Use of GIS systems to analyze soil compressibility

Construcţii Use of GIS systems to analyze soil compressibility, swellingand bearing capacity [...] • F. Debiche et al.

357

USE OF GIS SYSTEMS TO ANALYZE SOIL COMPRESSIBI-LITY, SWELLING AND BEARING CAPACITY UNDER SUPER-

FICIAL FOUNDATIONS IN ALGIERS REGION, ALGERIA

Fatiha DEBICHEPhD student, Civil Engineering Department, Ecole Nationale

Polytechnique, Algiers, Algeria, e-mail: [email protected]

Ratiba MITICHE KETTABPhD, Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Ecole Nationale


Mohammed Amin BENBOURASPhD student, Civil Engineering Department, University of Abbes Laghrour,

Khenchla, Algeria, e-mail: [email protected]

Bilal BENBELLILPhD student, Civil Engineering Department, Ecole Nationale


Lynda DJERBALPhD, Habil., Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Science and

Technology Houari Boumediene, Algiers, Algeria, e-mail:[email protected]

Alexandru-Ionut PETRISORPhD, PhD, Habil., Associate Professor, Doctoral School of Urban Planning,

"Ion Mincu" University of Architecture and Urban Planning, Bucharest,Romania, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Nowadays, information about geotechnical parameters andfuture stability of soil is highly demanded by geotechnical laboratories andcompanies. The use of geotechnical information systems integrated in a GISoffers a better manipulation of the geotechnical parameters of different sitesfor a general exploitation of storage, manipulation, management andanalysis of geotechnical data. The aim of the current research is to presentthe results of studies developed to set up a geotechnical database forAlgiers region using «Géo-Base» information system developed within theframework of this research and integrated in a GIS through a descriptivestatistical analysis of mechanical and geophysical identification parametersof velocity measurements collected from 1200 survey profiles located on80% of the surface of the region. The visualization of geotechnical maps ofbearing, consolidation, settlement, swelling of soils at any depth of Algiersregion are obtained by manipulating the system technology produced aspart of this research. These results are very helpful to builders, planners,researchers and engineers in their future work; they will help them making

• Urbanism. Arhitectură. Construcţii • Vol. 9 • Nr. 4 • 2018

358

better decisions and producing safer and more economical designs.Furthermore, this research allows establishing the first geotechnical map ofAlgiers region.

Key words: geotechnical information system, geographical informationsystems, geotechnical maps, consolidation, bearing capacity.

1. IntroductionIn recent years, Algiers has witnessed arapid urbanization, which can beexplained as the process that involves thegrowth of the population of a nationliving in cities (Boughedir, 2015). Urbanexpansion is a very important topic,which becomes a major problem facingthe state (Petrişor, 2012; Hamma andPetrişor, 2018), not only in themanagement of sustainable developmentbut also in the fields of remote sensingand geographic information systems(GIS). Today, planning and decision-making methods are used to make theengineering process easier and more cost-effective, with new development andadvanced geospatial technologies(Arnous, 2013; Malczewski, 2006). Acritical view of the classical geotechnicalreconnaissance system is revealed, inwhich it allows progressively to conducta general study to identify geotechnicalparameters that characterize the sites, andto predict various potential risks,summarizing all the obtained results in acost and detailed geotechnical report,which contains a very large and richamount of information. Unfortunately,this wealth is either stored in a laboratoryor in an archive center, with the difficultyof benefiting from it in the future. In thisregard, the creation of a system thatcould provide the means to efficientlystore, analyze and update this wealth,and then produce other forms ofinformation such as maps and tables,could speed up the process of decisionmaking and design. These types ofsystems will be useful for engineers and

planners in the industry and spatialplanning, considering their importantscientific, technical and economic interest.

The management of geotechnical data ofdifferent sites is done through theconsultation of the geotechnical reports ofeach construction project. In order tocompile the mass of geotechnicalinformation, which is very important andvery expensive, geotechnical researcherswere interested in the development ofanalysis tools: firstly by storinginformation from coring surveys,benefiting from the rapid development ofinformation systems. All geotechnicaland geophysical parameters have beensubject to numerous works around theworld (Debiche, 2003). A brief review ofthese works is given below.· In 1976, the UNESCO commissioned a

working group of the InternationalAssociation of Engineering Geology(AIGI) to develop this aspect ofcartography and draft a guide for thepreparation of geotechnical maps(Kaniche et al., 2000).

· In 1990, the "MODELISOL" databasehas been collected as a result of aproject developed in 1988 at theCentral School of Paris with subsidiesfrom the Ministries and the Geologicaland Mining Research office (BRGM)(Favre et al., 1990).

· In 2006, the Trièves database, whichconsisted of collecting and organizingexisting geological, geotechnical,geodetic and geophysical data on ageographic information system, for thesake of presenting and referencing all


359

collected data (Petrişor, 2016) in aGeographic Information System (GIS),has been developed. For this purpose,the data set has been classified intothematic tables in order to be managedunder GIS carrying out thematicanalyses visualized in maps format(Kanungo et al., 2012).

· In 2008, Geotechnical data from in-situobservations and geotechnical surveyswas managed by GIS in Athens(Greece). The HelGeoRDaS (HellenicGeotechnical Relational Databasemanagement system) was used toillustrate the distribution ofengineering geological characteristicsin GIS produced thematic maps and tocreate a geological map of Athens(Antoniou et al., 2008).

· In 2010, the automatic mapping of soilclasses on regional scale using a digitalmodel of land or surface has beenproposed. For this purpose, a databaseof direct or indirect measurements ofmean shear wave velocities in the first30 meters of soil was established forthe metropolitan area. These data werethen used to establish correlationsbetween a morphometric parameter(slope, openness) and soil classes thatwill be soon regulated in France (soilclasses of Euro code 8). In a secondstep, routines were developed toautomatically perform a mapping ofsoil classes according to the estimatedaverage velocity of the first 30 metersof soil (Vs, 30) (Kanungo et al., 2012).

· In 2016, Roulle et al collected adatabase of direct or indirectmeasurements of mean shear wavevelocities in the first 30 meters of soil.A new geotechnical zoning map for thebasement of Mexico Valley afterwardwas presented. Geostatisticaltechniques were also used to assess thespatial distribution of the claylacustrine deposits’ thickness in the

area until called deep deposits. As aresult, a contour map was used toupdate the current geotechnical one. Azoning map for Mexico Valley wasproposed to include this new map inthe Building Code for the FederalDistrict (Juarez-Camarena et al., 2016).

· In 2018, Lillouch et al., (2018) proposeda method based on the exploitation ofthe geological formation of Bejaiaregion via the GIS. They classifiedareas of low to high seismicity byusing a topographic map on the scaleof the 1/25000, a geological map on thescale of the 1/50000 and geotechnicalsoil reports. Based on this method, aseries of maps, which summarized soilparameters, have been carried out.

· Many others studies have successfullyused the GIS technologies to analyzegeotechnical and geological parameters:McBratney et al., 2003; Chang and Park,2004; Kunapo et al., 2005; McCarthy andGraniero, 2006; Augusto et al., 2010;Youssef et al., 2011; Todo et al., 2013;Eljamassi, 2013; Boştenaru Dan et al.,2014; Papatheodoroua et al., 2014; Sunand Kim, 2017; Razmyar and Eslami,2017; Dodagoudar, 2018

In order to facilitate and optimize thegeotechnical identification within theAlgiers region, we have attempted todevelop a Geotechnical InformationSystem, which manages a geotechnicaldatabase of 1,200 surveys with 800samples taken at different depths. Thepresent work contributes to establishinggeotechnical maps of bearings,settlements, swellings and consolidationof Algiers soils. This research constitutespremises to create the first geotechnicalmapping of Algiers. The resulting mapscan constitute a good tool assistingbuilders, planners, researchers andengineers in the future works of thecapital Algiers.


360

2. Materials and basic characteristics

2.1. Studied area

2.1.1 . Algiers geographyAlgiers is situated on the MediterraneanSea and in the north-central part ofAlgeria, on the latitude 36.4635° north,longitude 3.0331° to the east ofGreenwich line (Benbouras et al., 2017,2018), characterized by wild andexcellent maritime location. The city’spopulation was estimated to be around3,500,000 in 2011 (Ameraoui et al., 2017).

2.1.2. Algiers GeologyThe lithological ensemble of the Algiersregion can be reduced to two main units.The upper unit consists of thepredominant quaternary sediments of acohesive character. This layer contains alarge amount of scree formed by asedimentary filling. The next unit consistsof clastic sediments of sandy to clayeytype of great heterogeneity, groupedunder the term molasses. The deepestunit in the region of Algiers is clay loamsof low to medium consistency. The marlsare largely impermeable and thus formalong their surface. The level ofcontinuous aquifer is situated in thesandy sediments of Molasses, which ispartially characterized by goodpermeability (Derriche et al., 2004; Harbiet al., 2007). A representative profile of thegeological formation is displayed in Fig. 1.

2.2 . Soil consolidationSoil consolidation is one of the mostimportant phenomena in civilengineering (Ilieș, 2016). An intact sampleis analyzed using the oedometric test todetermine the soil consolidationproperties, which are generally describedusing: the compressibility coefficient Cc,the swelling coefficient Cs and the

coefficient of consolidation Cv (Benbouraset al., 2018). These coefficients are used topredict how the settlement and swellingwill be held. It is generally determined bymeans of the graphical analysis of theoedometric curves of void ratio as afunction of the logarithm of effectivestresses (e-log (σ)) (see Fig. 2) (Niemunisand Krieg, 1996; Kurnaz et al., 2016).Table 1 indicates the evaluation scale ofthe swelling and compressibilitydepending on the swelling index (Cs) andthe compressibility index (Cc) accordingto the French Design Standards.

2.3. Ultimate bearing capacityIn geotechnical engineering, the bearingcapacity is defined as the capacity of soilto support the loads applied to theground. The bearing capacity of soil is themaximum average contact pressurebetween the foundation and the soil,which should not produce shear failure inthe soil. However, the ultimate bearingcapacity is the theoretical maximumpressure which can be supported withoutfailure. Studies provided a variednumber of estimations for ultimate-bearing capacity, Nevertheless, thefollowing formula, derived fromlaboratory tests (Meyerhof, 1951),remained the best one until today.

( )F

NCNDNBD Cq

adm

.1....5,0 +-++=

gggs g

where:- gNNN qc ;; : are dimensionless

parameters depending on thefriction angle.

- B: foundation width.- D: anchorage depth.- F: Safety factor (generally F=3)- adms : Ultimate bearing capacity- γ: Wet density of soil.


361

Fig. 1. A part of the soil profile of Algiers area.

Table 1. The evaluation scale of the swelling and compressibility factor (Costet et al., 1981; Jiang et al., 2015).Factor Parameter Attribute Relative value

Swelling Swelling indexCs

Cs> 0.0250.025 <Cs< 0.0350.035 <Cs< 0.0550.055 <Cs

Low swellingModerate swellingSwellingStrong swelling

Compressibility Compressibilityindex Cc

Cc> 0,0350,035 <Cc< 0,050,05 <Cc< 0,10,1 <Cc< 0,20,2 <Cc< 0,30,3 <Cc< 0,50,5 <Cc

IncompressibleVery little compressibleLittle compressibleModerately compressibleQuite strongly compressibleVery compressibleExtremely compressible

Fig. 2. Consolidation: (a) Soil profile, and (b) oedometric curves e (log (σ ')).


362

2.4. Geotechnical information system “Géo-Base”

Once the data was collected, the dataprocessing (extraction, tabulation andsorting of the data) began. In order totake advantage of tho usands ofgeotechnical, geophysical andgeological data properly, whileensuring the easiest use of the databaseas a workable and easy to process toolby GIS, the geotechnical informationsystem Géo-Base was successfully usedin the current study. This system wascreated in 2003 as part of a Master thesisresearch at the National PolytechnicSchool of Algiers (Debiche, 2003). Theconceptual model was developed usingthe Merise method, which proposes aninformation system design approachseparating the study of the data fromthat of the treatment, graduallyprogressing by levels. Each level aims toprovide a number of documents thatallow the textual synthesis of areflection process. The physical modelof “Géo-Base” is developed using thevisual basic language to generate theobjects in the tables (Debiche, 2003). Thevisualization of the software is madepossible using a simple and practicalinterface. Fig. 3 presents an example ofthe physical model window of “Géo-Base” which contains all informationabout Oedometer tests, such as Projectno., sample no., device no., and allinformation and conditions of the testprogress. For any additionalinformation for the conceptual modelsuch as tables, data dictionary, objectrelationship, object information, andphysical model, readers are advised toconsult directly the referred thesis(Debiche, 2003).

2.5. Research methodology and schemeThe research methodology is dividedinto three main steps summarized in

Fig. 4, which take a form of flowchart,consisting of the followingsubheadings.

2.5.1. Data preparationThe geotechnical database used in theresearch is made from projects carriedout since 2003, consisting of 150geotechnical reports that gather:• 1180 coring surveys from 10 to 100

meters deep.• 878 oedometric tests• 297 Casagrande box shear tests• 878 identi fication tests (density ,

water content, saturation levels,plasti city and liquidity limitsmeasurements)

The initial work consisted of synthesizingall the recognition campaigns and placingthem on the geological map of the Algiersregion, and finally of producing tables forall the geotechnical parameters for theirinput into the "Géo-Base" system. Fig. 5shows the locations of the boreholescollected for the present study.

2.5.2. Data ExportFrom the information generated using thedictionary data, the Microsoft Accesssoftware has been used to create thetables. The next step of the methodology,as revealed in Fig. 4, is to store theparameters in the geotechnicalinformation system “Géo-Base” whichexports them in a relational database (formore information see Debiche, 2003).These steps were:

· Transformation of hardcopy datainto digital versions

· Organization of the data in theGéo-Base system and export to GISusing ArcGIS software tools. Theresulting data became easy tomanipulate for the forthcomingsteps.


363

Fig. 3. Physical model of Géo-Base “Oedometer test window”.

Fig. 4. Flowchart of the research methodology.


364

Fig. 5. Different geotechnical and geophysical boreholes location in Algiers area.

2.5.3. Presentation of geotechnical mapsThe third phase of our work concerned theestablishment of the following geotechnicalmaps by analyzing the geotechnical dataintegrated in GIS software:· Bearing capacity· Compressibility· Swelling

3. Result and Discussion

3.1 . Descriptive statisticsAfter the introduction of the geotechnicaldata of 150 projects in the "Géo-Base"information system, a descriptivestatistical analysis was carried out on allthe geotechnical parameters used for thecomputation of surface foundations,bearing, settlement and swelling. Table 2shows the descriptive statistics of collectedsamples (mean, median, mode, standarddeviation, variance, skewness, error ofskewness, kurtosis, error of kurtosis,range, minimum and maximum values).The skewness values show that allvariables are regularly distributed.Furthermore, the results show that thedatabase comprises a wide range of data.Subsequently, this database can besuccessfully used in geotechnicalidentification maps. Algiers soil can be

characterized as a dense soil with anaverage wet density of 2.007 according tothe French norms XP 94-011 Europeannorms. Moreover, the soil appears to be amoderately compressible soil with Cc

equal to 0.167. Last but not least, in theclassification based on swelling, accordingto the French norms XP 94-090-1, Algiersarea could be classified as a swelling soil,with Cs equal to 0.046. This descriptiveanalysis was used in this research for theestablishment of the geotechnicalcartography of settlements, bearing andswelling .

3.2 . Mapping of compressibility and swellingof Algiers soil

The cartography of the swelling andcompressibility of Algiers region is veryuseful for the choice of sites by theengineering offices. The distribution ofthe maximum compressibility index hasbeen presented in Fig. 6, which indicatesthe areas where the layers are prone tocompressibility risks. It is noticed that the"moderately compressible" class isrepresented in most of the study area,with an average of 76% of the total area ofthe study area; the other classes(incompressible and very compressible)are almost negligible.


365

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for collected samples.

On the other hand, some highlycompressible zones were detected in thelower region. These results explain thatmost of the lands in the study area arerelatively not exposed to the risk ofcompressibility. The same method wasused for analyzing the maximumswelling index, presented in Figure 7.Areas containing layers prone toswelling risk can be distinguishedaccording to the evaluation scale. Theresults show that most sites in the studyarea are exposed to the swelling risk.

3.3. Mapping of u ltimate bear ing capacityof Algiers soil

The bearing capacity o f the soil is themost important and required designparameter ; it plays an important rolein engi neering deci sion-making, eitherin progress or after construction. Fig. 8to Fig. 11 present the ul timate bearingcapacity maps, in the different depthsof the Algiers area, calculated bylaboratory tests. This type of analysisprovides engineers and planners the

initial prediction of the bearingcapacity supporting most o f the loads(of structure and equipment), andtheir depth, for safely designing thefoundations.

4. ConclusionsThe current research presents ascientifi c contribution to thegeotechni cal engineering study ofsuperfi cial foundations, to hel pbuilders, planners, researchers andengineers in deci sion-making forfuture building works in the capi talAlgiers. In order to achieve theobjective of our research, ageotechni cal database of 1200 boringsurveys was collected and organizedin the "Géo-Base" information system,integrated later into the GIS softwarein order to visualize the geotechnicalmaps. The results drawn from thisresearch are summ arized in thefollowing:· The use of the "Géo-Base"

information system developed in

h Cu φ σp(h=2) σp(h=3) σp(h=4) σp(h=5) Cc Cs σc VsValid 878 297 297 57 98 77 65 878 878 878 292NMissing 0 0 0 240 199 220 232 0 0 0 0

Mean 2.0073 0.4330 11.3473 2.0634 2.6467 2.5947 3.5943 0.1670 0.0428 2.0900 321.1692Median 2.0000 0.4200 10.0000 1.9102 2.2476 2.3320 2.7493 0.1720 0.0381 1.7900 307.5952Mode 1.95 0.44 9.00 1.18a 1.23 2.80 1.55a 0.19 0.04 1.68 279.04Std.Deviation

.09380 .16579 5.24089 .70801 1.27494 .90885 2.82930 .05251 .02198 .90633 94.82699

Variance .009 .027 27.467 .501 1.625 .826 8.005 .003 .000 .821 8992.157Skewness -.108 .852 1.278 1.628 2.059 2.257 3.845 .072 1.063 1.648 1.465Std. ErrorofSkewness

.083 .141 .141 .316 .244 .274 .297 .083 .083 .083 .143

Kurtosis .529 1.053 2.079 2.600 4.230 6.013 17.714 1.655 1.966 3.705 5.387Std. Errorof Kurtosis

.165 .282 .282 .623 .483 .541 .586 .165 .165 .165 .284

Range .65 .93 33.69 3.01 6.14 4.83 18.07 .45 .17 6.96 787.95Minimum 1.65 0.05 0.86 1.18 1.23 1.39 1.55 0.01 0.00 0.24 112.05Maximum 2.30 0.98 34.55 4.19 7.37 6.22 19.62 0.46 0.17 7.20 900.00


366

this study allows for gathering allthe information extracted fromgeotechnical studies, in a veryflexible manner for the manipulationand management of information,storing and generating all the resultsof the tests in the normative context.The integration of the "Géo -Base"using GIS software allows for thepresentation of information in theform of geotechnical maps, whichare tools of practical hel p for thecomputations of foundations with anoptimized recognition.

· The resul ts presented in the mapsindicate the presence of highlycompressible zones in the lowerregion due to the presence of under-consolidated soils with a bearingcapacity of around 1 bar. The areasof medium compressibilitygenerally present a bearing of

approximately 200, 300 and 400 kPa,which are very favorable to futureprojects. Furthermore, some areas ofswelling occur on the heights inconsolidated soils compo sed bymarly formations.

· This research constitutes a workingplatform to develop different themes(stability, swelling, seismic risk)used in the geotechnical engineeringstudies of Algiers region.

For future works, the use o f "Géo-Base" by labo ratories in o ther regi onscan assist in the establishment o flo cal g eotechni cal m aps that will besupplemented with survey works inorder to refine the resul ts ofmapping for the purpose of wi deruse in engineeri ng offi ces,geotechni cal l aborato ries and localadministrations.

Fig. 6. Max compressibility map of Algiers area.


367

Fig. 7. Max swelling map of Algiers area.

Fig. 8. Ultimate bearing capacity map of Algiers soil (Z=2m).


368




369


REFERENCESAmeraoui S., Boutaleb A., Souiher N., Berdous D. (2017),

Investigation of potential accumulation and spatialdistribution of heavy metals in topsoil surroundingthe cement plant of Meftah (southeastern Algiersregion, Algeria), Arabian Journal of Geosciences10(21): 464.

Antoniou A. A., Papadimitriou A. G., Tsiambaos G.(2008), A geographical information systemmanaging geotechnical data for Athens (Greece)and its use for automated seismic microzonation,Natural Hazards 47(3): 369-395.

Arnous M. O. (2013), Geotechnical site investigations forpossible urban extensions at Suez City, Egyptusing GIS, Arabian Journal of Geosciences6(5): 1349-1369.

Augusto Filho O., Hirai J. N., Oliveira A. S., Liotti E. S.(2010), GIS applied to geotechnical andenvironmental risk management in a Brazilian oilpipeline, Bulletin of Engineering Geology andthe Environment69(4): 631-641.

Benbouras M. A., Mitiche Kettab R., Zedira H., Petrişor A.-I., Mezouer N., Debiche F. (2018), A new approachto predict the compression index using artificial neuralnetwork and multiple regression analysis, MarineGeoresources & Geotechnology [in press]

Benbouras M. A., Kettab R. M., Zedira H., Debiche F.,Zaidi N. (2018), Comparing nonlinear regressionanalysis and artificial neural networks to predictgeotechnical parameters from standard penetration

test, Urbanism Architecture Constructions 9(3):275-288.

Benbouras M. A., Kettab R. M., Zedira H., Petrişor A.-I.,Debiche F. (2017), Dry density in relation to othergeotechnical proprieties of Algiers clay, RevistaŞcolii Doctorale de Urbanism 2(1): 5-14.

Boştenaru Dan M., Armaş I., Goretti A. (2014),Earthquake Hazard Impact and Urban Planning -An Introduction, in: Boştenaru Dan M., Armaş I.,Goretti A. (Eds.), Earthquake Hazard Impact andUrban Planning, Springer Earth Sciences &Geography - Natural Hazards Series 13: 1-12.

Boughedir S. (2015), Case study: disaster risk managementand climate change adaptation in Greater Algiers:overview on a study assessing urban vulnerabilitiesto disaster risk and proposing measures foradaptation, Current Opinion in EnvironmentalSustainability 13: 103-108.

Chang Y. S., Park H. D. (2004), Development of a web-based geographic information system for themanagement of borehole and geological data,Computers & Geosciences 30(8): 887-897.

Costet J., Sanglerat G., Biarez J., Lebelle P. (1969),Practical course of soil mechanics [in French],Dunod, Paris, France.

Debiche F. (2013), Elaboration of the conceptual model of theGeo Base geotechnical database [in French], MasterThesis, National Polytechnic School, Depart-ment of Civil Engineering, Algiers, Algeria.

Derriche Z., Cheikh-Lounis G. (2004), Geotechnicalcharacteristics of marl Plaisanciennes of Algiers


370

[in French], Bulletin of Engineering Geologyand the Environment63(1): 367-378.

Dodagoudar G. R. (2018), An integrated geotechnicaldatabase and GIS for 3D subsurface modelling:Application to Chennai City, India, AppliedGeomatics 10(1): 47-64.

Eljamassi A. D. (2013), Using Geographic InformationSystems (GIS) in Soil Classification and Analysisin Gaza City, Palestine, Environment andNatural Resources Research3(2): 146.

Favre J. L., Hicher P. Y., Kerilis J. M., Touati K. (1990),Modelisol: a database for predicting the behaviourof soils, Codata Bulletin 22(1): 21-22.

Hamma W., Petrişor A.-I. (2018), Urbanization and risks:case of Bejaia city in Algeria, Human Geographies12(1): 97-114.

Ilieș N. M. (2016), Principles to calculate and verify continuousfoundations consolidations, Acta Technica Napocensis:Civil Engineering & Architecture 59(2): 22-29.

Harbi A., Maouche S., Vaccari F., Aoudia A., OussadouF., Panza G. F., Benouar D. (2007), Seismicity,seismic input and site effects in the Sahel—Algiersregion (North Algeria), Soil Dynamics andEarthquake Engineering 27(5): 427-447.

Jiang N. J., Du Y. J., Liu S. Y., Wei M. L., Horpibulsuk S.,Arulrajah A. (2015), Multi-scale laboratoryevaluation of the physical, mechanical, andmicrostructural properties of soft highway subgradesoil stabilized with calcium carbide residue,Canadian Geotechnical Journal 53(3): 373-383.

Juárez-Camarena M., Auvinet-Guichard G., Méndez-Sánchez E. (2016). Geotechnical Zoning of MexicoValley Subsoil, Ingeniería, Investigación yTecnología 17(3): 297-308.

Kaâniche A., Inoubli M. H., Zargouni F. (2000), Developmentof a geological and geotechnical information system andrealization of an electronic geotechnical atlas [inFrench], Bulletin of Engineering Geology and theEnvironment58(4): 321-335.

Kanungo D. P., Arora M. K., Sarkar S., Gupta R. P.(2012), Landslide Susceptibility Zonation (LSZ)Mapping–A Review, Journal of South AsiaDisaster Studies2(1): 81-105.

Kunapo J., Dasari G. R., Phoon K. K., Tan T. S. (2005),Development of a Web-GIS based geotechnicalinformation system, Journal of Computing inCivil Engineering 19(3): 323-327.

Kurnaz T. F., Dagdeviren U., Yildiz M., Ozkan O. (2016),Prediction of compressibility parameters of the soils usingartificial neural network, SpringerPlus5(1): 1801.

Lillouch S., Meziane Y. A., Bendadouche H. (2018),Geotechnical Cartographic Synthesis of Bejaia

City, North East of Algeria, Journal of theGeological Society of India 91(3): 348-354.

Malczewski J. (2006), Ordered weighted averaging with fuzzyquantifiers: GIS-based multicriteria evaluation for land-use suitability analysis, International Journal ofApplied Earth Observation and Geoinformation8(4): 270-277.

McBratney A. B., Santos M. M., Minasny, B. (2003), Ondigital soil mapping. Geoderma117(1-2): 3-52.

McCarthy J. D., Graniero P. A. (2006), A GIS-based boreholedata management and 3D visualization system,Computers & Geosciences32(10): 1699-1708.

Meyerhof G. G. (1951), The ultimate bearing capacity offoudations, Geotechnique 2(4): 301-332.

Niemunis A., Krieg S. (1996), Viscous behaviour of soil underoedometric conditions, Canadian GeotechnicalJournal 33(1): 159-168.

Papatheodoroua K., Klimisb N., Margarisc B., NtourosaK., Evangelidisa K., Konstantinidis A. (2014), Anoverview of the EU actions towards natural hazardprevention and management: current status andfuture trends, Journal of EnvironmentalProtection and Ecology 15(2): 433-444.

Petrişor A.-I. (2016), Geographical Information Systems asenvironmental, landscape and urban planning andresearch tools. Romania as a case study, in:Boştenaru-Dan M., Crăciun C. (Eds.), Space andtime visualisation, Springer Nature, Geneva,Switzerland, pp. 233-249.

Petrişor A.-I. (2012), Land cover and land use analysis ofurban growth in Romania, Human Geographies6(1): 47-51.

Razmyar A., Eslami A. (2017), GeotechnicalCharacterization of Soils in the Eastern and WesternAreas of Tehran. Engineering, Technology &Applied Science Research7(4): 1802-1810.

Sun C. G., Kim H. S. (2017), GIS-based regional assessmentof seismic site effects considering the spatialuncertainty of site-specific geotechnical characteristicsin coastal and inland urban areas, Geomatics,Natural Hazards and Risk 8(2): 1592-1621.

Todo H., Yamamoto K., Mimura M., Yasuda S. (2013),Japan’s Nation-Wide Electronic GeotechnicalDatabase Systems by Japanese Geotechnical Society,Geotechnical and Geological Engineering 31(3):941-963.

Youssef A. M., Pradhan B., Tarabees E. (2011), Integratedevaluation of urban development suitability based onremote sensing and GIS techniques: contributionfrom the analytic hierarchy process, ArabianJournal of Geosciences4(3-4): 463-473.

Received: 26 June 2018 • Revised: 19 July 2018 • Accepted: 28 July 2018

Article distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Documents

Use of GIS systems to analyze soil compressibility