-lobed;

spores with three walls … Scutellosporaceae

5. Germ shield multi-lobed, 4 or more

Compartments, each with one germ pore … Racocetraceae

88

The family Acaulosporaceae

Acaulosporaceae J.B. Morton & Benny, Mycotaxon 37: 471, 1990.

Arbuscules and vesicles formed in roots, chlamydospores formed from or in

the neck of a sporiferous saccule, auxiliary cells not produced.

Type genus: Acaulospora Gerd. & Trappe

This family has only two genera namely Acaulospora and Kuklospora.

However, the present study represents the genus Acaulospora only.

The genus Acaulospora

Acaulospora Gerd. & Trappe emend. Berch, Mycotaxon 23: 409, 1985.

Kuklospora Oehl & Sieverd., J. Applied Bot. Food Quality 80: 74, 2006.

Azygospores produced singly in soil, large generally globose, or sub globose,

with oily contents, borne laterally on the stalk of a large, terminal thin walled vesicle.

Vesicles about the same size as the spores, with vesicle contents transferred to spore

at maturity. Spore walls continuous except for a small occluded pore. Germ tube

produced directly through walls near spore base. Forming endo mycorrhizae with

lobed vesicles and arbuscules.

Type species: Acaulospora laevis Gerd. & Trappe

Key to the species of the genus Acaulospora

1. Spore surface rough … 2

1. Spore surface smooth … A. laevis

2. Spore surface evenly pitted with depressions … 3

2. Spore surface not so ... 4

3. Pits with 1-1.5 x 1-3 µm in diam. … A. scrobiculata

3. Pits with 4-8 (12) x 4-16 x 1.5-3 µm in diam. … A. foveata

4. Spore surface ornamented with polygonal reticulam ... A. bireticulata

4. Spore surface ornamented with labryrinthi form folds … A. rehmi

89

Description to the species

Acaulospora bireticulata Rothwell & Trappe, Mycotaxon 8:472, 1979.

Plate-18:1-8.

Hyphae hyaline, thin walled, 2-7 µm broad, fertile hyphae terminate with the

vesicles. Vesicles globose to subglobose, 10- 30 µm broad at the basal portion and

127-135 µm broad at the broadest portion. Spores formed singly and laterally on the

hyphae just below the base of the vesicles, globose, initially subhyaline, turn light

brown at maturity, 150-155 µm in diam.; wall three layered, up to 1 µm thick, outer

layer dark grayish green to brown, inner layers hyaline; outer surface of the wall

ornamented with polygonal reticulum, polygons 6-18 µm long, ridges up to 2 µm high

with the sides grayish-green sinuous, depressed central portion paler. Ridges often

branched towards the centre of polygon and often forming irregular isolated

projections at the center.

Material examined: Isolated from the rhizosphere soil of Holostemma

annulare (Roxb.) Schumann. (Asclepiadaceae) Palode, Thiruvananthapuram,

February 28, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 165; August 8, 2008, M.C. Riju TBGT

slide No. 169; Mylamoodu, Thiruvananthapuram, May 8, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT

slide No. 168; Pot No.201.

Acaulospora foveata Trappe & Janos, Mycotaxon, 15: 515, 1982.

Plate-19:1-6.

Hyphae hyaline, thin walled, up to 8 µm broad, fertile hyphae terminate with

the vesicles. Vesicles globose, up to 200µm diam., contents flown into the spore and

collapsed as the spore matures. Spores formed singly and laterally on the hyphae just

below the base of the vesicles, globose to ellipsoid, yellowish-brown to light reddish-

brown, 185-310 (-410) x 215-350(-480) µm; wall two layered, 13-18µm thick, outer

wall yellowish, reddish brown to brown,11-15 µm thick, inner layer hyaline, adherent

to outer wall but separable, up to 3µm thick. Spore surface uniformly pitted with

round, oblong to occasionally irregular depressions, 4-8 (-12) x 4-16µm, 1-3µm deep,

with rounded bottoms, separated by 1-12 µm broad ridges.

90

Material examined: Isolated from the rhizosphere soil of Decalepis

arayalpathra (Joseph & V. Chandras.) Venter (Asclepiadaceae), Makki,

Thiruvananthapuram, February 27, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 174; August 30,

2008 M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 231; May 18, 2009, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 232;

Pot No.202.

Acaulospora laevis Gerd. & Trappe, Mycologia Memoir 5:76, 1974.

Plate-20:1-6.

Hyphae hyaline, thin walled, 6-8 µm broad, fertile hyphae terminate with the

vesicles. Vesicles globose, up to 320 µm diam., 30-40 µm broad at the base, contents

flown into the spore and collapsed as the spore matures. Spores formed singly and

laterally on the hyphae just below the base of the vesicles, smooth, globose to

subglobose, ellipsoid, occasionally reniform to irregular, initially dull yellow, turn

deep yellowish-brown, red-brown to dark olive green at maturity, 119-300 x 119-

520µm; spore wall three layered, continuous to the hyphae except for the occluded

opening, outer wall 3-4 µm thick, rigid, yellowish-brown to reddish brown, inner

layers hyaline, the inner most layer sometimes minutely roughened. In older spores,

wall minutely perforated and the outer surface sloughing away. Spore contents

globular to polygonal in appearance.



Thiruvananthapuram, September 15, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 176; July 5,

2008, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 180; Bonacaud, Thiruvananthapuram, October 11,

2008, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 178; May 20, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 182;

Pot No.203.

Acaulospora rehmi Sieverd. & Toro, Angewandte Botanik 61: 217, 1987.

Plate-21:1-8.

91

Hyphae hyaline, thin walled, up to 7 µm broad, fertile hyphae terminate with

the vesicles. Vesicles globose, 100-130µm diam., up to 10 µm broad at the basal

portion, wall up to 2 µm thick. Spores formed singly and laterally on the stalk

produced on the neck of vesicles, stalk cell2-4 µm long, produced 40-75 µm away

from the vesicle proper; neck of the vesicles 15-22 µm broad at point of attachment of

the spore. Vesicles and neck collapsed after emptying contents as the spore matures.

Spores globose to sub globose, light yellow to brown, older spores often dark reddish

brown to black, 95-160µmdiam. Spore wall with three groups consist of four layers.

The outer wall, yellow to dark red brown, 3- 13 µm thick, including the

ornamentation of labyrinthi-form folds; ridges of the folds 1-4 µm wide and up to 5

µm high; depressions between ridges 1- 4 µm wide. The second wall composed of 2

layers, a hyaline and a unit or membranous layer, up to 2 µm thick; Inner wall,

hyaline, up to 2 µm thick.



Thiruvananthapuram, July 14, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 173; July 5, 2008,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 180; Bonacaud, Thiruvananthapuram, June10, 2006, M.C.

Riju TBGT slide No. 177; May20, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 179; Pot No.204.

Acaulospora scrobiculata Trappe, Mycotaxon 6: 359, 1977.

Plate-22:1-6.

Hyphae hyaline to sub hyaline, fertile hyphae terminate with the vesicles.

Vesicles globose, 100-160µm in diam., becoming empty and collapses at spore

maturity. Spores formed singly and laterally on the hyphae just below the base of the

vesicles, globose to broadly ellipsoid, initially sub-hyaline, becoming light olive to

light brown at maturity, 100-240 x 100-220 µm in diam. Spore surface evenly pitted

with depressions of 1-2 x 1-3 µm, separated by ridges of 2-4 µm thick, the mouth of

the depressions circular to elliptical, occasionally linear to Y-shaped. Spore wall

continuous except at the circular, rimmed vesicle attachment, up to 12 µm thick and

consisting of four layers; outer layer rigid, pitted, subhyaline to greenish yellow, 3-6

µm thick; 2nd

layer from outer surface is adhering to the outer layer but separable,

smooth, hyaline, up to 0.5µm thick; next layer is adhering but separable, smooth,

92

hyaline, up to 1 µm thick; the inner most layer distinct, minutely roughened, hyaline,

up to 1 µm thick.


annulare (Roxb.) Schumann. (Asclepiadaceae), Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, April

28, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.181; August 18, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide

No.233; Isolated from the rhizosphere soil of Decalepis arayalpathra (Joseph & V.

Chandras.) Venter (Asclepiadaceae), Makki, Thiruvananthapuram, July 14, 2007,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.184; April 26, 2008, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 235; June

10, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 234. Pot No. 205.

93

The family Dentiscutataceae

Dentiscutataceae F.A. Souza, Oehl & Sieverd., Mycotaxon106:340, 2008.

Sporocarps unknown. Spores formed singly on bulbous suspensor cells which

are formed terminally on subtending hyphae that arise from mycelium. Spores have 3-

4 walls; outer wall three to four layered, rarely five layered; middle walls one to

several layered; inner wall with two or more layered. Germination shield generally

formed on the outer surface of the inner most wall or beneath a thin outer layer of

the inner wall, yellowish brown to brown, violin-shaped, oval, ovoid, heart shaped,

reniform to ellipsoid, consisting of two lobe-like compartments or up to 30 small

compartments. Lobes and compartments are separated by folds and generally have

each with one germ pore. Germ tube arises from the germ pore by penetrating the

other walls. Subtending hypha forms one to several septa for some distance to the

suspensor cells. Auxiliary cells are knobby and without spines on the surface.

Forming typical arbuscular mycorrhizae and the formation of vesicles in roots is

unknown.

Type genus: Dentiscutata Sieverd., F.A. Souza & Oehl

This family represents three genera namely Dentiscutata, Fuscutata, and

Quatunica. However, the study deals here with a single genus Dentiscutata.

The genus Dentiscutata

Dentiscutata Oehl & Sieverd., F.A. Souza, & Oehl, Mycotaxon 106: 340, 2008.

Sporocarps unknown. Spores formed singly on bulbous suspensor cells which

are formed terminally on subtending hyphae that arise from mycelium. Outer spore

wall three-to five layered, continuous. Pore between the spore and suspensor cell is

narrow and usually closed by a plug formed by outer spore wall material. Middle

wall hyaline, one to two layered; inner wall hyaline, two to three layered. Germination

shield generally formed on the outer surface of the inner most wall or beneath a thin

outer layer of the inner wall, yellowish brown to brown, ellipsoid, oval, reniform to

cardiform, with many large folds separating the shield into 8-30 small compartments;

each compartment with one circular germ tube initiation; germ tube arise from the

germ pore by penetrating the other walls. The periphery of the germination shield

94

generally dentate. Subtending hypha one to several septate below the suspensor cells.

Auxiliary cells are knobby and without spines on the surface. Forming typical

arbuscular mycorrhizae and formation of vesicles in roots is not known.

Type species: Dentiscutata nigra (J.F. Redhead) Sieverd., et al.

Key to the species of the genus Dentiscutata

1. Outer surface of the spore wall with reticulation … D. nigra

1. Outer surface of the spore wall without reticulation … D. heterogama


Dentiscutata heterogama (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) Sieverd., Souza & Oehl.,

Mycotaxon 106: 342, 2009.

Endogone heterogama T.H. Nicolson & Gerd., Mycologia 60 (2) 319, 1968.

Gigaspora heterogama (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) Gerd. & Trappe, Mycologia

Memoirs 5:31, 1974.

Scutellospora heterogama (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) Walker & Sanders,

Mycologia 77:702, 1985.

Plate-23:1-6.

Hyphae coenocytic, sub hyaline to pale yellow, up to 6µm broad, subtending

hyphae coenocytic to sparsely septate, subhyaline, yellow to yellowish brown, up to 8

µm wide. Spores produced singly, terminally, sub terminally or laterally on a bulbous

suspensor like cells, pale brown to yellow brown, globose, elliptical to irregular, 150-

-255 µm in diam.; spores four walled in two groups. Group A-outer wall ornamented,

brittle, pale yellow to pale brown, up to 2 µm thick, warts on the outer surface very

densely crowded, mostly placed up to 0.5 µm apart at the base, up to 1 µm high, 1

µm diam. Second wall layer laminated, tightly inherent to the outer wall, yellowish

brown, 5-7 µm thick. Group B- two membranous walls (3&4), separated by an

apparent amorphous cementing layer. Each wall hyaline, <1 µm thick; total thickness

of wall and separating material up to 3 µm. Germination shield generally arising on

the outer surface of the inner wall, ellipsoid, 12-24 compartments and germ pores,

dentate at the margins, yellowish brown to brown, 90-120 x130-160 µm. Suspensor

95

cell borne terminally on subtending hypha, 21-26 µm diam., wall of suspensor- like

cell up to 3 µm thick distally, thickening up to 4 µm at the spore base.



Thiruvananthapuram, October 13, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 171; July 5, 2008,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 221; Bonacaud, Thiruvananthapuram, June 10, 2006, M.C.

Riju TBGT slide No. 172; April 26, 2008, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 224; Pot No.

228.

Dentiscutata nigra (Redhed) Sieverd., Souza & Oehl, Mycotaxon 106: 342, 2008.

Scutellospora nigra (Redhed) Walker & Sanders, Mycotaxon 27:181, 1986.

Gigaspora nigra Redhed in Nicolson& Schenk, Mycologia 71(1):187,

1979.

Plate-24:1-6.

Hyphae coenocytic, sub hyaline to pale yellow, up to 6µm broad,

subtending hyphae subhyaline to yellowish brown, 13-18 µm thick at the spore

base, tapering towards the hyphae, 6-11 µm thick. Spores produced singly on the

apex of bulbous suspensor cells, globose to subglobose, 176-360 x 194-500 µm in

diam., yellowish brown, dark brown to reddish brown, rarely black. Spores having

three wall groups; outer wall rough, having circular ornamentation of about 20 µm

in diam. with yellow brown center and brownish margins. The second wall group is

with two layers. The 3rd

wall group with two layers, closely adherent, laminated,

light brown, transparent, smooth. Spore wall 8-10 µm thick. Germination shield

arising on the outer surface of the inner wall, ellipsoid, 12-24 compartments and

with germ pores, dentate at the margins, yellowish brown to brown, 130-170 x 180-

240µm.Spores germinate by producing one to many germ tubes in the germination

shield. Suspensor cells globose to ovate, lighter than spore colour, yellow to

yellowish brown, 40-66 x 80-120 µm in diam.

Material examined: Isolated from the rhizosphere soil of Heracleum

candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble (Apiaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, November

7, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 209; Devikulam, Idukki, June 21, 2007, M.C.

96

Riju TBGT slide No. 210; Munnar, Idukki, July 30, 2007 M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.

220; Mattupetty, Idukki, March 2, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 223; Pot No. 229.

97

The family Gigasporaceae

Gigasporaceae J.B. Morton & Benny emend. Sieverd, Souza & Oehl, Mycotaxon

106: 328, 2008.

Gigasporaceae J.B. Morton & Benny, Mycotaxon 37: 471, 1990.

Gigaspora Gerd. & Trappe emend. C. Walker & F.E. Sanders Mycotaxon

27:179, 1986.

Sporocarps unknown. Spores formed singly in soil or rarely in roots. Spores

formed on bulbous suspensor cell arising from subtending hyphae (sporophore).

Spores with one wall consist of three layers: a unit, semi-persistent to persistent outer

layer, a laminate middle layer and a thin inner germinal layer. The germinal layer has

multiple, irregularly arranged germ pores. Most of the germ pores produce germ

tubes, which penetrate the spore wall and branch profusely in the soil. Axillary cells

round, spiny, with nodulous elevations. Form arbuscular mycorrhiza, vesicles

unknown.

Type genus: Gigaspora Gerd. & Trappe emend. C. Walker & F.E. Sanders

This family represents with a single genus.

The genus Gigaspora

Gigaspora Gerd. & Trappe emend. C. Walker & F.E. Sanders, Mycotaxon 27: 179,

1986.

Gigaspora Gerd. & Trappe, Mycologia Memoirs 5: 25, 1974

Azygospores produced singly in the soil, large, generally globose to

subglobose, with oily contains, borne laterally on the bulbous suspensor like cells,

usually with a narrow hyphae extending from the suspensor cells of the spores. Spore

wall continuous except for a small occluded pore. Germ tube produced directly

through the walls near spore base. Auxillary cells solitary or in clusters on coiled

hyphae. Forming endomycorrhizae with arbuscules.

Type species: G. gigantea (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) Gerd. & Trappe

98

Key to the species of the genus Gigaspora

1. Spores rosy pink in colour … G. rosea

1. Spores not so … 2

2. Spores yellowish pale to orange in colour … G. decipiens

2. Spores golden yellow to yellowish brown … G. ramisporophora


Gigaspora decipiens I.R. Hall & L.K. Abbott, Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 83: 203,

1984.

Plate-25:1-3

Hyphae pale yellow, up to 6µm broad, subtending hyphae simple, light

brown, up to 10 µm broad. Spores produced singly on the apex of bulbous

suspensor cells, globose to rarely irregular, colorless, yellow, pale yellow to light

brown, 300-460 µm in diam. Spore wall 2-3 layered, layers inseparable, 25-35 µm

thick, outer wall layer brittle, separable with difficulty from inner layers, outer two

layers are subequal, inner layers very thin. Bulbous suspensor cells up to 55 µm in

daim., with one or more laterally attached hyphae, auxiliary cells solitary to

clustered, spherical to oval, 30-50 µm in diam.

Materials examined: Isolated from the rhizosphere soil of Nothapodytes

nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. (Icacinaceae), Ponmudi, Thiruvananthapuram, March

4, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.239; September 29, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide

No.240; Padinharathara, Wayanad, September 16, 2008, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.

236; Pot No.206.

Gigaspora ramisporophora Spain, Sieverd. & N.C. Schenck, Mycotaxon 34(2): 668,

1989.

Plate-25:4-6

99

Hyphae sub hyaline to pale yellow, up to 10µm broad, subtending hyphae

septate, simple, branched, with 1-3 suspensor cells, light brown, 9-14 µm broad, wall

up to 3 µm thick. Spores produced singly on the apex of bulbous suspensor cells,

predominantly globose, often subglobose, smooth, golden yellow to yellowish brown,

150-400 x 200-450 µm. Spore wall three layered, 9-20 µm thick. Outer layer hyaline

to subhyaline, brittle, up to 4 µm thick, continuous with outer layer of suspensor cell

and usually adherent to middle layer. Middle layer yellow to yellowish brown, 4-25

µm thick, adherent to inner layer; inner layer yellow to yellowish brown, up to 3 µm

thick. Suspensor cells globose to ovate, 60-80 x 40-60 µm in diam., usually with three

walls, 6-10 µm thick; outer and middle walls hyaline; innermost wall brown.

Auxiliary cells round to clavate.


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble (Apiaceae), Mattupetty, Idukki, June 18, 2007,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 237; Devikulam, Idukki, July 27, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT

slide No.238; Munnar, Idukki, March 2, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 241; Pot

No.207.

Gigaspora rosea Nicol. & N.C. Schenck, Mycologia 71:190, 1979.

Plate-26:1-3

Hyphae subhyaline to pale yellow, up to 9 µm broad. Subtending hyphae

subhyaline to yellowish brown, thin walled, 7-14 µm broad, hyphal walls 1-2 µm

thick, septate. Spores produced singly on the apex of bulbous suspensor cell, globose

to subglobose, 230-305 µm in diam., creamy with a rose-pink tint up to half the spore

from the hyphal attachment, coloration variable. Wall five layered, compact,

inseparable, 2-7 µm thick. Outer layer of the wall smooth. Suspensor cells mostly

spherical, occasionally subglobose, 28-40 µm in diam. Auxiliary cells in clusters of 5-

12, produced on coiled hyphae, 19-32 µm wide, echinulate, spines up to 0.5 µm

long and up to 2.5 µm wide.


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble (Apiaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, Nov.7,

2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 211; Devikulam, Idukki, June 21, 2007, M.C. Riju

100

TBGT slide No. 212; Munnar, Idukki, Nov. 9, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.213;

Mattupetty, Idukki, Feb. 26, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.214; Pot No.208.

101

The family Diversisporaceae

Diversisporaceae C. Walker & A. Schüßler, in Walker & Schüßler, Mycol. Res. 108

(9): 981, 2004.

This is the family is segregated from Glomaceae in having different pattern of

the production of the spores. Spores produced either in Sporocarps or as singly.

Type genus: Diversispora C. Walker & A. Schüßler

This family has three genera, namely, Diversispora, Octospora and

Redeckera. However, the present study represents the genus Redeckera only.

The genus Redeckera

Redeckera C. Walker & A. Schüßler, Gloucester, p.44, 2010.

Producing glomoid spores in a large Sporocarps possessing peridium.

Type species: Redeckera megalocarpum (D. Redecker) C. Walker & A.

Schüßler


Redeckera fulvum (Berk. & Broome) C. Walker & A. Schüßler, Gloucester, p.44,

2010.

Glomus fulvum (Berk. & Broome) Trappe & Gerd., Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts

Sci.57:291, 1922.

Paurocotylis fulva Bereley, J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 14(2): 137, 1873.

Endogone moelleri Henn., Hedwigia 36: 211, 1897.

Endogone lignicola Patouillard, Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 18(2): 183, 1902,

Endogone fulva (Berk. & Broome) Patouillard, Bull. Soc. Mycol. France.19:

341, 1903,

Endogone pulvinata Henn., Hedwigia 36: 212, 1897.

Plate-27:1-6

Hyphae light brown, up to 9 µm wide. Spores produced individually in masses

or in Sporocarps; spore mass or Sporocarps dark brown to black, 1-10 mm in diam.,

peridium white and floccose, turning brownish at maturity, the color deepening from

tawny to chestnut brown when handled, often peridium absent by exposing the naked

102

spore-mass. Spores oblong, elliptical to oval, vary in colour, 50-125 x 45-75 µm,

attachment sub-lateral.


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble (Apiaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22,

2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 162; Mattupetty, Idukki, February 26, 2007, M.C.

Riju TBGT slide No. 163; Munnar, Idukki, March 2, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide

No.164; Pot No. 217.

103

The family Racocetraceae

Racocetraceae Oehl, Sieverd. & F.A. Souza, Mycotaxon106: 333, 2008.

Spores formed singly on bulbous suspensor cells which are formed terminally

on subtending hyphae that arise from mycelial hyphae. Subtending hyphae of the

suspensor cell several septate below the suspensor cell. Spores two to three walled.

Each walls having one to several layers. Germination shield arises on the outer

surface or beneath the thin outer layer of the inner wall; germination shield hyaline to

sub hyaline, seldom light yellow, oval, ellipsoid to subglobose, 4 to12 lobed, wavelike

projections arise from the outer surface of the shield, folds separate the lobes into

compartment, each compartment possess germ pore, one to two germ tubes arise and

penetrate the middle and the outer wall of the spore. Auxiliary cell are knobby,

without spin on the surface. This forms typical arbuscular mycorrhizae, vesicle

unknown.

Type genus: Racocetra Oehl, F.A. Souza & Sieverd.

This family comprises two genera, namely, Racocetra and Cetraspora and the

present study reveals only the former genus.

The genus Racocetra

Racocetra Oehl, F.A. Souza & Sieverd. Mycotaxon 106: 334, 2008.

Spores formed singly on bulbous suspensor cell, which arise terminally on

mycelial hyphae. Outer spore wall three layered and continuous with walls of the

suspensor cells. Outer layer of the outer spore wall semi persistent to persistent, rigid;

second layer laminate; third layer thin and membranous, tightly adherent to the

laminate layer, pore between spore and suspensor cell narrow and the plug formed

by spore wall material. A single inner wall has 2- 3 layers. Germination shield arises

on the outer surface beneath a thin outer layer of the inner wall, hyaline, subhyaline

to yellow, oval, ellipsoid to subglobose, several (4-12) lobed projections formed on

the outer surface of the shield, folds separate the lobes on the shield, each lobe

possess germ pore (2-5 µm in diam.), germ tube arise and penetrates the outer wall.

Subtending hyphae of the suspensor cell one to several septate, septa formed below

104

the suspensor cell. Auxiliary cells knobby without spine on the surface. Form typical

arbuscular mycorrhizae, vesicles unknown.

Type species: Racocetra coralloidea (Trappe, Gerd. & I. Ho) Oehl Souza &

Sieverd.

Description to the species.

Racocetra verrucose (Koske &Walker) Sieverd., Souza & Oehl, Mycotaxon 106:

337, 2008.

Scutellospora verrucose (Koske & Walker) Walker & Sanders, Mycotaxon

27: 181.1986

Gigaspora verrucosa Koske & Walker, Mycologia 77(5): 705, 1985.

Plate-26:4-6

Hyphae subhyaline, up to 6 µm broad, subtending hyphae 11 µm in wide.

Spores formed singly, terminally to lateral on a bulbous suspensor cell, globose to

subglobose, pale yellow, yellow to orange-brown, 220-450 µm diam.; three walled,

outer wall ornamented, tightly adherent to an inner laminated wall, brittle, hyaline

to pale yellow, 2-4 µm thick; second wall pale yellow to orange-brown, translucent,

3-10 µm thick; inner wall single layered, membranous, hyaline, up to 1 µm thick.

Germination shield arise on the outer surface of the inner wall, hyaline to light

yellow, oval, ellipsoid to subglobose, 4-8 lobed, germ pores many. Suspensor cells

oval, 50-85 x 35-70 µm, honey yellow to yellowish brown, septum laid to separate

it from the hyphae. Auxiliary cells in clusters of 20, pale yellowish brown, sub

conical to irregular, 25-35 µm in diam.


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble (Apiaceae), Vagamon, Idukki, March 2, 2007

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 216; June 17, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 242; July

26, 2008, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 243; Pot No. 209.

105

The family Scutellosporaceae

Scutellosporaceae Sieverd., F.A. Souza & Ohel, Mycotaxon 106: 330, 2008.

Sporocarps unknown. Spores formed singly on bulbous suspensor cells that

are formed terminally on subtending hyphae that arise from mycelium; three walled;

an outer, a middle and inner wall. Outer wall one to many layered, middle wall 1-2

layered and inner wall multi layered. Germination shield on the outer surface of the

inner wall or between the outer and the subsequent layer of the inner wall, hyaline,

subhyaline to pale yellow, 1-2-lobed, violin shaped, oval, ovoid, cardioid, circular,

folds few, germ pores two, a germ tube arises from single germ pore and penetrates

outer spore walls. Subtending hyphae septate below the suspensor cell. Auxiliary cells

knobby without spines on the surface, form arbuscular mycorrhizae; vesicles

unknown.

Type genus: Scutellospora C. Walker & F. E. Sanders. emend. Oehl, F. A.

Souza &Sieverd.

This family represents here with a single genus Scutellospora.

The genus Scutellospora

Scutellospora C. Walker & F. E.Sanders. emend. Oehl, F. A. Souza & Sieverd,

Mycotaxon 106: 330, 2008

Scutellospora Walker & Sanders, Mycotaxon 27: 179, 1986.

Sporocarps unknown. Spores formed on bulbous suspensor cells that formed

terminally on hyphae which arise from mycelial hyphae; spore wall generally three

layered, continuous with wall of the bulbous suspensor cell; outer layer rigid, second

layer laminate and third layer thin, membranous and tightly adherent to the laminate

layer. Pore between the spore and suspensor cell is narrow and usually closed by the

plug formed by spore wall. Germination shield transparent, hyaline to sub hyaline,

often light yellow, bi-lobed, violin-shaped, oval, ovoid, rarely cardioids, circular,

broadly ellipsoid to irregular; folds few, 1-2 germ pores rounded, 2-4 µm in diam.,

germ tubes penetrate the outer wall layers. Hyphae below the suspensor cell are

106

septate. Auxiliary cells knobby without spines on the surface. Form arbuscular

mycorrhizae, vesicles unknown.

Type species: S. calospora (Nicolson & Gerdemann) Walker & Sanders

Key to the species

1. Auxiliary cells in clusters ... S.aurigloba

1. Auxiliary cells solitary ... S. calospora


Scutellospora aurigloba (Hall) C. Walker & Sanders, Mycotaxon 27:180.1986;

emend. Walker & Hall, Mycol. Res. 95: 400, 1991.

Gigaspora aurigloba Hall, Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 68(3): 351, 1977.

Plate-28:1-6

Hyphae hyaline, up to 12 µm broad, walls of suspending hyphae 2-6 µm

thick, yellow to light brown. Spores produced singly on the apex of bulbous

suspensor cells. Globose to polymorphic, pale yellow, transparent and shining when

young, turning yellow at maturity, 280 x 330 µm in diam.; wall two layered, outer

wall colored, 10-15 µm thick, inner walls colorless to yellow, up to 1 µm thick.

Suspensor cells bulbous, 40-70 µm in diam. Auxiliary cells pale yellow to light

brown, up to 100 µm diam., borne in loose clusters, echinulate to knobby.



Thiruvananthapuram, October13, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 172; July5, 2008,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 259; Pot No. 230.

Scutellospora calospora (Nicolson & Gerdemann) Walker & Sanders, Mycotaxon 27:

180, 1986.

Endogone calospora Nicolson & Gerdemann Mycologia, 60(2) 322, 1968.

Gigaspora calospora (Nicolson & Gerdemann) Gerdemann & Trappe,

Mycologia Memoirs 5:28, 1974.

Plate-29:1-6

107

Hyphae hyaline to pale yellow, up to 7 µm broad. Spores produced singly on

the apex of bulbous suspensor cell, globose, ellipsoidal to oblong, pale yellow to

greenish yellow, 150-285 x 165-360 µm; wall 3- 5 µm thick, walls four in two groups,

Group A consisting of an outer thin, hyaline wall, up to 1 µm thick, inner wall brittle,

hyaline to pale yellow, very finely laminated, 3-5 µm thick, Group B with two walls,

hyaline, membranous; wall 3 up to 1 µm thick, wrinkled in crushed spores; wall 4

up to 2 µm thick. Suspensor cells 33-48 µm diam., bulbous, wall concolorous with

spore wall, thin, up to 4 µm thick. Auxiliary cells 23-33 µm diam., subglobose,

hyaline to pale brownish yellow, thin walled, smooth, subglobose to somewhat

irregular, knobby, borne singly on coiled hyphae.


annulare (Roxb.) Schumann. (Asclepiadaceae), Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, June

23, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 173; November 22, 2008, M.C. Riju TBGT slide

No. 183; Mylamoodu, Thiruvananthapuram, August 25, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide

No. 185; Pot No. 231.

108

The Order Glomerales

Glomerales J.B. Morton & Benny, Mycotaxon 37: 471, 1990 (as Glomales).

These are vesicular and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Spores produced singly

in layers or in Sporocarps, vary in shape, contents oily to granular, spore wall one to

many layered.

Type family: Glomaceae Piroz. & Dalpe

This order having two families, namely, Claroideoglomeraceae and

Glomeraceae

Key to the families of Glomerales

1. Outer spore wall evanescent at maturity … Claroideoglomeraceae

1. Outer spore wall persistent at maturity … Glomeraceae

The family Claroideoglomeraceae

Claroideoglomeraceae C. Walker, & A. Schüßler, Gloucester, p. 21, 2010.

Produce glomoid spores in the substrate or in decaying roots, outer wall

evanescent at maturity. Form arbuscular mycorrhizae.

Type genus: Claroideoglomus C Walker & A. Schüßler

This is a monogeneric family.

The Genus Claroideoglomus

Claroideoglomus C. Walker, & A. Schüßler, Gloucester 21: 23, 2010.

Produce glomoid spores in the substrate or in decaying roots, outer spore wall

evanescent, inner walls semi-flexible and form an endospore at maturity. Form

arbuscular mycorrhizae.

Type species: Claroideoglomus claroideum (N.C. Schenck & G.S. Sm.) C.

Walker & A. Schüßler

109


Claroideoglomus etunicatum (W.N. Becker & Gerd.) C. Walker & A. Schüßler,

Gloucester p. 22, 2010.

Glomus etunicatum W. N. Becker & Gerd., Mycotaxon 6: 29, 1977 .

Plate-30:1-6

Hyphae hyaline to pale, straw yellow, up to 10 µm broad. Spores formed

singly in soil or in dead roots, globose to subglobose, 75-150 µm in diam., smooth to

rough; wall 4-13 µm thick, composed of an outer hyaline wall up to 5 µm thick,

evanescent at maturity but rarely intact, inner wall persistent, yellow to brown,

laminate, up to 6 µm thick, darkening and becoming laminate with age, outer wall

extending down attached hypha for a short distance. Spores often with one to rarely

two hyphal attachments. Subtending hypha thickened by extension of inner spore

wall, up to 30 µm diam., spore contents separated from attached hypha by a thin

curved septum at maturity, opening occluded by inner wall thickening.

Material examined: Isolated from the rhizosphere soil of Nothapodytes

nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. (Icacinaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, July 28, 2007,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 187; Ponmudi, Thiruvananthapuram, September 29,

2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 188; Padinharathara, Wayanad, March 15, 2007,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide. No. 189; Munnar, Idukki, November 9, 2006, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No.190; Pot No. 213.

110

The family Glomeraceae

Glomeraceae Piroz. & Dalpe (as Glomaceae) emend. C. Walker & A. Schüßler,

Gloucester p.7, 2010.

Glomaceae Piroz. & Dalpe, Symbiosis 7: 1, 1989

Spores produced terminally from fertile hyphae, glomoid, single, in clusters,

often in Sporocarps, peridium full or partial. Arbuscules and vesicles formed,

auxiliary cells absent.

Type genus: Glomus Tul. & C. Tul. emend. C. Walker & Schubler

This family has four genera, namely, Rhizophagus, Sclerocystis, Funneliformis

and Glomus. However, the present study reveals only three genera.

Key to the genera

1. Sporocarps only with spores radiating

from a central core of hyphae … Sclerocystis

1. Sporocarps not with radiating cells … 2

2. Spores with funnel shaped spore base, covered

with entire or partial coarse mycelial mantle … Funneliformis

2. Spores not so … Glomus

The genus Funneliformis

Funneliformis C. Walker & A. Schüßler, Gloucester, p. 13, 2010

Spores both ectocarpic and endocarpic, endocarpic spores 1 to 20 in the

Sporocarps, coloured; ectocarpic spores formed singly or in loose clusters. Spores

often with a funnel shaped spore base. Spore wall with two or three layered. Outer

wall colorless, disappears as the spore matures. Spores normally occluded by a

septum in the subtending hypha distal to the spore base. Forming arbuscular

mycorrhizae.

Type species: Funneliformis mosseae (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) C.

Walker & A. Schüßler

../../../Documents%20and%20Settings/user/Desktop/Riju%20thesis/MycoTaxo.aspx%3fLink=T&Rec=542895

111

Key to the species

1. Spores wall two layered … F. constrictum

1. Spores wall three layered … F. geosporam


Funneliformis constrictum (Trappe) C. Walker & Schüßler, Gloucester, p. 14, 2010

Glomus constrictus Trappe, Mycotaxon 6:359, 1977.

Plate-31:1&2

Hyphae sub hyaline to light yellow, up to 8 µm broad. Spores naked or

partially covered with mycelial net, formed singly or in loose clusters, subglobose

to globose, dark brown to black, shiny, 160-200 µm diam., wall smooth, 7-13 µm

thick, one to two layered, dark brown; spore base straight, often funnel shaped;

attachment occluded by spore wall thickening; spore contents with oil globules of

widely varying sizes; attached hyphae straight to recurved, wall at the point of

attachment dark brown, 3-6 µm thick; hyphae constricted just beyond the point of

attachment, up to 10-17 µm broad. The inflated portion of the subtending hyphae

up to 15-30 µm broad; wall yellow to yellowish brown, 2-3 µm thick; often with

several hyaline to yellow, fragile, thin walled hyphae, 5-7µm broad.

Materials examined: Isolated from the rhizosphere soil of Celastrus

paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, July 28, 2007, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No. 217; Ponmudi, Thiruvananthapuram, September 29, 2007, M.C.

Riju TBGT slide No. 247; Padinharathara, Wayanad, March 15, 2007, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide. No. 246; Pot No. 212.

Funneliformis geosporum (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) C. Walker & Schüßler,

Gloucester, p. 14, 2010.

Endogone macrocarpa (Tul. & Tul.) Tul. & Tul. var. geospora T.H.

Nicolson & Gerd., Mycologia 60:318, 1968.

Glomus geosporum (T.H. Nicolson & Gerd.) C. Walker, Mycotaxon 15:49,

1982

112

Glomus macrocarpum Tul. & C. Tul. var. geosporum (T.H. Nicolson &

Gerd.) Gerd. & Trappe, Mycologia Memoir No. 5: 55, 1974.

Plate-31:3&4

Hyphae straw yellow coloured, up to 12µm broad. Sporocarps unknown.

Spores formed singly, globose, subglobose to broadly ellipsoidal, 100-300 µm in

diam., smooth, shining to dull in appearance, light yellow, brown, dark, yellowish

brown to dark reddish brown at maturity, spore wall 4-18 µm thick, 3-layered with

a thin hyaline tightly adherent outer wall, wall layers easily observed in young

spores. Middle wall yellow, brown to reddish brown, laminated, 3-16 µm thick,

inner wall yellow to yellowish brown; walls often becoming perforated with age.


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble (Apiaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, June 17,

2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 167; Devikulam, Idukki, July 27, 2006, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No. 186; Munnar, Idukki, November 9, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide

No.175; Pot No.218.

113

The genus Glomus

Glomus Tulasne & Tulasne emend. C. Walker & Schüßler, Gloucester, p. 7,

2010

Glomus Tulasne & Tulasne, Goirn. Bot. Ital. 2(Pt.1): 63, 1845

Parapseudoglomus S.P. Gautam & U.S. Patel, The Mycorrhizae, Diversity,

ecology and applications (Delhi): 11, 2007.

Spores glomoid, produced terminally on undifferentiated, non-gamitangial

hyphae, solitary, in clusters or produced in Sporocarps. Peridium complete or

imcomplete. Spore contents at maturity separated from attached hyphae by a

septum or occluded by spore wall thickening.

Type species: Glomus microcarpum Tulasne & Tulasne (microcarpus)

Key to the species Glomus

1. Spores produced in Sporocarps … 2

1. Spores formed singly … 3

2. Sporocarps formed as loose clusters … 5

2. Sporocarps solitary … 9

3. Spores with only one hyphal attachment … G. invermaium

3. Spores with one to four hyphal attachments … 4

4. Hyphal attachments at one end of spore … G. multisubtensum

4. Hyphal attachments at many places … G. multicaule

5. Sporocarps formed by interwoven hyphae … 6

5. Sporocarps formed not so … 8

6. Spores with only two hyphal attachment … G. glomarulatum

6. Spores with multiple hyphal attachments (1-4) … 7

7. Attached hyphae fused together … G. formosanum

7. Attached hyphae not so … G. heterosporum

8. Hyphae at the point of attachment 4.8-12 µm broad … G. aggregatum

8. Hyphae at the point of attachment 20-25µm broad … G. australe

9. Spore ovate, oblong, often slightly constricted at the middle… G. flavisporum

9. Spores usually taper at the point of attachment … G. macrocarpum

114


Glomus aggregatum N.C. Schenck & Smith emend. Koske, Mycologia 77: 619,

1985.

Plate-31:4&5

Hyphae hyaline to subhyaline, up to 8 µm broad, 8-12 µm wide at the point of

attachment of the spore. Spores formed in loose clusters or in Sporocarps without

peridium; Sporocarps hyaline to light yellow with a greenish tint, becoming yellow

with age. 660-1500 x 330-1000 µm. Spores globose, subglobose, obovate, cylindrical

to irregular, hyaline to yellow, 73-105 x 60-85 µm in diam; wall yellow to yellowish

brown, 1-3 µm thick, outer walls slightly thicker and lighter than the inner wall; walls

separable with slight pressure and most apparent in stained preparations.

Material examined: Isolated from the rhizosphere soil of Celastrus

paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, November 8, 2006, M.C.

Riju TBGT slide No. 166; Padinharathara, Wayanad, September 16, 2008, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No. 217. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schumann. (Asclepiadaceae)

Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, April 28, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 244; from

the rhizosphere soil of Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. Munnar, Idukki,

July 29, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 215; Pot No. 210.

Glomus australe (Berk.) Berch, Can. J. Bot. 61:2608, 1983.

Endogone australis Berk. in Hook., Bot. Antarct. Voy. 3:282,1880.

Plate-32:1-8

Hyphae sub hyaline to light yellow, up to 15 µm broad, the subtending hypha

at the point of attachment to the spore thick walled, 20-45 µm broad. Sporocarps

Reniform, 7 x 5x 3mm, epigeous, white when fresh, brown to black when dried.

Spores formed in loose clusters, each cluster arises from a central, branched,

somewhat in flat hyphae, 130- 165 µm in diam., wall two layered; outer wall hyaline

to pale yellow, up to 4 µm thick; inner wall light to dark brown, 7-12 µm thick,

continuous in the subtending hyphae. Pore in the subtending hypha remains open.

115


paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22, 2006, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No.216; February 28, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 225; June 18,

2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.245; Pot No. 211.

Glomus flavisporum (M. Lange & Lund) Trappe & Gerd., Friesia 5: 90, 1955.

Plate-33:5-8

Hyphae subhyaline to light brown, up to 7 µm wide. Sporocarps globose, up

to 5 mm in diam, lobed; peridium whitish brown at maturity, gleba yellowish to dark

brown. Peridium of thick, brown hyphae mixed with vesiculae; vesiculae very few in

the central part of gleba; spores irregularly arranged; glebal hyphae branched, 6-12

µm broad, walls thin. Spores ovate to oblong, often slightly constricted at the middle,

rarely sub globose, 165-200 x 100-140 µm, wall deep yellowish brown, 6-13 µm

thick, outer layer thin, somewhat lamellate, hardly incrusted, content paler, bright

yellowish, granular; stipe simple, 10-13 µm thick.


paniculatus (Celastraceae) Willd., Padinharathara, Wayanad, September 20, 2008,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 249; May 18, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 248;

Munnar, Idukki, November 9, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 222. Pot No. 215.

Glomus formosanum Wu & Chen, Taiwania 31:65, 1986.

Plate-33:1-4

Hyphae pale yellow to honey yellow, up to 9 µm broad; subtending hyphae 1-

4 in numbers, 7-18 µm broad, with opening at the attachment, occluded by spore wall

thickening, two nearby attached hyphae fused together or closely separated at the

attachment. Spores produced in Sporocarps or in aggregates without peridium.

Sporocarps yellowish brown to reddish brown, globose, subglobose to irregular, 360-

500 x 450-500 µm, peridium composed of septate, thin walled, loosely interwoven

hyphae, up to 10 µm broad. Spores globose to sub globose, 82-125 x 95-135 µm

116

diam., yellowish brown to reddish brown; Spore wall single, yellowish brown to

reddish brown, 5- 12 µm thick, thickest at attachment, up to 20 µm broad, surface

smooth.



TBGT slide No. 206; Ponmudi, Thiruvananthapuram, July 14, 2007 M.C. Riju TBGT

slide No.207; Padinharathara, Wayanad, May 19, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.

208. Munnar, Idukki, November 9, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 250; Pot No.

216.

Glomus glomerulatum Sieverd., Mycotaxon 29:73, 1987.

Plate-34:1-4

Hyphae up to 6 µm broad. Sporocarps dark brown, without peridium, become

compact with age, globose, subglobose, rectangular, flattened or some times

irregular in shape, surface knobby, 330 x 460 µm diam., formed by the interwoven

hyaline hyphae, 2-6 µm in diam., walls up to 0.5 µm thick. Spores in the sporocarps

are clustered in the mycelium and embedded in an unordered gleba, globose to

subglobose, 40-70 µm diam., yellow to brown; wall consists of two walls in one

group; yellow to brown, laminated and 4-9 µm thick, the spore surface smooth;

second wall hyaline, membranous, up to 0.5 µm thick and adherent to first wall.

Chlamydospores formed in sporocarps, have two hyphal attachment at irregular

distance along the hypha; hyphal attachments yellow to brown, 5-7 µm broad, straight

to recurved; hyphal attachment pore 1-2 µm in diam. and are closed by the second

wall or by a septum. Spore contents hyaline, oily. Forms vesicular arbuscular

mycorrhizae.


paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae), Munnar, Idukki, November 9, 2006, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No.251; July 25, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.252; Pot No. 219.

117

Glomus heterosporum Smith & N.C. Schenck, Mycologia 77: 566, 1985.

Plate-34:5-8

Hypha yellow, 5-31µm wide at point of spore attachment. Sporocarps solitary

to aggregated, maturing asynchronously by budding from a suspensor cell, light

brown, globose to subglobose, 242-726 x 242-620 µm, consisting of a single, ordered

layer of spores, peridium absent; spores produced in sporocarps, originating from a

central core of thick interwoven hyphae, obovoid to ellipsoid, occasionally globose,

99-206 x 61-201µm, dark brown; walls distinctly two in numbers, inner wall

laminate, brown, 3-10 µm thick, outer wall smooth, hyaline, 2-7 µm thick,

evanescent at maturity. Spores frequently with multiple hyphal attachments. Hyphal

attachment frequently branched. Spore contents hyaline, non-globular, separated by a

septum.



TBGT slide No. 151; Ponmudi, Thiruvananthapuram, September 29, 2007, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No152; Padinharathara, Wayanad, May 14, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide

No. 161; Munnar, Idukki, July 25, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 155; Pot No. 220.

Glomus invermaium I.R. Hall, Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 68: 341, 1977.

Plate-35:5

Hyphae hyaline to light brown, up to 7 µm broad, subtending hyphae up to

10 µm broad. Spores hypogenous, globose, 50-85 µm in diam., yellow, light brown

to brown, formed in loose sporocarps, peridium absent, spore wall double layered,

outer layer colorless, 1-2 µm thick, inner wall light brown, 3-6 µm, outer wall

extending down to the subtending hyphae.


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble (Apiaceae) Vagamon, Kottayam, March 2,

2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.253; Munnar, Idukki, November 9, 2006, M.C. Riju

118

TBGT slide No.254; Mattupetty, Idukki, June 18, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.

255; Pot No. 221.

Glomus macrocarpum Tulasne, & Tulasne, Giornale botanico Italiano 2(1): 63,

1845.

Endogone macrocarpa (Tul. & Tul.) Tul. & Tul,. Fungi Hypogaei, P.182,

1851.

Endogone guttulata Fischer, Berichte Schweiz bot. Ges. 32:13, 1923.

Endogone nuda Petch, Annals of the Royal Botanic Gardens Peradeniya 9(3):

322, 1925.

Plate-35:1-4

Hyphae yellow to light brown, up to 12 µm broad, subtending hyphae up to 15

µm broad. Sporocarps globose, subglobose, elongate to irregular, 10x10 mm in diam.

Spores sub globose, globose to irregular, 70-150 x 75-120 µm in diam.; spore wall

composed of two distinct layers: outer layer thin, hyaline, 1-2 µm thick in water or

glycerol mount, swell enormously in lactic acid mount. Inner wall layer yellow, 6-12

µm thick, laminated, rarely seen as two layers, swell slightly in lactic acid. Spores

taper towards the attachment, attachment hyphae single and persistent, wall

thickening continues into the subtending hyphae, subtending hyphae up to 90 µm

long from the spore proper. The pore closed by a thinner septum.


nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. (Icacinaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, June 17, 2007,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No170; Ponmudi, Thiruvananthapuram, September 22,

2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No170; Pot No. 222.

Glomus multicaule Gerd. & Bakshi, Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 66:340, 1976.

Plate-36:1-3

Hyphae light brown, up to 12 µm broad. Sporocarps unknown,

chlamydospores ellipsoidal, broadly elliptical, subglobose to rarely triangular, dark

brown, 140-250 x 120-180 µm in diam., attached with 1-4 hyphal attachments,

119

attachments at opposite ends of spores. Spore wall 8-30 µm thick at the point of

attachments.


paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, February 28, 2007, M.C.

Riju TBGT slide No. 167; Padinharathara, Wayanad, May19, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT

slide No. 219; Pot No. 223.

Glomus multisubtensum Mukerji, Bhattacharjee & Tewari, Trans. Brit. Mycol.

Soc. 81: 641, 1983.

Plate-36:4-6

Hyphae hyaline to pale yellow, thin walled, 5-7 µm broad. Subtending

hyphae 2-4 in number, attached at one end of the spore, hyaline, pale yellow, thin

walled, 10-15 µm wide at the point of attachment, tapering, 20-25 µm long,

branched. Spores formed singly or in compact clusters of 5-8, globose, light brown,

100-150 µm diam., wall 10-15 µm thick with two inseparable layers; outer layer

10-12 µm thick, brown; inner layer up to 4 µm thick, pale yellowish brown.


paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae), Munnar, Idukki, July 25, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT

slide No. 257; Pot No. 224.

120

The genus Sclerocystis

Sclerocystis Berkeley & Broome, J. Linn. Soc. Bot. London 14:137. 1873.

Forming glomoid spores in sporocarps with a peridium, arranged side by side

in a single layer, elongate, radiating from a sterile central plexus of mycelium.

Type species: Sclerocystis coremioides Berkeley & broome.


Sclerocystis rubiformis Gerd. & Trappe, Mycol. Mem. 5:76, 1974.

Glomus rubiforme (Gerd. & Trappe) R.T. Almeida & N.C. Schenk, Mycologia

82(6): 709, 1990.

Sclerocystis indica Bhattacharjee & Mukerji in Bhattacharjee, Mukerji &

Misra, Acta Botanica indica 8: 99, 1980.

Sclerocystis pachycaulis C.G. Wu & Z.C. Chen, Taiwania 31: 74, 1986.

Plate-37:1-6

Hyphae hyaline to light yellow, up to 9 µm broad. Sporocarps dark brown,

subglobose to ellipsoid, 150-175 x 190-410 µm, consisting of a single layer of

chlamydospores surrounding a central plexus of hyphae. Peridium absent, individual

spores at times partially enclosed in a thin network of tightly appressed hyphae.

Chlamydospores dark brown, obovoid, ellipsoid to subglobose, 30-40 x 80-100 µm,

with a small pore opening into the thick walled subtending hyphae. Spore wall

laminate, 3-8 µm thick, up to 12 µm thick at spore base, often perforated projections

on the inner surface. A variable stalk-like projection produced near the base of some

spores. Hyphal attachment simple, thickening of wall extended along subtending

hyphae. Pore occluded at maturity.


nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. (Icacinaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22,

2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 159; June 17, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.

204; Ponmudi, Thiruvananthapuram, November 24, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide

No.203; May 19, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 199; Munnar, Idukki,

November 9, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 95; July 25, 2007, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No. 59; Padinharathara, Wayanad, September 20, 2008, M.C. Riju

121

TBGT slide No. 205. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schumann, Palode,

Thiruvananthapuram, March 22, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 218; Pot No.

225.

122

The order Archaeosporales

Archaeosporales C. Walker & A. Schüßler in Schubler, D. Schwarzott & Walker,

Mycol. Res. 105(2): 1418, 2001.

These are the group of fungi produce dimorphic spores of both glomoid and

acaulosporoid.

Type family: Archaeosporaceae J. B. Morton & D. Redecker

This order having three families, namely, Ambisporaceae, Archaeosporaceae

and Geosiphonaceae. However, the present study represents only one genus of the

family Ambisporaceae.

The family Ambisporaceae

Ambisporaceae C. Walker, Vestberg & A. Schüßler in Walker, Vestberg, Demicik,

Stockinger, Saito, Sawaki, Nishmura & Schüßler, Mycol. Res. 111(2): 143,

2007.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi forming glomoid spores, acaulosporoid spores

or both. Glomoid spores lack pigmentation but with a soft, pliable nature resulting in

wrinkling and resistance to fracturing when crushed. Acaulosporoid spores formed in

the neck of a hyaline, subhyaline to whitish sporiferous saccule, often on a short

pedicel resulting in a glomoid appearance once detached from the collapsed saccule.

Separated from other families in the Archaeosporales by it srDNA characteristics.

Type genus: Ambispora C. Walker et al.

The present study represents a single genus.

The genus Ambispora

Ambispora C. Walker, Vestberg & Schüßler in Walker, Vestberg, Demicik,

Stockinger, Saito, Sawaki, Nishmura & Schüßler, Mycol. Res. 111(2): 148,

2007.

Spores glomoid and or acaulosporoid spores are formed. Glomoid spores

formed singly or in loose clusters, pliable, the pore of the subtending hyphae may not

be plugged by the septum. Sporiferous saccule soft, pliable, formed blastically from a

123

hyphal tip, septum formed at maturity. Acaulosporoid spores formed laterally from

the neck of the sporiferous saccule; spore wall of two or three groups. Outermost wall

continuous with the saccule wall. Form arbuscular mycorrhizas. Separated from other

genera in the Archaeosporales by its rDNA characteristics

Type species: Ambispora fennica C. Walker et al.

This genus represents with a single species in the present study


Ambispora fecundispora (N.C. Schenck & G.S. Smith) C. Walker 2008.

Glomus fecundisporum N.C. Schenck & Smith, Mycologia 74:77, 1982.

Appendicispora fecundispora C. Walker, Vestberg & Schüßler, Mycol. Res.

111: 254, 2007.

Plate-38:1-6

Hyphae 12-22 µm broad. Subtending hyphae 7-22 µm broad, wall up to-2 µm

thick, pore opening 6-14 µm in diam., occluded at maturity. Sporocarps unknown.

Spores formed singly or in loose clusters, enmeshed and bound to plant roots in

profuse hyphae, globose, elongate to irregular, 70-150 x100-210 µm, wall sub

hyaline to light yellow, yellowish brown to dark brown or black and laminated at

maturity, up to 8 µm thick, outer surface smooth but roughened at maturity; spore

contents sub hyaline to grayish white.


nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. (Icacinaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, July 28, 2007,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.192; Padinharathara, Wayanad, September 16, 2008,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 200; December 23, 2007 M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.

198; Munnar, Idukki, July 29, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 194, Pot No. 214.

124

NON-MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI

Classification Scheme Soil fungi

Fungi imperfecti Phycomycetes

Moniliales

Mucorales

Cladosporium

Soil fungi

Mucoraceae Dematiaceae Moniliaceae Tuerculariaceae

Mucor Rhizopus

Absidia

Fusarium

Penicillium

Trichoderma

Helminthosporium

Curvularia

Verticillium

Acremonium

Monilia

Aspergillus

125

The study comprises 23 species of soil fungi coming under four different

families in two Orders, namely, Moniliales and Mucorales. The taxa are identified

based on the identification manuals (Subrahmannian, 1971; Burnett, 1962; Gilman,

1967).

Key to the Order

1. Asexual spores produced on conidiophore … Moniliales

1. Asexual spores produced in sporangia … Mucorales

Order Moniliales

Hyphae septate, branched, in or on the substrate, hyaline, conidia produced

from the conidiogenous cells, borne on conidiophores. Conidiophores simple or

variously branched. Conidia formed in many ways on the conidiophores or their

branches, very different in form and color.

Type family: Moniliaceae, Dumort.

The present study comprises three families of the order Moniliales.

Key to the families of the order Moniliaes

1. Hyphae and or conidia are not hyaline … Dematiaceae

1. Hyphae and or conidia are hyaline … 2

2. Conidia are two types … Tuberculiaceae

2. Conidia not so … Moniliaceae

Family Moniliaceae Dumort.

Moniliaceae B.C., Dumortier, Commentationes botanicae: 96, 1822.

Hyphae septate, branched, in or on the substrate, hyaline, conidia produced

from the conidiogenous cells, borne on conidiophores. Conidiophores simple, or

variously branched. Conidia formed in many ways on the conidiophores or their

branches, very different in form and color.

Type genus: Monilia Bonorden

The present study comprises six genera in the family moniliaceae.

126

Key to the Genera

1. Conidiophore simple … 2

1. Conidiophore branched … 4

2. Conidiophore with only one conidia at its tip … Acremonium

2. Conidiophore with large number of conidia … 3

3. Conidiophore with a verticil of branches at its tip … Penicillium

3. Conidiophore with a globose to hemispherical head… Aspergillus

4. Conidiophore verticillate … Verticillium

4. Conidiophore not verticillate … 5

5. Conidia formed as simple or branched chains … Monilia

5. Conidia formed as small terminal clusters at

the tip of phialides … Trichoderma

The genus Acremonium Link

Acremonium Link, Magazin der Gesellschaft Naturforschenden Freunde Berlin 3: 15,

1809.

Hyphae forming a turf, branched, septate, prostrate, possessing side branches

which become erect and serve as conidiophores. Conidia single on the conidiophores,

terminal, hyaline or bright colored, usually ovate, small. Differs from sporotrichum by

the erect, unbranched laterals which bear a single conidium at their tip.

Type Species: Acremonium alternatum Link

The present study comprises only one species.


Acremonium vitis Cattaneo, Arch. Labor. Bot. Critt. Univ. Pavia 2 & 3:59, 1876.

Plate-39:1 & 43:1

Hyphae forming a turf, branched, septate, prostrate, possessing side

branches which become erect and served as conidiophores. Conidia single on the

conidiophores, terminal, hyaline conidia ovate, one celled, 3-4 µm, persistent.


nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. (Icacinaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22,

127

2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.9; Munnar, Idukki, March 2, 2007, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No.22.

128

The genus Aspergillus Micheli ex Haller

Aspergillus Micheli ex Haller, Historia stirpium indigenarum Helvetiae inchoata: 113,

1768.

Vegitative mycelium consisting of separate branching hypgae, colorless.

Conidial apparatus developed as stalks and heads from specialized, enlarged, thick-

walled hyphal cells producing conidiophores as branches approximately perpendicular

to the long axis of the foot cells. Conidiophores nonseptate or septate, usually

enlarging upward and broadening in to elliptical, hemispherical, or globose fertile

vesicles bearing phialides, either parallel and clustered in terminal groups or radiating

from the entire surface. Phialides in one series, or as a primary series, each bearing a

cluster of two to several secondary phialides at the apex. Conidia varying greatly in

color, size, shapes and markings, successively cut off from the tip of the phialides by

cross walls, and forming unbranched chains arranged in to radiate heads or packed in

to columnar masses.

Type Species: Aspergillus glaucus (L.) Link

The present study comprises six species.

Key to the species

1. Conidia smooth … 2

1. Conidia rough … 3

2. Vesicles flask shaped … A. humicola

2. Vesicles typically globose … A. candidus

3. Conidia spinulose … A. nigar

3. Conidia echinulate … 4

4. Phialides borne directly on the vesicles only … 5

4. Phialides borne directly on the vesicles

or on metulae in large heads … A. flavus

5. Vesicles fertile only on the upper half … A. fumigatus

5. Vesicles fertile over the entire suface … A. japonicus

129


Aspergillus candidus, Link ex Fries, Syst. Mycol. 3:385, 1832.

Plate-39:2 & 42:3

Colonies on Czapek‟s solution-agar white, becoming cream to yellowish

cream, thin, vegetative mycelium submerged, surface growth consisting of

conidiophores and heads, sterile mycelium scanty, short-stalked anastomosing

ropes of hyphae bearing fruiting structures. Reverse uncolored. Heads white,

globose, radiate, varying in the same culture from large, globose masses, 100-300

µm in diam. Conidiophores 450-600 µm long. Vesicles typically globose, 35-40

µm in diam. Phialides borne on metulae, 7-12 µm in length; phialides 5-7 x 2-3 µm.

Conidia globose, colourless, smooth, 2-5 µm diam.



Thiruvananthapuram, July 14, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No18.

Aspergillus flavus Link ex Fries System. Mycol. 3:386, 1832.

Plate-39:3 & 42:7

Colonies on Czapek‟s solution-agar slightly floccose in the Margins, sterile

hyphae towards the margin, reveal different colours : sea-foam-yellow through

chartreuse-yellow, citron-green, lime-green to ivy-green; yellow green colours

persistant in old colonies, reverse yellowish at first, becoming brownish later.

Conidial heads ranging from small one with a few chains of conidia to large radiate

or columnar masses in the same culture and varying mixtures of different types and

size of heads. Conidiophores mostly arising from submerged hyphae, 400-1000 x 5-

15µm, wall pitted rough and spiny in appearance, vesicles 10-30 µm, dome like in

small heads, flask shaped in larger heads. Phialides borne directly on the vesicle in

smaller heads, sometimes borne directly on the vesicle and also on metulae in large

heads. Metulae 7-10 x 2-3 µm. Phialides 10-15 x 3-5 µm when borne directly on

the vesicle, 7-10 x 2-3 µm when born on metulae. Conidia pyriform to globose,

colorless to definitely yellowish green, 3-4 x 4-5 µm in diam.

130


annulare (Roxb.) Schumann (Asclepiadaceae), Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, July

28, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No24; Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham)

Mabb., Padinharathara, Wayanad, May 20, 2008, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.46.

Aspergillus fumigatus Fresenius, Beitrage Z. Mykologie p.81, 1841.

Plate-39:4

Colonies dark to dark smoky-green, becoming darker with age, somewhat

velvety, floccose, sporing sparsely, young heads blue-green; conidial heads

columnar, compact, up to 400 µm long, 40 µm wide. Conidiophores crowded,

short, smooth, greenish, arising directly from submerged hyphae, non-septate or

septate, becoming wider above. Vesicles flask shaped, up to 20-30 µm wide,

usually fertile on the upper half. Phialides closely packed and borne directly on the

vesicle, 5-8 x 2-3 µm. Conidia globose, echinulate, mostly 2-3 µm. in diam.


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble (Apiaceae), Vagamon, Idukki, March 2,

2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.1; Celastrus paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae),

Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.36;

Padinharathara, Wayanad, September 16, 2008, M.C. Riju; Munnar, Idukki,

November 9, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.20.

Aspergillus humicola Chaudhuri & Sachar, Ann. Mycol. 32: 97, 1934.

Plate-39:5 & 42:2

Colonies on Czapek‟s Sucrose A spreading broadly, more or less felted or

floccose, rarely zonate, attaining 4.5-6 cm in 15 days, white at first, becoming

grayish, dark drab or olive gray; exudates variable, when produced colorless to

yellow-brown; reverse yellow; conidial heads radiate when young, broadly

columnar at maturity, olive gray; conidiophores arising from the aerial hyphae and

some from the substratum, conidiophores from the submerged hyphae smooth,

sparsely septate, light brown, thin walled, up to 400 x 3-6 µm, conidiophores from

131

aerial hyphae short up to125µm; vesicles hemispherical to subglobose, 7-15 µm in

diam.; Phialides biseriate, pale brown or colorless; metulae 4-7x3-4 µm ; Phialides

5-7 x 2.5-3 µm; conidia globose, greenish to brown, smooth, 3-5µm.



Thiruvananthapuram, July 14, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.4; Bonacaud,

Thiruvananthapuram, June 10, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.15; April 26, 2008,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.19.

Aspergillus japonicas Saito, Bot. Mag., Tokyo 20: 61, 1906.

Plate-39:6 & 42:1

Colonies on Czapek‟s Sucrose Aagar spreading rapidly, 5-6 cm in 10 days,

producing purple brown/ black conidial heads; reverse purple drab; exudates

lacking; conidial heads variable, small, radiate, or split into in distinct columns,

rarely exceeding 300µm in diam.; conidiophores arising from the substratum, walls

colorless, smooth, 500-1000x 5-10µm; vesicles globose to elongate, fertile over the

entire surface, in small heads fertile only at the apex, 20-30x25-35 µm; Phialides

uniseriate, 5-8x3-5µm; conidia mostly globose, sometimes subglobose, strongly

echinulate, bright colored at first, becoming purplish brown, 3-4.5 µm in diam.




Thiruvananthapuram, June 10, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.41; April 26, 2008,


Aspergillus niger Van Tieghem. Ann Sci. Nat. Bot. Ser.5, 8:240, 1867

Plate-39:7

Colonies growing moderately on Czapek‟s Sucrose Agar, 3.5-4.5 cm in 10

days, with abundant submerged celium, conidial heads carbon black to sometimes

deep brownish black; conidial heads large and black, at first globose then radiate or

132

splitting in well-defined columns in age, up to 700-800 µm in diam.; conidiophores

arising directly from the substratum, smooth, non septate, thick walled, 1-2

mmx15-20 µm; vesicles globose, walls thick, commonly 45-75 µm in diam.,

occasionally longer, bearing two series of fully packed Phialides, brownish;

metulae mostly 20-30x5-6 µm, often reaching 60-80x8-10 µm, rarely septate;

Phialides 7-10x3-4 µm; conidia globose, spinulose with coloring substance black,

4-5 µm globose to sub globose.




Thiruvananthapuram, June 10, 2006, M.C. Riju; April 26, 2008, M.C. Riju TBGT

slide No. 17; Heracleum candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble (Apiaceae),

Vagamon, Idukki, March 2, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.23; Celastrus

paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae), Padinharathara, Wayanad, Kerala, India, March

15, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 29; Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22, 2006,


133

The genus Monilia Bonord.

Monilia Bonord., Handbuch der allgemeinen Mykologie: 76, 1851.

Mycelium creeping, septate. Conidiophores ascending or erect with

dichotomous, racemose, or irregular branching, which is spares or abundant. Simple

or branched conidial chains borne on the point of the branches or on small, blunt

projections near the point. Conidia ovate to elongate, seldom globose, hyaline or light

coloured, often united by isthmus-like connecting cells.

Type species: Monilia cinerea Bonord.



Monilia sitophila (Mont.) Sacc., Michilia 2:359, 1880.

Plate-39:8 & 43:5

Colonies in the form of loose floccose masses of a white or pale pink in

colour. Vegetative hyphae hyaline, septate and branched, conidia hyaline, 1 celled,

ovate, forming chains by repeated budding and usually forming enormous irregular

masses, variable in size, usually 5-12 µm. Mycelium later bearing up to some

extent at the septa, forming arthrospores.


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble, (Apiaceae), Vagamon, Idukki, March, 2,

2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.35.

134

The genus Penicillium Link

Penicillium Link, Magazin der Gesellschaft Naturforschenden Freunde Berlin 3: 16

1809.

Vegetative hyphae creeping, septate, branched. Conidiophore erect, usually

unbranched, septate, at the apex with a verticil of erect primary branches, each with a

verticil of secondary (metulae)and sometimes tertiary branchlets or with a verticil of

conidia bearing cells (Phialides) borne directly on the slightly inflated apex of the

conidiophores, sometimes with secondary conidiophores borne on the apex of the

main conidiophore. Conidia borne in chains which typically form a brush- like head,

not enclosed in slime; well differentiated foot cells not present. Conidia globose,

ovate, or elliptical, smooth or rough.

Type species: Penicillium crustaceum Link

The present study comprises two species.

Key to the species

1. Phialides 4-7 per verticils, conidia ellipsoidal to subspherical

… P. chrysogenum

1. Phialides 6-10 per verticils, conidia spheroidal to sub spheroidal

… P. corylophilus


Penicillium chrysogenum Thom, Bull. Bur. Anim. Ind. US Dep. Agric. 118:58,

1910.

Plate-40:1 & 42:4

Colonies growing 2.5-3.5 cm diam. on MEA in 7 days at 25 C, occasionally

larger, plane, rarely radially sulcate, or centrally umbonate, low, relatively sparse,

rarely with floccose mycelia overgrowth, velutinous, occasionally floccose

centrally or somewhat granular; margins low, subsurface between adjacent

colonies; mycelium inconspicuous, white or centrally pale orange or buff;

conidiation moderate to heavy, grayish turquoise to dull green or near pistachio

green; exudates and soluble pigments absent; reverse pale, yellowish to yellowish

brown. Conidiophores borne from surface or subsurface hyphae, stipes commonly

200-300 x 3-4 µm, smooth typically triverticilate with 1-2 rami; rami 15-20 x 3-4

135

µm; metulae in verticils of 3-5, short and appressed, 8-121 x 2.5-4 µm.; Phialides 4-

7 per verticils, ampulliform, 7-8 x 2-3 µm., with short abrupt narrow collumela;

conidia ellipsoidal to subspherical, 2-4 x 2-3 µm. smooth, borne in long irregular

columns.


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble, (Apiaceae), Vagamon, Idukki, March 2,

2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.3; Celastrus paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae),

Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 31; Holostemma

annulare (Roxb.) Schumann, (Asclepiadaceae), Palode, Thiruvananthapuram,

April 28, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.34.

Penicillium corylophilus Dierckx, Annls. Soc. Scient. Brux. 25:86, 1901.

Plate-40:2 & 43:6

Colonies growing 3-4.5 cm in diam. on MEA in 7daysat 25 C, plane or

centrally umbonate or convolute, growth low and relatively sparse, strictly

volutinous; margins wide, fimbriate; mycelium usually inconspicuous, except

centrally, white to buff; conidiation moderate, dull green or greyer than pistachio

green; exudates sometimes present, clear; soluble pigments absent,; reverse pale at

the margins; but usually dull green in color. Conidiophores borne from subsurface

hyphae; stipes commonly 100-250 x 2-3µm. smooth walled. metulae 15-25 x 2-3

µm, Phialides in verticils of 6-10,ampulliform, 7-11 x2-3 µm., with short

collumela; conidia spheroidal to sub spheroidal, commonly 2-3 µm. diam.. wall

smooth.


annulare (Roxb.) Schumann, (Asclepiadaceae), Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, April

28, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.21.

136

The genus Trichoderma (Persoon) Harz

Trichoderma (Persoon) Harz, Neues Magazin für die Botanik, Römer 1: 92, 1794

Sterile hyphae creeping, septate, forming a flat, firm turf. Conidiophore erect,

arising short, branched side branches, branching usually opposite, not swollen at the

apex and bearing terminally the conidial heads. Conidia small, mostly globose, bright

coloured or hyalne.

Type species: Trichoderma viride Pers.



Trichoderma viride Pres., Syst. Mycol. (Lundae) 3:215, 1794.

Plate-40:3

Colonies growing rapidly up to 9 cm in 4 days of growth on PDA, white

becoming hairy from the formation of loo0se scanty aerial mycelium, floccose to

arachnoid, somewhat whitish; conidiation effuse or in compact tufts, glaucous to

bluish green; reverse uncoloured; odour coconut like in older colonies;

chlamydospores common, intercalary or terminal; conoidiophores much branched,

arise on compact or loose tufts which often form broken or ring like zones,

conidiophores 4-5 µm wide, producing smaller side branches, ultimately a conifer-

like branching system is formed, all the branches stand at wide angles to the bearer,

tip terminated by phialides; Phialides form in false whorls beneath each terminal

Phialides, generally not more than 2-3 phialides arise at right angles to the bearer,

occasionally arise singly or in opposite pairs along the branches, lageniform,

attenuated in to long neck, size variable, 8-14 x 2.4-3 µm, rarely up to 6 µm, may

be up to 20 µm long at the conidiophores; conidia globose or short obovoid, or

broadly ellipsoidal, sometimes with distinct` apiculus-like base because of distinct

minute roughening on their walls, bluish green to dark green, 3.6-4.5 µm or 4-4.8x

3.5-4µm.

137



TBGT slide No.7; Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schumann, (Asclepiadaceae),

Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, April 28, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.13;

Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb., (Icacinaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam,

March 22, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.8; Bonacaud, Thiruvananthapuram,

June 10, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.14; Padinharathara, Wayanad, May 20,

2008, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.44;

138

The genus Verticillium Nees

Verticillium Nees, System der Pilze und Schwämme: 56, 1817

Sterile hyphae creeping, septate, branched, hyaline to lightly colored.

Conidiophore erect, septate, branched. Branches of the first order whorled, opposite to

alternate; branches of the second order whorled, dichotomous or trichotomous on the

branches of the first order; further branching similar; terminal branchlets usually flask

shaped and distinctly pointed at the apex. Conidia always borne singly on the

branchlets, soon falling away. Round, elliptical, ovate, inverted egg-shaped, or short

spindle shaped, hyaline or slightly colored.

Type species: Verticillium tenerum Nees



Verticillium terrestre (Pers.) Sacc., Syll. fung. 4:152, 1886.

Plate-40:4 & 42:8

Colonies growing moderately on PDA, pure white, spreding, floccuse,

consisting of dense, cobwebby, branched septate, creeping, sterile hyphae, hyaline

or lightly colored; reverse similarly colored, conidiophores erect, septate, branched,

usually with four whorls of branchlets, branchelets rarely again verticillately

branched, ending in Phialides, conidia formed singly at the tip of the branchlets,

globose to elliptical,hyaline,4.5-5x3.5-4.5 µm.


nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. (Icacinaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22, 2006,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.10; Padinharathara, Wayanad, May 20, 2008, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No.43; Ponmudi, Thiruvananthapuram, June 10, 2006, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No.28.

139

Family Dematiaceae

Hyphae septate, usually prostrate, seldom short, dark, seldom bright colored or

hyaline and in that case having dark conidia. Conidiophores either not sharply

differentiated from the mycelium or differentiated, erect, simple or much branched,

usually dark or bright colored. Conidia of various forms, dark or hyaline, in the latter

case the conidiophores and hyphae dark.

The present study comprises three genera.

Key to the Genera

1. Conidia one-two celled … Cladosporium

1. Conidia 3-5 celled … 2

2. One or two central cells enlarged … Curvularia

2. Not so … Helminthosporium

The genus Cladosporium Link

Cladosporium Link , Magazin der Gesellschaft Naturforschenden Freunde Berlin 8:

37, 1816.

Hyphae creeping, septate, on the surface or in the substrate. Conidiophore

almost erect, branched, and floccose, often forming a turf, olive colored. Conidia

globose and ovate, at first one celled, then usually with a cross wall, usually greenish,

terminal and then pressed to the side.

Type species: Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.) Link



Cladosporium oxysporum Berk. & M.A. Curtis, J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 10 (46): 362,

1868.

Plate-40:5 & 42:5

Colonies purplish brown to grayish brown, cottony or loosely felted in

culture, growing well on PSA; hyphae brown,3 µm. wide; conidiophores

macronematous, straight or slightly flexuous, distinctly nodose, pale or mid brown,

140

smooth, upto 500µm long or even longer, 3-6.5 µm. thick, terminal or intercalary

swellings present, which are 6-8 µm wide; conidiaarising in simple or branched

chains from terminal swellings which later become intercalary cylindrical, rounded

at the ends, ellipsoidal, limoniform or subspherical, pale brown, scars prominent,

smooth, 1-celled, 5-30 x 3- 6µm.


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble (Apiaceae), Vagamon, Idukki, March 2,

2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No.41.

141

The genus Curvularia Boedijn

Curvularia Boedijn, Bulletin du Jardin botanique de Buitenzorg 13(1): 123, 1933.

Mycelium branched, septate, subhyaline to brown; conidiophores brown,

thread like, unbranched, septate. Conidia acrogenous, verticillate or spirally arranged,

olivaceous or brown, ellipsoidal to cylindrical, curved or bent, rarely straight, three or

four septate, one of the central cell being distinctly larger and darker than the terminal

cells; germination bipolar.

Type species: Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn



Curvularia lunata, (Bat., J.A. Lima & C.T. Vasconc.) M.B. Ellis, Mycol.

Pap.106:34, 1966.

Plate-40:6

Colonies on PDA gray, usually zonate; stromata regularly and abundantly

formed in culture; mycelium branched, septate; conidiophores long; conidia elliptic,

curved, septa 2-3,middle cell broad and darker than other cells, middle septum not

median, smooth, 18- 32x 8-15 µm.


annulare (Roxb.) Schumann., (Asclepiadaceae), Palode, Thiruvananthapuram,

April 28, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 25

142

The genus Helminthosporium Link

Helminthosporium Link, Magazin der Gesellschaft Naturforschenden Freunde

Berlin 3: 10, 1809.

Colonies consist of conidiophores, loosely to closely reticulate, velvety, brown

to black, with strict or spreading margins. Conidiophores usually arise in groups, erect

and straight, sometimes reclining, usually unbranched, only seldom withsmall side

branches, septate, geniculatein points below the conidia, brown, greenish brown to

black, transeparent or non-transparent. Conidia terminal or lateral on the

geniculations, elongate, cylindrical, clavate, or obclavate, smooth, mostly rounded at

both ends, or sometimes pointed at the one or both ends, straight or bent, with more

than four septate, dark brown, greenish brown to black, often with the end cells lighter

coloured.

Type species: Helminthosporium velutinum (Link) Link



Helminthosporium sp.

Plate-42:6

Mycelium sparse. Conidiophores erect, simple, often curved, dark brown,

paler at distal portion, septate, 80-250 x 5-7 µm. Conidiophores usually arises from

a submerged hyphae, bearing a group of conidia at the apex. 140-300 µm. long

light brown in colour.


paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae), Ponmudi, Thiruvananthapuram, July10, 2006,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 6; Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22, 2006, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No. 40

143

Family Tuerculariaceae

Hyphae wide-spreadin or on the substrate. Conidiophores and sterile

hyphae intermingle to form a fruiting layer or sporodochium, which is usually formed

from thick interwoven, often radially arranged, threads Sometimes this layer rests

upon a plectenchymatic stroma. The consistency of the layer is waxy or gelatinous,

some times horny or cottony; frequently the hyphae and conidia become embedded in

mucus. The external form of the sporodochium is usually definite,

occuationallyextended as an unlimited crust. Conidiophores are usually thickly

crowded, and often forming a closed hymenium, branched or simple, rod like conidia

various, usually terminal, single, but also in chains and lateral.

Type genus: Tubercularia Tode

The present study comprises only one genus, namely, Fusarium.

Genus Fusarium

Fusarium Link, Magazin der Gesellschaft Naturforschenden Freunde Berlin 3: 10,

1809.

Conidial layer cushion-shaped or somewhat extended without a definite

limit. Conidiophores branched. Conidia terminal, simple, spindle or sickle-shaped,

many celled with indistinct cross-walls.

Type species: Fusarium roseum Link

The present study comprises three specie.

Key to the species

1. colonies white to pink in colour … F.

chlamydosporum

1. colonies not so … 2

2. colonies white or peach, but usually with a

purple or violet tinge … F. oxysporum

2. colonies green to bluish brown … F. solani

144


Fusarium chlamydosporum Wollenw. & Reinking, Phytopathology 5: 156, 1925.

Plate-41:3

Colonies fast growing 4.5-5.7 cm diam. in four days at 20ºc, aerial

mycelium abundant, floccose intensely pink, rarely whitish, conidiophores scattered

over the aerial mycelium, richly branched; philalides with numerous sympodial

proliferations bearing one microconidium on each opening, microconidia

accumulating in dry heads, fusiform or elongate 8-10x 2.5-3.5 µm; macroconidia

rarely produced only in sporanchia septate, slightly curved 30-38x 3-5 µm;

chlamydospores numerous, intercalary, mostly in chains, often roughened, 7- 17µm

diam.



TBGT slide No.30.

Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht, Flora Berolinensis 2:139, 1824.

Plate-41:2

Colonies reaching 4.5 cm diam.in 4 days at 25C on PSA; aerial mycelium

sparse to floccose, white or peach, but usually with a purple or violet tinge;

sporodochia discrete, erumpent, orange; reverse colourless, dark blue to dark

purple; conidiophores unbranched or sparely branched, monophialidic; stroma

white, plectenchymatous, smooth, effuse; microconidia usually abundant, mostly

0-septate, oval, ellipsoidal, kidney shaped or straight, produced on simple lateral

Phialides, solitary on free conidiophores never form in chains,5-12 x 2,5- 3.5 µm;

macroconidia 2-5 septate, spindle to fusiform, curved or almost straight, pointed at

both ends, definitely or weakly pedicellate, 27-60 x 3-5 µm.

145


candolleanum (Wight & Arn.) Gamble, (Apiaceae), Vagamon, Idukki, March 2,

2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 32.

Fusarium solani (Mart.) Appel & Wollenw, Arbeiten aus der Kaiserlichen

Biologischen Anstalt für Land- und Forstwirtschaft 8: 64-78, 1910.

Plate-41:1

Colonies reaching 7-8cm in10 days on PSA, whitish green to bluish in

colour; mycelium sparse, floccose; sporodochia cream to buff; reverse colorless to

dark violet; conidiophores unbranched and branched, monophilidic, with distinct

collarette; philides bearing microconidia long, slender, 15-40 x 2-3µm,

microconidiophores often elaborately branched after few days, those producing

macroconidia shorter, subcylinderic, obclavate to dolliform,10-25x3-4µm; micro

and macroconidia scattered in the mycelium in false heads, in sporodochia;

microconidia not abundant, not in chains, 4-14x2.5-5µm; macroconidia produced

on shorter flask shaped philides, abundant, falcate, moderately curved, with bluntly

beaked apical cell, basal cell pedicelate, mainly 5-7 septate, 40-85x5-7µm;

chlamydophores terminal to lateral, rarely intercalary, mostly abundant, forming

singly or in pairs on hyphae or conidia, smooth or rough wall, globose to pyriform,

6-10µm in diam.; Homot I.R. Hallic and heterot I.R. Hallic; perithecia often

produced in culture, coarsely tuberculate.


nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb. (Icacinaceae), Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22, 2006,

M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 38.

146

Order Mucorales

Mucorales E.M., Fries, Systema Mycologicum 3: 296, 1832.

Wholly terrestrial Phycomycetes, usually with well developed, richly

branched, and rapidly growing mycelium. The hyphae contain many nuclei and in

youth show no septa; Most species have a sterile substrate mycelium on which arise

fruiting hyphae above th substrata. Vegitative reproduction by nonmotile, one or

many nucleated but one celled spores which are formed in sporangia. Sporanchia

are one to many spored. Conidia may also be present. Sexual reproduction results

from the fusion of two similar multinucleated cells, which show no differentiation

of gametes and are called gametagia. Copulation isogamous; zygote many

nucleated; zygote carrying hyphae often form many appendages which more or less

enclose the zygote.

Type family: Mucoraceae Dumort.

The present study comprises only one family Mucoraceae.

Family Mucoraceae

Mucoraceae Dumortier, Commentationes botanicae: 69, 81, 1822.

Fungi with columellate sporangia; the columella being formed by the pushing

of the cross wall separating the sporangiophore and sporangium into the interior of the

latter to form a dome or vesicular structure. Zygospores are naked or only loosely

covered by appendages, never by a felt-like layer to form a fruit.

Type genus: Mucor Fresen.

The present study comprises only three genera.

Key to the Genera

1. Rhizoids present … 2

1. Rhizoids absent … Mucor

2. Sporangiophores borne above the rhizoids … Rhizopus

2. Sporangiophores borne not above the rhizoids … Absidia

147

Genus Absidia van Tiegh.

Absidia Tiegh., Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Botanique 4: 350, 1878.

Mycelium formed as in the genus rhizopus by frequently branched stolons,

more or less in curved in to arches and producing at the point of contact with the

substractum more or less richly branched rhizoids. Sporangiophores straight, rarely

single, more often groups of 2-5, occurring at the curve of the stolen (intranodal)

and not at the point of origin of rhizoid (nodes) at times there occur erect stolons or

branches which bear lateral sporangiferous branches which may by cofused with

the primary sporangiophores. Sporangia appearingly equal, pyriform, erect,

furnished with an infundibiliforms apophasis. Membrane of the sporangium not

cuticularized noncrusted; difficult, living a short basal collarate. Columnella

hemispheric, conic or mammiform rarely spinacent or terminated by a single lone

prolongation. They efface them self in the apophasis tjey are cuticularized and their

color is more pronounced that of sporangiophore. A cross wall is based at the

definite distance below the sporangium. Spore small 5-6 round or oval, wall

smooth, rarely echinulate, colour less to blueish black. Zygospores formed on the

stolon they are surrounded by circinate filament , cutinized which are borne in a

whorl from one or both of the suspencers gamitangia straight on germination the

zygospore produced either mycelial filaments or sporangiophore apperenly closely

related to the genus Rhizopus, different from sporangiophre occure on the inter

nodes, pyriform sporangia, continuance of the columellae in to the apophasis and

suspensor having circinate filaments.

Type species: Absidia reflexa Tiegh.



Absidia lichtheimii (Lucet & Costantin) Lendner, Mat. fl. Crypt. Suisse. 3(1):143,

1908.

Plate-41:4

Colonies grow rapidly on Oats Agar, white to pale grey, cottony.

Sporangiophores branched, corymbs to sympodially branched, 11-19 µm broad.,

148

Sporangia subglobose to pyriform, 15-57 µm in diam., apophysate, sporangial wall

hyaline, smooth, diffluent leaving a basal collarette; columella light brown, smooth

hemispherical, globose to conical, generally spinescent, 8-28 µm in diam.

sporangiospores globose to subglobose, globose spores 3-4.5µm diam. sub globose

spores 2.5-5x2-3µm.


paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae), Munnar, Idukki, November 9, 2007, M.C. Riju

TBGT slide No. 42; Vagamon, Kottayam, March 22, 2006, M.C. Riju TBGT slide

No.39; Padinharathara, Wayanad, September 16, 2008, M.C. Riju TBGT slide

No.12.

149

Genus Mucor Fresen.

Mucor Fresen., Beiträge zur Mykologie 1: 7, 1850.

Mycelium wide spread in and on the substractum, without rhizoides or

especial membered stolos; richly branched, with branches always thinner until atleast

hair fine; straight or knotte, at first one celled, in age with irregular crosswalls, with

colourless, infrequently orange red content; smooth colourless membrane.

Sporangiophores springin singly from the mycelium but usually forming a thick turf,

erect, either unbranched with terminal sporangia or branched with like sporangia on

all the branch ends; branching in part monopodial, clustered, or irregularly panicled or

umbiliferous; in part cymose and more or less sympodial, curved with sporangia also

at the tip of the sympodium, never forked. Sporangia erect at alltimes on the

sympodial sporangiophores, a few weekly bend, usually all alike only of different

size; many spored spherical opening on the sporangiophores only a few on the

sympodial forms. Abscissing while still closed; of various colours.sporangial wall not

cuticularized, in crusted more or less srongly with needles of calcium oxalate

dissolving quickly in water, living a colorite or braking and then at times persistent.

Columella always present, various shapes, colourless coloured. Zygospores on the

mycelium, not on special branches, naked, suspensors without outgrowth; gamitangia

straight mycelial conidia (stylospores) unknown. Gemmae (Chlamydospores) terminal

and inter calary, variousely formed, colourless, smooth; not in all species.

Type species: Mucor murorum Naumov

The present study comprises only two species.

Key to the species

1. Sporangia usually large (60-80) µm in diam. … M. varians

1. Sporangia usually small (20-70) µm in diam. … M. recemosus


Mucor recemosus Fresen., Beitr. Mykol. 1:12, 1850.

Plate-41:6 & 43:2

150

Colonies on MEA 5-40mm high, turf gray- brown; sporangiophores erect,

some tall and some short; branched irregularly with sympodial and monopodial

branches, up to 14 µm wide, monopodial branches short and little recurved;

sporangia globose, variable in size, white when young, later pale yellow to

brownish, wall spinulose, fragile, leaving a collarette, 20-70 µm in diam.;

columellae usually globose, ovoid, cylindrical-oval, pale brownish, 17-60x7-30µm,

maximum 42 µm in diam.; sporangiospores ellipsoidal to broad oval, grayish in

mass, smooth, short, 5-9x4-7 µm; chlamydospores numerous, forming on mycelium

or sporangiophores or columellae, colorless or yellow, smooth, barrel shaped to

subglobose, up to 24 µm long.


annulare (Roxb.) Schumann, (Asclepiadaceae), Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, April

28, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 27

Mucor varians Povah, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 44: 287-310, 1917.

Plate-41:5 & 43:3

Colonies growing well on OA, white at first later olive buff to brown, turf 1-

3.5 cm: sporangiophores little or profusely branched, twisted or intertwined, 8-20

µm in diam.; sporangia globose or subglobose, smooth, at first yellow or pale

orange, later dark gray tinged with green, 60-80 µm in diam., wall diffluent leaving

a basal colarette; columellae free or slightly adnate, variable in shape, subglobose,

oval, spathulate, elliptical, hemispherical, panduriform, conical, 25-50 x20-45 µm,

membrane tinged gray without orange contents; sporangiospores not uniform, oval,

elongate oblong to subelliptical, oval and elongate spores found in about equal

numbers; yellow to orange, 4-6.2 x 3-4 µm.



Thiruvananthapuram, July 14, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 33

151

The Genus Rhizopus Ehren.

Rhizopus Ehren., Nova Acta Academiae Caesareae Leopoldino-Carolinae

Germanicae Naturae Curiosorum 10: 198, 1820.

Mycelium of two kids, one submerged in the substratum and other aerial,

constituting the arching filaments of stolons. These stolons present from place to

place the nodes on which occur the rhizoids, which are implanted from the

substratum. At these points the sporangiophore arises. They may be single but

usually occur in groups of two, three or more. The summit of the sporangiophore is

enlarged in to an apophysis, of the kind that has the columella inserted above the

point where the spherical bend attaches in to the filaments. The sporangia globose

to subglobose, flat at the base, white at first, become bluish-black at maturity. Wall

not cuticularized, spores round, ovel to angular, colourless to blueish brow, with a

cuticularized wall, smooth or striate, rarely spinulose. Zygospores naked, formed in

the substratum and on the stolons. Suspencer straight, very large and swollen, with

out appendeges.

Type species: Rhizopus nigricans Ehrenb.

The present study comprises two species.

Key to the species

1. Stolons creeping … R. oryzae

1. Stolons spreading … R. stolonifer


Rhizopus oryzae Went & Prins. Geerl., Verhandelingen, Koninklijke Nederlandse

Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeling Natuurkunde 4: 16, 1895

Plate-41:7 & 43:4

Stolons creeping, recurving to the substrate in the form of arachnoid

hyphae, which are strongly raised and distant from the substrate and implanted at

152

each node by means of rhizoids. The internodes often attain a length of 1-3 cm. and

the hyphae are more or less branched. Sporangiophores rarely single, united in

groups of five or more, 0.5-4 mm. in height x 24-45 µm. in diam. apophyses broad,

cuneiform. Sporangia hemispheric 100-350µm. columella broad, hemispheric,

depressed, 70µm in diam. Spores unequal, irregular round or oval, angular striate,

7-9 µm long.



TBGT slide No.16: Padinharathara, Wayanad, May 20, 2008, M.C. Riju TBGT

slide No.45;

Rhizopus stolonifer (Ehrenb.) Vuill., Revue mycol., Toulouse 24:54, 1902.

Plate-41:8

Colonies growing profusely on PSA or PDA, white at first, turning

brownish black, stolons spreading, internodes brown, with well branched rhizoids

at each node, unbranched, 0.5-4mm long and 24-42µmin diam.,white becoming

pale or dark brown at maturity; sporangia globose hemispherical, granular,

olivaceous, black, 100-300 µm in diam. columella hemispherical, very often

becoming pilate, 45-100µm in diam. or bigger; sporangiospores irregular round to

oval, angular, straight, gray, striate,9-12x7-8µm; zygospores round or oval, 160-

220µm in diam., brown black, verrucose; suspensors swollen, unequal; azygospores

common; chlamydospores absent.


arayalpathra (Joseph & V. Chandras.) Venter, Makki, Thiruvananthapuram, July

14, 2007, M.C. Riju TBGT slide No. 26.

153

PHYLLOPLANE FUNGI

Leaves are one of the most important unit in the plant life. These are the green

parts, food manufacturing unit and the indicators of the plant health. Since these are

directly exposed to the atmosphere, subjected for the attack or the association with

several microbes. One of these are the foliicolous fungi. The present study gives an

account of three species of black mildew fungi belonging to the genera Schiffnerula

and Meliola.

Classification of Foliicolous Fungi

Meliola

M. chandrasekharanii

Schiffnerula

Foliicolous

Fungi

S. celastri

M. dimidiatae

Ascomycotina

Pyrenomycete

s

Meliolales Englerulales

/Asterinales

pleosporales

Loculoascomycetes

Meliolaceae

Schiffnerulaceae

154

Key to the genera

1. Appressoria bicellular … Meliola

1. Appressoria unicellular … Schiffnerula

The genus Schiffnerula

Schiffnerula Hohnel, Sber, Akad. Wiss. Wien, math. Nat.kl., I, 118: 867, 1909. Arx

& Mueller, Stud. Mycol. 9: 48, 1975; Hughes, Can. J. Bot. 61: 1763, 1983.

Clypeolella Hohnel, Sber.Akad.Wiss.Wien., math.- nat.kl. I, 119: 403, 1910.

Phaeoschiffnerula Theiss., Broteria 12: 21, 1917.

Questieria Arn., Les Asterinees 1: 186, 1918.

Diathrypton Sydow, Philippine J. Sci. 21: 137, 1922.

Coniosporiella Bat., Atas Inst. Univ. Recife 3: 113, 1966.

Hypahe superficial, colonies foliicolous, brown, appressoriate, appressoria

unicellular. Ascomata arise from the short lateral branches, initially with radiating

cells but the cells dissolve when the ascomata start resuming globose appearance.

Asci few, bitunicate, broadly ellipsoid to globose, sessile, octosporous, exposed after

deliqusing the ascomatal wall; ascospores brown, 1-septate, constricted at the septum.

Type: S. mirabilis Hohnel.



Schiffnerula celastri Hosag., Riju & Sabeena, Indian J. Sci. & Techn. 1: 1, 2008.

Stigmella palavanensis Sydow, Philippine J. of Sci. 9: 189, 1914.

Sarcinella palavanensis (Sydow & Sydow) Sahni, Mycopath. Mycol. Appl.

29: 241, 1966.

Sarcinella paniculatae Verma, Tripathi & R. K. Choudhary, Indian

phytopath.52: 379, 1999.

Plate-44:1-13.

155

Colonies amphigenous, up to 4 mm in diam.eter, confluent. Hyphae

substraight to flexuous, branching opposite, alternate to unilateral at acute to wide

angles, loosely reticulate, cells 13-35 x 3-4.4µm. Appressoria opposite, globose,

mammiform, entire, 3-6 X 6-9 µm. Conidia of Questieriella type were scattered, not

attached, curved, 3-septate, slightly constricted at the septa, taper towards both ends,

33-55 X 6-9 µm. Sarcinella conidiophores produced lateral to the hyphae,

single, straight to flexuous, macronematous, mononematous, 0-2 septate, 11-31

X 4-6 µm. Conidiogenous cells terminal, monoblastic, integrated, cylindrical.

Sarcinella conidia blastic, terminal, mostly sessile, solit ary, dry, ovate to

globose, sarciniform, cruciately septate, 2-8 cellulae, constricted at the septa,

13-26 µm in diam., wall smooth. Thyriothecia scattered, orbicular, ovate, initially

radiating, later central portion dissolved by exposing the asci, upto 174 µm in diam.,

marginal cells radiating; asci 5-8 per thyriothecia, globose, octosporous,

bitunicate, 15-28 µm in diam.; ascospores oblong, conglobate, uniseptate,

constricted at the septum, 17-26 x 6-13µm, remain hyaline for some time but turn

brown at maturity.

Materials examined: On leaves of Celastrus paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae),

Padinharathara, wayanad, March 16, 2007, M. C. Riju, HCIO 48061 (Type): TBGT

2844; September 30, 2007, M. C. Riju, TBGT 2966; January 23, 2008, M. C. Riju,

TBGT 2968.

156

The Genus Meliola

Meliola Fries emend. Bornet, Ann. Sci. Nat. III: 16: 267, 1851.

Meliola Fries, Syst. Orb. Veg. P., 111, 1825.

Amphitrichum Fries, Syst. Mycol. 2: 513, 1829 (p.p.)

Myxothecium Kuntze ex Fries, Syst. Mycol. 3: 232, 1829.

Couturea Cast. In Fries, Summ. Veg. Sand. P., 407, 1846.

Asteridieum Sacc., Syll. Fung. 1: 49, 1882.

Mycelium superficial, brown, septate, branched, appressoriate, mycelial setae

present. Perithecia globose, descrete, ± ostiolate; asci 2-4 spored, evanescent;

ascospores brown, 3-4 septate.

Type species: Meliola psidii Fries

Meliola psidii Fries is conseved over the earlier synonym M. trichostroma

(Kuntze) Toro (Crane & Jones, 2001).

Meliola chandrasekharanii Hosag. in Hosag. & Goos, Mycotaxon 37: 225, 1990; 42:

133, 1991; Hosag., Meliolales of India, p. 164, 1996.

Plate-45:1-11

Colonies amphigenous, caulicolous, mostly hypophyllous, subdense, velvety,

up to 3 mm diam.eter, confluent. Hyphae undulate, branching opposite at acute

angles, loosely to closely reticulate and form almost solid mycelial mat, cells 16-30 x

6-8µm. Appressoria alternate (few opposite), straight to curved, spreading, mostly

antrorse, 16-24 µm long; stalk cells cuneate to cylindrical, 4-10 µm long; head cells

subglobose, ovate, angular to sublobate, 12-16 x 14-16 µm. Phialides borne on a

separate mycelial branch and also few mixed with appressoria, alternate, mostly

opposite, ampulliform, 12-20 x 6-10 µm. Mycelial setae fairly numerous, straight,

simple, acute to subacute at the tip, up to 477 µm long. Perithecia scattered,

verrucose, up to 153 µm in diam.; ascospores obovoidal to cylindrical, 4-septate, 32-

42 x 10-16µm.

157

Materials examined: On leaves of Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham)

Mabb. (Icacinaceae), Pallivasal, Munnar, Idukki, February 17, 2006, M. C. Riju et al,

TBGT 4559; Vagamon, Idukki, January 20, 2007, M. C. Riju, TBGT 4561;

Padinharathara, wayanad, December 26, 2008, M. C. Riju, TBGT 4562.

Meliola dimidiatae Hosag. in Hosag. & Goos, Mycotaxon 37: 229, 1990; Hosag.,

Meliolales of India, p. 181, 1996.

Colonies epiphyllous, subdense, subvelvety, scattered, up to 3 mm in

diam.eter, rarely confluent. Hyphae flexous, branching opposite to irregular at acute

angles, loosely reticulate, cells 16-24 x 6-8 µm. Appressoria alternate and unilateral

(few opposite), straight to curved, antrore to reflexed, spreading, 16-20 µm long; stalk

cells cylindrical to cuneate, 4-6 µm long; head cells mostly globose, ovate, curved,

entire, 12-14 x 10-12 µm. Phialides mixed with appressoria, alternate to opposite,

ampliform, 20-26 x 8-10 µm. Mycelial setae numerous, scattered, often grouped

around perithecia, straight, simple acute, up to 540 µm long. Perithecia scattered,

verrucose, up to 130 µm in diam.; ascospores cylindrical, 4-septate, constricted, 42-44

x 16-18 µm.

Materials examined: On leaves of Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham)

Mabb. (Icacinaceae), Cheguthan mukku, Adimali, Idukki, February 16, 2006, M. C.

Riju et al, TBGT 4558; View point, Adimali, Idukki, January 21, 2007, M. C. Riju,

TBGT 4557; Padinharathara, wayanad, September 30, 2007, M. C. Riju, TBGT 4560.

VII. MAINTENANCE OF AM CULTURE

158

For the continuous availability of study material, culture preservation is an

important process for AM research. Suitable host plants were selected and the

spores were allowed to grown in the root systems of such plants is the economic

way for maintaining cultures. There are a large number of plants were used for this

purpose, however in the present study, Jower and Maize were selected for this

purpose.

VIII. DISCUSSION

159

Plant health and productivity are rooted in the soil, and the quality of soil

depends on the viability and diversity of its biota which determine the structures

that support a stable and healthy agro-system (Doran & Linn, 1994). Plant root

exudates are used by many microorganisms including fungus and modified root

functions by them. All the tested plants have higher microbial population in the

rhizosphere than non rhizosphere region, may be due to due to the availability of

growth promoting substances. Microbial communities in the rhizosphere differ

from those in the non rhizosphere soil (Garbaye, 1994). However, in contrast to

other samples, the samples collected from Ponmudi have higher fungal count in

most of the times in non rhizosphere than rhizosphere region. This may be due to

some edaphoic factors. Soil microorganisms play a vital role in the rhizosphere

where they are present, or stimulated by organic substances supplied by the plants.

The number of microorganisms in the rhizosphere soil is larger by two or three

times of magnitude than in the surroundings region. The difference in the number

of microorganisms present in the rhizosphere of selected plants may be due to the

difference in the growth and metabolic activities of the plants. The specificity of

microorganisms in the rhizosphere has been reported earlier by Meyer &

Linderman (1986) and Summerbell (1987).

Spores are the best defined source of inoculums and are the only propagules

that can be identified up to species level with certainty. The density of spores in soil

and their species diversity are variable. The external mycelium is important in the

production of spores and translocates relatively large amount of carbohydrates into

them adding considerably to the biomass of fungus out side the root in the soil. In

some cases a general decline in the number of spores during early growth is followed

by an increase as the plant matures. Low nutrient concentration is conductive to high

colonization so that may be a link between extent of intraradical colonization and

spore production (Hayman, 1970; Sutton & Barrow 1972; Giovannetti, 1985). AM

fungi are conditioned by soil factors. It is found that pH plays an important role in the

distribution of AM fungi. Acidic to neutral soil have a large number of AM fungi

(Manoharachary 2004). Soil moisture exerts influence on mycorrhizal association

(Readhead, 1977). Difference in the vegetation influences AM fungal association,

distribution, composition and activity. Bagyaraj & Manjunath (1980) have studied the

role of AM fungi in unsterile soils using efficient strains of AM fungi and by

160

providing more inoculum. Mosse (1981) has reported evidence of improving plant

growth under field conditions. Plant growth is dependent on mineral nutrients

available in soils most of the forest soils and unproductive soils are deficient in

phosphorus and other minerals and harbor more AM fungi than cultivated soils which

have more phosphorus and other nutrients.

The study revealed the natural presence of VA mycorrhiza in all of the five

medicinal plant species. However, there is significant difference in the rate of

Arbuscular mycorrhizal infection. The fungal infection was maximum on Decalepis

arayalpathra during October and maximum in May from sample site IV and in

Celastrus paniculatus from Wayanad during the month of June.

Variations were observed in the species composition of Arbuscular

mycorrhizal fungal organisms present in the rhizosphere of all the medicinal plants

studied. Fungal organisms present in the rhizosphere of the individual plant species

were also varied; though a few were found common to all the plants.

Fungal species composition varied markedly between the rhizosphere of the

plants. Glomus Formosanum and G. aggragatum are the dominant species in the

rhizosphere of Celastrus paniculatus. While in Decalepis arayalpathra, Acaulospora

species are dominant, such as A. scrobiculata, A. rehmi and Dentiscutata heterogama

were dominant. In Heracleum condolleanum, Dentiscutata nigra and Gigaspora

rosea are the dominant species. Holostemma annulare, Glomus agrragatum and

Acaulospora scrobiculata are dominant. In Nothapodytes nimmoniana,

Claroideoglomus etunicatum and Ambispora fecundispora are dominates.

Differences in the species composition of fungal communities may be attributed by

environmental or edaphic factors (Griffiths et al., 1995; Johnson et al., 1991; Degens

et al., 1994; Hayman, 1975) such as soil type (Kruekelman; Srinivas et al., 1988), soil

pH, soil temperature (Marschner et al., 1991), aeration, moisture (Mejstrick 1972;

Khan, 1974; Mohankumar & Mahadevan, 1986: Hayman, 1983), etc.

The Acaulospora scrobiculata are dominant in both Holostemma

annulare and Decalepis arayalpathra and Glomus agrragatum in the rhizosphere of

both Holostemma annulare and Celastrus paniculatus. This may be because of lack of

host specificity of the fungal partners. Wide occurrence of these fungi in different host

plants was also reported by earlier workers (Allen, 1996).