U.S. / Dakota RelationsU.S. / Dakota RelationsPre Contact to Mass ExecutionPre Contact to Mass Execution

Pre ContactPre Contact Fur TradeFur Trade Treaty of Traverse des SiouxTreaty of Traverse des Sioux AnnuitiesAnnuities U.S./Dakota WarU.S./Dakota War Mass ExecutionMass Execution

Who is this guy and why is he Who is this guy and why is he talking to me?talking to me?

Ben Leonard, Director of NCHSBen Leonard, Director of NCHS Euro-American from NCEuro-American from NC BA, MA in HistoryBA, MA in History 4 ½ years with MHS4 ½ years with MHS 4 ½ years with NCHS4 ½ years with NCHS

Where we got our Where we got our information?information?

Dakota Elders Joe Williams, Sisseton Dakota Elders Joe Williams, Sisseton Wapheton Oyate; Tom Ross, Upper Wapheton Oyate; Tom Ross, Upper Sioux Community Pejuhutazizi Oyate; Sioux Community Pejuhutazizi Oyate; and Maureen Aakre-Ross and Maureen Aakre-Ross

Ella Deloria’s Ella Deloria’s Speaking of IndiansSpeaking of Indians Gary Clayton Anderson’s Gary Clayton Anderson’s Kinsmen of Kinsmen of

Another KindAnother Kind and and Through Dakota Through Dakota EyesEyes

David Nichol’s Lincoln and the IndiansDavid Nichol’s Lincoln and the Indians Carol Chomsky’s Carol Chomsky’s United States-Dakota United States-Dakota

War Trials: A Study in Military InjusticeWar Trials: A Study in Military Injustice

"There are good and bad men everywhere -- could not point to any nation where all were

good."Mazakutemani, 1857

Today we will make certain assumptions Today we will make certain assumptions and assertions based on historical and assertions based on historical

evidence. What we cannot do is lump evidence. What we cannot do is lump all individuals together. all individuals together.

This area has been a This area has been a gateway and a gathering gateway and a gathering

place for thousands of place for thousands of years.years.

Dakota Way of BeingDakota Way of Being

Odakota – philosophy of peace. Basis Odakota – philosophy of peace. Basis for world view and governancefor world view and governance

Way of Being – marriage, Way of Being – marriage, ceremonies, and blood relations ceremonies, and blood relations shape societyshape society

“Peace is implied by the very name of the people, Odakota, a state or condition of peace…We Dakotas love peace within our borders. Peace-making is our heritage…Even as children we settle our little fights through Kinship that we might live in Odakota.” ~ Ella Deloria, Speaking of Indians

GovernanceGovernance

Dakota society is based on family, Dakota society is based on family, social relationships, and the idea of social relationships, and the idea of reciprocityreciprocity

Strangers Became RelativesStrangers Became Relatives

Hunka Ceremony - joins individuals Hunka Ceremony - joins individuals and their families, to other individuals and their families, to other individuals and their families, to create new and their families, to create new extended families extended families

Dakota used Hunka to forge trading Dakota used Hunka to forge trading relationships with other Indian Nationsrelationships with other Indian Nations

Outsiders, accepted through the Outsiders, accepted through the Hunka, were considered DakotaHunka, were considered Dakota

Hunka and the Fur TradeHunka and the Fur Trade

Many Euro-American fur traders Many Euro-American fur traders married into Dakota families. This married into Dakota families. This gave them access to new trading gave them access to new trading networks.networks.

For the most part early relationships For the most part early relationships were fairly equal. Traders were fairly equal. Traders participated in Dakota Way of Being participated in Dakota Way of Being and idea of reciprocity. and idea of reciprocity.

System breaks downSystem breaks down Americans predominate tradeAmericans predominate trade Shortages of fur-bearing animalsShortages of fur-bearing animals Changes in European fashionChanges in European fashion Timber sales and land speculation Timber sales and land speculation

become profitablebecome profitable

DebtDebt

Dakota furs in the spring not enough Dakota furs in the spring not enough to compensate for “gifts” of trade to compensate for “gifts” of trade goods the previous fall. Dakota go goods the previous fall. Dakota go into debt with traders.into debt with traders.

American government actively American government actively promoted trade debt as a way to promoted trade debt as a way to expedite treaty process and acquire expedite treaty process and acquire more Indian lands.more Indian lands.

Treaty of 1851Treaty of 1851

Dakota hoped treaty will create a Dakota hoped treaty will create a sustainable new economysustainable new economy

Signed at Traverse des Sioux July 18, Signed at Traverse des Sioux July 18, 18511851

24 million acres, roughly 40 percent 24 million acres, roughly 40 percent of modern-day Minnesota, for of modern-day Minnesota, for $1,665,000 $1,665,000

"The Indians are all prepared to make a treaty when we tell them to do so, and such a one as I may dictate.”

~ Henry Sibley to P. Chouteau Jr. and Company, November 3, 1850

Treaty of 1851 – cont.Treaty of 1851 – cont.

Total cost: $1,665,000Total cost: $1,665,000– $1,360,000 put in an annuity$1,360,000 put in an annuity

5% yearly payout ($68000) for fifty years ($3.4 m)5% yearly payout ($68000) for fifty years ($3.4 m)– Civilization fund $12KCivilization fund $12K– Education fun $6KEducation fun $6K– Goods/Provisions $10KGoods/Provisions $10K– Cash annuity $40KCash annuity $40K

Principal itself is never paid by designPrincipal itself is never paid by design

– Remaining $305,000Remaining $305,000 $30K to build farms, schools, mills, blacksmith $30K to build farms, schools, mills, blacksmith

shopsshops $275,000 left . . . $275,000 left . . .

Treaty of 1851 – cont.Treaty of 1851 – cont.

$305 K to be paid “to the Chiefs of said bands, $305 K to be paid “to the Chiefs of said bands, to enable them to comply with their present to enable them to comply with their present just engagements”just engagements”

As each chief signed the treaty, they were As each chief signed the treaty, they were directed “pulled by the blanket” to another directed “pulled by the blanket” to another barrel to sign what many assumed was barrel to sign what many assumed was another copy of the treaty (Folwell)another copy of the treaty (Folwell)

$210,000 was divided up by the various traders $210,000 was divided up by the various traders (including Sibley, who received over $66K, JB (including Sibley, who received over $66K, JB Faribault $22.5K, Bailly & Dousman, $15K)Faribault $22.5K, Bailly & Dousman, $15K)

Broken PromisesBroken Promises

Trader’s Paper – illegal but enforced Trader’s Paper – illegal but enforced document that sent payments bound to document that sent payments bound to Dakota directly to Euro-American Dakota directly to Euro-American traders.traders.

Congress – ratifies the treaty but strikes Congress – ratifies the treaty but strikes the portion that guarantees Dakota the portion that guarantees Dakota Minnesota River Reservation.Minnesota River Reservation.

Monies withheld – funds diverted to Monies withheld – funds diverted to physical improvements or traders, physical improvements or traders, balance owed put in trust and only paid balance owed put in trust and only paid interest.interest.

Bureaucracy Bureaucracy

Agency needed to facilitate payment Agency needed to facilitate payment of annuities and “supervision” of of annuities and “supervision” of reservations.reservations.

Commission on Indian Affairs created Commission on Indian Affairs created 1824 to “civilize” and educate 1824 to “civilize” and educate Indians as well as administer treaty Indians as well as administer treaty negotiations, regulate trade, and negotiations, regulate trade, and regulate land disputes.regulate land disputes.

Commission on Indian Affairs in Commission on Indian Affairs in MinnesotaMinnesota

Department became intertwined with Department became intertwined with local government, traders, and local government, traders, and interestsinterests

Though not everyone was corrupt, Though not everyone was corrupt, there was corruptionthere was corruption

There was mismanagement that led There was mismanagement that led to late paymentsto late payments

“I have discovered numerous violations of law and many frauds committed by past agents and a superintendent.” ~ George Day to Abraham Lincoln, January 1, 1862

Stood to BenefitStood to Benefit

Indian Agents and others in the Indian Agents and others in the Commission had an opportunity to Commission had an opportunity to benefit greatlybenefit greatly

Reimbursement for expensesReimbursement for expenses Political FavorsPolitical Favors No bid contractsNo bid contracts

Not all levels participated, but Not all levels participated, but system was complacent to graftsystem was complacent to graft

Situation for Dakota Situation for Dakota DeterioratesDeteriorates

Forced to give up traditional way of lifeForced to give up traditional way of life Forced to give up reservation lands in Forced to give up reservation lands in

18581858 Never received Never received Late paymentsLate payments Rancid rationsRancid rations Little gameLittle game Failed cropsFailed crops

Dakota WarDakota War

Began August 17, 1862 at Lower SiouxBegan August 17, 1862 at Lower Sioux Ended at Wood Lake September 23Ended at Wood Lake September 23rdrd.. Estimates vary from 350 to 900 Euro-Estimates vary from 350 to 900 Euro-

American civilians killed.American civilians killed. Number of Dakota dead from the Number of Dakota dead from the

fighting not known, but probably a few fighting not known, but probably a few hundredhundred

The war sent panic to Euro-American The war sent panic to Euro-American settlers and most fled western MNsettlers and most fled western MN

Dakota War, cont.Dakota War, cont.

Only a few hundred Dakota actively Only a few hundred Dakota actively participated in battles against Euro-participated in battles against Euro-Americans. Americans.

The vast majority of Dakota did not The vast majority of Dakota did not support the war and many actively support the war and many actively assisted Euro-Americans and assisted Euro-Americans and protected them.protected them.

Three Seasons of “Harvest”Three Seasons of “Harvest” Treaty SeasonTreaty Season Annuity SeasonAnnuity Season WarWar

Many people on both sides were Many people on both sides were victimized, but it’s also fair to say victimized, but it’s also fair to say some Euro Americans profited and some Euro Americans profited and Dakota people as a whole fared Dakota people as a whole fared much worse.much worse.

“The Indian Traders and Indian Speculators had three great seasons of harvest.” ~ George A.S. Crooker to Abraham Lincoln, October 7, 1862

Public AttitudesPublic Attitudes

A significant portion of the general A significant portion of the general public called for the extermination of public called for the extermination of the Dakotathe Dakota

Still more called for the removal of Still more called for the removal of Dakota from MinnesotaDakota from Minnesota

A few vocal Euro-Americans, including A few vocal Euro-Americans, including George Day, George Crooker, Thomas George Day, George Crooker, Thomas Williamson, Stephen Riggs, and Bishop Williamson, Stephen Riggs, and Bishop Whipple criticized the Government Whipple criticized the Government and defended the Dakota people.and defended the Dakota people.

““There will be no peace in this region There will be no peace in this region by virtue of treaties and Indian faith. by virtue of treaties and Indian faith. It is my purpose utterly to It is my purpose utterly to exterminate the Sioux if I have the exterminate the Sioux if I have the power to do so and even if it requires power to do so and even if it requires a campaign lasting the whole next a campaign lasting the whole next year. Destroy everything belonging to year. Destroy everything belonging to them and force them out onto the them and force them out onto the plains, unless, as I suggest, you can plains, unless, as I suggest, you can capture them. They are to be treated capture them. They are to be treated as maniacs or wild beasts, and by no as maniacs or wild beasts, and by no means as people with whom treaties means as people with whom treaties or compromises can be made.” ~ or compromises can be made.” ~ General John Pope to Sibley General John Pope to Sibley September 28, 1862September 28, 1862

““If such a commission [to investigate If such a commission [to investigate the causes of the US/Dakota War] is the causes of the US/Dakota War] is got up I should very much like to be got up I should very much like to be one of its members and would do my one of its members and would do my best endeavors to lay bare the best endeavors to lay bare the conduct of a set of villians conduct of a set of villians [government agents] whose work has [government agents] whose work has not only cost a large sum of money not only cost a large sum of money but has deluged our western frontier but has deluged our western frontier in blood… Each of the Statements in blood… Each of the Statements including the last is true and I can including the last is true and I can well afford to wait and let the ‘truth of well afford to wait and let the ‘truth of history’ vindicate my Statements.” ~ history’ vindicate my Statements.” ~ George Crooker to William Seward George Crooker to William Seward October 8, 1862October 8, 1862

Government Action in MNGovernment Action in MN

Removal over exterminationRemoval over extermination Cultural genocideCultural genocide Placate those that called for Placate those that called for

exterminationextermination Continue status quoContinue status quo Civil WarCivil War Tacitly support profits of influential Tacitly support profits of influential

friendsfriends Ties that bindTies that bind

The TrialsThe Trials

392 Dakota were tried by military 392 Dakota were tried by military tribunaltribunal

As many as 42 were tried in one dayAs many as 42 were tried in one day Most charged with murder, rape, or Most charged with murder, rape, or

robbery. robbery. Charges were most often not Charges were most often not

specific, instead gave the dates for specific, instead gave the dates for the war and accused participationthe war and accused participation

The Military TribunalThe Military Tribunal

Sibley appoints 5 members: William Sibley appoints 5 members: William Marshall, William Crooks, Hiram Grant, Marshall, William Crooks, Hiram Grant, Hiram Bailey, and Rollin Olin.Hiram Bailey, and Rollin Olin.

All had fought against the Dakota. All had fought against the Dakota. Evidence mostly circumstantial, based on Evidence mostly circumstantial, based on

hearsay, or of questionable valuehearsay, or of questionable value Trials did not differentiate between raids Trials did not differentiate between raids

or pitched battlesor pitched battles Enemy soldiers had never before been Enemy soldiers had never before been

charged with civilian crimes.charged with civilian crimes.

The ConvictionsThe Convictions

323 of 392 were convicted by November 323 of 392 were convicted by November 3rd3rd

303 were sentenced to death by hanging303 were sentenced to death by hanging 20 were sentenced to terms of 20 were sentenced to terms of

imprisonment from 1 to 10 yearsimprisonment from 1 to 10 years Unknown to Sibley, relatively new Unknown to Sibley, relatively new

federal statutes required Presidential federal statutes required Presidential approval of all executions.approval of all executions.

Lincoln and the DakotaLincoln and the Dakota

General Pope, state government, and General Pope, state government, and many of the general public urged the many of the general public urged the hanging of all 303.hanging of all 303.

However others, including However others, including Commissioner of Indian Affairs William Commissioner of Indian Affairs William Dole felt the executions would be “more Dole felt the executions would be “more of the character of revenge than of of the character of revenge than of punishment.”punishment.”

Many feared mob violence – a wagon Many feared mob violence – a wagon train of Dakota prisoners headed to train of Dakota prisoners headed to Mankato was stoned by an angry crowd Mankato was stoned by an angry crowd in New Ulm.in New Ulm.

Lincoln and the Dakota, Lincoln and the Dakota, cont.cont.

Unrest and violence against the prisoners Unrest and violence against the prisoners continued.continued.

On December 6On December 6thth Lincoln announced his Lincoln announced his decision to the Senate, “anxious not to act decision to the Senate, “anxious not to act with so much clemency as to encourage with so much clemency as to encourage another outbreak, on the one hand, nor another outbreak, on the one hand, nor with so much severity as to be real cruelty, with so much severity as to be real cruelty, on the other.”on the other.”

He ordered that only those found guilty of He ordered that only those found guilty of participating in “massacres,” not those who participating in “massacres,” not those who took part in “battles,” should be executed.took part in “battles,” should be executed.

The ExecutionThe Execution

Dakota prisoners were not told of Dakota prisoners were not told of Lincoln’s decision until December Lincoln’s decision until December 1717thth

39 were moved on Dec 2239 were moved on Dec 22ndnd

Tatimima was released on Dec 23Tatimima was released on Dec 23rdrd after new information questioned his after new information questioned his guiltguilt

The Execution, cont.The Execution, cont.““Tell our friends that we are being Tell our friends that we are being

removed from this world over the same removed from this world over the same path they must shortly travel. We go path they must shortly travel. We go first, but many of our friends may follow first, but many of our friends may follow us in a short time. I expect to go us in a short time. I expect to go directly to the abode of the Great Spirit directly to the abode of the Great Spirit and to be happy when I get there; but and to be happy when I get there; but we are told that the road is long and the we are told that the road is long and the distance great…” ~ Tazoodistance great…” ~ Tazoo

The execution of 38 Dakota took place The execution of 38 Dakota took place in Mankato at 7:30am on December 26in Mankato at 7:30am on December 26thth 18621862

The AftermathThe Aftermath

Those convicted and not executed were Those convicted and not executed were interned at Fort Snelling until late March. interned at Fort Snelling until late March. They were then sent to Camp McClellan in They were then sent to Camp McClellan in Davenport, IADavenport, IA

The acquitted were not freed. They were The acquitted were not freed. They were reunited in late April 1863 with 1,600 reunited in late April 1863 with 1,600 civilian Dakota still held at Fort Snelling and civilian Dakota still held at Fort Snelling and moved to the Crow Creek Reservation in SDmoved to the Crow Creek Reservation in SD

Lincoln continued to issue pardons for Lincoln continued to issue pardons for remaining Dakota prisoners until his deathremaining Dakota prisoners until his death

ConclusionConclusion

The executions display the failings of The executions display the failings of the American justice system, the American justice system, inherent racism of the period, and a inherent racism of the period, and a public wave of sentiment that public wave of sentiment that favored genocide against the Dakota.favored genocide against the Dakota.

However there were personal However there were personal instances where individuals instances where individuals advocated for the Dakota, or in the advocated for the Dakota, or in the case of Lincoln, attempted to steer case of Lincoln, attempted to steer towards a slightly less horrible towards a slightly less horrible finality in Minnesota.finality in Minnesota.