Medicinal Plants in Sudan: Role in Animal and Human Health,

Productivity and Poverty Alleviation

S. M. A. El Badwi*, S. M. Hassan

and A. A. Gameel

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, Shambat, Sudan

ABSTRACT

Sudan has a wide diversity climate which is responsible for its varied vegetation

and very rich flora. Currently, according to the World Health Organization, about 80% of

the world population depends on traditional medicine for primary health care. In Sudan as

well as elsewhere, people prefer to use traditional medicine rather than synthetic drugs,

because herbs can easily be obtained from nature and are cheap and have less side

effects. This review paper aims at presenting data on the therapeutic activity of some

medicinal plants used in Sudanese traditional medicine for animal and human diseases

with emphasis on published data in Sudan in addition to research conducted by graduate

students at the University of Khartoum. The review, also, highlights the toxicity of some

plants that limited their use despite useful active ingredients. The review includes data on

plants with antimicrobial, antiparasitic, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic and antioxidant

activities, and many have direct impact on animal welfare, food security and increase in

national economy.

Key words: Medicinal plants; animal health; human health; poverty alleviation *Corresponding author: E-mail: samiaelbadwi@yahoo.com

Flora of the Sudan

It is estimated that Sudan encompasses more than 3156 plant species belonging to

1137 genera and 170 families (Broun and Massey 1929, Andrews, 1950, 1952, 1956; El

Amin 1990).

The Most Commonly Exported Medicinal Plants

Plant species Quantity in

Metric/ Tons

Price in Thousands of

US Dollars

Acacia senegal 25995.5 21533

Boswellia papyrifera 701 957

Carcica papaya 113 36

Cassia acutifolia 1064 419

Hibiscus sabdariffa 18174.5 18174.5

Hyphaene thebacia 73 20.6

Lawsonia inermis 1080 935.7

Phoenix dactylifera 155.5 53.3

Lupinus termis 209 7.2

Nicotiana rustica 341.2 52.8

Tamarindus indica 388.2 60.4

Source 1996 Ministry of Commerce Import/Export Statistics, Sudan

Hepatoprotective activity of Medicinal Plants

The following plants proved hepatoprotective against liver damage. Aqueous

extracts of the bark of Khaya senegalensis (Plate 1) was orally administered to rats at 250

and 500 mg/kg for five days which significantly alleviated liver damage induced by CCl4

(Ali et al., 2011). They, also, found that administration of aqueous and methanolic

extracts of Capparis decidua stems to rats at 200 and 400 mg/kg against CCl4 reduced

liver damage and remarkably masked severe hepatic lesions induced by the hepatotoxic

compound. Similarly, methanolic extract of Lepidium sativum seeds was given to rats at

200 and 400 mg/kg was found to protect liver from damage induced by CCl4 as evident

by improved histological picture and biochemical markers of liver damage (Abuelgasim

et al., 2008). Concurrent administration of oil of Cannabis sativa (0.01 ml/kg, 0.1 ml/kg

and 1 ml/kg body weight/rat) with CCl4 for 10 days masked liver changes induced by

CCl4 in Wistar Albino rats (Musa et al., 2012). The hepatoprotective effects of Solanum

nigrum (Plate 1) water and methanolic extracts were studied in rats at 250 and 500 mg/kg

against CCl4 induced liver damage for 10 consecutive days. Water and methanolic

extracts of S. nigrum had hepatoprotective effect against CCl4 intoxicated rats. The water

extract appeared to have a better hepatoprotective effect than the methanolic one (Elhag

et al., 2010)

Plate 1. Solanum nigrum Lepidiums ativum Cannabis sativa Khaya senegalensis

Antimicrobial activity of Medicinal Plants

Water, methanol and chloroform extracts of Lawsonia inermis and of root

samples of Hydnora abyssinica were tested for antibacterial and antifugal activities.

Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

were used to test antibacterial activity and Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum

audouinii, Trichophyton rubrum , Trichophyton concentricum and Candida albicans for

antifugal activity. Growth of all microorganisms was inhibited to varying degrees by

increasing the concentration of the extract (Sadaabi, 2007; Sadaabi and Ayoub 2009).

Comparative antimicrobial activity of ethanol and chloroform extracts from Acacia

nilotica fruits was made against bacteria isolated from abscesses or wounds of

hospitalized patients. The bacterial isolates were Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia

coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus vulgaris. Ethanol

extract of A. nilotica was either equally or more effective than the test antibiotics (Haj Ali

and Yagoub, 2007). Petroleum ether, ethanol and aqueous extracts of Tamarindus indica,

Adansonia digitata were tested against Escherichia coli isolated from urine and water

sources. The water extract of either plant was more effective than ethanol and petroleum

ether extracts. Ethanol extract of T. indica had more powerful antibacterial activity

compared with all antibiotics tested while the petroleum ether extract of A. digitata was

inactive against all tested organisms (Yagoub, 2008).

Aqueous, methanol and chloroform extracts of Withania somnifera, Datura

stramonium, (Plate 2) Zygophyllum portulacoides at a volume of 0.1ml/cup showed

varying degrees of inhibitory activity against Staph. aureus, B. subtilis, E. coli and Ps.

aeruginosa. Extracts from W. somnifera showed the highest activity, followed by D.

stramonium, while Z. portulacoides demonstrated the least activity compared with 40

μg/ml Ampicillin control antibiotic (Sadaabi and Moglad, 2011). Mohamed et al. (2010)

and El-kamali and El-amir (2010) reported antibacterial activity of methanolic extracts of

Ziziphus spina christi, Cissus quadrangularis and ethanolic extract of Cymbopogon

proximus and Cassia occidentalis, respectively, against the test organisms.

Antimicrobial activity of petroleum ether, methanol and water extracts of

Lepidium sativum seeds against Staph. aureus, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. vulgaris, Ps.

aeruginosa and C. albicans was assessed at concentrations of 2.5, 5 and 10%. The

petroleum ether extracts were found active against all the test microorganisms with a

strong antifungal activity at concentrations of 2.5 and 10%. At a concentration of 5%, the

ethanolic extract of this plant had no activity against C. albicans. Staph. aureus and C.

albicans were resistant to 2.5 and 5% water extracts and C. albicans was also resistant to

the 5% methanolic extract (Shama et al., 2011). Methanol extract of the fruits of

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del., was screened for antimicrobial activity at 50 and 100

mg/ml concentrations were tested against B. subtilis, B. cereus, Staph. aureus,

Enterococcus faecalis, Salmonella enteritidis, E. coli, Ps. aeruginosa and K.

pneumoniae. The methanol extract, particularly at a concentration of 100 mg/ml was

found active against all the bacterial and also against the fungal species; Aspergillus

niger, Fusarium oxysporum, F. culmorum and F. graminearum (Abdalla et al., 2012).

Petroleium ether, ethanolic and water extracts of Petroselinum sativum and

Coriandrum sativum were screened for antibacterial activity against Staph. aureus, Ps.

aeruginosa, E. coli and Salmonella typhi. Petrolium ether extract from C. sativum was

active only against Ps. aeruginosa. The ethanol extract of the two plants were active

against all bacteria but that from P. sativum was inactive against E. coli. The water

extract of P. sativum was active against all bacteria while that from C. sativum was active

against Staph. aureus, Ps. aeruginosa and S. typhi but inactive against E. coli (Bakheit

et al., 2006).

Plate 2. Cassia occidentalis Cissus qudaringularis Datura stramonium Cymbopogon proximus

Antiparasitic activity of Medicinal Plants:

Nigella sativa seeds and Aristolochia bracteolata whole plant were examined in

vitro for antimalarial activity against schizonts maturation of Plasmodium falciparum.

Water extracts of the two plants produced 100% inhibition of the parasite growth at

concentrations of plant material ≤ 50 μg/ml (Ahmed et al., 2010). For anticestodal

activity, the aqueous extract of Albizia anthelmintica bark at concentrations of 10-150

g/kg when administered orally, showed no toxicity and high anthelmintic activity (68-

100%) against experimental Hymenolepis diminuta infection in albino rats (Galal et al.,

1991). Crude powder and ethanolic extract of Jatropha curcas seeds produced

anticestodal activity against Raillietina tetragona in chicks when administered orally at

500 mg/kg b.wt of the crude powder or 100 mg/kg b.wt of the ethanolic extract J. curcas

crude seed powder produced greater anticestodal activity of 89.1%, while the ethanolic

extract produced activity of 65.5% (Osman et al., 2007). For fasciolicidal activity of

plants, oral doses of 9 g/kg-body weight of Albizia anthelmintica stem bark water extract

and 9 g/kg body weight of Balanities aegyptiaca fruit mesocarp water extract

(traditionally used as an anthelmintic in the Sudan) were compared with 20 mg/kg body

weight (recommended dose) of albendazole against Fasciola gigantica adult worm (12

weeks old). The efficacy of the mentioned therapeutics was 95.5, 93.2 and 97.7%,

respectively (Koko et al., 2000). For molluscicidal action of plants, a pure anthelmintic

substance (PGA) isolated from methanol-aqueous extract of leaves of Polygonum

glabrum showed, molluscicidal activity against Biomphalaria glabrata and Limnea

truncatula Müll (Mudathir et al.,1987).

Trypanocidal activity of medicinal plants was, also, studied. Tinospora bakis,

Argemone mexicana, and Aristolochia bracteolata methanolic and chloroformic extracts

were orally administered for 30 days at dose rates of 100, 250 and 500 mg/kg in rats

infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Tinospora bakis was found effective in cleaning the

parasite for a considerable time. Argemone mexicana was found more effective in

cleaning or reducing the parasitaemia for both methanolic and chloroform extract.

Aristolochia bracteolata (Plate 3) chloroform extract gave a very good trypanocidal

effect (Abdelrahman et al., 2011). Similarly, Leishmanicidal activity of the plants was

investigated. Methanol extracts of Allium sativum, Azadirachta indica and A. nilotica

were found effective against cutaneous leishmaniasis. The methanol extracts of the

studied plants were topically used twice a day at a concentration of 0.1 g/ml. A. indica

showed positive response in 83.3% of the cases, garlic (Allium sativa) in 100% and the

extract of A. nilotica in 83.3% of the cases. However, only 16.6% of the cases showed

complete healing (Khalid et al., 2004).

Plate 3: Aristolochia bracteolata Azadirachta indica Albizia anthelmintica Balanities aegyptiaca

Antidiabetic:

Ethanolic leaf extracts of Eucalyptus globulus, Salvia officinalis and Guiera

senegalensis were examined in glucose loaded albino rats to assess their hypoglycemic

effects. Graded doses of extracts of the three plants, 200 to 400 mg/kg were separately

administered orally to groups of glucose loaded rats. The hypoglycemic effect of the

extracts was compared to glibenclamide 10 mg/kg in fasted normal rats. Following the

treatment, relatively moderate to high doses of each of the three extracts produced a dose-

dependent significant reduction in blood glucose levels which was most significant at the

dose 400 mg/kg (Houaciae et al., 2012). Similarly, hypoglycemic effects of Allium cepa

in patients with type 1 diabetes was studied. In the assessment of the hypoglycaemic

activity of Allium cepa in type 1 diabetic patients crude A. cepa (100g) caused a

considerably lower value in fasting blood glucose levels by about 89 mg/dl in relation to

insulin (145 mg/dl) after 4 hours. Ingestion of crude A. cepa by type 1 diabetic patients

produced a significant reduction in induced hyperglycemia (GTT) by about 120 mg/dl in

relation to water (77 mg/dl) and the standard drug insulin (153 mg/dl) (TajEldin et al.,

2009). Aqueous and methanolic extracts of the bark of Cinnanomum verum were studied

for their hypoglycemic (type 11 ) and in streptozotocin diabetic rats (type 1). Both doses

of the aqueous extract (200 and 400 mg/kg) and the dose 200 mg/kg of the methanolic

extract produced significant glucose lowering effect (Mustafa et al., 2010).

Toxicity of some plants was studied. Calotropis procera (Plate 4) latex was given

to pregnant and non-pregnant Nubian goats. In 2 - 3 months pregnant goats, the latex was

given at 0.3 ml/kg/day intra-vaginally and the animals showed maternal and fetotoxicity.

Non-pregnant goats given C. procera latex at 0.3ml/kg/day or at 0.005 ml/kg/day

intravaginally, showed vaginitis, anorexia and loss of condition (ElBadwi et al., 2012).

The comparative toxicity of Croton macrostachys, Jatropha curcas and Piper abyssinica

seeds was described in Nubian goat kids. C. macrostachys-treated at 1 or 0.25 g/kg per

day, J. curcas-treated at 1 or 0.25 g/kg per day and P. abyssinica-treated at 1 or 0.25 g/kg

per day. Both oral dose levels of C. macrostachys and J. curcas seeds were lethal for kids

between days 7 and 21, and caused enterohepatonephrotoxicity. The oral dose of 1 g/kg

per day for 30 days or 0.25 g/kg per day for 50 days of P. abyssinica seeds was not lethal

but caused pronounced hepatonephropathy (AbdelGadir et al., 2003). Feeding Jatropha

curcas seeds at 0.5% of the basic diet for 2 weeks was not lethal to chicks, whereas

feeding a mixture of Ricinus communis seeds and J. curcas seed (0.5% +0.5%) elicited

poor growth and locomotor disturbance and produced death (El Badwi et al., 1992).

Brown Hisex chicks fed diets containing 0.5% J. curcas seeds showed a high incidence

of mortality (ElBadwi et al., 1995). Administration of an aqueous extract of Senna

alexandrina pods at 50 mg/kg/day to rabbits was not toxic. However, at higher doses of

300 mg/kg caused alterations in the levels of blood haematological parameters and in

those of transaminases, creatinine, albumin and globulin (Elkhidir et al., 2012). Feeding

of Alpinia officinarum at 2, 5 and 10% to Bovan type chicks, demonstrated that A.

officinarum caused toxicity at the two higher doses were administered for 4 weeks

(Seddeag et al., 2010).

Plate 4: Ricinus communis Calotropis procera

Antioxidenat:

Methanolic extracts obtained by manual solvent extraction (MSE) and accelerated

solvent extraction (ASE) of Sclerocary abirrea leaves, Salvadora persica bark and

leaves, Combretum hartmannianum leaves, Guiera senegalensis (Plate 5) leaves and

roots were investigated for their antioxidant activity using the 1,1-diphenyl-2-

picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method (Taha et al., 2010). Methanolic extracts from Annona

squamosa and Catunareg amnilotica (leaves, bark, roots and seedcake) were evaluated

for antioxidant activity using oxygen radical absorbance capacity, MTT assay and DPPH

assays. The results showed that C. amnilotica and A. squamosa extracts displayed

antioxidant activities, with IC50 values ranging from 7.81 to 62.5 and from 7.81 to 125.0

μg/ml, respectively using1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay (Mariod et al.,

2012). A remarkable DPPH scavenging effect was observed with P. myrtifolius,

Phyllanthu sreticulatus and P. urinaria (IC50 of 10.2, 10.8 and 17.4 μg/ml) on its

methanolic extracts (Eldeen et al., 2011). The edible mesocarp of Balanites aegyptiaca

(L.) Del., a popular plant from Sudan widely employed in Sudanese folk medicine, was

tested for antioxidant activity. The methanolic extract of the fruits exhibited a strong

antioxidant activity in the DPPH assay and a potent capacity in preventing linoleic acid

oxidation (Abdalla et al., 2012).

Plate 5: Guiera senegalensis Salvadora persica Combretum hartmannianum

Anti-inflammatory:

In the cyclooxygenase assays, all ethyl acetate (leaf, bark, root) and ethanol root

extracts of Acacia seyal (Plate 6), ethyl acetate twig extracts of Capparis decidua,

dichloromethane bark extracts of Combretum hartmannianum and ethanol bark extracts

of Ziziphus spina-christi showed inhibitory effect against prostaglandin synthesis by

COX-2 ranging from 58 to 97% and weak (< 50%) or no activity against COX-1 induced

prostaglandin production. An in vitro anti-inflammatory activity supports the utilization

of these plants in Sudanese traditional medicine as crude anti-inflammatory agents

(Eldeen et al., 2011). Oil of Cannabis sativa possesses marked anti-inflammatory

activities verified by high percentage inhibitory effect of oedema size in both pre and post

treatment study in rats treated with1 ml/kg and 0.5 ml/kg of C. sativa oil for 24 hrs on

carrageenan induced rat paw oedema (Musa et al., 2011).

Plate 6: Acacia seyal Zizyphus spina chrisi Cannabis sativa

Table 1. Compilation of published data conducted in Sudan on medicinal plants from

Sudanese flora

Medicinal uses Scientific Name Local Name Part & extract used References

Hepatoprotective Khaya senegalensis Mahogany Bark/ethanolic Ali et al., 2011

Capparis deciduas Toundob Leaves Ali. et al., 2011

Lepidium sativum ElRashad Seed/methanol Abuelgasim et al., 2008

Cannabis sativa oil El Hasheesh oil Musa et al., 2012

Solanum nigrum Einab Al Diib Elhag, et al., 2010

Antimicrobial 1-Zizyphus spinachrisi

2-Cissus qudaringularis

1Naback/Sider

2-Salalaa

1-leaves/methanol

2-whole plant/methanol

Mohamed et al., 2010.

1-Withania sominefera

2-Datura stramonium

1-Sim Elfar

2-Elsakeran

Sadaabi and Moglad,

2011.

1-Cymbopogon schoenathus

2-C.proximus

3-Cassia occidentalis

1

2-Mahareib

3- Soreib

1-arial part/ethanol

2-arial part/ethanol

3-seed/ethanol

El-kamali and El-amir,

2010,

Petroselinum sativum

Coriandrum sativum

Pagdonis

kasbra

Fruit/Pet. Ether

Water/ethanolic

Bakheit et al., 2006

Hydnora abyssinica Tartoos Root/aqueous, methanolic,

chloroform

Sadaabi & Ayoub, 2009

Lepidium sativum Elrashad Seed/pet.ethe, water,methanol Shama et al., 2 011

Lawsonia inermis Henna Leaves/water, methanol,

chloroform

Sadaabi 2007

Balanites aegyptiaca Laloub Fruit/methanol Abdalla et al., 2012

Acacia nilotica Garad Fruit/ethanol, chloroform Haj Ali & Yagoub,

2007

1-Tamarindus indica

2-Adansonia digitata

1-Aradeib

2-Tabaldi

Fruit/ethanol, pet. ether,

aqueous

Yagoub, 2008

Antiparasitic

Antiplasmodial

1-Nigella sativa

2-Aristolochia bracteolata

1-Habat

Elbaraka

2-Umgalgil

1-Seed

2-Whole plant/

Ahmed et al., 2010

Aticestodal

Albizia anthelmintica

Girfeldood/

Stem bark/water

Galal et al., 1991

Jatropha curcas Habit Elmlook Seed/crude Osman et al., 2007

Fasciolicidal 1-Albizia anthelmintica

2-Balanities aegyptiaca

1-Girf eldood/

2-Laloub

1-Stem bark/water

2-Fruit

Koko et al., 2000

Trypanocidal 1-Tinospora bakis

2-Argemone Mexicana

3-Aristolochia bracteolata

1-Erg-El-Hagar

2-Khashkhash

3-Umgalgil

2-Seed/methanolicextact

3-leaves

Abdelrahman et al.,

2011

Molluscicidal Polygonumglbrum leaves/methanolic, water Mudathir, et al., 1987

Anticercerial Polygonum glbrum seed/methanolic, water Osman et al,

Leishmanicidal

1-Allium sativum,

2-Azadirachta indica

3-Acacia nilotica

1-Thoom

2-Neem

3-garad

methanol Khalid et al., 2004

Table 1. (contin)

Antidiabetic 1-Eucalytus globulus

2-Salvia offinalis

3-Guiera senegalensis

1-El kafour

2-Maaramya

3-Alghibaish

Leaves/ethanol Houaciae et a.l, 2012

Allium cepa Basal Pulp/crude TajEldin et al., 2009

Cinnanomum verum Gerfa Bark/aqueous, methanolic Mustafa et al.,, 2010

Toxicity Calotropis procera Ushar Latex ElBadwi et

al.,1998,2012.

1-Ricinus communis

2-Jatropha curcas

3-Abrus precatorius

4-Albizia anthelmintica

4-5-Croton Macrostachys

1-Kherwi

2-Habit

elmlook

3-Habat

elarous

4-Girf eldood

1-seed/crude

2-seed/crude

3-seed/crude

4-bark/crude

5-seed/crude

ElBadwi et al.,

1992,1995

AbdelGadir et al.,

2003

Senna alexanderina Sannamaka Pods/aqueous Elkhidir et al., 2012

Alpinia offinalis Guringal/

ganlgal

Root/crude Seddeag et al., 2010

Antioxidant

1-Combretum

hartmannianum

2-Guiera senegalensis

3-Sclerocarya birrea

4-Salvadora persica

1-Habiel

2-Alghibaish

3-Humaid

4-Alarak

1-Leaves

2-Leaves,roots

3-Leaves

4-Bark &leaves (methanol)

Taha, et al., 2010

Balanites aegyptiaca Laloub Fruit/methanol Abdalla et al., 2012

Catunareg amnilotica

2- Annona squamosa

1-kerkir.

2- custard

apple

leaves, bark and seedcake

methanol

Mariod et al., 2012

Anti-

inflammatory

1-Acacia seyal

2-Capparis deciduas

3-Combretum

hartmannianum

4-Zizyphus spinachrisi

1-Talih

2-Toundob

3--Habiel

4-

Naback/Sider

1-Leaf,bark, root (ethyle

acetate)

Root (ethanol)

2-Twig (ethyle acetate)

3- bark(dichloroethane)

4-bark (ethanol)

Eldeen et al., 2008

Cannabis sativa

El Hasheesh oil (pet .ether) Musa et al., 2011

Table 2. Research conducted on plants at University of Khartoum in a form of MSc or

PhD reported by Hassan (2009).

Therapeutic activity No. of MSc.

degrees

No. of PhD

degrees

Total No. of

Degrees

No. of plant

species studied

Toxicity 43 18 51 86

Antimicrobial 46 6 52 79

Molluscicidal 14 5 19 70

Insecticidal 53 4 57 56

Antiparastic 27 11 38 41

Phytochemical

screening

7 4 14 26

Antidiabetic 10 1 11 16

Hepatoprotective 8 1 9 12

Antitumer 2 4 2 5

Role of plants in poverty alleviation

Nutrition and health are two issues of global concern especially in view of the

growing world population and increasing urbanization. Trade on herbal plants,

particularly those of proved nutritional and medicinal values have influenced the socio-

economic style of many communities. It is stated that over 80% of the world population

uses herbal medicines and that billions of US dollars are spent annually in herbal trade.

Phytomedicines, standardized herbal extracts and finished products are sold for high

prices compared to raw plant material. The difference in price/ kg between raw and

finished products of some plants could be tremendous amounting to more than 2000 fold

.Crude and finished herbal products (as medicines, health food components, personal care

items etc.) have growing markets in Asia, North America and Europe with annual trade

estimated at 14 to over 20 billion US dollars (Canadian Medicinal Plant Industry 2012).

About 1400 herbal preparations are used in the member states of the European

Union and 60% of Americans use herbal medicines for common ailments. In Jordan 485

out of 2500 wild herbs are used as medicines by about 60% of people. Practically in all

parts of the Sudan and in every dwelling, herbal plants are always kept as part of the

domestic spices. In the Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey some of the 50 identified

herbal plants are used as diuretics and for treatment of intestinal problems in humans

(Toksoy et al., 2010). Bekalo et al. (2009) stated that according to the WHO more than

3.5 billion people in developing countries depend on medicinal plants. They also

mentioned that in certain regional states of Ethiopia, 120 herbal species are used for

human ailments and some for livestock diseases.

Thus, herbal plants may play an important role in maintaining human as well as

animal health and provide opportunities for income generation due to the increasing

herbal usage and expanding markets. Integrated programs to conserve herbal plants and

forestry resources and rationalize their use may result in a positive socio-economic

impact and poverty alleviation. Quansah (1998) reported that the estimated global market

for plant derived drugs was 18 billion US dollars in 2005 and was expected to grow

steadily and that sales for dietary supplements, many of which contained medicinal

plants, increased by 4.5% to US$ 21.3 billion for the same year. In the Satpura plateau of

central India (and other areas), where the agro-climatic conditions favour the growth of

herbal plants, the income generated from sales of these plants as raw material for many

industries would have a positive impact on health care and rural economy in the local

population (Pandy and Shukla, (2007).).

Failure of conventional medicines to cure many diseases, such as diabetes, AIDs

and cancer, lead people to seek alternative medicines which are sometimes obtained for

high prices. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, Prunus africana bark, used for benign

prostatic hyperplasia and genito-urinary problems, sales for about 200 million US dollars

annually and Calharanthus roseus leaves, used as anticancer and antidiabetic, sales for

100 million US dollars per year (Lambert et al,. 2005). Economic benefits can also be

obtained from trade on compounds used for animal treatment. The Department of Animal

Science, University of Cornell, USA, has listed some medicinal plants for livestock.

These included: Coumarin, Safroles, p-cymene, Limonene, alpha terpinene, Acandole,

Myrcene, Camphene, beta pinene and Linalool . Other plants are expected to be added

and may prove effective for animal therapy with profitable returns.

Conclusion

Sudan is rich in medicinal plants which need to be researched upon to extract the active

ingredients for treatment of widespread diseases in rural areas. However, awareness of

the medical significance of these plants is still poor. Poor people in rural areas in the

Sudan cannot afford the heavy costs of treatment by modern synthetic drugs, neither can

they afford travel expenses seeking medical advice in towns where medical services are

concentrated. For the sake of the poor people, future research should be geared towards

treatment by medicinal plants. Advanced technologies and equipment, therefore, are

required for identification and extraction of the active ingredients of each plant. Joint

collaborative research activities among the institutions are urgently needed. There should

be a plan to establish Medicinal Plants Research Centre in the Sudan to cater for the

scattered research in this field and streamline such activities for helping the poor people

in the rural areas of the Sudan.

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