Variables that affect the Variables that affect the nature of readingnature of reading

Reader VariablesReader Variables(factors within the reader)(factors within the reader)

Schemata and background Schemata and background knowledgeknowledge

The nature of the knowledge that readers have The nature of the knowledge that readers have will influence not only what they remember of will influence not only what they remember of text, but the product – their understanding of the text, but the product – their understanding of the text – and the way they process it.text – and the way they process it.

SchemataSchemata are seen as interlocking mental are seen as interlocking mental structures representing readers’ knowledge.structures representing readers’ knowledge.

When readers process text, they integrate the When readers process text, they integrate the new information from the text into their new information from the text into their preexisting schemata. More than that, their preexisting schemata. More than that, their schemata influence how they recognize schemata influence how they recognize information as well as how they store it.information as well as how they store it.

Formal schemata Formal schemata

knowledge of language and linguistic conknowledge of language and linguistic con

ventions, including knowledge of how texts ventions, including knowledge of how texts

are organized, and what main features of are organized, and what main features of

particular genres are.particular genres are.

Knowledge of languageKnowledge of language

A reader’s linguistic knowledge continues to A reader’s linguistic knowledge continues to develop with age and experience: vocabulary develop with age and experience: vocabulary size and depth develop, knowledge of the size and depth develop, knowledge of the conventions associated with particular types of conventions associated with particular types of text develops well into adulthood, and the ability text develops well into adulthood, and the ability to process the more complex linguistic structures to process the more complex linguistic structures associated especially with written language must associated especially with written language must inevitable develop with increasing literacy.inevitable develop with increasing literacy.

Unknown words will obviously affect Unknown words will obviously affect comprehension and take the pleasure out of comprehension and take the pleasure out of reading.reading.

Knowledge of languageKnowledge of language

Readers need to know 95% of the words in text Readers need to know 95% of the words in text to gain adequate comprehension and to be able to gain adequate comprehension and to be able to guess unknown words from context.to guess unknown words from context.

What learners need to know in order to read What learners need to know in order to read texts in their subject disciplines was knowledge texts in their subject disciplines was knowledge of the language of that discipline: initially lexis, of the language of that discipline: initially lexis, and then later syntactic and rhetorical features.and then later syntactic and rhetorical features.

Knowledge of genre / text typeKnowledge of genre / text type

Content schemata Content schemata

Readers need knowledge about the Readers need knowledge about the content of the passage to be able to content of the passage to be able to understand it. Such knowledge does not understand it. Such knowledge does not simply need to be available – it needs to simply need to be available – it needs to be activated by the reader, or the text, if it be activated by the reader, or the text, if it is to be used in accurate understanding.is to be used in accurate understanding.

Knowledge of subject matter / topicKnowledge of subject matter / topic

If one knows absolutely nothing about the topic If one knows absolutely nothing about the topic of a text, one will find it difficult to process.of a text, one will find it difficult to process.

Readers will find it easier to read texts in areas Readers will find it easier to read texts in areas they are familiar with, for example those they they are familiar with, for example those they have studied.have studied.

Subject matter familiarity.Subject matter familiarity. Some texts outside their subject disciplines Some texts outside their subject disciplines

proved easier to understand than texts within the proved easier to understand than texts within the disciplines, despite being of roughly equivalent disciplines, despite being of roughly equivalent difficulty.difficulty.

Knowledge of the worldKnowledge of the world

Background knowledge, or knowledge of Background knowledge, or knowledge of how the world works, has an effect is how the world works, has an effect is essential to reading.essential to reading.

ExampleExample: : The policeman held up his hand The policeman held up his hand and the car stopped.and the car stopped.

Assumed that the car has a driver, and a Assumed that the car has a driver, and a policeman holding up his hand is a signal policeman holding up his hand is a signal to the driver to stop the car.to the driver to stop the car.

Cultural knowledgeCultural knowledge

World knowledge typically refers to World knowledge typically refers to your your world – world – the way your world works. Such knowledge may the way your world works. Such knowledge may be limited.be limited.

Other people’s worlds may work differently due Other people’s worlds may work differently due to personal history and experiences unique to to personal history and experiences unique to one person.one person.

Subjects were able to recall more, and more Subjects were able to recall more, and more accurately, from the familiar setting than the accurately, from the familiar setting than the unfamiliar one.unfamiliar one.

Reading texts in unfamiliar cultural settings can Reading texts in unfamiliar cultural settings can result in difficulty of processing and recalling.result in difficulty of processing and recalling.

Reader skills and abilities Reader skills and abilities

Abilities to learn new knowledge and process Abilities to learn new knowledge and process information.information.

Much of reading is a general cognitive, problem-Much of reading is a general cognitive, problem-solving ability.solving ability.

SkillsSkills: recalling word meanings, drawing : recalling word meanings, drawing inferences from the content; recognizing a inferences from the content; recognizing a writer’s purpose, tone and mod; following the writer’s purpose, tone and mod; following the structure of the passage.structure of the passage.

Reader purpose in reading Reader purpose in reading

The reason you are reading a text will influence The reason you are reading a text will influence the way you read it, the skills you require or use, the way you read it, the skills you require or use, and the ultimate understanding and recall you and the ultimate understanding and recall you have of that text.have of that text.

Objectives that direct students’ attention to Objectives that direct students’ attention to aspects of text they would otherwise ignore have aspects of text they would otherwise ignore have been shown to be somewhat effective in been shown to be somewhat effective in enhancing comprehension.enhancing comprehension.

Students are encouraged to read the questions Students are encouraged to read the questions before they process text.before they process text.

Text VariablesText Variables(aspects of the text)(aspects of the text)

1.1. Text topic and contentText topic and content

2.2. Text type and genreText type and genre

3.3. Literary and non-literary Literary and non-literary textstexts

4.4. Text organizationText organization

1.Text topic and content1.Text topic and content

1.1 Concrete texts1.1 Concrete texts Describing real objects, events or Describing real objects, events or

activities imaginable, interestiactivities imaginable, interesting and readable.ng and readable.

1.2 Texts of everyday topics 1.2 Texts of everyday topics Located in familiar settings Located in familiar settings preferable and availablepreferable and available

1.Text topic and content1.Text topic and content 1.3 Non-specialized texts of 1.3 Non-specialized texts of empirical studiesempirical studies Arts, humanities and social Arts, humanities and social

science of stronger science of stronger possibility to read popular fiction, possibility to read popular fiction, journalism,advertisements and journalism,advertisements and simple expository prose than simple expository prose than scientific and technical textsscientific and technical texts

1.Text topic and content1.Text topic and content

1.4 Texts of moderate 1.4 Texts of moderate explicitly- stated informationexplicitly- stated information More clearly stated less inference More clearly stated less inference

is needed is needed ExceptionException: legal texts: legal texts texts texts

appeal to commonly held appeal to commonly held assumptions are easier to processassumptions are easier to process

2. Text type and genre2. Text type and genre 2.1 Narrative texts than2.1 Narrative texts than

expository ones are moreexpository ones are more

recommendedrecommended

Conventionalized text units,Conventionalized text units,

simpler story grammars,simpler story grammars,

‘ ‘seeing’ scenes in head seeing’ scenes in head

facilitate comprehensionfacilitate comprehension

3. Text organization3. Text organization

3.1 Two types3.1 Two types

Chronological orderingChronological ordering Texts organized according to the Texts organized according to the

sequence of eventssequence of events easier to easier to understandunderstand

3. Text organization3. Text organization

Spatial orderingSpatial ordering

Descriptions of objects that follow Descriptions of objects that follow a clear logical sequence, from a clear logical sequence, from outside in, or left to rightoutside in, or left to right

easier to recall and understandeasier to recall and understand

3. Text organization3. Text organization

3.2 Coherent texts are much3.2 Coherent texts are much easier to comprehendeasier to comprehend Texts presenting facts with little Texts presenting facts with little

explanation of relationships explanation of relationships between them enable readers between them enable readers to make many connecting to make many connecting inferences and induce schematainferences and induce schemata

3. Text organization3. Text organization

3.3 Texts with cohesive ties3.3 Texts with cohesive ties Lack of connectives may have weLack of connectives may have we

ak effects to make bridging infereak effects to make bridging inferences since conjunctions do facilitances since conjunctions do facilitate discourse processingte discourse processing

average-ability readers vs. less faaverage-ability readers vs. less familiar topics esp.miliar topics esp.

Question TypesQuestion Types──

Traditional paper-and-pencil testTraditional paper-and-pencil test

Cloze TypesCloze Types

Rational deletion ( selected deletion)‧Discrete-point testing‧Tends to test grammar abilities‧Strengths: § A better understanding of “what is tested” § Useful in the entrance exam‧Weaknesses § Poor reading comprehension § Only for the “test”

Cloze TypesCloze Types

Fixed ratio deletion (nFixed ratio deletion (nth th word deletion)word deletion)‧‧Integrative testingIntegrative testing‧‧Test one or more levels of languageTest one or more levels of language‧‧StrengthsStrengths § § Easy to designEasy to design § § Better reading comprehensionBetter reading comprehension‧‧WeaknessesWeaknesses §§ Too restrictive Too restrictive § § Hard to scoreHard to score

Sample of Cloze TestSample of Cloze Test

Most airplane crashes occur unexpectedly during Most airplane crashes occur unexpectedly during takeoffs and landings. Although airplanes seldom takeoffs and landings. Although airplanes seldom break up on impact, they generally break up on impact, they generally (21) (21) immediately. Most fatalities are due to smoke immediately. Most fatalities are due to smoke (22) (22) . .

21. (A) build a fire (B) set fire (C) catch fire (D) 21. (A) build a fire (B) set fire (C) catch fire (D)

cease firecease fire

22. (A) inhibition (B) exhibition (C) exhalation (D) 22. (A) inhibition (B) exhibition (C) exhalation (D)

inhalationinhalation

Sample of Cloze TestSample of Cloze Test

Since crashes usually occur with little or no warning. It is Since crashes usually occur with little or no warning. It is best to prepare best to prepare (23) (23) for the unthinkable. After for the unthinkable. After (24) (24) an an airplane, study as much safety information as possible. airplane, study as much safety information as possible. (25) (25) the four emergency exists that are nearest to your seat and the four emergency exists that are nearest to your seat and know how they operate. Instructions are printed on the safety know how they operate. Instructions are printed on the safety information card which is located In the each seat-pocket. The information card which is located In the each seat-pocket. The card also provides valuable information about such things as card also provides valuable information about such things as flotation collars and life rafts.flotation collars and life rafts.

23. (A) in advance (B) on purpose (C) right away (D) once 23. (A) in advance (B) on purpose (C) right away (D) once in a blue moonin a blue moon24. (A) boarding (B) landing (C) embarking (D) disembarking24. (A) boarding (B) landing (C) embarking (D) disembarking25. (A)Located (B) Locate (C) locating (D) To locate25. (A)Located (B) Locate (C) locating (D) To locate

Multiple-choiceMultiple-choice

StrengthsStrengths‧Easy and fast to score‧Objectively‧Reduce the chance of guessing correct answer in

comparison to true-false items ‧Students’ preference WeaknessesWeaknesses‧Subjective judgment hides under the appearance

of objectiveness‧Hard to design

Sample of Multiple-choiceSample of Multiple-choice

Have you ever told somebody one of the following “facts”?Have you ever told somebody one of the following “facts”? “ “Some people never dream.” “Lightning never strikes in the same place twSome people never dream.” “Lightning never strikes in the same place tw

ice.” “Until Columbus, everybody thought the world was flat.” “William Tice.” “Until Columbus, everybody thought the world was flat.” “William Tell shot an arrow through an apple on top of his son’s head.” “George Wasell shot an arrow through an apple on top of his son’s head.” “George Washington confessed to his father that he had cut down a cherry tree.”hington confessed to his father that he had cut down a cherry tree.”

None of them is true! Everybody dreams every night; some people just canNone of them is true! Everybody dreams every night; some people just can’t remember their dreams. The Eiffel Tower is just one example of a struct’t remember their dreams. The Eiffel Tower is just one example of a structure that has been stuck many times by lightning. A thousand years before ure that has been stuck many times by lightning. A thousand years before Columbus, there were scholars who, after much study, thought the world wColumbus, there were scholars who, after much study, thought the world was round; by Columbus’ time, most educated people agreed. That famous Sas round; by Columbus’ time, most educated people agreed. That famous Swiss hero William Tell never existed! Legends about people shooting applewiss hero William Tell never existed! Legends about people shooting apples are common in Switzerland and other countries. George Washington nevs are common in Switzerland and other countries. George Washington never cut down a cherry tree— a writer of a biography about Washington inveer cut down a cherry tree— a writer of a biography about Washington invented that story. nted that story.

Now, people often say that heroes can sleep standing up— but is this trNow, people often say that heroes can sleep standing up— but is this true?ue?

Sample of Multiple-choiceSample of Multiple-choice

53. The best title is53. The best title is

(A) Facts Everyone Knows. (B) Remembering Dreams.(A) Facts Everyone Knows. (B) Remembering Dreams.

(C) “Facts” That Aren’t True. (D) Heroes of history(C) “Facts” That Aren’t True. (D) Heroes of history

54. The story about George Washington was made up by54. The story about George Washington was made up by

(A) a biographer. (B) Washington himself.(A) a biographer. (B) Washington himself.

(C) a Swiss storyteller (D) Washington’s father(C) a Swiss storyteller (D) Washington’s father

55. The story suggests that the answer to the last question55. The story suggests that the answer to the last question

(A) is yes. (B) is no.(A) is yes. (B) is no.

(C) is well-known (D)cannot be proven.(C) is well-known (D)cannot be proven.

Non-paper-and-pencil Non-paper-and-pencil Reading Assessment: Reading Assessment:

Techniques used in the Techniques used in the informal assessment of informal assessment of

readersreaders

Techniques for instruction-Techniques for instruction-based ongoing assessment of based ongoing assessment of readers, especially those who readers, especially those who are learning to read, or those are learning to read, or those with particular reading with particular reading disability.disability.

1. 1. Read Aloud: The learners need to read Read Aloud: The learners need to read some certain texts loudly. (Different some certain texts loudly. (Different from reading silently.)from reading silently.)

Strength– Teacher can find which word Strength– Teacher can find which word or which part that students are not or which part that students are not familiar with.familiar with.

Weakness— Weakness— 1.Some learners or readers are too shy to 1.Some learners or readers are too shy to

perform well in public. perform well in public. 2. It is a subjective and impressionistic 2. It is a subjective and impressionistic

judgment to students.judgment to students.3. Teacher don’t know if students 3. Teacher don’t know if students

understand or not.understand or not.

2. 2. Answer the questions on a passage Answer the questions on a passage (possibly in pairs, orally): The teacher (possibly in pairs, orally): The teacher can ask learners some questions can ask learners some questions related to the texts.related to the texts.

Strength—It is easy to find out the Strength—It is easy to find out the learner’s abilities of reading learner’s abilities of reading comprehension. comprehension.

Weakness— The learners need time Weakness— The learners need time to response. It is sometimes time-to response. It is sometimes time-consuming.consuming.

3. 3. Notes from Classroom Observation: Teachers Notes from Classroom Observation: Teachers frequently keep records of their learners’ frequently keep records of their learners’ performance, based on observation and performance, based on observation and description of classroom behaviors. description of classroom behaviors.

Strength— Strength— 1.1. It is a fairly comprehensible profile and a It is a fairly comprehensible profile and a

record of monitored progress. record of monitored progress. 2.2. It is easy to see the improvement and reading It is easy to see the improvement and reading

diets of student (how much can they read diets of student (how much can they read during a particular period).during a particular period).

Weakness— It may include some subjective Weakness— It may include some subjective points of view from teacher to certain points of view from teacher to certain studentsstudents..

4. Group Reviews/Meetings: Forming some 4. Group Reviews/Meetings: Forming some groups to discuss the content of a groups to discuss the content of a passage. passage.

Strength— Strength— 1.1. It is one of the simplest and most It is one of the simplest and most

effective ways of obtaining a wealth of effective ways of obtaining a wealth of information.information.

2.2. It can help to solve individual difficulties. It can help to solve individual difficulties. Besides, students can learn better Besides, students can learn better reading habits or strategies from their reading habits or strategies from their peers. peers.

Weakness— Students can be misled by Weakness— Students can be misled by their group members.their group members.

5. Interviews/Conferences with students : 5. Interviews/Conferences with students :

Strength— It can reveal students’ reading disaStrength— It can reveal students’ reading disabilities or difficulties. bilities or difficulties.

Weakness— Weakness—

1.1. Contributions of group members may not be faiContributions of group members may not be fair. r.

2.2. Some people may not feel comfortable or easy Some people may not feel comfortable or easy to have conference with the teacher. to have conference with the teacher.

3.3. If the teacher asked too many closed questionIf the teacher asked too many closed questions, it would not be very useful for students’ readis, it would not be very useful for students’ reading comprehension. Open-ended and Wh-questng comprehension. Open-ended and Wh-questions are recommended.ions are recommended.