Using The Science Classroom Learning Environment For Improving Instruction

Using The Science Classroom Learning EnvironmentFor Improving Instruction

Avi HofsteinDepartment of Science TeachingThe Weizmann Institute of Science

Rehovot, Israel

Robert E. YagerScience Education Center

University of IowaIowa City, Iowa 52242

Herbert J.WalbergCollege of Education

University of Illinois at Chicago CircleChicago, Illinois

The science classroom and the laboratory are key places where inten-tions ought to be translated into actions and where both the teacher andthe learner are involved in realizing the curriculum objectives. For manyyears research in science education has been concerned with what is putinto the classroom and what comes out of the classroom without reallylooking at what happens in the classroom. In general, teachers assesstheir students using achievement measures which are concerned withcognitive outcomes only.The classroom is a complex social system in which many events occur.

School in the twentieth century is more than a place where academicskills are taught and learned: it is a miniature community where membersinteract and influence the behavior of each other. Classes may be work-ing in groups where cooperation is encouraged or in formal settingswhere competition is the mode of operation. The way students and teach-ers interact, the feelings exchanged between them, the teaching em-ployed, and the management techniques used are all part of what someresearchers have called classroom environment.Anderson 2 is a noted researcher in this area who posited the following

definition of learning environment:

"The interpersonal relationship among pupils, relationship between pupils and theirteachers, relationship between pupils and both the subject matter studied and themethod of learning and finally, pupils’ perception of the structure characteristic of theclass" (p.4)

Walberg 3 is another researcher in this area who reports that the class-room environment is one of four components of the learning process. Hefeels that the learning environment has the same relation to instruction asstudent ability has to achievement. The following illustrates this relation-ship.

343

344School Science and Mathematics

Source Specific General

Student Learning, i.e. achievement Ability

Context (topic taught)InstructionLearning Environment

In the past, teacher concern and energy has emphasized the selectionand slight adaptation of new instructional and curricular materials. Re-search now suggests two new phenomena:

1. Teachers must be increasingly involved and interested in school-based curriculum development which aims at organizing experiences formeeting the needs of individuals students.

2. "A new era has emerged where the importance of the affect,imagination, intuition, and attitudes as outcomes of science instructionare at least as important as their cognitive counterparts" 4.

Research into the affect of learning environment upon curriculum andthose non-cognitive outcomes of instruction thereby has new impor-tance.

Assessment of Learning Environment

Although various methods have been utilized 5 to assess the classroomlearning environment, a method that was first utilized with the evalua-tion of the Harvard Project Physics6 has been used widely and permitsseveral generalizations from the use of a single instrument.Anderson and Walberg 7 developed the "Learning Environmental In-

ventory, (L.E.I.) which consists of 15 scales with 7 items in each scaleaimed at measuring student perceptions of the various components ofclassroom environment they identified. The instrument is based upon thehypothesis that the student is in the best position to assess the classroomenvironment in which he/she is enrolled.The following is a description of the 15 scale and sample items.In describing their classes the students merely choose among four re-

sponses: strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. The instru-ment is thereby easy to administer and the results are easy to analyze.Since the L.E.I, does not mention the teacher directly, it is not meant toprovide a major threat to the teacher. Some teachers, of course, may beconcerned with some negative connotations if students report negativelyregarding some items on the scale. This in and of itself could provide astimulation for teachers to change teaching practices.

Interestingly enough, it was found that classes that are perceived asdifficult result in higher student achievement. This finding suggests thatstudents will perform better when challenged and when teacher expecta-tions are high. It was also found that student attitudes towards science in

Improving Science Instruction 345

TABLE lLEARNING ENVIRONMENT INVENTORY SCALES 2

ScaleDescriptionMeaningSample Item

1Cohesiveness

2Diversity

3Formality

4Speed

5Environment

6Friction

7Goal Direction

8Favoritism

9Cliqueness

10Satisfaction

11Disorganization

12Difficulty

13Apathy

14Democracy

15Competitiveness

The amount of intimacybetween the individualswithin the classThe extent to which theclass atmosphere providesfor a diversity of pupilinterests and activitiesThe extent to which thebehavior within the class isguided by formal rulesThe rate of progress ofthe class in the subject

The physical environmentof the class (laboratories,books, etc.)The scale measures threecategories: disagreement,tension, and antagonismwithin the classThe recognition of goalsand their acceptance bythe classTeacher favoritism of somepupils over othersDemonstrates the existenceof sub-groups or cliqueswithin the classMeasure whether or notpupils like the subject,the teacher, and theirclassmatesThe extent to whichpupils consider theclass disorganizedDemonstrates whetherstudents considersubject matter difficultIndicates whetherindividuals within theclass feel no affinitywith class activities"Democratic" proceduresused with theclass activitiesThe extent to which classmembers compete onewith another

Members of the class arepersonal friends

Class members tend to pursuedifferent problems

There is a set of rules forstudents to follow

The class members feelrushed to finish theirwork in chemistryThere are displaysaround the room

There are tensions amongcertain groups of studentsthat tend to interfere withclass activitiesThe class knows exactlywhat it has to get done

The better students aregranted special privilegesCertain students work onlywith their close friends

The students enjoy theirclass work in chemistry

The class is disorganizedduring chemistry lessons

Students in the class tendto find the work hard to do

Students don’t care about thefuture of the class as a group

Each member of the classhas as much influence asany other memberStudents compete with oneanother to see who can dothe best work

346 School Science and Mathematics

general and towards the particular topic taught in school is related to theway the student perceives the environment in which he/she is studying.The following are findings of another research study conducted in

Israel: 9

LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS ATTITUDE SCALE

If students found theirclassroom environment as;

Then they will findtheir science learning:

1.Content of Suitable Difficulty2.Instruction Slowly Paced3.Organized4.Satisfying

1.Attractive and Exciting2.Clear and Understandable3.Important and useful

What do recent studies tell the teacher about the importance of learningenvironment for improvement of teaching?

In 1960 Getzels and Thelen 8 presented a framework for the analysis ofschool classroom as a unique social system. This social system is guidedby certain goals, rules, and expectations. They suggest that the classroomenvironment can both influence and predict student achievement andattitudes. Several research studies in physics, biology, and chemistryclasses (in a variety of countries) have shown there is a positive relation-ship between student perception of classroom environment (specifically,student satisfaction, the amount of intimacy and cooperation among stu-dents in the class) and student achievement in science. Negative relation-ship was found between achievement and friction, disorganization, witb-in the class, and apathy.

In summary, most studies on cognitive and affective outcomes of sci-ence instruction have shown that the Learning Environmental Inventoryis a sensitive measure for explaining and predicting important cognitiveand affective educational outcomes. There is no doubt that the teacher isthe key person in the class and he/she would be in the best position tomaintain a healthy and satisfactory classroom learning environment.

Type of Curriculum Studies

Several research studies using the Learning Environmental Inventoryhave shown that students enrolled in Project Physics 6 reported theirlearning environment as less difficult, more democratic, and more stim-ulating than that for other physics courses. These findings have been at-tributed to the more humanistic, less mathematical, historical nature ofthe Project Physics curriculum. This curriculum is also designed to alloweach student to progress at a different rate while providing for diverseinterests of students.


Two other studies provide additional insights into the importance oflearning environment in terms of curricula. In the first research studyconducted in Canada,10 mathematics classes were found to be more goaldirected, satisfying, and difficult than were chemistry and biologyclasses. According to the authors this study helped in improving learningand instruction in the school. The second study was conducted byWelch.11 He found that current students are perceiving their scienceclassrooms to be more "formal" compared to the situation 8-10 yearsago. This suggests that many teachers are returning to the more conven-tional teaching methods in science. The results of these research studiesin which subject matter served as the variable suggest that the curriculumitself could cause different student perceptions of their science class-rooms. Such results suggest that the science teacher must carefullyanalyze and evaluate the adequacy and appropriateness of the sciencecurriculum with a view to its effect upon learning environment.

Instructional Techniques

The Learning Environmental Inventory was used to evaluate outcomesof the Australian Science Education Project (ASEP).12 This science cur-riculum that was launched with the specific intention of producing an in-quiry-centered junior science sequence which allowed students to workindividually or in groups at their own pace. In this curriculum, a relative-ly lower proportion of time is spent with the teacher directing the class. Itwas found that six months after the start of the school year, perceptionsof the learning environment were more favorable among students usingASEP materials than among students using conventional science mate-rials. More specifically, it was found that ASEP students perceived theirclasses as more cooperative, cohesive, goal directed, satisfying, and lessapathetic when student perceptions were compared to those experiencingconventional science curricula.

Cooperation and competition is a variable that should be carefullyconsidered by the science teacher since research findings have shown 13

that competition can lead (for certain students in certain schools) to highanxiety, extreme vivacity and hostility, and ultimately to feelings of fail-ure and isolation. Cooperation could provide for better student feelingsand attitudes and ultimately to the improvement of the ability of studentsto learn in general and to solve problems in particular.

Two research studies were conducted to determine the role of the sci-ence laboratory in maintaining certain environments. The laboratory is aplace where students work together in pairs or in groups and it is hy-pothesized that students will find the laboratory environment to be lessformal, more democratic and satisfying, and thus encouraging more co-hesiveness. Some support to this idea was found in a research study con-


ducted in Israel.14 The perceptions of eleventh grade high school studentswho enrolled in chemistry classes were compared to the perceptions of11th grade students enrolled in technical schools for preparation as labo-ratory technicians. These students spent up to 60% of their time in thelaboratory conducting experiments. These technician trainees foundtheir learning environments to be more democratic, satisfying, and goaldirected and less competitive and disorganized. However, the future lab-oratory technicans found their learning environment to be more diffi-cult. It is hypothesized that the reason for this is the fact that most oftheir learning is based on information obtained from laboratory activi-ties which might be for some a difficult task.

Egelston ^ in the United States compared inductive approach to labo-ratory based biology instruction to a didactic approach. In the didactic(traditional) approach activities were described step by step. In the induc-tive approach students conducted experiments that were planned with anopen-ended approach.

Egelston found that the two groups differed in this perception of thelearning environment. More specifically it was found that students whowere involved with the didactic approach perceived their learning en-vironments as more cohesive (intimate) satisfying and diverse while stu-dents experiencing the inductive approach found their learning environ-ments to be more directed and disorganized. Egelston suggested that stu-dents enrolled in the didactic method felt uncomfortable with the open-ended activities which were new for them. It is seen from these two stud-ies that perception of students concerning their classroom and laboratoryenvironments has many implications for learning. In particular, it is hy-pothesized that laboratory instruction can enhance constructive socialrelations. In particular, science (i.e., planning, design, and also manipu-lating) requires team efforts (cooperation) that have good social moralewith respect to cohesiveness, task orientation, goal direction, democracy,satisfaction, and other factors measured on the LEI. Thus, laboratoryclasses can promote good working environments because they directlyenhance educational goals but also because they stimulate and give thestudent the experience of the constructive environment of a good labora-tory in a "real scientific" setting. Moreover, science education shouldcontribute to general education among a well informed citizenry, just asscience laboratory experiences are a particularly rich opportunity forbuilding teamwork, social skills, sensitivity, and other valued personaland social traits in democratic nations.

If teachers know how their students perceive their learning environ-ments, they can select the best and optimal instructional methods fortheir students. For some classes the inductive or inquiry method will bemore adequate; for others the didactic method will be more appropriate.


For some classes spending more time in the laboratory will be appro-priate while for others discussions or individualized instruction will bemore appropriate. The teacher must be aware and sensitive to the percep-tions, needs, and exceptations of his/her students in the science class-room.

Class Size

There is no point in recording the obvious about class size: thatteachers worry about it more than nearly anything else. Many researchstudies that have been conducted fail to provide clear answers concerningthe relationship between student achievement in and attitude towards sci-ence and class size. However, in a study6 of 150 physics classes it wasfound that students enrolled in smaller classes (about 15 students) per-ceived their classroom environments as more cohesive and difficult andless formal compared to those enrolled in larger classes. It has been sug-gested that "smaller classes are perceived as more difficult because stu-dents are less able to use others to conceal low personal productivity." 2

Implications tor the Science Teacher

The findings of the research summarized in this article are in harmonywith ideas suggested by Bloom,16 that the atmosphere and environmentin which students encounter science affect attitudes towards science andtheir achievement in science. The evidence appears overwhelming thatthe interaction between students and students, students and the teacher,and students and subject matter, represent significant variables in theeducational process. The classroom is a complex psychosocial environ-ment. The teacher stands in the middle of this environment and, accord-ing to the research reviewed, is the key factor in influencing this complex.

Since 1969, the Learning Environmental Inventory has been used ex-tensively to find out differences in class environment caused by differentscience curricula, instructional techniques, media, and class size and tofind out how student perceptions of classroom environment relate toachievement in and attitude towards science. The Learning Environ-mental Inventory is a valid and reliable instrument that can be used forself-evaluation and planning by individual teachers. It can serve as aguideline for analyzing class discussions. Teachers can improve theirclassrooms as suggested by the definitions and perceptions of studentgoals and values. Research suggests that such use can cause change in thecurriculum, teaching strategies, student learning, and the dynamics ofthe classroom/laboratory. Thus, optimizing classroom environment forstudents is one of the most important goals for teachers and the schools.Teachers concerned about the environment in which they teach their stu-dents should use such an instrument for their own information. How-


ever, much caution should be taken in the interpretation of results and inconclusions derived from individual use.

REFERENCES

1. SIMPSON, R. 0., Relating Student Feelings to Achievement in Science, in M. B. Rowe(Ed.)., What Research Says to the Science Teacher., Washington, D.C., N.S.T.A.,1978.

2. ANDERSON, G. J., The Assessment of Learning Environments: A Manual for theLearning Environmental Inventory, The University of Atlanta, Halifax, Nova Scotia,Canada,1973.

3. WALBERG, H. J., Models for Optimising and Individualizing School Learning, Inter-change 1:\5-11, 1971.

4. SHULMAN, L. S., and TAMIR, P., Research on Teaching in the Natural Sciences., inR. M. W. Travers (Ed.)., Second Handbook of Research on Teaching, Chicago, RandMcNally,1973.

5. COOPER, D. F., and COOPER, C. R., Classroom Climate: Assessing the Highs andLows., The Science Teacher,^’. 17-20, 1976.

6. The Project Physics Course, New York, Holt, RinehartandWinston, 1921.7. ANDERSON, G. J., and WALBERG, H. H., Learning Environments in, H. J. Walberg

(Ed.)., Evaluating Educational Performance, Berkeley, California, McCutchan Pub-lishing Corporation, 1974.

8. GETZELS, J. W., and THELAN, H. A., The Classroom Group as a Unique Social Sys-tem, National Society for the Study of Education 59: 53-82,1960.

9. HOFSTEIN, A. and BEN-ZVI, R., The Relationship between Students’ Attitudes andAchievement and Classroom Learning Environment’. NARST Symposium, Boston,Mass., 1980.

10. SHOW, A. R., and MACKINNON, P., Evaluation of Learning Environment, Burlington,Ontario, Lord Elgin High School, 1973.

11. WELCH, W. W., Curricular and Longitudinal Effects on Learning Environment, H. J.Walberg, (Ed.)., Educational Environments and Effect, Berkeley, California, McCut-chan Publishing Corporation, 1979.

12. FRAZER, B. J., Evaluation of a Science Based Curriculum in Walberg, H. J., (Ed.).,ibid, 1979.

13. JOHNSON, D. W., and JOHNSON, R. T., Learning Together and Alone’. Cooperation,Competition and Individualization. Englewood cliffs: New Jersey: Prantice-Hall, Inc.,1975.

14. HOFSTEIN, A., BEN-ZVI, R., GLUZMAN, R., and SAMUEL, D., A Comparative Study ofChemistry Students’ perception of the Learning Environment in High School and Vo-cational Schools, Journal of Research in Science Teacher, 1980, In press.

15. EGELSTON, J., Inductive verses traditional Methods of Teaching High School BiologyLaboratory, Science Education 46:22-24, 1979.

16. BLOOM, B. S., Stability and Change in Human Characteristics, New York: Wiley,1964.

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Using The Science Classroom Learning Environment For Improving Instruction