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VALUASI EKONOMI SUMBERDAYA LAHAN Diabstraksikan : Soemarno PSL-PPSUB NOPEMBER 2012 Slide 2 LAHAN KUBIS TIDAK SEMUA LAHAN DAPAT MENDUKUNG PRODUKSI KUBIS Slide 3 LAHAN = SUMBERDAYA EKONOMI Diunduh dari Sumber: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/economic-definition-four- factors-production-3941.html.................... 3/11/2012. Land is the economic resource encompassing natural resources found within a nation economy. This resource includes timber, land, fisheries, farms and other similar natural resources. Land is usually a limited resource for many economies. Although some natural resources, such as timber, food and animals, are renewable, the physical land is usually a fixed resource. Nations must carefully use their land resource by creating a mix of natural and industrial uses. Using land for industrial purposes allows nations to improve the production processes for turning natural resources into consumer goods. Gross Margin: The simplest economic measure is the gross margin, which is the cash flow out less the cash flow in, on a per unit area (normalized or standardized) or aggregate (per-field or per-farm) basis, in one accounting period (usually a year). The gross margin can be expressed in terms of the return to labor or the return to land. Return to labor: the farm familys labor is not included as an expense, and the gross margin must be sufficient to allow the farm family an adequate income. This makes most sense if the gross margin is non-normalized, i.e., the actual amount received for the whole farm. Return to land: the farm familys labor is included in the expenses, as if the labor had been contracted. If the wage is at a reasonable level, the gross margin only has to be positive for the land use to be feasible. This makes most sense if the gross margin is normalized, i.e., the amount received per unit land area. Slide 4 LAHAN .. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/329078/land.................... 3/11/2012. Land, In economics, the resource that encompasses the natural resources used in production. In classical economics, the three factors of production are land, labour, and capital. Land was considered to be the original and inexhaustible gift of nature. In modern economics, it is broadly defined to include all that nature provides, including minerals, forest products, and water and land resources. While many of these are renewable resources, no one considers them inexhaustible. The payment to land is called rent. Like land, its definition has been broadened over time to include payment to any productive resource with a relatively fixed supply. Automated Land Evaluation System ALES. How ALES links land characteristics with economic values Starting from the physical inventory of the characteristics of a land area, how do we arrive at an economic value of a land use if implemented on that land area? By means of severity levels of Land Qualities, which can either limit yield (and thus reduce income) or increase costs. Land Qualities, and their diagnostic Land Characteristics, can be divided into two type for this analysis: 1.Location-independent (in-situ) and 2.Location dependent. E.g. (1) soil and climate qualities and characteristics, (2) distance, Adjacency. Slide 5 LAND QUALITY INDICATOR (LQI) Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. Some generic indicators of land units that must be monitored, especially for: 1.Condition of land resources, both positive and negative; 2.Areas arising from different land uses; 3.Rates of adaptation and adoption of recommended/suggested practices; 4.Farm management practices; 5.Yields and other outputs resulting from project interventions or other development; 6.Rural development issues such as land tenure, population density; 7.Water resources; 8.Fisheries and aquaculture; 9.Forest management; 10.Land-soil nutrients. Lahan pertanian produktif mixed cropping Slide 6 The holistic concept of Land (FAO,1976; FAO, 1995) : Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. "Land is a delineable area of the earth's terrestrial surface, encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this surface, including those of the near-surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology (including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and associated groundwater reserve, the plant and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and physical results of past and present human activity (terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads, buildings, etc.). The functions of Land: 1.Production function 2.Biotic environmental function 3.Climate-regulative function 4.Hydrologic function 5.Storage function 6.Waste and pollution control function 7.Living space function 8.Archive or heritage function 9.Connective space function. Slide 7 Land attributes, characteristics, properties and qualities (or limitations/ conditions): Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. 1.ATTRIBUTE, or variable, is a neutral, over- arching term for a single or compound aspect of the land; 2.CHARACTERISTIC is an attribute which is easily noticed and which serves as a distinguishing element for different types of land; it may or may not have a practical meaning (e.g., soil colour or texture, or height of forest cover are characteristics without giving direct information on land quality); 3.PROPERTY is an attribute that already gives a degree of information on the value of the land type; 4.LAND QUALITY (or limitation) is a complex attribute of land which acts in a manner distinct from the actions of other land qualities in its influence on the suitability of land for a specified kind of use. Slide 8 KERANGKA-KERJA EVALUASI LAHAN DARI FAO 1976 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. LAND QUALITIES RELATED TO PRODUCTIVITY FROM CROPS OR OTHER PLANT GROWTH 1.Crop yields (a resultant of many qualities listed below). 2.Moisture availability. 3.Nutrient availability. 4.Oxygen availability in the root zone. 5.Adequacy of foothold for roots. 6.Conditions for germination. 7.Workability of the land (ease of cultivation). 8.Salinity or sodicity. 9.Soil toxicity. 10.Resistance to soil erosion. 11.Pests and diseases related to the land. 12.Flooding hazard (including frequency, periods of inundation). 13.Temperature regime. 14.Radiation energy and photoperiod. 15.Climatic hazards affecting plant growth (including wind, hail, frost). 16.Air humidity as affecting plant growth. 17.Drying periods for ripening of crops. Slide 9 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. LAND QUALITIES RELATED TO DOMESTIC ANIMAL PRODUCTIVITY 1.Productivity of grazing land. 2.Climatic hardships affecting animals. 3.Endemic pests and diseases. 4.Nutritive value of grazing land. 5.Toxicity of grazing land. 6.Resistance to degradation of vegetation. 7.Resistance to soil erosion under grazing conditions. 8.Availability of drinking water. FRAMEWORK FOR LAND EVALUATION OF 1976 Lahan pertanian pada saat bera mernjadi sumber rumput pakan ternak Slide 10 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. LAND QUALITIES RELATED TO FOREST PRODUCTIVITY 1.The qualities listed may refer to natural forests, forestry plantations, or both. 2.Mean annual increments of timber species 3.Types and quantities of indigenous timber species. 4.Site factors affecting establishment of young trees. 5.Pests and diseases. 6.Fire hazard. FRAMEWORK FOR LAND EVALUATION OF 1976 Kawasan hutan tanaman jati Slide 11 LAND QUALITIES RELATED TO MANAGEMENT AND INPUTS 1.The qualities listed may refer to arable use, animal production or forestry. 2.Terrain factors affecting mechanization (trafficability). 3.Terrain factors affecting construction and maintenance of access-roads (accessibility). 4.Size of potential management units (e.g. forest blocks, farms, fields). 5.Location in relation to markets and to supplies of inputs. FRAMEWORK FOR LAND EVALUATION OF 1976 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. 1.FAO. 1976. A framework for land evaluation. Soils Bulletin 32, FAO, Rome. 72 p. Also, Publication 22, (R. Brinkman and A. Young (eds.), ILRI, Wageningen, The Netherlands. 2.FAO. 1995. Planning for sustainable use of land resources: towards a new approach, W.G. Sombroek and D. Sims. Land and Water Bulletin 2, FAO, Rome. Slide 12 ATMOSPHERIC QUALITIES 1.Atmospheric moisture supply: rainfall, length of growing season, evaporation, dew formation. 2.Atmospheric energy for photosynthesis: temperature, daylength, sunshine conditions. 3.Atmospheric conditions for crop ripening, harvesting and land preparation: occurrence of dry spells. Land qualities related to vertical components of a natural land unit Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. LAND COVER QUALITIES 1.Value of the standing vegetation as "crop", such as timber. 2.Value of the standing vegetation as germ plasm: biodiversity value. 3.Value of the standing vegetation as protection against degradation of soils and catchment. 4.Value of the standing vegetation as regulator of local and regional climatic conditions. 5.Regeneration capacity of the vegetation after complete removal. 6.Value of the standing vegetation as shelter for crops and cattle against adverse atmospheric influences. 7.Hindrance of vegetation at introduction of crops and pastures: the land "development" costs. 8.Incidence of above-ground pests and vectors of diseases: health risks of humans and animals. Slide 13 Land qualities related to vertical components of a natural land unit Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. LAND SURFACE AND TERRAIN QUALITIES 1.Surface receptivity as seedbed: the tilth condition. 2.Surface treatability: the bearing capacity for cattle, machinery, etc. 3.Surface limitations for the use of implements (stoniness, stickiness, etc.): the arability. 4.Spatial regularity of soil and terrain pattern, determining size and shape of fields with a capacity for uniform management. 5.Surface liability to deformation: the occurrence or hazard of wind and water erosion. 6.Accessibility of the land: the degree of remoteness from means of transport. 7.The presence of open freshwater bodies for use by humans, animals or fisheries. 8.Surface water storage capacity of the terrain: the presence or potential of ponds, on-farm reservoirs, bunds, etc. 9.Surface propensity to yield run-off water, for local water harvesting or downstream water supply. 10.Accumulation position of the land: degree of fertility renewal or crop damaging by overflow or overblow. Slide 14 Land qualities related to vertical components of a natural land unit Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. SOIL QUALITIES 1.Physical soil fertility: the net moisture storage capacity in the rootable zone. 2.Physical soil toxicity: the presence or hazard of waterlogging in the rootable zone (i.e. the absence of oxygen). 3.Chemical soil fertility: the availability of plant nutrients. 4.Chemical soil toxicity: salinity or salinization hazard; excess of exchangeable sodium. 5.Biological soil fertility: the N-fixation capacity of the soil biomass; and its capacity for soil organic matter turnover. 6.Biological soil toxicity: the presence or hazard of soil- borne pests and diseases. 7.Substratum (and soil profile) as source of construction materials. 8.Substratum (and soil profile) as source of minerals. 9.Biological soil toxicity: the presence or hazard of soil- borne pests and diseases. Slide 15 SUBSTRATUM OR UNDERGROUND QUALITIES 1.Groundwater level and quality in relation to (irrigated) land use. 2.Substratum potential for water storage (local use) and conductance (downstream use). 3.Presence of unconfined freshwater aquifers. 4.Substratum (and soil profile) suitability for foundation works (buildings, roads, canals, etc.) Land qualities related to vertical components of a natural land unit Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. Deskripsi profil tanah Slide 16 EVALUASI LAHAN Land evaluation is the process of assessment of land performance when used for specific purposes, involving the execution and interpretation of surveys and studies of land forms, soils, vegetation, climate and other aspects of land in order to identify and make a comparison of promising kinds of land use in terms applicable to the objectives of the evaluation. LAND EVALUATION. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. LUT A land utilization type (FAO, 1976) is a kind of land use described or defined in a higher degree of detail than that of a major kind of land use (such as rainfed agriculture or forestry), as an abstraction of actual land-use systems (which may be single, compound or multiple). Slide 17 Ketahanan suatu Lahan : The capacity of the land to recover quickly to former levels of productivity - or to resume the trend to increased productivity - after an adverse influence such as drought, floods, or human abandonment or mismanagement. KETAHANAN LAHAN Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. Some concepts of resilience of land and its productivity, comparing the situation in someindustrialized countries (A) with that of most developing countries (B). (Sombroek, 1993) Slide 18 1.Decline in quality of soils as rooting environments; 2.Erosion and loss of topsoil by wind and water; 3.Loss of vegetation cover, including woody perennials; 4.Acidification, soil fertility decline and plant nutrient depletion; 5.Salinity and salinization, particularly in irrigated systems. MAJOR ISSUES OF LAND MANAGEMENT. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. Pengelolaan lahan sawah : Palawija musim kemarau Slide 19 The type OF INDICATORS: 1.Physical soil condition; 2.Diversity or density of vegetation cover; 3.Thickness of topsoil (by erosion or, conversely, by good management); 4.Salinity or sodicity (alkaline conditions); 5.Terracing; 6.Establishment of contour vegetation strips. Unit in which the indicator is measured: areal extent and magnitude of change of the indicator types, with improvement and deterioration reported separately. INDICATOR : Land condition change (Change in land qualities). Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. Mulsa sisa-panen tanaman sebelumnya untuk mengendalikan evaporasi Slide 20 I. Above the soil surface, as related with yields: 1. Cover close to the ground: its density, distribution, duration, timing. 2. Stress in plants: growth rates; timing and frequency of wilting; visible nutrient deficiencies or imbalances. II. On the soil surface, as affecting particularly soil moisture and runoff+erosion: Porosity of at least topsoil layers, in millimetric bands: proportions of incident rainfall becoming infiltrated; III. Below the soil surface: Organic matter content and biological activity, as affecting multiple features: Soil architecture:. structural stability;. gas exchange. water movement and retention/release; Cation exchange capacity:. nutrient capture and retention;. pH buffering;. nutrient availability;. source of small amounts of recycled nutrients. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. LAND QUALITY INDICATOR (LQI) Slide 21 1.NUTRIENT BALANCE: describes nutrient stocks and flows as related to different land management systems used by farmers in specific AEZs and specific countries. 2.YIELD TRENDS AND YIELD GAPS: describes current yields, yield trends and actual:potential farm-level yields for the major food crops in different countries. 3.LAND USE INTENSITY: describes the impacts of agricultural intensification on land quality. Intensification may involve increased cropping, more value-added production, and increased amounts and frequency of inputs; emphasis is on the management practices adopted by farmers in the transition to intensification. 4.LAND USE DIVERSITY (agrodiversity): describes the degree of diversification of production systems over the landscape, including livestock and agroforestry systems; it reflects the degree of flexibility (and resilience) of regional farming systems, and their capacity to absorb shocks and respond to opportunities. 5.LAND COVER: describes the extent, duration and timing of vegetative cover on the land during major erosive periods of the year. It is a surrogate for erosion and, along with land use intensity and diversity, it will increase understanding on the issues of desertification. LIMA MACAM LQI UNTUK PERTANIAN DAN KEHUTANAN Diunduh dari Sumber: http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/HC270799/LM/SUSLUP/KeySpeakers/ADumanski. pdf.................... 3/11/2012. Slide 22 SOIL Fertility is the inherent capacity of a soil to supply nutrients in adequate amounts and suitable proportions, whereas soil productivity is a wider term referring to the ability of a soil to yield crops (Brady, 1974). The chief factors in soil productivity are soil organic matter (including microbial biomass), soil texture, structure, depth, nutrient content, water-storage capacity, reaction and absence of toxic elements. The soil productivity depends on physical, hydric, chemical and biologic characteristics and their interaction. Brady, N.C. 1974. The Nature and properties of soils. 8th Edition. Macmillan, New York. PRODUKTIVITAS TANAH Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4690e/y4690e08.htm.................... 3/11/2012. SAWAH IRIGASI TEKNIS Slide 23 Land productivity measures the wealth generated on a piece of land. High land productivity translates into : 1.Lower resource wastage, 2.Improved production processes, 3.Shorter turn-around time and, 4.Greater cost-savings. PRODUKTIVITAS LAHAN Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.mpl.ird.fr/crea/taller- colombia/FAO/AGLL/pdfdocs/landqual.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. Mulsa plastik ciri usahatani intensif Slide 24 Soil quality is generally defined in terms of the capacity of a soil to perform specific functions in relation to human needs or purposes, including maintaining environmental quality and sustaining plant and animal production (Lal, 1998a). Soil quality, in turn, derives from a variety of particular physical, chemical, and biological properties that support these functions, including topsoil depth, texture, bulk density, and water-holding capacity; organic matter, pH level, and extractable nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium; and microbial biomass (Mausbach and Seybold, 1998). Some of these properties (e.g., pH, N, P, and K) are characterized by optimum levels; departures from these optima (in either direction) are associated with reduced soil quality. Other properties (e.g., topsoil depth and microbial biomass) contribute positively to soil quality at all levels, while some (e.g., bulk density) are inversely related to soil quality. In addition to soil properties, other characteristics also play a critical role in determining land quality, including aspects of terrain (such as slope) and climate (such as temperature and precipitation, and thus the length of growing period). 1.Lal, R. 1998a. Soil Erosion Impact on Agronomic Productivity and Environment Quality. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 17(4): 319-464. 2.Mausbach, M. J., and C. A. Seybold. 1998. Assessment of Soil Quality. In Soil Quality and Agricultural Sustainability, edited by Rattan Lal. Chelsea, MI: Ann Arbor Press. KUALITAS & SIFAT-CIRI, KARAKTERISTIK TANAH Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/521837/aer823c_1_.pdf.................... 3/11/2012. Slide 25 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storie_index.................... 3/11/2012. The Storie index is a method of soil rating based on soil characteristics that govern the land's potential utilization and productivity capacity. It is independent of other physical or economic factors that might determine the desirability of growing certain plants in a given location. The evaluation is easy to be realized, being this an advantage of this method. A variety of categories are comprised in few categories. Four or five parameters are evaluated: 1.A: Soil depth and texture; 2.B: Soil permeability; 3.C: Soil chemical characteristics; 4.D: Drainage, Surface runoff; 5.E: Climate (only if it is not homogeneous, if so than it should not be included in the formula); The index is calculated from the multiplication of these parameters, that is: Sindex = A x B x C x D x E The disadvantage of this method is that if we have a value of zero in any category, than the result will be zero and won't be suitable for using. STORIE INDEX Slide 26 STORIE INDEX RATING SYSTEM The Storie Index Rating system ranks soil characteristics according to their suitability for agriculture from Grade 1 soils (80 to 100 rating), which have few or no limitations for agricultural production to Grade 6 soils (less than 10), which are not suitable for agriculture. Under this system, soils deemed less than prime can function as prime soils when limitations such as poor drainage, slopes, or soil nutrient deficiencies are partially or entirely removed. The six grades, ranges in index rating, and definition of the grades, as defined by the NRCS, are provided below in Table Storie Index Rating System. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.ci.oakley.ca.us/UserFiles/File/planning/RiverOaksCrossing%20Revised/3.9 _Agricultural%20Resources_final.pdf.................... 5/11/2012. Tanah yang mempunyai rating tinggi cocok untuk multiple cropping Slide 27 Storie Index Rating System Diunduh dari Sumber:.................... 5/11/2012. Slide 28 Rating soils for agricultural, forest and grazing use. STORIE, R. E. Journal Transactions 4th Int. Cong. Soil Sci. 1950 Vol. 1 pp. 336-339 . The Storie Index, a general soil-rating system of particular use in evaluating soils from an agricultural standpoint for tax assessment, land appraisal and general land-use planning purposes, is obtained by the multiplication of the per cent ratings given to FACTORS: 1.A, the soil-profile depth and permeability; 2.B, texture; 3.C, slope and 4.X, factors modifiable by management, namely drainage, salinity or alkalinity, nutrient level, acidity, erosion and micro- relief. The crop-productivity rating of a soil type is based on its yield as compared with that of the soil types giving the highest yield under stated management practices and climatic conditions, and is expressed in ratios from 10 to 1 (that is 100% to 10% of highest yields). A given soil type may have one rating when undrained, another when drained and a third when d "a ned and fertilized and so on. Timber soil ratings are similarly handled but where production is unknown, they are worked out by multiplying the ratings for factors A, depth and texture; B, permeability; C, chemical properties such as salinity; D, drainage and runoff and E, climate, including rainfall, temperature, aspect. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19511900206.html;jsessionid=C0E71A3FA5EEDD62 EF48270B1D7C59AA.................... 5/11/2012. Slide 29 STORIE INDEX RATING SYSTEM GradreIndex Rating Definition 1 Excellent 80 through 100 Soils are well suited to intensive use for growing irrigated crops that are climatically suited to the region. 2 Good60 through 79 Soils are good agricultural soils, although they may not be so desirable as Grade 1 because of moderately coarse, coarse, or gravelly surface soil texture; somewhat less permeable subsoil; lower plant available water holding capacity, fair fertility; less well drained conditions, or slight to moderate flood hazards, all acting separately or in combination. 3 Fair40 through 59 Soils are only fairly well suited to general agricultural use and are limited in their use because of moderate slopes; moderate soil depths; less permeable subsoil; fine, moderately fine, or gravelly surface soil textures; poor drainage; moderate flood hazards; or fair to poor fertility levels, all acting alone or in combination. 4 - Poor20 - 39Soils are poorly suited. They are severely limited in their agricultural potential because of shallow soil depths; less permeable subsoil; steeper slope; or more clayey or gravelly surface soil textures than Grade 3 soils, as well as poor drainage; greater flood hazards; hummocky micro-relief; salinity; or fair to poor fertility levels, all acting alone or in combination. 5- Very Poor 10 - 19Soils are very poorly suited for agriculture, are seldom cultivated and are more commonly used for range, pasture, or woodland. 6 Non- agricultur al less than 10 Soils are not suited for agriculture at all due to very severe to extreme physical limitations, or because of urbanization. Source: USDA-NRCS 2010 Slide 30 SOIL RATING CHART.Storie soil index rating = Faktor A x Faktor B x Faktor C x Faktor X Faktor A : Rating karakter fisik profil tanah I Tanah-tanah aluvial muda yang profilnya belum berkembang 100 % xFase dangkal (pada material bahan induk yang konsolidated) --- kedalaman 2 feet 50-60 xFase dangkal (pada material bahan induk yang konsolidated) --- kedalaman 3 feet 70 gSubsoil sangat berkerikil80-95 sSubsoil liat terstrata80-95 II Tanah-tanah aluvial muda yang profilnya baru-sedikit berkembang 95-100 % xFase dangkal (pada material bahan induk yang konsolidated) --- kedalaman 2 feet 50-60 xFase dangkal (pada material bahan induk yang konsolidated) --- kedalaman 3 feet 70 gSubsoil sangat berkerikil80-95 sSubsoil liat terstrata80-95 Sumber: Storie Index Soil Rating. R.E. Storie. Experiment Station Berkeley, Univ oc California. 1978 Slide 31 SOIL RATING CHART.Storie soil index rating = Faktor A x Faktor B x Faktor C x Faktor X Faktor A : Rating karakter fisik profil tanah III Tanah-tanah aluvial yang PERKEMBANGAN profilnya moderat (subsoilnya agak padat) 80-95 % xFase dangkal (pada material bahan induk yang konsolidated) --- kedalaman 2 feet 40-60 xFase dangkal (pada material bahan induk yang konsolidated) --- kedalaman 3 feet 60-70 gSubsoil sangat berkerikil60-90 IV Tanah-tanah yang profilnya sudah berkembang (Subsoiolnya liat rapat /padat) 40-80 % V Tanah-tanah yang profilnya mempunyai subsoil cadas (hardpan) pd kedalaman kurang dari 1 foot 5-20 % Pada kedalaman 1-2 feet20-30 Pada kedalaman 2-3 feet30-40 Pada kedalaman 3-4 feet40-50 Pada kedalaman 4-6 feet50-80 Sumber: Storie Index Soil Rating. R.E. Storie. Experiment Station Berkeley, Univ oc California. 1978 Slide 32 SOIL RATING CHART.Storie soil index rating = Faktor A x Faktor B x Faktor C x Faktor X Faktor A : Rating karakter fisik profil tanah VI Tanah-tanah yang subsoilhya liat rapat terletak pada bahan induk yang konsolidated (moderat konsolidated) 40-80 % VII Tanah-tanah pada dataran upland yang batuan induknya berupa batuan beku yang keras pada kedalaman kurang dari 1 foot 10-30 % Pada kedalaman 1-2 feet30-50 Pada kedalaman 2-3 feet50-70 Pada kedalaman 3-4 feet70-80 Pada kedalaman 4-6 feet Pada kedalaman lebih dari 6 feet 80-100 100 Sumber: Storie Index Soil Rating. R.E. Storie. Experiment Station Berkeley, Univ oc California. 1978 Slide 33 SOIL RATING CHART.Storie soil index rating = Faktor A x Faktor B x Faktor C x Faktor X VIII Tanah-tanah pada dataran upland yang bahan induknya berupa batuan sedimen yang konsolidated pada kedalaman kurang dari 1 foot 10-30 % Pada kedalaman 1-2 feet30-50 Pada kedalaman 2-3 feet50-70 Pada kedalaman 3-4 feet70-80 Pada kedalaman 4-6 feet Pada kedalaman lebih dari 6 feet 80-100 100 IX Tanah-tanah pada dataran upland yang bahan induknya berupa material lunak yang konsolidated pada kedalaman kurang dari 1 foot 20-40 % Pada kedalaman 1-2 feet40-60 Pada kedalaman 2-3 feet60-80 Pada kedalaman 3-4 feet80-90 Pada kedalaman 4-6 feet Pada kedalaman lebih dari 6 feet 90-100 100 Sumber: Storie Index Soil Rating. R.E. Storie. Experiment Station Berkeley, Univ oc California. 1978 Slide 34 SOIL RATING CHART.Storie soil index rating = Faktor A x Faktor B x Faktor C x Faktor X FAKTOR B. RATING BERDASARKAN TEKSTUR TANAH LAPISAN ATAS Tekstur Medium: Lempung berpasir halus 100% Lempung100 Lempung debu100 Lempung berpasir95 Lempung liat berdebu, berkapur 95 Lemp. Liat berdebu, non kapur 90 Lemp. Liat berkapur95 Lemp. Liat tidak berkapur 85-90 Tekstur halus atau berat Liat berdebu, sangat berkapur 70-90 Liat berdebu, tidak berkapur 60-70 Liat, sangat berkapur70-80 Liat tidak berkapur50-70 Tekstur Kasar atau ringan: Lempung berpasir kasar90 Pasir berlempung80 Pasir snagat halus80 Pasir halus65 Pasir60 Pasir kasar30-60 Sumber: Storie Index Soil Rating. R.E. Storie. Experiment Station Berkeley, Univ oc California. 1978 Slide 35 SOIL RATING CHART.Storie soil index rating = Faktor A x Faktor B x Faktor C x Faktor X FAKTOR B. RATING BERDASARKAN TEKSTUR TANAH LAPISAN ATAS Berkerikil Lempung berpasir halus berkerikil 70-80 Lempung berkerikil60-80 Lempung debu berkerikil 60-80 Lempung perbasir berkerikil 50-70 Lemp. Liat berkerikil60-80 Liat berkerikil40-70 Pasir berkerikil20-30 Berbatu Lempung berpasir halus berbatu 70-80 Lempung berbatu60-80 Lempung debu berbatu 60-80 Lempung perbasir berbatu 50-70 Lemp. Liat berbatu50-80 Liat berbatu40-70 Pasir berbatu10-40 Sumber: Storie Index Soil Rating. R.E. Storie. Experiment Station Berkeley, Univ oc California. 1978 Slide 36 SOIL RATING CHART.Storie soil index rating = Faktor A x Faktor B x Faktor C x Faktor X FAKTOR C. RATING BERDASARKAN KEMIRINGAN AHampir datar (kemiringan 0-2%)100% AAAgak berombak (kemiringan 0-2%)95-100 BAgak miring (kemiringan 3-8%)95-100 BBBerombak (kemiringan 3-8%)85-100 CMiring (kemiringan 9-15%)80-95 CCBergelombang (kemiringan 9-15%)80-95 DSangat miring (kemiringan 16-30%)70-80 DDBerbukit (kemiringan 16-30%)70-80 ECuram (kemiringan 30-45%)30-50 FSangat curam (kemiringan lebih dari 45%)5-80 Sumber: Storie Index Soil Rating. R.E. Storie. Experiment Station Berkeley, Univ oc California. 1978 Slide 37 SOIL RATING CHART.Storie soil index rating = Faktor A x Faktor B x Faktor C x Faktor X FAKTOR X. RATING BERDASARKAN FAKTOR LAINNYA, SELAIN FAKTOR A, B, DAN C. Drainage Baik100% Cukup baik80-90 Tergenang moderat40-80 Tergenang parah10-40 Subyek banjirvariabel Alkali Bebas alkali100% Sedikit terpengaruh alkali 60-95 Pengaruh moderat30-60 Pengaruh agak parah15-30 Pengaruh parah5-15 Unsur Hara (kesuburan) Tinggi (subur)100% Cukup95-100 Miskin80-95 Sangat miskin60-80 Kemasaman Sesuai dnegan pH80-95% Sumber: Storie Index Soil Rating. R.E. Storie. Experiment Station Berkeley, Univ oc California. 1978 Slide 38 SOIL RATING CHART.Storie soil index rating = Faktor A x Faktor B x Faktor C x Faktor X FAKTOR X. RATING BERDASARKAN FAKTOR LAINNYA, SELAIN FAKTOR A, B, DAN C. Erosi tanah: Tidak ada Ringan100% Deposisi berbahaya75-95 Erosi permukaan moderat80-95 Alur dangkal jarang70-90 Erosi permukaan moderat dg alur dangkal 60-80 Alur dalam10-70 Erosi permukana moderat dg alur dalam 10-60 Erosi permukaan parah50-80 Erosi permukaan parah dg alur dangkal 40-50 Erosi permukaan parah dg alur dalam 10-40 Erosi sangat parah10-40 Erosi angin moderat80-95 Erosi angin parah30-80 Relief mikro: Smooth 100% Channel60-95 Hogwallow60-95 Low hummock80-95 High hummock20-60 Dunes10-40 Sumber: Storie Index Soil Rating. R.E. Storie. Experiment Station Berkeley, Univ oc California. 1978 Slide 39 SOIL RATING CHART.Storie soil index rating = Faktor A x Faktor B x Faktor C x Faktor X SOIL GRADING GRADE 1 (Excelent) Tanah-tanah yang mempunyai rate 80-100% dan cocok untuk berbagai jenis tanaman, tanaman pangan, perkebunan dan hutan GRADE 2 (Good) Tanah-tanah yang mempunyai rate 60-79% dan cocok untuk banyak jenis tanaman. Hasil tanaman umumnya baik hingga sangat baik GRADE 3 (Fair) Tanah-tanah yang mempunyai rate 40-59% dan kualitasnya cukup baik, cocok bagi cukup banyak jenis tanaman, Hasil jenis tanaman tertentu cukup baik GRADE 4 (Poor) Tanah-tanah yang mempunyai rate 20-39% dan mempunyai peluang terbatas bagi pertanian, misalnya beberapa tanah cocok untuk sawah GRADE 5 (Very Poor) Tanah-tanah yang mempunyai rate 10-19% dan penggunaan pertanian snagat terbatas, kendala serius seperti solum dangkal, berbatu, atau alkalis GRADE 6 (Non- agriculture) Tanah-tanah yang mempunyai rate kurang dari 10% dan faktor pembatasnya snagat serius, seperti sangat curam, pasang-surut, lembah banjir. Sumber: Storie Index Soil Rating. R.E. Storie. Experiment Station Berkeley, Univ oc California. 1978 Slide 40 KUALITAS & KARAKTERISTIK LAHAN "Karakterisik lahan" merupakan atribut lahan yang dapat diukur atau diestimasi. Misalnya: kemiringan, curah hujan, tekstur tanah, kapasitas air tersedia, biomasa vegetasi, dll. "Kualitas lahan" adalah kompleks atribut lahan yang mempunyai peranan spesifik dalam menentukan tingkat kesesuaian lahan untuk suatu penggunaan tertentu. Misalnya: ketersediaan air, resistensi erosi, bahaya banjir, dan aksesibilitas. "Kriteria diagnostik" adalah suatu peubah yang mempunyai pengaruh tertentu terhadap hasil (atau input yang diperlukan ) pada penggunaan tertentu, dan peubah ini juga berfungsi sebagai dasar untuk menilai kesesuaian suatu bidang lahan bagi penggunaan tertentu. Kriteria diagnostik ini dapat berupa kualitas lahan, karakteristik lahan, atau beberapa karakteristik lahan. Diunduh dari sumber: http://pinterdw.blogspot.com/2012/01/kualiatas-dan- karakteristik-lahan.html 5/11/2012 Slide 41 KUALITAS LAHAN Hubungan antara kualitas dan karakteristik lahan yang dipakai pada metode evaluasi lahan (Djaenudin et al. 2003).. Diunduh dari sumber: http://pinterdw.blogspot.com/2012/01/kualiatas-dan-karakteristik- lahan.html 5/11/2012 Kualitas Lahan Karakteristik Lahan Temperatur (tc)Temperatur rata -rata (oC) Ketersediaan air (wa) Curah hujan (mm), Kelembaban (%), Lamanya bulan kering (bln) Ketersediaan oksigen (oa) Drainase Keadaan media perakaran (rc) Tekstur, Bahan kasar (%), Kedalaman tanah (cm) Gambut Ketebalan (cm), Ketebalan (cm) jika ada sisipan bahan mineral/pengkayaan, Kematangan Retensi hara (nr) KTK liat (cmol/kg), Kejenuhan basa (%), pH, C- organik (%) Toksisitas (xc)Salinitas (dS/m) Sodisitas (xn)Alkalinitas/ESP (%) Bahaya sulfidik (xs)Bahaya sulfidik (xs) Kedalaman sulfidik (cm) Bahaya erosi (eh)Lereng (%), Bahaya erosi Bahaya banjir (fh)Genangan Penyiapan lahan (lp)Batuan di permukaan (%), Singkapan batuan (%) Slide 42 LAND USE Land comprises the physical environment, including climate, relief, soils, hydrology and vegetation, to the extent that these influence potential for land use. It includes the results of past and present human activity, e.g. reclamation from the sea, vegetation clearance, and also adverse results, e.g. soil salinization. Purely economic and social characteristics, however, are not included in the concept of land; these form part of the economic and social context. (sumber: http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5310E/x5310e03.htm) Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements. LAND USE has also been defined as "the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it" (FAO, 1997; FAO/UNEP, 1999).. Diunduh dari sumber: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use 5/11/2012 Slide 43 LAND UTILIZATION A land utilization type consists of a set of technical specifications in a given physical, economic and social setting. This may be the current environment or a future Betting modified by major land improvement e, e.g. an irrigation and drainage scheme. Attributes of land utilization types include data or assumptions on: 1.Produce, including goods (e.g. crops, livestock timber), cervices (e.g. recreational facilities) or other benefits (e.g. wildlife conservation) 2.Market orientation, including whether towards subsistence or commercial production 3.Capital intensity 4.Labour intensity 5.Power sources (e.g. man's labour, draught animals machinery using fuels) 6.Technical knowledge and attitudes of land users 7.Technology employed (e.g. implements and machinery, fertilizers, livestock breeds, farm transport, methods of timber felling) 8.Infrastructure requirements (e.g. sawmills, tat factories, agricultural advisory services) 9.Size and configuration of land holdings, including whether consolidated or fragmented 10.Land tenure, the legal or customary manner in which rights to land are held, by individuals or groups 11.Income levels, expressed per capita, per unit of production (e.g. farm) or per unit area. Diunduh dari sumber: http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5310E/x5310e03.htm 5/11/2012 Slide 44 Neoclassical Production Theory The neoclassical production function for a single output and two variable inputs can be written: y = f(x1,x2) where y is the quantity of output and xi is the quantity of the ith variable input. The properties of this production function are specified by assumptions: 1.Xi 0 and finite (non-negative, real inputs); 2.f(X1,X2) is finite, nonnegative, real valued, and single valued for all possible combinations of X1 and X2; 3. f(X1,X2) is everywhere continuous and everywhere twice continuously differentiable; 4.f(X1,X2) is subject to the "law" of diminishing returns. Diunduh dari sumber: http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/31977/1/rr980059.pdf 5/11/2012 Slide 45 INPUT / FAKTOR PRODUKSI Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/envecon/review.php#v2.................... 2/10/2012. Of the three factors of production in classical economics, land, labor, and capital, land may be the most difficult to define. Does it refer to just the land itself? Or is land a generic term referring to all natural resources? Air, sunshine, and water, necessary to make land productive, are all part of the surrounding ecosystems. While ownership of land itself can easily be demarcated, ownership of mobile, associated resources is trickier. Slide 46 PROSES PRODUKSI TANAMAN Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.ciesin.org/lw-kmn/yldgap/yldgap.html.................... 5/11/2012. Many processes affect crop performance : the conservative efficiency of the use of radiation, water and nutrient on crop growth, those contributing to the soil water balance and those affecting soil fertility. Crop growth has been modelled successfully as a function of environmental factors using the concept of these conservative efficiencies. Crop production will be described for these levels in terms of potential and water- or nutrient limited production. The most suitable cereal crop (depending on the agro-ecological conditions wheat, rice, maize, millet or sorghum) is taken as a proxy for a wide range of crops that could be grown, with yields expressed in 'grain equivalents'. In practice actual production levels may differ from these calculated levels due to deviant agricultural management. Actual yield is a function of biophysical as well as the socio-economic conditions Levels of production and required data for its assessment. (Modified from Rabbinge, 1993). Rabbinge, R., 1993. The ecological background in food production. In: Crop protection and sustainable agriculture. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester (Ciba Foundation Symposium 177), pp. 2-29. Slide 47 INPUT-OUTPUT PROCESS RELATIONSHIPS Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7365e/w7365e08.htm.................... 5/11/2012. Figure illustrates some differently shaped production functions for the case of a single-variable input production process. Each graph shows the physical input-output relationship or total physical product curve as the level of the single variable input is increased with all other input factors held constant. In graphs A and B, the law of diminishing returns (sometimes called the law of variable proportions) prevails - beyond some point, as the level of the variable input increases with no change in the level of other input factors, increases in output occur at a diminishing rate (the marginal product is decreasing) and eventually, beyond the point of maximum output, output declines in absolute terms (the marginal product becomes negative). Stylized Production Functions or Input-Output Relationships for a Single Variable Input Slide 48 Keterkaitan Faktor Produksi Diunduh dari Sumber: ocw.usu.ac.id/...PERTANIAN/sep_203_handout_faktor- faktor_prod....................... 5/11/2012. Kaitan Faktor Manajemen Dengan Faktor Produksi Lain Ada empat faktor produksi pertanian yaitu: Alam (lahan, iklim, radiasi matahari, air, udara, dll), Tenaga kerja, Modal, dan Pengelolaan (manajemen). Faktor produksi alam dan tenaga kerja sering disebut sebagai faktor produksi primer, faktor produksi modal dan pengolaan disebut faktor produksi sekunder. Slide 49 EKSTERNALITAS Diunduh dari Sumber: http://lecture.ub.ac.id/anggota/marno/activity/16054/.................... 5/11/2012. Dalam proses produksi pertanian, masukan-masukan yang berupa material, teknologi, menejemen dan unsur-unsur agro ekologi akan diproses untuk menghasilkan keluaran-keluaran yang berupa hasil-hasil tanaman dan ternak. Hasil-hasil sampingan dan limbah dari proses produksi tersebut dapat berupa hasil sedimen, hasil air, dan bahan-bahan kimia yang dapat menjadi pencemar lingkungan. Limbah ini biasanya diangkut ke luar dari sistem produksi dan menimbulkan biaya eksternal dan efek eksternalitas. Biasanya sistem produksi pertanian di daerah hulu sungai mempunyai efek eksternal yang cukup luas dan akan diderita oleh masyarakat di daerah bawah. Dalam suatu daerah aliran sungai yang mempunyai bangunan pengairan seperti bendungan, waduk dan jaringan irigasi, efek eksternalitas tersebut menjadi semakin serius, karena dapat mengancam kelestarian bangunan-bangunan tersebut. Slide 50 EKSTERNALITAS Diunduh dari Sumber: http://dickyhendramulyadi.blog.com/2012/02/04/eksternalitas- lingkungan/.................... 5/11/2012. Eksternalitas timbul kalau kegiatan produksi (dan konsumsi) memiliki pengaruh yang tidak diharapkan (tidak langsung) terhadap produsen dan /atau konsumen lain. Eksternalitas positif terjadi kalau kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh seseorang memberikan manfaat pada pihak lain tanpa melalui mekanisme pasar. Eksternalitas negatif terjadi kalau kegiatan oleh individu menghasilkan dampak yang merugikan pihak lain. Pencemaran air sungai atau air sumur dapat ditimbulkan oleh proses produksi pertanian yang berasal dari penggunaan pestisida dan pupuk. Adanya eksternalitas menyebabkan terjadinya perbedaan antara manfaat (biaya ) sosial dengan manfaat (biaya) privat. Perbedaan manfaat (biaya ) ini berkaitan dnegan alokasi sumberdaya yang tidak efisien. Pihak yang menyebabkan eksternalitas tidak memiliki dorongan untuk menanggung dampak dari kegiatannya yang diderita oleh pihak lain. Slide 51 EKSTERNALITAS EROSI TANAH. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://ryniforfun.blogspot.com/2010/03/erosi-tanah-dampaknya- bagi-kehidupan.html.................... 5/11/2012. Erosi tanah merupakan proses terangkutnya material tanah atau sedimen oleh aliran air yang terjadi di permukaan tanah. Kerusakan yang dialami oleh tanah di tempat yang ada erosi a.l.: 1.Kehilangan unsur hara dan bahan organik. 2.Menurunnya kapasitas infiltrasi (kemampuan tanah untuk meresapkan air) dan kemampuan tanah menyimpan air. 3.Meningkatnya kepadatan dan ketahanan penetrasi tanah. 4.Berkurangnya kemantapan struktur tanah yang pada akhirnya menyebabkan memburuknya pertumbuhan tanaman dan menurunnya produktifitas. Eksternalitas lingkungan akibat erosi tanah a.l.: 1.Sedimentasi dan pendangkalan waduk 2.Tertimbunnya (sedimentasi) jaringan irigasi. 3.Memburuknya kualitas air sungai, air sumur, air permukaan lainnya, 4.Kerugian ekosistem perairan. Slide 52 EKSTERNALITAS Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.tutor2u.net/economics/revision-notes/a2-micro- externalities-overview.html.................... 16/11/2012.http://www.tutor2u.net/economics/revision-notes/a2-micro- externalities-overview.html The problem is that the way owners use their land may affect others. If they dump garbage on their neighbors' land, clearly they are infringing upon others' rights. But how about if they burn garbage and the resulting smoke blows onto nearby properties? What if they pollute a stream and it ends up affecting everyone's water source, or flush sewage away and it ends up in an ecologically stressed bay? Although the field of economics traditionally likes to deal with items that can be easily demarcated, quantified, and tagged with ownership, this becomes difficult when dealing with our shared ecosystems. Economics has dealt with this largely by labeling such items externalities, costs for which the responsible party does not pay. It then becomes up to the community, and usually the government, to decide how to deal with externalities. Slide 53 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.compilerpress.ca/ElementalEconomics/271%20Environmental/Econ%20271 %202.0%20Environmental%20Economics%20b.htm.................... 5/11/2012. Until now we have assumed that market price includes or 'internalizes' all relevant costs and benefits. This means the consumer captures all benefits and the producer pays all the costs. An externality refers to costs and benefits that are not captured by market price for whatever reasons, i.e., they are external to market price. EXTERNALITY In effect, the market demand curve reflects only marginal private benefits (MPB) of consumers but not the external benefits accruing to society. When such external benefits are added, vertically, we derive the marginal social benefit curve (MSB) inclusive of both private and public benefits. Similarly, the market supply curve reflects only marginal private costs (MPC) but not costs external to the firms accounting, e.g., pollution that society must pay. When social costs are added, vertically, to the supply curve we derive the marginal social cost (MSC) curve inclusive of both private and public costs. Slide 54 EXTERNAL BENEFIT Slide 55 Diunduh dari Sumber:.................... 5/11/2012. EXTERNAL COST MSC = marginal social cost; MC = marginal cost MEC = marginal external cost MPC = marginal private cost MC = MPC MSC = MC + MEC Slide 56 EKSTERNAL COST - INEFISIENSI Adanya biaya eksternal mengakibatkan in- efisiensi dalam proses produksi Slide 57 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://cnx.org/content/m38612/latest/.................... 5/11/2012. A negative externality is a cost associated with an action that is not borne by the person who chooses to take that action. Inefficiency from Negative Externality When there is a negative externality, the market equilibrates where the total social marginal cost exceeds the marginal benefit of the last unit of a good and society is not as well off as it could be if less were produced. NEGATIVE EXTERNALITIES Slide 58 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.grin.com/en/doc/230776/a-computable-general- equilibrium-analysis-of-aggregates-materials-recycling.................... 5/11/2012. The failure to internalize the negative externality results in diminished social well-being. The over-production occurs when the external costs of waste disposal in the community are ignored (not internalized). In this figure, the private profit- maximizing quantity of landfill deposits produced (Qp ) are greater than the socially optimal production that occurs when the external costs are included (Q s ). The amount of overproduction is equal to the distance from Qp to Qs. In order to account for the external costs imposed on the community from producing additional (aggregates) deposits into the landfill, it is important to increase the costs of these deposits from Pp to Ps. Over-production with a negative externality Pp Ps QpQs Slide 59 Diunduh dari Sumber:.................... 5/11/2012. What happens when one form of government intervention (a Pigouvian tax on the disposal of aggregates) is implemented. With a Pigouvian tax, the tax is set equal to the marginal external costs at the socially optimal point of production. In this case, the tax on deposits elevates the price of disposal, leading to a reduction in the amount of deposits. A reduction of deposits into the local landfill would most likely result from corresponding reductions in the amount of aggregates waste created in the production process or from finding alternative means of disposal of the waste. Pigouvian tax applied to a negative externality Slide 60 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/amtthews/FoodPolicy/LectureTopics/Environment/L ecture20.htm.................... 5/11/2012. These environmental costs are externalised, and there is thus divergence between the marginal private cost of production (to which the producer responds) and the marginal social cost of production (which determines the socially optimal level of production). Over-production of farm output which causes environmental damage is shown in the following diagram. The farmer would produce at Q1 where his marginal private cost equals marginal revenue, although the socially efficient level of output is Qo which takes into account the additional social costs of agricultural production.. Adverse environmental impacts as negative externalities Some adverse environmental impacts may be internalised into a farmer's decision-making process, e.g. soil erosion, as this may impact on the revenue-generating potential of the farm in the future. However, the problem with many environmental impacts is that the costs are not borne by the producer because there is no mechanism to price the damage being done and require the producer to pay. Slide 61 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301420704000340.................... 5/11/2012. The paper defines the concept of land degradation and costs and effects of soil erosion. Through the concept of optimal levels of soil erosion, a conceptual model of the social costs of soil degradation is elaborated. The discussion focuses on the measurement aspects of the economic scarcity of soil in the agriculture sector. Reliable estimates of the true impacts of soil degradation can only be made if data on marginal damage costs and marginal conservation costs are available. The different scarcity indicators are evaluated and competitive land rental prices are considered as appropriate in indicating soil scarcity in agriculture. Divergence between private and social costs of upland production. Slide 62 Optimal level of soil quality and soil costs. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301420704000340.................... 5/11/2012. Slide 63 EKONOMI LAHAN Diunduh dari Sumber: http://ckmurray.blogspot.com/2009/11/some-empirical-support-for- land.html.................... 31/10/2012. There has been a paper recently published by Andrew Leigh, Economics Professor at ANU, which empirically estimates the impact of stamp duties on the housing market. His main finding is that if stamp duties are raised, house prices will fall by more than in the increase in the tax. Did you get that? If you increase stamp duty, the total price of housing (price plus stamp duty) will fall. Sellers suffer, buyers benefit. Its a classic land tax - there is no deadweight loss, as shown in the figure. Slide 64 PASAR LAHAN Diunduh dari Sumber:.................... 31/10/2012. How can such a thing occur? For any other product, assuming a competitive market, if you add costs to production, prices will have to go up (even if quantity sold goes down), or margins will go down (temporarily at least). Land, however, has some characteristics that make it quite different to other goods 1. There is a fixed supply (vertical supply curve), and 2. It is costless to produce (the producer surplus starts at a price of zero) Some would argue that land available to be developed is not in fixed supply, and that town planning regulations can change that supply. I agree. But these are regulations, they are not market players, and that does not make supply of land price elastic (although I would suggest the supply curve for serviced residential lots above the intersection with demand is quite elastic as land parcels are brought to market). I think both sides would agree that from a theoretical standpoint, the supply curve is vertical below the intersection with the demand curve. Slide 65 PASAR LAHAN Diunduh dari Sumber:.................... 31/10/2012. It is the second point that is far more important to understanding the land market. Land itself is costless to produce. That means that the level of demand determines the price of land at any point in time. Not supply, demand. So when you increase a tax on land the total land and tax price stays constant, but the underlying value of the land declines (as shown by the reduced producer surplus in the figure above). I have been quite baffled by the success of Christopher Joyes argument that the supply of housing is a major factor determining prices. He maintains two contradictory positions. The first is that we have a land price boom, not a house price boom. The second is that we should elastify the supply of housing to avoid further unnecessary price increases. Hang on chap. We dont have a problem supplying housing. Our problem is that we all decided to pay ridiculously high prices for land. There are two more characteristics to the land market that make analysis difficult. There is competitive behaviour in the market for buying land, both development sites and serviced land parcels, but not a competitive market for the sale of land. Slide 66 RATIONALITAS Land resources support life, underpin the economies of nations and the livelihoods of people across the world In many places these resources are being degraded by a series of pressures, and climate change will only make things worse Unsustainable land uses and practices take place for many different reasons, and may produce irreversible losses in fragile ecosystems The value of land resources to national development and poverty reduction is often not understood properly Investments in land, sectors or technologies driven by short-term gains may generate huge negative externalities, leading to serious depreciation of natural capital Sumber: Economic Valuation of Land (EVL): Rationale and Objectives. Simone Quatrini. Masters Course on Integrated Drylands Management, CAREERI, Lanzhou, China. 4-6 October 2010. Slide 67 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/definitions/resources.htm.................... 31/10/2012. "Value" has multiple meanings, and we must get a clear understanding about what we mean. Monetary or "market" value is determined by exchange of money. If I have a tree and you want a tree, how much money will I accept and give you my tree in exchange? The market value, therefore, depends on a tension between one person wanting to retain what they have, and another person wanting to have what the first person has. The resolution of the tension is achieved when ownership changes simultaneously with a flow of money from the buyer to the seller, and a flow of ownership from the first owner to the second owner. Market value refers only to what we can obtain from other humans. What can people have? What can people exchange for money? Are natural resources always exchangeable for money? Can humans "make" a tree? Who or what makes it "ownable," or makes it "property"? APAKAH SUMBERDAYA ALAM ? Slide 68 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/definitions/resources.htm.................... 31/10/2012. Humans make artifacts (production) and can give their time and labor (services). Humans do not make natural resources, which are unrelated to either human time or human production. Humans may only modify natural resources. Natural resources are made by Nature and the energy to make them comes from geochemical, geophysical and solar energy. Humans cannot make petroleum, which once was living plants that have been processed for millions of years before humans existed, slowly becoming petroleum. Petroleum is a natural resource that we consider to be "nonrenewable" because it takes too long to make by the time scale that we can experience. But we can change where petroleum is located, and we can process it into components parts. APAKAH SUMBERDAYA ALAM ? Slide 69 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/definitions/resources.htm.................... 31/10/2012. So, when we say that petroleum is valuable, we refer only to what we do with it. Humans may own the use of petroleum and control the ways that other people can use it. Ownership is a concept of humans, who invented laws to formalize the concept. Groups of humans then agreed to abide by the rules spelled out in the laws. Laws are also artifacts and laws make money "legal tender." If we "own the right to modify a right to modify a natural resource" then we may exchange our right of modification with other people who give us money. Money is another human artifact and its value is defined by laws, and ultimately, by many people's opinion about its value. Money cannot be used to make natural resources, but money and laws are used to influence what other humans do with natural resources. The effects of soil productivity on food quality, health and environmental quality. Sumber: http://www.naturewatch.ca/english/wormwatch/about/ecology.html Slide 70 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/definitions/resources.htm.................... 31/10/2012. So, the monetary value of natural resources is what people believe the value to be. Our ignorance can cause the resources to be greatly undervalued, which is a major problem. We may not consider the "replacement cost" of a limited natural resource when we establish a monetary value. Humans are inherently ignorant; we simplify complex things and processes because we do not understand the "whole"! Natural resources and the ecosystem processes producing them are the most complex systems we can imagine -- if, in fact, we actually can imagine them accurately. Why are natural resources valuable to us? What do we assume about natural resources and their "value" when we equate their existence and use with money? Ecosystem services keep our habitat comfortable and livable without the outlay of money. Nature's processes work for free, powered totally by solar energy. Some examples are: Pest controlFlood control Water filtrationSoil fertilization Food production Oxygen production Climate stabilization Recreation opportunities APAKAH SUMBERDAYA ALAM ? Slide 71 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/definitions/resources.htm.................... 31/10/2012. These services to some extent also can be achieved by technological means, but at significant monetary investment. Furthermore, continuing costs are necessary to maintain the services. The ecosystem, however, will maintain these services without cost, unless we interfere with these processes. In certain instances there is a "loss of opportunity value," such as avoiding building highways or buildings in such a way that they destroy or damage the ecosystem processes. The loss of opportunity value is offset by the ecosystem services value they supply. We may choose one form value over another form of value, such as short term use value for long term service value. Such a choice resembles a decision to save or invest money in order to allow the investment to grow (increase in monetary value) or to preserve future options and benefits that may not be fully recognized. Such long range value requires imagination of future needs and recognition of the benefits of preserving options for those that may be valuable in ways we cannot imagine today. Such projected values require understanding of management of systems, and possibilities regarding the "replacement value" of a resource. Making good decisions implies an awareness of many factors and consequences not easily understood today, or a belief that present people have an obligation to future generations of people to have options, opportunities, similar to those we have today. APAKAH SUMBERDAYA ALAM ? Slide 72 Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/definitions/resources.htm.................... 31/10/2012. Sedimentation in the aquifer cannot be removed, and chemicals flush very slowly through the aquifer. Those people who "develop" the areas that damage the aquifer do not pay the costs of cleaning the water and keeping it clean. Nor do they pay the cost of sedimentation filling in the aquifer. This cost is "externalized" by the perpetrators of the damage since it is paid with tax funds (the public pays) or by the individuals who acquire their water from the aquifer directly. The permanent loss of the capacity of the aquifer by sedimentation filling it instead of water is paid by all who eventually lose its "free" services or "use potential" of unknown possibilities in the future. Externalizing costs while retaining the right to have an income from the development seems unfair, but it has been declared legal. The developers thereby are subsidized by others who receive no benefits from the ecologically damaging development. This is a "market failure" for monetized value whereby the human(s) who benefit do not pay the cost of their benefits. APAKAH SUMBERDAYA ALAM ? Slide 73 NRDA : Natural Resources Damage ASSESSMENT Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. The NRDA valuation techniques considers five general classes of valuation techniques: 1.Market-based techniques, which rely on historical information on market prices and transactions to determine resource values; 2.Nonmarket techniques that rely on indirect estimates of resource values; 3.Nonmarket techniques that are based on direct estimates of resource values; 4.Cross-cutting valuation techniques, which combine elements of one or more of these methods; and 5.Ecological valuation techniques used in the emerging field of ecological economics. Diunduh dari Sumber:. http://www.isric.org/projects/calculating-productivity-loss-due-land- degradation................... 16/11/2012. Calculating productivity loss due to land degradation New method to assess the loss of productivity due to soil degradation. There is compelling evidence that soils are degrading because of problems such as erosion and soil depletion. However, nobody knows how serious the problem really is. Estimates of the rate of global soil degradation, the economic losses, and the impact on food security are extremely variable. This variability is due to various reasons such as lack of an objective definition of soil degradation and uncertainties in underlying information. Consequently, soil degradation appears to be underemphasized on policy agendas and the investments required to safeguard future food security are unknown. Slide 74 TEKNIK-TEKNIK VALUASI SUMBERDAYA ALAM Valuation Techniques, Benefit Types, and Selected Case Studies Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 75 TEKNIK-TEKNIK BERBASIS PASAR The pioneers of natural and environmental resource valuation relied on the law of demand as a way to measure the market values for natural resources and environmental amenities. While the same is true today, the degree of sophistication in the measurement of these values has increased considerably. Three market-based techniques that have recorded a significant history of natural and environmental resource valuations are described here: 1.The market price approach, 2.The appraisal method, and 3.The resource replacement costing. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 76 PENDEKATAN HARGA PASAR Demand for natural resources is measured on the assumption that many factors that might influence demand, such as personal income, the prices of related goods and services, and individual tastes and preferences, remain unchanged during the study period. Under these assumptions, the estimated demand curve is a systematic measure of how people value the resource. To illustrate, the figure shows that 20,000 acres of land were sold at a market price of $1500 per acre. In the course of these land transactions, $30.0 million exchanged hands in the land market, i.e., 20,000 x $1500. Had land become increasingly scarce, this scarcity would ultimately be reflected in higher land prices. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Demand, Supply, and Market Valuation Slide 77 CONCUMER SURPLUS Now, consider the total area beneath the demand curve up to 20,000 acres, as defined by A+B. This area measures the value of the resource in terms of the maximum willingness to pay for the 20,000 acres of land. The total willingness to pay for 20,000 acres is calculated by adding up what was actually spent in buying the land, A = $30 million, plus the additional triangular area B, which defines consumer surplus. Consumer surplus is the difference between peoples maximum willingness to pay for 20,000 acres of land (A+B) and what they actually paid (A). In essence, the area gives a dollar measure of satisfaction that people received from the land, less what they actually pay for it. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Economic surplus Diunduh dari Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_surplus.................... 3/10/2012. Slide 78 PRODUCER SURPLUS Producer surplus and economic rent are two other measures of the benefits (or damages) associated with natural resources and resource services. Producer surplus measures monetary gains from the production of natural resources, which is the difference between revenues (C+D) and the economic costs of producing these resources (D). Similarly, economic rent measures monetary gains from using natural resources as factors of production, which is the difference between the actual payments made in using resources and the lowest payment that their owners would have been willing to accept in supplying these resources or resource services. Thus, producer surplus refers to the sellers gains from trade in the product market, while economic rent measures the sellers gains from trade in the input market. Accordingly, the use of producer surplus or economic rent in resource valuation problems depends on whether the natural resource is considered as a final product or as an input in the production of a final product. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 79 Referring again to Figure 1, producer surplus is shown by the area C, which is bordered by the resource supply curve and the market price of the resource, P = $1500. This measure reflects changes in the availability of the natural resource. For example, if the natural resource were damaged, its supply curve would shift leftward and producer surplus would diminish. A similar description could be given to natural resource damages that result in a reduction in economic rent. Here, the damages would be incurred by the owners of the resources. As in the case of measuring the consumer surplus, both producer surplus and economic rent require historical information on the market prices and quantities of natural resources. In addition, the measures of producer surplus and economic rent require information relating to the economic costs of producing and/or supplying the resource to the market. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. PRODUCER SURPLUS Slide 80 APPRAISAL METHOD Appraisal methods are particularly well suited to cases involving natural resources that have been damaged. In the case of land, for example, the appraiser identifies the fair market value for comparable properties in both the uninjured and injured conditions. The fair market value of the resource (land) is roughly defined as the amount a knowledgeable buyer would pay a knowledgeable seller for the resources. This value should reflect, as closely as possible, the price at which the resource would actually sell in the market place at the time of the injury. The application of appraisal methods would seem to hold particular promise in DOE natural and environmental resource planning and guidance. However, the point to keep in mind is that the method is, in fact, quite dependent on the appraisers judgment. It may be very difficult to identify comparable sales, particularly for properties that are comparably injured. In addition, the types of natural resources to which this method can be applied are limited since many natural and environmental resources are not traded in markets. Nevertheless, appraisal methods are applicable to soil and water treatment at federal facilities. Therefore, it is instructive to consider a notable protocol in applying appraisal methods. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 81 Scott, M.J., et al. 1997. The Valuation of Ecological Resources and Functions. Environmental Management (forthcoming). Scott et al. (1997) estimated the fair market value associated with shrub-steppe conversions based on sample data from Benton-Franklin Counties of eastern Washington State. The data were obtained from the Benton County Assessors Office and represent sales transactions in Benton County involving 7700 acres during the 1993- 1994 calendar year. The sample was selected to ensure the identification of recent patterns in the regional development of shrub- steppe land. Consequently, the sample contained 17 transactions of property for residential and/or commercial development (urban use) and 31 transactions involving property destined for agricultural development (agricultural use). The authors categorized the sales of predisposed agricultural land according to whether it was irrigated, or whether it would be used as dry pasture land or dry farm land. The sampling of real estate transactions found that shrub steppe for urban development had the highest average value, $9208 per acre. Dry pasture land had the lowest average value, $67 per acre. Meanwhile, irrigated farm land sold for $1484 per acre. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 82 RESOURCE REPLACEMENT COST METHOD The costs of replacing natural and environmental resources are sometimes a useful way of approximating resource values under specific conditions. The resource replacement cost method determines damages for natural resources based on the cost to restore, rehabilitate, or replace the resource or resource services without injury to the level of the resource stock or service flow. In instances where the underlying resource is not unique and substitutes are readily available, the application of the replacement cost method is relatively straightforward. The investigator proceeds by gathering a sample of values for the substitutes from primary or secondary source information. Based on this sample of cost information, the analyst then prepares an estimate of the most likely range of expected replacement costs for the underlying resource or service. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 83 Shechter, M. 1985. Economic Aspects in the Investigation of Groundwater Contamination Episodes, in Ground Water, Volume 23, Number 2, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Guidance Manual for Minimizing Pollution from Waste Disposal Sites, EPA 600/2-78-142, Washington, D.C. Environmental Science and Technology. 1980. Groundwater Strategies, Vol. 14, pp. 1030-35. Shechter (1985) applied the replacement cost method at the Price Landfill in New Jersey to obtain cost estimates of alternatives to deal with groundwater contamination. Estimates were based on information obtained from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1978) and Environmental Science and Technology (1980). Excluding excavation and reburials, the estimated costs ranged from $5 million to $8 million (in 1980 dollars) and included containment and management of the plume, along with the performance of water treatment until the aquifer had been purged of noxious substances. If excavation and reburial were undertaken as part of the restoration process, the researchers suggest that the period of plume management and groundwater flow control could be shortened, but that total cost would rise by about $15 million to $18 million. Other site restoration activities included in their estimation focused on securing alternative sources of water to meet Atlantic Citys water demand for the foreseeable future. These included cost estimates for the development of a well field to replace four threatened wells, varying between $6.5 million and $9.3 million. The researchers omitted other administrative costs from consideration in applying the method, such as the costs of undertaking various federal, state, and local studies on the landfill problem, and the attendant litigation costs that might be involved. It was believed that these administrative costs had the potential to raise the total cost by another $1.5 million. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 84 Nonmarket Valuation: Indirect Techniques Using market-based techniques to measure the monetary value of natural resources is feasible provided there is sufficient market data. In many cases, however, market information relating to prices and quantities is not available to estimate the value of the resource or resource service. In these cases, researchers must employ what are referred to as nonmarket valuation methods. These methods include indirect techniques that rely on observable behavior in order to deduce how much something is worth to individuals. Value estimates obtained using indirect nonmarket valuation techniques are conceptually identical to the otherwise unobservable market value. The indirect nonmarket valuation techniques considered in this section include the travel cost method, the random utility method, the hedonic pricing method, and the factor income method. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 85 TRAVEL COST METHOD.. The travel cost method is popular for describing the demand for the natural resource service(s) and environmental attributes of specific recreational sites. Designated wilderness areas, ecological parks, fishing and hunting sites, and scenic sites are examples. People visit such sites from diverse distances or points of origin. This observed travel behavior is then used to evaluate the willingness to pay to visit the site; essentially, the different travel costs from these diverse points of origin serve as proxies for willingness to pay to visit the site. Intuitively, one would expect that the environmental attributes of sites influence the use of these sites. As such, changes in visitation rates may reflect changes in the quality of natural resources particular to the site, thereby providing an estimate of the value of changes in natural resource and environmental quality. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 86 The greatest disadvantage of travel cost and other indirect techniques is that they cannot be used unless there is some easily observable behavior that can be used to reveal values. In addition, travel cost models can be technically and statistically complicated. Data must be employed to statistically estimate increasingly sophisticated econometric models that take into account sample selection problems and nonlinear consumer surplus estimates. In addition, the resulting estimates sometimes have been found to be rather sensitive to arbitrary choices of the functional form of the estimating equation, the treatment of the value of an individuals time, the existence of multiple stops during the travel period, and the recognition of substitute sites. Finally, the travel cost approach requires that the analyst be in a position to correlate environmental changes with the behavior of visitors. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. TRAVEL COST METHOD.. Slide 87 . Hedonic Price Method - Amenity Value. Hedonic pricing is a useful tool in the assessment of amenity value. Early analysis related residential property values to neighborhood amenities. These models provided an inferential measure of peoples willingness to pay for the amenity under study. The method is used mostly to estimate the willingness to pay for variations in property values due to the presence or absence of specific environmental attributes, such as air quality, noise, and panoramic vistas. By comparing the market value of two properties having different degrees of a specific attribute, analysts extract the implicit value of the attribute to property buyers and sellers. A variation on the approach is to compare the price of a single piece of property over successive sales. By correcting for other factors that might have influenced the value of the property, the analyst can isolate the implicit price of an amenity or bundle of amenities that have changed over time. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. The relationship between house price and the presence of trees, in order to gain an awareness of the value of trees in the urban environment. Slide 88 .. HEDONIC PRICE FUNCTION However, the reader should be made aware of caveats pertaining to the values obtained from hedonic price functions. In particular, the resource values that are obtained directly from the estimated hedonic price function are subject to fairly restrictive assumptions. It may be necessary to employ additional information from multiple commodity markets relating to the resource under consideration. Overall, the resulting hedonic price will depend on the availability of market information pertaining to the resource, and the revelation of buyer and seller preferences through market behavior. Market data on property sales and characteristics are available through real estate services and municipal sources and can be readily linked with other secondary data sources. Despite these positives, a guarded interpretation of the estimated welfare changes is recommended. Estimation and interpretation of these measures can be complex and the data requirements demanding, and there is a need to control for many important socio-demographic characteristics. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 89 Hedonic Price Method - Value of Life.. Hedonic pricing methods have also been applied in the estimation of economic damages associated with occupational health and safety risks and are becoming more widely accepted in the determination of personal injury awards in liability cases. Application in this branch of the hedonic valuation literature often refers to the value of life or the hedonic value of life. Clearly, there is no such thing as a unique value of life. Consequently, meaningful estimates of the hedonic value of life vary according to the specific context under consideration. For one, it must be made clear whose value is under consideration: Is it a worker who understands and accepts a health/safety risk, or is it a passer-by who is unaware of the risk but nevertheless is predisposed to some adverse health impacts? Moreover, does the hedonic value under consideration concern the prevention of adverse health consequences from a potential accident, or does it concern an after-the-fact compensation to be given to survivors of an accident? To better understand the significance of these questions, it is instructive to clarify the concepts that are involved by distinguishing between two basic hedonic damage values: the insurance value and the deterrence value. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 90 . Adapted from W. Kip Viscusi. 1990. The Value of Life: Has Voodoo Economics Come to the Courts? Journal of Forensic Economics 3(3): 1-15.. Consider a situation in which an ER worker faces a relatively small risk of losing his life, one that is equal to the average hazard posed by a typical job - an annual risk of death of 1 in 10,000 accidents. Assume that a hedonic wage study of risk preferences across ER workers is undertaken thereby revealing that such workers are willing to accept an annual wage premium (or income compensation) of $500 in order to face this risk of death. Together, the presence of the health risk and the hedonic value estimate of the required wage offset establish the risk- dollar tradeoff for the typical worker. In other words, they establish a price for bearing human health risk. In this example, $500 compensation for each risk of 1/10,000 of death implies a total compensation level per statistical death of $5 million. Assume next that risk mitigation measures are taken that effectively reduce the chances of an accident by one-half, consistent with an ALARA-calibrated risk involving the potential death of 1 in 20,000 accidents (or what is equivalent to 0.5 in 10,000). Assuming that workers risk preferences remain unchanged as reflected by the $500 wage offset, the compensation level per statistical death would also be reduced by one-half: from $5 million to $2.5 million. As a measure of deterrence value, this $2.5 million reflects the workers valuation of riskmitigating measures. In this way, hedonic value estimates concerning human health and safety would appear to have particular relevance in measuring the benefits of achieving ALARA-type standards. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 91 FACTOR INCOME METHOD The factor income method is used as a means of valuation in applications where natural resources are used as inputs in the production of other goods and services. Accordingly, the resulting economic costs of production are an important source of information in applying the factor income approach. While the method of factor income is not as welldefined or widely referenced as the hedonic price or travel cost methodologies, it is recognized by the U.S. Department of Interiors natural resource damage assessment regulations. There are several types of resources for which the factor income approach is potentially well-suited, including surface water and groundwater resources, forests, and commercial fisheries. Surface and groundwater resources may be inputs to irrigated agriculture, to manufacturing, or to privately owned municipal water systems. The products in these cases (agricultural crops, sawlogs, manufactured goods, and municipal water) may all have market prices. Similarly, commercial fishery resources (fish populations or stocks) are inputs to the production of a catch of saleable fish. A variation on this theme may be useful for valuing damages to water resources. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 92 FACTOR INCOME APPROACH There are, however, potential problems in applying the factor income approach. First, a particular treatment option might not be the least-cost or optimal response on the part of the water-using entity. For example, it might be cheaper to change the production process, buy municipal water or otherwise obtain a different source of water, or make other changes to the equipment or materials used. In this case, changes in water treatment costs may overstate damages. Second, it is possible that other things may change, particularly price and output levels. These potential problems can complicate the analysis and require the researcher to obtain additional technical information concerning the supply and demand of the underlying resource or resource service. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 93 Nonmarket Valuation: Contingent Valuation Contingent market analysis has estimated a wide variety of use and nonuse values. The most obvious way to measure nonmarket values is to ask people how much they would be willing to pay for the resource or avoid any damages that might be sustained by the resource. Alternatively, one could ask how much people would be willing to accept as compensation for damages to the resource. Measures obtained using this technique rely on peoples hypothetical willingness to pay rather than actual market- information on their behavior: hence, the term contingent valuation (CV). The contingent valuation method is a survey-based approach to the valuation of nonmarket goods and services. It uses questionnaires to elicit information about the preference-related value of the natural resource in question. The value is said to be contingent upon the existence of a hypothetical market as described in the survey put to respondents. In principle, contingent valuation could be used to estimate the economic value of almost anything. By default, it is the only method that holds the promise of measuring nonuse values since all other methods depend on observing actual behavior associated with the natural resource. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 94 Contingent valuation surveys Contingent valuation surveys may be conducted as face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, or mail surveys based on a randomly selected sample or stratified sample of individuals. Face- to-face interviews are the most expensive survey administration format, but they are generally considered the best, especially if visual material needs to be presented. The central goal of the survey is to generate data on respondents willingness to pay for (or willingness to accept) some program or plan that will impact their well-being. Each respondent is given information about a particular problem. Each is then presented with a hypothetical occurrence (e.g., specie endangerment) or a policy action that ensures against the disaster (e.g., species protection). Each respondent is asked how much he/she would be willing to pay either to avoid the negative occurrence or bring about the positive occurrence. The means of payment (i.e., the payment vehicle) can take on any number of different forms, including a direct tax, an income tax, or an access fee. The actual format may take the form of a direct question (how much?), a bidding procedure (a ranking of alternatives), or referenda votes. Using a referendum to elicit values is preferred because it is the one that people are most familiar with. Resulting data are then analyzed statistically and extrapolated to the population that the sample represents. These responses are gathered along with socio-demographic information and test statistics required to determine the consistency of responses and the sensitivity to scope. Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2012. Slide 95 Kopp, R. J., and V. K. Smith. 1992. Eagle Mine and Idarado. In Natural Resource Damage: Law and Economics, K. M. Ward and J. W. Duffield (ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, pp. 365-388. The Eagle Mine case study (Kopp and Smith 1992) exemplifies how contingent valuation methods can be applied in resource damage assessments. Contingent valuation questions were presented in both an Eagle County and a statewide survey, to elicit respondents willingness to pay for the Eagle River cleanup. The Eagle County survey asked respondents about their willingness to make annual payments over 10 years to clean up 200 waste sites involving current legal action. Respondents were given brief descriptions of each site. The survey requested each respondent to perform two allocations: 1) specify from a schedule of percentages the percent of their total bid for all sites that they would li