US-China Education Review 2010 12

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Volume 7, Number 12, December 2010 (Serial Number 73)

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US-China Education Review

Volume 7, Number 12, December 2010 (Serial Number 73)

Contents Curriculum and Teaching

Grammar learning and teaching: Time, tense and verb 1 ZHUANG Xin Turkish students’ perceptions regarding their mathematics teachers’ classroom practices 10 Yüksel Dede A passage from linguistics to English language teaching: Students’ experiences and expectations 18 Muhlise Coşgun Ögeyik The emotions in teaching and learning nature sciences and physics/chemistry in pre-service

primary teachers 25 María Brígido, M. Luisa Bermejo, M. Carmen Conde, Vicente Mellado Factors affecting teaching and learning of computer disciplines at Rajamangala University of

Technology 33 Rungaroon Sripan, Bandit Suksawat

Educational Management and Policy Teacher reflection in Indonesia: Lessons learnt from a lesson study program 39 Tatang Suratno, Sofyan Iskandar Serving, learning and mentoring through the Big Brothers Big Sisters Program 49 Thillainatarajan Sivukamaran, Glenda Holland, Leonard J. Clark, Sarah Tyman, Karen Marissa Boyd, Patricia Ellerman

Educational Technology Development of the social network b-learning in the University of Alicante 54 Francisco Miguel Martínez-Verdú, María José Rodríguez Jaume, Herminia Provencio Garrigós, Jasone Mondragón-Lasagabaster, Juan Ramón Rico-Juan, Juan Ignacio Ferreiro Prieto, Mar Iglesias, Natalia Albaladejo-Blázquez, María Dolores de Fez Sáiz, Valentín Viqueira Pérez, José Tomás García García, Mª Dolores Fernández-Pascual, Enar Ruiz-Conde, Begoña Lucía Fuster García, Josefa Parreño-Selva, Diana Jareño Ruiz, Esther Perales Romero, Elísabet Chorro Calderón Are practical activities and ICTs important? Thoughts and practice of a physics teacher 70 Saúl Alejandro Contreras Palma Perception of Nigerian secondary school teachers on introduction of e-learning platforms for

instruction 83 Peter Ayo Ajelabi, Alaba Agbatogun On building a web-based university 89 Dana Constantinescu, Gunnar Stefansson

Special Education Teaching and learning in kindergarten 98 Jurka Lepicnik Vodopivec Role of Nigeria in the development of higher education in Africa 106 Akinwumi Femi Sunday

December 2010, Volume 7, No.12 (Serial No.73) US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613, USA

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Grammar learning and teaching: Time, tense and verb

ZHUANG Xin (College of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, China)

Abstract: The learning of English tenses and verbs is obviously the major and challenging part of second language learning and acquisition for Chinese students. The paper analyzes the features of simple present tense, simple past tense and verbs in them from the aspect of Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk’s student grammar book as an instructive example. It is suggested that, it be meaningful and practical if the grammar rules are reflected rather in sentences or contexts than in the formula. Some possible pedagogical activities and materials are recommended to make tedious grammar learning and teaching more understandable and interesting.

Key words: tenses; time and space; aspects; verbs; teaching of grammar

1. Introduction

Grammar as the basic rules of a certain language has its prominent position in language learning and teaching, although someone might argue that it should not be a necessary section in language assessment. Compared with the ways of acquisition of the first language (L1) learners, learning various grammar rules for the second language (L2) learners should be in a co-current way rather than in a linear way. A student grammar book of Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk (1990) introduced the tenses with the help of verbs rather than the markers of tenses or the adverbials. Learning tenses seems to be meaningful and easier to understand.

2. Grammar in language learning

It is generally believed that, L1 learners acquire the mother tongue by imitation, practice and “the interaction position” (Lightbown & Spada, 1999, p. 26), in which vocabulary and grammar rules are learned and developed by constructing a set of rules which will characterize the language that surrounds them and enable them to use it for both speaking and understanding (Chomsky, 1969, p. 3). However, for L2 learners, most of them are taught as grammatical knowledge beforehand and develop the knowledge into practice afterwards. This learning experience differs from the L1 acquisition either in aspect of sequence in language input or in cognitive system as well. And most of the time, grammar is the indicator of the difference during the learning process. All the languages have symbols of identity and they are differed by two elements: time and space. These are the differences not only separating languages, but also making each grammar rule unique in each language.

Grammar is defined as “the way words are put together to make correct sentences” (Ur, 1996, p. 75), which is functioned as a rule to make the language output possible. Thus, the teaching of grammar is a necessary component in language teaching program and grammar itself takes the fundamental and dominant position in “accumulated entities” (Rutherford, 1987, p. 4), which help learners improve their learning from nil to certain language proficiency. Nevertheless, when the teachers teach L2 learners to acquire a certain language, they would

ZHUANG Xin, lecturer, College of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Gongshang University; research field: English language teaching.


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better take the social contexts and their implications for the learners into account. As Hasan and Perrett (1994, p. 198) noted that, the L1 creates “the learners’ primary world of reference for understanding reality”, while a foreign language does not influence their daily life directly. Therefore, this indirect learning and practicing process could not make L2 learners internalize all the intricate grammar rules like the L1 learners do naturally, and most of them reset the procedure of the language acquisition by learning the rules first and then the practice afterwards. Thus, analyzing the language itself seems to be the necessary step during the learning process, like Rutherford (1987) mentioned, “We break language down in order to build it up”, that is to say, “If knowledge of language is analyzed, the rules may be generated” (Bialystok, 1988, p. 40). The acquisition of the L2 undergoes the induction-deduction-induction circular process, which is one of the prominent features in the L2 learning.

3. Tense and aspect

According to the ideas of the L2 learners, they ought to acquire one grammatical rule at a time like learning each new word separately, and until they demonstrate that their mastery of one thing could they move to the next, which is regarded as a strictly linear approach (Nunan, 2001, p. 191). However, when time and space become the fundamental components in our communicative learning, the linear model does not suit anymore. Rutherford (1987, p. 37) suggested a proper metaphor by comparing the growth of language as “organism”, which suggested that the process of learning language should not be a mechanical step-by-step one but rather cyclical interconnections. And Nunan (2001, p. 192) provided a more vivid organic metaphor—L2 acquisition more likes growing a garden than building a wall. Language itself needs renewing and language learning needs rebuilding and reconfirming.

In whatever kind of language, time and space are fundamental to cognition and experience, which rooted in the structural organization of language (Klein, 1994, p. 1). When it describes what has happened, it is not as simplistic as the arranged order in the assembly lines, one follows another involving “before” and “after”, but a flow of matters which may have happened simultaneously, in which some matters may have continued for quite a long time while some may change instantaneously. Meuler (1995, p. 2) pointed out in descriptions of what happened, the choice of tense and aspect matters a lot.

Both tense and aspect are concerned with time, the “temporal relations” (Klein, 1994, p. 3), but they are concerned with time in different way and sometimes are hard to distinguish from one another. Tense is grammaticalized expression of location in time, usually with reference to the present moment that something occurred rather than how long it occurred for, which is realized by verb inflection, while aspect is concerned with “the internal temporal constituency of the one situation”, i.e., the duration of the activity indicated by the verb. Therefore, aspect is a way of viewing processes rather than locating them in time (Comrie, 1976, p. 5; Comrie, 1985, p. 9; Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990; Klein, 1994, p. 15; Lock, 1996, p. 161; Finch, 2000, p. 85). Therefore, “The selection of a verb tense form will reflect either the speaker’s knowledge of the prevailing time references, or else his/her interpretation of the situation” (Stranks, 2003, p. 333).

Tenses have consistent relational values: anteriority, posteriority and simultaneity, with the present moment as deictic centre, past, present and future (Comrie, 1985, p. 11; Smith, 1991, p. 145). And Klein (1994, p. 120) introduced “the basic time concept”, which divided the time spans into “before”, “after” and “included” in the temporal relationship between the TU (time of utterance) and the TT (topic time). However, in Greenbaum and Quirk’s (1990, p. 47) book, they claimed that in English, there are only two tenses, present and past respectively, which Radford (1997, p. 273) also concluded as a binary (2-way) tense contrast, since English has no future


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inflected form of the verb. In another words, a finite verb marked with “-ed” or without that marker could be categorized into tense, however, “non-finites can have voice and aspect and phase, but not tense” (Joos, 1964, p. 120). Moreover, except modal auxiliaries, the present tense could also convey future meaning. According to Wallace (1982, p. 202), “The English ‘future’ auxiliary ‘will’ in earlier times expressed not so much futurity as desire or intention”. Further, the “present” tense is also used to narrate past events to make the narrative more vivid and the indirect use of the “past” tense to express the present with regard to cognition and emotion.

However, many researches show that, Chinese is one of the languages which have only aspect and no tense (Lock, 1996, p. 163). In Chinese, adverbials (such as before, yesterday, last year, first, next and then) and clauses are often used to refer to a specific time, which are made relative to the present and time markers (Hinkel, 1997, p. 293). Thus, it seems that there some problems for the Chinese learners to acquire the English tense system since they are not so sensitive to the expression of time during their speaking and reading in English. Greenbaum and Quirk (1990) presented the tense not from abstract definitions but from much smaller component of a sentence and verbs, to demonstrate the main focus in the learning of tenses. This starting point reflects Quirk and Stein’s (1990, p. 108) point of view: Vocabulary is the word stock and grammar is the set of devices for handling this word stock. Moreover, the order of their presenting differs from the average grammar books, which is helpful for the learners to distinguish the difference between tenses and aspects with systematic learning. Greenbaum and Quirk (1990) did not present tenses in contrast, for example, the simple present with the present continuous or the simple past with the present perfect, since with these mixed conceptions, learners will be more frustrated. Thus, first of all, the much more appropriate way is to start to introduce the basic form to enable the learners practice and produce each context before another one can be introduced.

4. Simple present tense

Greenbaum and Quirk (1990, p. 47) demonstrated the difference between the “present moment” and the “present time” by defining “moment” as a certain point located in the line of time that indicates the moment could exist in the past and in the future while there is no paradox in “time”, since it is known that, yesterday is past and tomorrow is in the future, which provides a reasonable implication that “present” could refer to either in the past or in the future. Comrie (1985, p. 36) pointed out that, “The only way of locating a situation in time is relative to some other already established time point”. Therefore, better understanding time in the real world could help learners use the simple present tense to indicate different moments in the sentences.

A great number of grammatical features encode some semantic information (VanPattern, 1996, p. 21). By giving the first two examples with the English verbal inflection “-s” to indicate the third person singular, Greenbaum and Quirk (1990) displayed the general feature in the simple present tense. For example, in the sentences “Pairs stands on the River Seine” and “John boasts a lot”, they all use lexical marker “-s” to illustrate the only grammatical feature the third person singular in the simple present tense. However, to detect the markers of temporal reference is easier than to use the proper tense to express a particular meaning. As Knepler (1990, p. 8) mentioned, “Often more than one choice of tenses is correct for any situation”.

Superficially, two examples illustrated above seem to be plain and simple, however, Greenbaum and Quirk’s (1990) idea coincides with one of the principles that claimed by VanPatten (1996, p. 17), that is, “Learners process input for meaning before they process it for form”. For any L2 learners, only after adequate exposure to the target language, could they detect and generalize the systematic rules in grammar, which is similar to the acquisition of


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L1. Nevertheless, at the very beginning, Greenbaum and Quirk (1990) did not simply use the temporal adverbials to present the simple present tense, since in most cases, they appear without argumentation, like in the later example, the adverbial “every year” in “We go to Brussels every year”, which refers to the repeated event without limitation to specify the frequency of the event. Since adverbials constitute abundant and various expressions both in form and function (Klein, 1994, p. 158), language teachers prefer to use them to decode the intricate shades of temporal reference in the tenses for the benefit of the L2 learners.

Greenbaum and Quirk started their illustration from the most important one in content words and verbs, to present the subtle part in the tenses. And this is also the principle they define that there are only two tenses in English, all of which are realized by verb inflection. Before talking about the tenses, on the one hand, they draw a distinct line between “stative” verbs like “be, have and know” and “dynamic” verbs like “drive, speak and attack”, etc. Like what Leech (1971, p. 4) defined “a state”, it is undifferentiated and lacking in defined limits, while dynamic verbs include what Leech has defined as event, activity and process verbs, which have progressive meanings. For both simple tenses, stative verbs always fit for the state present/past, meanwhile, the dynamic verbs are confined to habitual/event/instantaneous present and past. The distinction between stative and dynamic aspect is clearly important in the grammatical description of verbs in English. This way of classification is benefit for the learners who might seek help from verbs to understand the meaning in tenses. On the other hand, their starting point differs from the average grammar books, which emphasizes more on the distinction between verb “be” and “do” with more specific meanings. It is easy to discover that, the common grammar books highlight the forms of verb inflection, which require the learners to make choice between “the base and the base+s/es form depend entirely on the subject of the sentence” (Knepler, 1990, p. 11), while Greenbaum and Quirk focused more on the meaning of the verbs to help learners choose appropriate tenses to meet the needs of sentence expressing and communicative value.

4.1 Simple present tense for present time The simple present tense is the commonest usage for most learners at their beginning level of learning. When

they explain the simple present tense for present time, L2 learners are given a brand new recognition about verbs in stative and dynamic senses. Stative verbs senses refer to “A single unbroken state of affairs that has existed in the past, exists now, and is likely to continue to exist in the future” (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990, p. 48), which is defined as the “state present”, the timeless present. In order to highlight the different forms of the verbs in this tense in a more restricted time spans, they provide 4 examples, including the verb “be” (is) and “do” (believe, live and taste) in the state present, the 3rd person singular “tastes”, the other pronoun using the base “live” and the negative form of the third person singular “does not believe”. It includes the “eternal truths” and less extreme instances of timelessness.

From Greenbaum and Quirk’s peculiar point of view to look at verbs, it could borrow the activity suggested by Rinvolucri (1984, p. 117): “The shout in the circle” to highlight the verb forms, especially the 3rd person singular in the simple present tense. Students could sit in a circle with one of them standing in the middle. When the student in the centre tells others the daily routine of someone or the timeless facts he/she knows well, e.g., “2 and 3 make 5”, etc., the other students could shout out the verb, e.g., “make” in the sentence and if the verb is incorrect, the circle must try to chorus the right form. This activity is suitable for the beginners who first need to identify the verb in a sentence and then make a proper choice on the form of the verb. Meanwhile, they could have a better understanding of the simple present tense in the reality.

Talking about the habitual present and instantaneous present, Greenbaum and Quirk introduced verbs with


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dynamic senses that events repeatedly occur without limitation and occur with little or no duration. The simple present occurs with verbs rather expressing events than expressing states. An activity suggested by Rinvolucri (1984, p. 100) might be a good choice to teach present simple to express habitual action, that is, “Animal habits”. In order to inspire the interest of the whole class, each student is allowed to choose an animal that he/she could related with. Drawing the picture and imitating the noise that the animal makes, and then students need to complete the sheets as they are the animal in the first person. In the later part, they need to find a suitable partner and the most dangerous partner while reading their describing sentences. Through this activity, students could understand the verbs which are represented as general or universal in a much more vivid way.

From the analysis above, it is not so difficult to find another feature in the Greenbaum and Quirk’s book when they present the tenses. That is to make the choices between “state” and “event” verbal usage for the distinction between the state, the habitual and the instantaneous uses of the simple present/past. Leech (1971, p. 4) gave definitions to them. A state has no defined limits and an event has a beginning and an end, which he regards them as semantic rather than grammatical terms. Greenbaum and Quirk strictly pointed out that, this is the distinction between stative and dynamic senses but not between state and dynamic verbs. An exercise suggested by Woods and McLeod (1990, p. 35) could be a good one to help learners distinguish these concepts, compare the pairs of sentences and decide what the speaker meant to say about the time of the reported event, action or state.

e.g., (1) He said that he was very depressed. (2) He said that he is very depressed. (3) They said their office is on Main Street. (4) They said their office was on Main Street.

Although in all the examples, they use verb “be”, a state verb in the clauses, it still needs state and event senses to emphasize different meanings according to the time. If the sentence has “a beginning and an end” sense of meaning, like examples (1) and (4), they indicate the event past. But if the sentence has undifferentiated limits, like examples (2) and (3), it conveys the meaning of continuity. The differences between senses could help learners use them in their speaking or writing tasks, which might enhance their sensitivity to the usage of tenses. Greenbaum and Quirk clearly distinguished two large ranges of concepts: One is “state verbs” and “event (dynamic) verbs”, the other is “stative verb senses” and “event (dynamic) verb senses”. That is to say, verb could be used to refer to an event or a state, but verb senses are unique to each situation in accordance with the meanings of the sentence.

4.2 Simple present tense for past and future However, simple present tense has more functions beyond the present time. Much less common in most

teaching contexts is the use of simple present with action processes for future time references, now references are in commentaries or demonstrations and past time actions within narrative (Lock, 1996, p. 153), in which future events are regarded as “already predetermined” (Leech, 1971, p. 1). When Greenbaum and Quirk explained 3 kinds of usage of the simple present for past and future, they reused the time of narration or the time of speaking as the criteria to illustrate the subtle parts in the simple present tense, which will facilitate grammar teaching. Greenbaum and Quirk related the referential view of time to the meaning of verb, meanwhile, they implied another line for the time of narration (speaking), which could be presented in Figure 1 (Smith, 1991, p. 136).

-----------------------------Speech time----------------------------- ____________________Time line____________________

Past Present Future Figure 1 Relation between speech time and time line


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The historical present refers to the past. But in order to make the narration vivid as it happens at the time of narration, the sentence uses the simple present tense to refer to the moment in the past as if it was happening now. Normally, the historical present is introduced with the companion of an adverbial expression indicating past time. Take the example from Leech’s (1971, p. 7) book as an example, “Last week I’m in the sitting-room with the wife, when this chap next door staggers past and in a drunken fit throws a brick through our window”. Here, the sentence uses “last week” to indicate the event happened in the past, but the whole sentence is portrayed as if the event was going on at the present time. In the example given, “Just as we arrived, up comes Ben and slaps me on the back as if we’re life-long friends”, Greenbaum and Quirk hardly relied on the adverbial phrases to indicate the time but on using the verb with tense marker “-ed” on event verb to make the whole story in the past highly colored with the effect of story-telling. From the component of the sentence “we arrived”, it could see the narrator stands at the present time to talk about the thing happened in the past, but for the dramatic effect, the narrator puts himself into the past time to narrate the event happens at the present moment by using the verb “comes”. Figure 2 is the changing positions of the narrator.

Narrator Time 1………………Time 2…………...Time 3 Reality at present……Recalling………..Reality in the past Simple past———————————>Simple present

Figure 2 The changing positions of the narrator in his story

When Greenbaum and Quirk explained the situation that using the simple present tense to indicate the past, they provided several examples usually appeared in the dialogues. This implies a kind of tense selection in a rather informal and loose conversation. If it wants to introduce the usage of present simple to refer to the past with information communicated which is still valid now or to achieve the dramatic effect of narration, the best approach which could be used is to retell a story or a dialogue, or to take a message for someone else. When the events are almost certain to take place at a scheduled time, it could apply the simple present tense as well.

5. Simple past tense

Mentioning the past tense, Greenbaum and Quirk used the similar methods to categorize the general past tense into 3 parts: the event past, the habitual past and state past. It could find the similarities and difference by drawing a chart to indicate the relationship between them (see Figure 3).

________/* Event past * Instantaneous present * * * * * * * * *Habitual past * * * * * * * * Habitual present ______________State past ____________State present ———————————(Time line)————————————>

Past Present Figure 3 Simple present tense and simple past tense on the time line

Notes: “_____” indicates an unbroken state; “* * * *” indicates repeated occurrence; “*” refers to a single definite event.

Comparing the simple present tense and simple past tense, Greenbaum and Quirk pointed out that, except the state past and state present use stative verbs, the other kinds use the dynamic verbs, which give the learners the implication that verbs are the most important component in the tenses. They do not provide a large number of superficial rules, which might leave the impressions to the learners that “The relevant grammatical area is bitty and arbitrary” (Stranks, 2003, p. 333). Thus, the bottom-up approach might be the wise choice for the learners to


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learn the rules from rich examples in sentences and context. Several teaching materials might highlight the key position of the verbs in the learning of tenses.

“Silent sentence” is one of the activities recommended by Rinvolucri (1984, p. 59): Writing up a long sentence in simple past tense according to a picture and then telling the class to reduce this sentence to one word by taking out the words up to 3 consecutive words. But they are not allowed to change any endings or re-arrange words. When students reduce the sentence, the meaning changes radically. This could make students aware of the importance of the sentence components. Once they reduced the sentence into one word, they need to build up a sentence by adding up to 3 words consecutively. This activity is to catch the students’ attention to the verbs in sentences and use them in a proper tense when required.

Another activity suggested by Rinvolucri (1984, p. 115) should be a good one to form an idea of time in the students’ mind, that is, “Our lives”. Give each student 10 labels, on which need to be written the important things that happened to them in the past, the month and year, too. The teacher should ask the students to work in threes and correct the grammar mistakes on the labels, with the help of the teacher if necessary. Then he/she can ask the students to stick 30 labels on a sheet of paper in chronological order. Students will throw the die one by one and if the number indicates a certain label, the person who wrote it should speak for one minute about the label described the event. The activity ends when all the players finished their description about the events. This activity could help students better understand the situation time in the past tense and provide the students adequate chances to practice the simple past tense. And if possible, the teachers could let students practice the historic present to reach a dramatic effect and make the whole narration vivid.

6. Verbs in the tenses

The most prominent feature of the introduction about the tenses in Greenbaum and Quirk’s book is the presenting of words, especially verbs, but not structures or rules. Learners derive their grammatical knowledge system from analysis of particular examples of language in use, thus, Greenbaum and Quirk treated the verbs as the key of understanding the distinction between tenses and the same tense in different usage. Little (1994, p. 106) claimed that only after teachers know some of the words, could they know the behavior the explicit grammatical rules described, and for the implicit knowledge of grammatical rules, a developing mental lexicon is the necessity in the development.

Noticing the verb in sentences is beneficial for understanding and exchanging the meanings. Types of meaning within grammatical structures could be identified in several ways. According to Richards (1996, p. 9), one way to identify meanings is by experiential meaning, such as the example given by Greenbaum and Quirk: “The plane left at 9:00 am” is about a certain plane (the plane) took an action in the past (left) at a certain time (9:00 am), which represents an experience which might involve some personal thoughts and feelings. Another way reflected in the examples of Greenbaum and Quirk is the textual meaning, such as in the example, “The crowd swarms around the gateway, and seethes with delighted anticipation; excitement grows, as suddenly their hero makes his entrance…”, the author applies the fictional use to put the readers in the place of someone witnessing the events in the past. The verbs “swarm, seethe, grow” represent a certain sequence of the crowd, until the hero “makes his entrance”, the whole event is highlighted dramatically.

In order to make the learners understand the special usage of simple present/past tense, teachers could adopt the exercise from Adamson (1990, p. 4), giving the students some pictures about things happened on someone or


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the imaginary incidents happened on the students themselves. They can let the student describe the events happened at that time with some key verbs provided. This is one of the examples to present the simple present tense to indicate the past event. The teachers could encourage students to apply these special usages to their writing to narrate some events that they would illustrate as examples. Only after those practices, could students break the traditional ideas that simple present tense simply refers to the event happen repeatedly, and simple past tense plainly indicates a single definite event in the past.

7. Conclusion

Learners are learning grammar by using it, not by knowing it. Thus, a certain grammar book bears the responsibility to tell the learners what he/she ought to do. Greenbaum and Quirk reflected the grammar rules rather in sentences or contexts than in the formula, which at least leave the impression that learning grammar is a meaningful task but not a tedious one.

Before they introduce two tenses of simple present and simple past, verbs become the focus of the induction. In this paper, the author has analyzed Greenbaum and Quirk’s idea about the key role that the verbs play, that is, the stative verbs and dynamic verbs could refer to a state or event while verbs with state and event senses could emphasize different meanings according to the time. Moreover, Greenbausm and Quirk have distinguished moment from time and tense from aspect by drawing two parallel lines: One indicates the time of event that happened, and the other refers to moment of speaking about the event. These help the learners understand the differences between tenses: The present tense indicates a location at the moment of speaking and the past tense refers to a time before the moment of speaking. Declerck (1991, p. 254) said that, tense does not usually locate a situation in time solely, and sometimes, it needs the cooperation of time adverbials or context. Nevertheless, Greenbaum and Quirk presented the tenses in variety ways, not simply with the help of time adverbials. They remind the learners that, English sentences are not always so perfect and complete by providing all the components like a “subject+verb+object” with a couple of adverbials indicating time, place and purpose, etc. And sometimes, learners need to be sensitive to the core of a sentence, verb, since it conveys much more meanings beyond the meaning of itself.

Greenbaum and Quirk’s idea about learning tenses can benefit for learners a lot, especially for the students whose native language has no tenses at all, e.g., Chinese. Thus, their viewpoints could be carried out by some teaching materials. “The shout in the circle” is a perfect activity to emphasize the verb forms in a sentence, and “silent sentence” could be a good exercise for students to reduce and accumulate the components of the sentences, which could have an effect to highlight the verbs in sentences. “Animal habits” is one of the proper exercises to practice a certain tense in a certain situation. If teachers want students to try some special usages of two tenses, “Our lives” and the description about the imaginary incidents could be a perfect practice. No matter what kind of teaching materials could be, Greenbaum and Quirk taught people to understand and learn the tenses from different angles. Verb is the core in a sentence. Only within a context, could it be more meaningful and understandable. Even without the help from the adverbials, learners could still be aware of the functions and correct uses of the tenses.

References: Adamson, D. (1990). Practice your tenses. Harlow, England: Longman. Bialystok, E. (1988). Psycholinguistic dimensions of second language proficiency. In: William, R. & Michael, S. S. (Eds.). Grammar

and second language teaching: A book of readings. Rowley MA: Newbury House Publishers.


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Chomsky, C. (1969). The acquisition of syntax in children from 5 to 10. Cambridge, MA: The M.I.T. Press. Comrie, B. (1976). Aspect: An introduction to the study of verbal aspect and related problems. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. Comrie, B. (1985). Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Declerck, R. (1991). Tense in English: Its structure and use in discourse. London: Routledge. Finch, G. (2000). Linguistic terms and concepts. London: Macmillan Press. Greenbaum, S. & Quirk, R. (1990). A student’s grammar of the English language. Harlow, England: Longman. Hasan, R. & Perrett, G. (1994). Learning to function with the other tongue: A systemic functional perspective on second language

teaching. In: Terence, O. (Ed.). Perspectives on pedagogical grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hinkel, E. (1997). The past tense and temporal verb meanings in a contextual frame. TESOL Quarterly, 31(2), 289-313. Joos, M. (1964). The English verb: Form and meanings. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Klein, W. (1994). Time in language. London: Routledge. Knepler, M. (1990). Grammar with a purpose: A contextualized approach. Heinle & Heinle Publishers. Leech, G. N. (1971). Meaning and the English verb. Harlow, England: Longman. Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. (1999). How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Little, D. (1994). Words and their properties: Arguments for a lexical approach to pedagogical grammar. In: Terence, O. (Ed.).

Perspectives on pedagogical grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lock, G. (1996). Functional English grammar: An introduction for second language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. Meuler, A. G. B. (1995). Representing time in natural language: The dynamic interpretation of tense and aspect. Cambridge, MA:

The M.I.T. Press. Nunan, D. (2001). Teaching grammar in context. In: Christopher, N. C. & Neil, M. (Eds.). English language teaching in its social

context: A reader. London: Routledge. Quirk, R. & Stein, G. (1990). English in use. Harlow, England: Longman. Radford, A. (1997). Syntax: A minimalist introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C. (1996). Functional English grammar: An introduction for second language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. Rinvolucri, M. (1984). Grammar games: Cognitive, affective and drama activities for EFL students. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. Rutherford, W. E. (1987). Second language grammar: Learning and teaching. Harlow, England: Longman. Sidney, G. & Randolph, Q. (1990). A student’s grammar of the English language. London: Longman. Smith, C. S. (1991). The parameter of aspect. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Stranks, J. (2003). Materials for the teaching of grammar. In: Brian, T. (Ed.). Developing materials for language teaching. London:

Continuum. Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. VanPatten, B. (1996). Input processing and grammar instruction in second language acquisition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing

Corporation. Wallace, S. (1982). Figure and ground: The interrelationships of linguistic categories. In: Paul, J. H. (Ed.). Tense aspect: Between

semantics and pragmatics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Woods, E. G. & McLeod, N. J. (1990). Using English grammar: Meaning and form. London: Prentice Hall.

(Edited by Nicole and Sunny)


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Turkish students’ perceptions regarding their mathematics teachers’

classroom practices

Yüksel Dede

(Department of Mathematics Education, Faculty of Education, Cumhuriyet University, Sivas 58140, Turkey)

Abstract: Mathematics teaching is a complex process being influenced by several factors. Mathematics teachers play crucially important role in the process. Therefore, their classroom practices can influence students’ learning. The purpose of the present study was to examine Turkish students’ perceptions of their mathematics teachers’ classroom practices. A 5-point likert-type scale developed by the author was used for data collection. Exploratory factor analysis showed 3 construct, all of which together explain the 62.23% of the total variance. Cronbach’s alpha correlation coefficient of the instrument was found 0.76. The sample of the study constituted a total number of 1,024, 6th, 7th and 8th grade students selected randomly from 12 primary schools in the different districts of Sivas, Turkey. It seems clear from the results of the study that, there are no grade level differences in the students’ perceptions of the entire scale and its sub-factors.

Key words: classroom practices; mathematics teaching; student perceptions

1. Introduction

Teaching is a complex system which affects what will happen in classes through the interactions among the factors of teacher, student, curriculum, local setting and others (Stigler & Hiebert, 1998). Rubenstein’s (2004) claims also support this:

Teaching is a complex endeavor. The knowledge base behind mathematics teaching includes the knowledge of mathematics, of connections among mathematical ideas, of students, of students’ learning, of school culture, and much more. The process of teaching involves creating a learning community, challenging students to make sense of mathematical ideas and supporting students’ developing understanding. (Rubenstein, 2004, p. xi)

Teachers are considered as one of the most important factors playing a role in students’ achievement and teaching process (WU, 1999). In Turkey, as a profession of teaching mentioned in the National Education Basic Law (No. 1739, 43. item), 1973, June 14. The Ministry of Education basic rules mentioned that, teaching takes the duties of education, instruction and the administrations of the governments function. “It is a special profession. The teachers should give emphasis on these rules and should have carried out in their professions. General culture, content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge help prepare to the teaching”. In this law, teaching needs a specialization and content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and general culture, and they need to come together and take the forms. Content knowledge mentioned that, a teacher can be a professional on his/her provience, general culture helps the teacher to be open-minded to see the events and problems, and criticize the problems, as well as have a contemporary approach. Pedagogical content knowledge in a short way is seen as an

Yüksel Dede, associate professor, Department of Mathematics Education, Faculty of Education, Cumhuriyet University; research

fields: affect domain in mathematics education, cross-cultural studies of mathematics education, mathematics teacher education.

Turkish students’ perceptions regarding their mathematics teachers’ classroom practices

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instruction skill and science, and of course, includes interactions and interdependencies between knowledge, learning and teacher. At this time, pedagogical content knowledge is seen as a strategies which helps to the methods and structure. The word of “pedagogy”, the origin of the words “pais” and “agogos”, comes from the Greek language. “Pais” means a child, “agogos” means leader. For this reason, “pedagogy” means to show the way to a child (Briggs & Sommefeldt, 2002, p. 32). The activities, why they are carried out, what they help, why they are useful and used as the technology to show the examples to be explained, showed and carried out by the guidance. At this time, students’ personnel abilities, interests, efforts and accumulation should be considered and each of them should be seen as an individual person (Clark & Starr, 1991). NCTM (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics) standards (1991, p. 35) also listed the general roles of teachers as listening students’ opinions carefully, posing the questions, encouraging the students to engage in the given tasks, exploring the students’ thoughts, deciding how and when students will reflect mathematical notation and language to their thoughts, giving the opportunity for students to explore and justify their ideas, deciding the ideas that can be studied among the ones that were explained during a discussion process and also as orchestrating such activities above. Therefore, mathematics teachers should keep up with the reform and new developments in the educational literature to be skillful enough for realizing the mentioned roles above. Because it is believed that teachers with high qualification will bring a success in their teaching. If this is realized, students’ learning level will be getting higher (WU, 1999). Stepanek (2000) listed some of the characteristics of highly qualified teachers as the ones who: (1) undertake the common responsibility of students’ learning; (2) observe the methods of other colleagues and create discussion settings; (3) develop appropriate teaching materials, strategies and activities; (4) follow the new trends/reforms and alternatives in teaching; and (5) join into the activities that will support their professional development. In a harmonious and cooperative learning environment, not only teachers but also students get several benefits (Stephens & Crawley, 1994). NCTM (1989) also drew an attention to the understanding that “how to teach” is as essential as “what to teach” in mathematics. From this point, it is obvious that how much fixing in-class practices of mathematics teachers is important in finding out whether mathematics are studied effectively or not in the class.

1.1 Primary students’ math success Turkish education system is highly centralized and text-based one. Students are supposed to take an exam to

pass from one level to another one (e.g., from primary school to high school). For example, students in 8th grade should take the MECaRE (Middle Educational Choice and Replacement Examination). Based on their exam results and their order of preferences, they are placed in any of the high schools. The results of this study revealed that students showed very poor performance in the math items of MECaRE. Parallel findings were observed in the results of international studies, such as PISA (programme for international student assessment) 2003 and TIMSS (trends in international mathematics and science study) 1999 in which Turkey took pace. Compared to the other countries’ results of PISA and TIMSS, Turkish students’ math achievement was very low. In order to overcome this problem, math curricula of primary and secondary schools as well as other courses’ curricula have been recently developed again by considering the new educational trends and constructivist learning approach since 2004. The foundations of math skills highly emphasized in the new curriculum are problem-solving, communication, connections and reasoning. These 4 skills are in line with the NCTM standards (1989; 1991; 2000).

1.2 Significant of the study The aim of this study was to investigate the students’ views of math lessons and how the mathematics

teachers’ math teaching varies across different grade levels. The study is important, because it shows the previous 6th to 8th grade math curriculum and its applications in the class. During 2006-2007 education year,


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6-year students have started to experience new curriculum and the class practices. The research results help students understand whether the curriculum have been implemented into practice effectively from the point of studies. This study also provides evidences to compare the educational practices realized recently and practices having realized in previous curriculum. It is expected that, the results of the present study will provide in-depth data for curriculum planners and classroom math teachers. It is also expected that, the results will provide a base for further researchers who would like to study on classroom practices in line with current educational reform in Turkey.

1.3 Statement of problem The preset study focused upon determining what 6th to 8th grade students think about mathematics teachers’

classroom practices and how these practices differ across grade levels. Following research questions guided the study overall:

(1) What do 6th to 8th grade students think about their mathematics teachers’ classroom practices? (2) Do students’ perceptions differ with regard to grade level?

2. Methodology

2.1 Research design The researcher used a survey method to collect data from the selected students from 12 schools in Sivas,

Turkey. Survey is a method which aims to describe a past situation or present situation (Arli & Nazik, 2001). This method is appropriate for collecting descriptive data, as it tries to describe, because, in descriptive model, the features are found out as their original forms (McMillan, 2000). This research showed the present situations of mathematics teachers’ classroom practices from students’ point of views.

2.2 Participants Participants of the study was 1,024 primary school students (507 female and 517 male with a range age of

12-15 years), who were selected randomly from 12 primary schools in the different school districts in Sivas, Turkey. Of the participants, 350 were from 6th grade, 346 were from 7th grade and 328 were from 8th grade.

2.3 Data collection instrument MTCPS (mathematics teachers’ classroom practices survey) developed by the researcher was used for main

data collection instrument. Some items in MTCPS were adapted from the National Science Foundation’s Statewide Systemic Initiatives Project Literature (2001). The MTCPS is a 5-point likert type scale including 10 items. Through the instrument, the students were asked to indicate how strongly they agreed with each item (1—Strongly disagree, 5—Strongly agree). Exploratory factor analysis revealed 3 factors underlying the instrument. These factors were labeled as: (1) RTS (relationships between teachers and students) with 4 items; (2) IAEM (instructional attainments emphasized in mathematics) classes with 3 items; and (3) SGI (small-group instruction) with 3 items. The cumulative percent variance accounted for by the 3 factors was 62.23% with 26.55% for factor 1; 18.73% for factor 2; and 16.23% for factor 3 respectively. Factor loading of items in the MTCPS also ranged from 0.40 to 0.75. Internal reliability of the entire MTCPS was also calculated (Cronbach’s alpha=0.76) over the 1,024 students’ data. Cronbach’s alpha was found 0.83 for factor 1; 0.67 for factor 2; and 0.60 for factor 3 respectively. Table 1 provides detail description and a sample item for each factor.


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Table 1 Description of scales sample item for each scale of the MTCPS Sub-categories Item No. Description Sample items

RTS 4 Determining the teacher-student relationships in mathematics class Our teacher really listens to us in class

IAEM 3 Instructional attainments on which mathematics teacher mostly emphasized during class

Our teacher emphasizes on reminding mathematical rules and processes

SGI 3 Teaching mathematics classes as based on small-group instruction

Problems are solved by dividing into small groups

2.4 Procedure The MTCPS was administered to the selected students from 6th, 7th and 8th grades in Sivas within a

one-month period during spring term of the 2005-2006 educational term in their math class hour. It took only 10-15 minutes to complete the instrument. The purpose of the study clearly explained to the students in each class by the researcher. Furthermore, the researcher ensured that students’ responses of the MTCPS would be confidential.

2.5 Data analysis The data were entered to SPSS (statistical package for social sciences) version 10.5 and analyzed by means

of the same program. Descriptive statistics, and one-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) and one-way MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance) were performed to answer the research questions.

3. Results

When looking at the Table 2, students in all grades reported that their math teachers used relationships between RTS ( X =4.15) and IAEM ( X =4.38) in their lessons effectively. On the other hand, students reported that, their teachers did not use SGI ( X =3.09) in their lessons. Moreover, Table 2 summarizes a series of one-way ANOVA results performed to examine the grade differences with regard to each of the MTCPS factors.

Table 2 One-way ANOVA statistics for the MTCPS factors according to grade level

Factor Grade N Mean SD df F Eta squared 6 350 3.91 0.61 7 346 3.87 0.57 8 328 3.63 0.72

Entire scale

Total 1024 3.81 0.65

2-1021 18.68* 0.01

6 350 4.20 0.92 7 346 4.26 0.83 8 328 3.97 0.90

RTS

Total 1024 4.15 0.90

2-1021 10.04* 0.02

6 350 4.43 0.77 7 346 4.50 0.62 8 328 4.20 0.86

IAEM

Total 1024 4.38 0.77

2-1021 14.18* 0.01

6 350 3.25 1.12 7 346 3.14 1.10 8 328 2.88 1.22

SGI

Total 1024 3.09 1.16

2-1021 9.09* 0.03

Note: *p<0.01.

Data were analyzed for testing main effect at the 0.05 significance level and by using one-way multivariate factorial model with the 3 factors as dependent variables: RTS, IAEM and SGI and an independent variable:


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students’ grade level. The results showed significant main effect of the students’ grade level on the practices of the math teachers (Wilks Lambda ( λ )=0.958, F(4, 1,018)=5.52, p<0.01). A series of one-way ANOVAs were performed as a follow-up test to the MANOVA to examine the pair-wise differences. The analysis results demonstrated that, the significant differences were between 7th grade and 8th grade, and 6th grade and 8th grade for the entire scale and all factors. Therefore, the effect size was calculated for the entire scale and for each factor to identify whether the significant differences were really meaningful. The results showed that even though the analyses indicated significant effects of grade level on each factor, the effect sizes seemed to be very small. There was not enough evidence to say that there was an effect of grade level on the factors RTS (F(2, 1021)=10.04, p<0.01, partial eta squared=0.02), IAEM (F(2, 1021)=14.18, p<0.01, partial eta squared=0.01), SGI (F(2, 1021)=9.09, p<0.01, partial eta squared=0.03), and the entire scale (F(2, 1021)=18.68, p<0.01, partial eta squared=0.01).

4. Discussion

In this study, whether in-class practices of mathematics teachers become different according to the grade level or not were investigated in this study with regard to students’ point of views. The study revealed significant, but very small effect of grade level on students’ perceptions of sub-factors. Despite no statistically significant grade level-related differences in the perceptions, however, the researcher observed 8th grade students perceived their teachers’ classroom practices in a more negative way than the other two grade levels did. In this study, it was also investigated the status of teacher-student relationship at mathematics classes, teachers’ most preference of instructional attainments and whether teachers gave the adequate emphasize on the small-group instructions. The findings indicated that, the teacher-student relationships in math classes were appeared to be somehow desired level ( X =3.97 for 8th graders; X =4.26 for 7th graders; and X =4.20 for 6th graders). It is believed that the student-teachers positive interaction might directly influence the students’ success and achievement in the schools. In line with this idea, this finding might provide evidence that students’ success might be resulted in math classes in the selected school as a function of positive interaction, because the interactions among the factors of student, teacher and content (mathematics) play an important role. In a class environment, in addition to teacher-student relationship, student-student relationship is also crucially important for helping students acquire the desired learning outcomes. Teacher-teacher communication can also be important for bringing new pedagogical approaches into class environments, applying new teaching methods and developing appropriate materials for subject to be taught (Lewis, Perry & Murata, 2003). For example, Wubbels (1993) showed that, interpersonal teacher behaviors were one of the important learning factors which had a strong relation with students’ outcome. Irvine (1986), in this regard, claimed that “Teachers delivered the messages to students as to what behaviors and traits are appropriate for the student role” (p. 14).

The results of the present study seemed to support to the results of the researcher’s other research with mathematics teachers in primary and secondary schools (Dede, 2006a). Both teacher groups participated in Dede’s study reported their cooperation with students in order to increase teaching quality. However, according to PISA (2003) study results, it was found that about 75% of 8th graders in Turkey shared the common opinion that teacher-student interaction has been in the desired manner (EARGED (Education Research and Development Directorate), 2005). This significant finding supports the finding of present study as well. It has been observed that teacher-student interaction differed in different countries. For example, it was reported as a result of PISA (2000) that, there has been observable differences in terms of teacher-student interaction according to students’


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perceptions in the Nordic countries, such as Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Danish. While the Danish profile is the highest of the Nordic profiles, the Norwegian profile is the lowest of the Nordic profiles. The study carried out by Lee, Fraser and Fisher (2003) with high school Korean students showed that, the teacher-students interaction is quite similar to young-old relationship in the society. In other words, teachers are observed to be in a position of a director and students are in a position of an obedient. At this point, it can be suggested examining the differences of teacher-student interaction in math classes in different cultures/countries for further studies.

Instructional attainments that were mostly emphasized by the teachers during lessons were examined trough the use of sub-factor of IAEM. IAEM factor consisted of items, such as students’ interests to mathematics, whether mathematical concepts are taught in connection with procedural and conceptual knowledge and whether students are trained for advanced mathematical concepts or not. One important purpose of math instruction is to teach mathematical concepts and the relations among these concepts, and further find out the relations. The other important purpose is to follow the procedure correctly, elastically, effectually and appropriately. These dimensions are called as relational understanding—instrumental understanding and conceptual knowledge—procedural knowledge respectively (Skemp, 1971; Hiebert & Lefevre, 1986). In this research, students reported that their teachers gave more emphasis on procedural and conceptual knowledge. However, students’ previous math success revealed that their procedural and conceptual knowledge seemed to be insufficient. Therefore, the primary school curriculum that has undergone reform attempts in Turkey (MoNE (Ministry of National Education), 2005) emphasized this by saying that, “Students should be asked to make comparison between concepts and rules and to solve the problems that can make connection between concrete and abstract representational” (p. 17). For this reason, teachers should raise students’ interests towards mathematics, because mathematics is generally considered as a boring subject by students (Macleod, 1996) and it seems as a puzzle (Gray & Tall, 1992). According to Jingsong (2003), realizing meaningful learning, which helps students connect previous and new experiences, is very hard without raising students’ interest towards it. In this study, although no statistical significance was observed in the perceptions of students with regard to grade level, it was observed that interests of 8-year students towards mathematics decreased when compared with interests of those in other grades ( X =4.16 for 8th grade; X =4.56 for 7th grades; and X =4.53 for 6th grades). Similar findings were observed in the study of Dede (2006b) in that interests of Turkish high school students in Turkey decreased as their grades increased. Since this study was limited with descriptive statistical data gathered from students, further research studies should be performed to explore the reason of this finding.

Furthermore, it was also explored that how well mathematics teachers perform small-group instruction in their classes. The students in all grades perceived that, small-group instruction were not adequately given importance in math classes. The results of a study carried out with Turkish math teachers seemed to support this finding (Dede, 2006c). Dede further found that, mathematics teachers did not use group and individual projects and did not perceive them as valuable teaching activities. However, PISA (2003) results indicated that, Turkish students preferred to study in cooperative and collaborative learning environments (EARGED, 2005). In the professional educational literature, it is indicated that using a small-group instruction directly influence the increase in math achievement of students (CHANG, 1977; Springer, Stanne & Donovan, 1999), on raising students’ interests towards mathematics (Davidson, 1971) and long-term retention of mathematical concepts (Urion & Davidson, 1992). In Turkey, teachers do not prefer to use this type of instruction. There are several reasons why the teachers could not use small-group instruction in their classrooms. For example, they believe that


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their classrooms are so crowded and not appropriate for this type of instruction. The other reason might be the unnecessary repetition in the curriculum and heavy course schedule, and density of the concepts to be taught (IaTC (Instruction and Training Committee of Ministry of National Education), 2005). Teachers are supposed to cover all the topics in the curriculum in limited time. This may create burden on the teachers and they may tend to use lecturing and other teacher-centered methods. The other reason might be that teachers feel unqualified for using small-group instruction. Furthermore, generally, there are some problems about training teachers, in general, and of math teacher, in particular. In Turkey, it can be said that, there is still some researching about teachers’ training (GDTT (General Directorate of Teacher Training), 2006; Özyar, 2003). The research studies carried out the years between 1994 and 1997 revealed that, the responsibilities of education faculties were revised according to the students’ needs. Also, the prospective teachers who educate in these faculties start to learn the constructivist approach in the year of 1997-1998. The teachers who take this education will know the approaches and new techniques, so it is expected for them to use in their lessons. Probably one of the most important problems to consider is the MECaRE. In Turkey, the schools and teachers’ success is measured in the success of MECaRE. This situation may be the other cause that the teachers do not use small-group instruction.

5. Conclusion and implications

At the end of this research, although statistically significant differences were observed among the grades with regard to classroom practices, the effect size was quite small. The findings pointed out that, math teachers put more emphasis on the relationships between teachers and students, and gave more importance to the instructional attainments that emphasizes the relationship among mathematical concepts and operations and interests towards mathematics. Although this positive picture does not have more effect about the success of math in Turkey. In the previous primary math curriculum (MoNE, 2000), skills are needed to be improved by teachers. Because of that, new primary math programs give emphasis of that, these skills must be done in the classrooms (MoNE, 2005). It is emerged from the present study that exploratory studies including extensive classroom observations and series of interviews with math teachers and students should be carried out so as to give in-depth answers to the findings of the present study. In addition, students and teachers’ understandings of the concepts, conceptual and procedural knowledge, small-group instruction, and so on, were not explored in this study. The findings of the present study might have been influenced by their different understanding of these terms. How students and teachers understand these terms should be investigated in future researches. The teachers should follow new educational terms, ideas and whatever helps improve the students learning.

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(MATYC) Journal, 11(2), 72-76. Clark, L. H. & Starr, I. S. (1991). Secondary and middle school teaching methods (6th ed.). New York: MacMillan Publishing

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Mathematics Education, September, 2006, Gazi Education Faculty, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey.


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Dede, Y. (2006c, April). Assessing mathematics teachers’ instructional activities. 1st National Congress of Primary Teachers, April, 2006, Gazi Education Faculty, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey.

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mathematics. Primus, 2(3), 257-264. WU, H. (1999). Professional development of mathematics teachers. Notices of the Ams, 4(5), 535-542. Wubbels, T. (1993). Teacher-student relationships in science and mathematics classes. (What research says to the science and

mathematics teacher, No. 11). Perth, Western Australia: National Key Centre for School Science and Mathematics, Curtin University of Technology.



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A passage from linguistics to English language teaching: Students’

experiences and expectations

Muhlise Coşgun Ögeyik (English Language Teaching Department, Faculty of Education, Trakya University, Edirne 22030, Turkey)

Abstract: Linguistic courses in ELT (English Language Teaching) departments, in some ways, may create obstacles due to their firm theoretical framework. Therefore, this study is concerned with the main problems for the students taking linguistic courses in ELT Department at Trakya University in Turkey. The purpose of the study is to investigate the attitudes of the students in ELT departments towards attending linguistic courses. The survey was carried out with 21-item likert type scale designed by the researcher. The results specify that, the students at Trakya University admit the effectiveness of linguistic courses and have found a way to applied linguistics from theoretical linguistics.

Key words: linguistics; language teaching; theoretical and applied linguistics; linguistic theories

1. Introduction

Learning a language and learning about a language are two different concepts, that is, knowing a language may not be enough to express both functional and conceptual meaning at all the levels of language skills. However, through an awareness of how a language works, the learner can continue to develop his/her personal linguistic inventory. Linguistics as a scientific study of language, which has been the base of many studies in the field of language-related disciplines in the academic realm, covers two main areas: theoretical and applied linguistics (Frawley, 2003). Theoretical linguistics puts forward theories by describing language and explores ideas on it. Applied linguistics deals with the application of linguistic theories in the areas, such as foreign language teaching, translation and literary studies. Theoretical linguistics studies language and languages with a view of constructing a theory of their structure and functions, whereas applied linguistics has its concerns on the base of application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to a variety of practical tasks, including language teaching (Lyons, 1999). Besides, theoretical linguistics deals with theoretical explorations, while applied linguistics is driven by real-world problems.

In the field of foreign language teaching, both linguistics and applied linguistics can be assumed as considerable parts of the academic studies. In this respect, applied linguistics, which is a bridge between theory and practice, is the linguistic research in language teaching. However, the role of linguistic training in language teacher education programs has long been discussed. Widdowson (1984) stated that language teachers have the responsibility to mediate changes in pedagogic practice, so as to increase the effectiveness of language learning, and that, such mediation depends on understanding the relationship between theoretical principles and practical techniques. Thus, to dismiss theory is to undermine the possibility of such understanding. In other words, the way

Muhlise Coşgun Ögeyik , Ph.D., assistant professor, English Language Teaching Department, Faculty of Education, Trakya

University; research fields: English language education, linguistics, teacher training.

A passage from linguistics to English language teaching: Students’ experiences and expectations

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a language teacher will choose to get benefit from theory in practice may be effective in the language teaching and learning processes. In this sense, while questioning the professional relevance of linguistic training, language teachers need to know about theories of language, language learning and second language acquisition, but this has not been a common assumption (Johnson, 2002; Snyder, 2002; Yates & Muchisky, 2004). Moreover, in the study by Garshick (2002), dealing with the tendencies of language teachers towards linguistic courses, it has been cited that, on the part of teachers for the pursuit of linguistic theory as an aspect of their professional development, neither teacher educators nor prospective teachers have interest in linguistics. The implication of this view regarding language teaching and learning is that, there will be hesitation in teachers’ mind about what to do precisely. In general, while some are concentrating on practical aspects of teaching profession, others may perceive linguistic-oriented aspects as functional for presumed pedagogical problems. In this sense, for effective language learning and teaching, optimum conditions have to be provided by teachers, involving comprehensible input and meaningful tasks, as well as language awareness-raising activities (Corder, 1986).

Therefore, in the present paper, the issues of a designed linguistic course in teacher training departments are: (1) How theoretical linguistics can be connected to applied linguistics in the course; and (2) What benefits are gained by prospective teachers at the end of such a course, which are discussed in order to specify the attitudes of prospective teachers towards linguistic courses.

In Turkey, the foreign language teacher training departments in the body of the faculties of education follow a standard curriculum offered by Higher Education Council, YOK. In this curriculum, linguistics is taught in the interrelated courses, which are Introduction to Linguistics I, Introduction to Linguistics II and Language Acquisition. The contents of the courses mainly focus on the linguistic studies by creating linguistic awareness and fostering language acquisition of prospective language teachers.

Depending on the content of the courses offered by YOK, the course design of Introduction to Linguistics I at Trakya University is arranged in the following orders:

(1) Phonetics: The study of sound system of English; (2) Phonology: The study of patterns of the basic sounds in English; (3) Morphology: The study of the word structures in English; (4) Syntax: The study of words combining to form sentences and the study of sentence structures in English. The course design of Introduction to Linguistics II based on the theoretical and practical issues is arranged in

the following orders: (1) Structuralism: The study of the interrelationship between units and rules, which are determined by their

place in the system, not by some outside points of reference, such as reality (Beedham, 2005); (2) Semantics: The study of the meaning of words and the meaning of the way they are combined, which are

taken together from the core of meaning, or the starting point from which the whole meaning of a particular utterance is constructed (Kearns, 2000);

(3) Semiotics: The study of not only what is referred as “sign” in everyday speech, but also of anything which stands for something else. In a semiotic sense, signs take the form of words, images, sounds, gestures and objects (Chandler, 2001);

(4) Pragmatics: The study of language use within context, in other words, pragmatics is the relation between language and its context of use (Hudson, 2000). Since language is a social fact and communication takes place in society, pragmatics mainly focuses on communicative action on its socio-cultural context (Rose & Casper, 2001). Moreover, it deals with the language choice, inferences, language appropriateness, and so on;


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(5) Text-linguistics: The study of texts in a scientific perspective, its subject is composed of any meaningful communicative event, which is regarded as a text; it designates any work in language science devoted to text as the primary object of inquiry (Beaugrande & Dressler, 1981);

(6) Discourse analysis: The study of discourse types by examining the stretches of language in their full textual, social and psychological context and providing insights into the problems and processes of language use and language learning (Cook, 1990).

The main aim of designing linguistic courses in the mentioned order is to enable prospective teachers to get theoretical perspectives in the field of linguistics and find a way to intervene modifications in educational realm, so as to enhance the proficiency of language learning and teaching.

2. Method

2.1 Purpose The purpose of the study was to investigate the attitudes of prospective teachers towards linguistic courses

regarding their experiences and expectations about the courses. The research questions of the study are: (1) What do the prospective teachers at ELT Department think about the linguistic courses? (2) How do they connect theoretical linguistics to applied linguistics? (3) Do they find linguistic courses beneficial for teaching profession? 2.2 Sample The research study was conducted on the students attending the ELT Department at Trakya University in

Turkey. Fifty-five undergraduate students attending the ELT Department at Trakya University participated in the survey. The students are the 4th year students. The aim of conducting the research on the 4th year students is that, they all completed linguistic courses.

2.3 Instruments In the survey, a likert type attitudes scale designed by the researcher was used. Twenty-two items with 5

options, which are “Strongly agree”, “Agree”, “Undecided”, “Disagree” and “Strongly disagree”, were initially included into the scale. In consequence of reliability analysis, item 1 was excluded from the scale. Some of the items used in the scale were worded in positive manner, while some are in negative manner. The individual responses in positive manner were assigned numbers 5-1 from “Strongly agree” through “Strongly disagree”. The ones in negative manner were assigned in numbers 1-5 from “Strongly agree” through “Strongly disagree”. Of the positive statements about theoretical linguistics, the items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 14 suggested the beneficial aspects of the linguistic theories regarding language teaching and learning processes. The statements about linguistic terminology, the items 6 and 7, investigated the students’ attitudes towards the benefits of learning the linguistic terms while dealing with the texts and the articles on teaching profession. The statements examining the effectiveness of linguistic studies on language skills, the item 13, searched for if the students evaluate linguistic studies as a cooperation of theory and practice for the acquisition of reading, writing, listening and speaking skills. On the other hand, of the negative statements about linguistic theories, the items 16, 17, 18 and 20, dealt with the obstructions of the theories. The statements about the disadvantages of linguistics and linguistic terms for teaching profession, the items 15 and 21, investigated whether the students think linguistics as resourceful for teaching profession or not. In the statement about linguistic course, the item 19, the students were questioned about the difficulty of the course.


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The reliability and validity of the scale was determined, so as to evaluate if the responses were affirmed in a self-assured way. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the scale was found out to be 0.85.

2.4 Data analysis Carrying out in-depth statistical evaluation of data was not aimed in the study. As a substitute, the

percentages of the responses given to the items in the scale were explored in order to determine the attitudes of the students attending linguistic courses. For data analysis, the statistical program, SPSS 11.0, was used (see Table 1).

Table 1 Structural validity and reliability of the scale

Items Alpha Factor (1) Linguistic theories, in a holistic way, are guiding in language teaching process; 0.8452 0.567 (2) Through linguistic theories, I can easily perceive the characteristics of the target language I learn; 0.8483 0.587 (3) Linguistic theories are the passageways for applied linguistics; 0.8433 0.596 (4) Linguistic theories are beneficial in linguistic applications; 0.8540 0.475 (5) Linguistics is the base of language teaching issues; 0.8574 0.554 (6) Linguistic courses are beneficial for terminology enrichment; 0.8505 0.521 (7) I can easily understand the articles written in the field of language after the linguistic courses; 0.8476 0.679 (8) Structuralism can be used as a source in language teaching; 0.8743 0.665 (9) Semiotics is required in language teaching; 0.8594 0.618 (10) Semantics is useful in language teaching; 0.8552 0.596 (11) Pragmatics is functional in language teaching; 0.8479 0.646 (12) Text-linguistic studies are useful for differentiating text types; 0.8538 0.379 (13) Linguistic studies are helpful for acquiring language skills (writing, reading, speaking and listening skills); 0.8462 0.541 (14) Linguistics is a field in which both theoretical and practical cooperation can be provided for language acquisition and awareness;

0.8454 0.542

(15) Linguistic terms are difficult to learn; 0.8584 0.749 (16) Linguistic theories are not applicable in the field of foreign language learning and teaching; 0.8506 0.640 (17) Linguistic theories are abstract, so I cannot use them for the analysis of target language; 0.8555 0.743 (18) The paradigms of linguistic theories are complicated for me to interrelate the theories; 0.8587 0.761 (19) Linguistics is the most difficult course in foreign language teaching departments; 0.8476 0.638 (20) Linguistic theories do not offer practical ways for language acquisition; 0.8508 0.636 (21) Linguistics is not necessary for foreign language teaching profession. 0.8503 0.602

3. Findings

The items, which are worded positively and negatively, were evaluated separately and displayed in Tables 2 and 3 with the percentages so as to avoid from obscurity in the evaluation phase of the responses.

As Table 2 indicates, the students mostly think that, linguistic education is beneficial and useful. The recognized usefulness of linguistics with respect to linguistic applications item 4, learning and teaching target language item 2, teaching profession item 1, terminology enrichment item 6 and gaining language skills item 13 are predominantly the agreed points by the students. In addition, the students were questioned about usefulness of the linguistic studies in the field of language teaching (items 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12). The responses for the item 8 about using structuralism as a language teaching procedure reveal that, nearly half of the students find it not useful in language teaching process, which may signify that the students find structuralism less effective than semiotics, semantics, pragmatics and text-linguistics. On the contrary, they have a strong tendency to approve pragmatics as


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the most efficient theory for language teaching environments (item 11). Besides, the responses for the items 7 and 12 demonstrate that, linguistic courses are of assistance for gaining competence for reading texts and differentiating text types. All responses, as a whole, prove that the students find linguistic studies as functional in second language learning and teaching environments.

Table 2 Items worded in positive manner

Items Strongly agree5 (%)

Agree 4 (%)

Undecided 3 (%)

Disagree 2 (%)

Strongly disagree 1 (%)

(1) Linguistic theories, in a holistic way, are guiding in language teaching process;

18.2 50.9 25.5 5.5 -

(2) Through linguistic theories, I can easily perceive the characteristics of the target language I learn;

20.0 60.0 14.5 5.5 -

(3) Linguistic theories are the passageways for applied linguistics;

30.9 52.7 12.7 3.6 -

(4) Linguistic theories are beneficial in linguistic applications;

21.8 56.4 21.8 - -

(5) Linguistics helps me understand the base of language teaching issues;

29.1 45.5 21.8 3.6 -

(6) Linguistic courses are beneficial for terminology enrichment;

20.0 65.5 12.7 1.8 -

(7) I can easily understand the articles written in the field of language after the linguistic courses;

23.6 50.9 21.8 3.6 -

(8) Structuralism can be used as a source in language teaching;

- 25.5 29.1 43.6 1.8

(9) Semiotics is required in language teaching; 5.5 69.1 23.6 1.8 - (10) Semantics is useful in language teaching; 21.8 70.9 7.3 - - (11) Pragmatics is functional in language teaching; 58.2 40.0 1.8 - - (12) Text-linguistic studies are useful for differentiating text types;

29.1 61.8 9.1 - -

(13) Linguistic studies are helpful for acquiring language skills (writing, reading, speaking and listening skills;

18.2 69.1 9.1 3.6 -

(14) Linguistics is a field in which both theoretical and practical cooperation can be provided for language acquisition and awareness.

29.1 50.9 18.2 1.8 -

Table 3 Items worded in negative manner

Items Strongly agree1 (%)

Agree 2 (%)

Undecided 3 (%)

Disagree 4 (%)

Strongly disagree 5 (%)

(15) Linguistic terms are difficult to learn; 7.3 24.5 23.6 37.3 7.3 (16) Linguistic theories are not applicable in the field of foreign language learning and teaching;

- 1.8 5.5 66.4 26.4

(17) Linguistic theories are abstract, so I cannot use them for the analysis of target language;

- 1.8 12.7 56.4 29.1

(18) The paradigms of linguistic theories are complicated for me to interrelate the theories;

- 10.9 10.9 60.0 18.2

(19) Linguistics is the most difficult course in foreign language teaching departments;

- 16.4 29.1 41.8 12.7

(20) Linguistic theories do not offer practical ways for language acquisition;

- - 14.5 56.4 29.1

(21) Linguistics is not necessary for foreign language teaching profession.

- 5.5 17.3 61.8 15.5

In Table 3, the students’ responses for the items worded in negative manner are displayed, but the responses reveal that they do not have negative attitudes towards linguistic courses. They find linguistic courses in the curriculum of foreign language teacher training departments as beneficial. In this sense, the students mostly have


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positive manners towards linguistic courses. Although they mostly (85.5%) think that linguistic terms learnt in the courses are functional in the field of language teaching (item 6), nearly half of the students (44.6%) find it difficult to deal with the terms (item 15).

4. Results and discussions

The survey results indicate that, the prospective teachers attending the ELT Department at Trakya University have positive attitudes towards linguistic courses in the curriculum. Depending on the results, linguistic courses in foreign language teaching departments of universities can be assumed as beneficial for raising students’ awareness in the field of language learning and teaching. As Byrnes (2003) pointed out review of disciplinary knowledge in language learning and teaching points out, throughout the history of language education, essentially two academic disciplines have been in the foreground: linguistics and philosophy. In this sense, linguistics can be regarded as a component of language teaching and learning processes. Grabe, Stroller and Tardy (2000) stated that 4 disciplines: linguistics, psychology, anthropology and education, should be the foundation for teacher preparation, and argued that the demands of teaching necessitate professionals to integrate knowledge in these 4 disciplines. In this sense, linguistics among those disciplines can be employed as an agenda for prospective teachers to understand the nature of their profession.

In addition, it can be recommended that linguistic courses may be available for increasing language awareness. Therefore, by introducing linguistic theories, the application of the theories on written and oral discourse types for linguistic and contextual analysis may be beneficial for defeating firm theoretical difficulties. Thus, students can easily gain awareness about the correlation of theory and practice. Moreover, while dealing with linguistic theories in practice, various text types can be introduced in order to enhance students to comprehend how to produce and analyse different text types. Furthermore, prospective teachers need to be guided to use linguistic terms they learn (for instance, in text analysis process). Thus, they may get the opportunity to acquire linguistic terms which they will deal with in their professional lives. Such modifications, when included into teacher education curricula, can be more meaningful for those who are debating the role of linguistic knowledge in teacher education. In addition, they may obtain data to evaluate the benefits and weak points of linguistics on language teaching and learning while incorporating linguistic knowledge into teaching practice. Thus, linguistic studies can be acknowledged as channels to comprehend language related issues.

5. Conclusion

In the present paper, the 4th year students’ attitudes towards linguistic courses in ELT Department at Trakya University were investigated and evaluated. The overall results indicate that the students strongly acknowledge the advantages of linguistic courses in the foreign language learning process. By taking the students’ attitudes towards linguistic courses, the study focused on the assistance of linguistic studies in language learning process, the relationship between theory and practice and gaining awareness on linguistic terms. When the results are re-evaluated, it is seen that, for the students in ELT Department, linguistic courses are favourable; linguistic theories are functional for identifying the characteristics of the foreign language, terminology enrichment is provided via linguistic courses; and text production and text analysis can be comprehended consciously and efficiently.


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References: Beaugrande, D. R. & Dressler, W. (1981). Textlinguistics. New York: Longman. Beedham, C. (2005). Language and meaning: The structural creation of reality. Amstredam: John Benjamins Publication. Byrnes, H. (2003). Shaping the discourse of a practice: The role of linguistics and psychology in language teaching and learning. The

Modern Language Journal, 84, 472-494. Chandler, D. (2001). Semiotics: The basics. US: Routledge. Cook, G. (1990). Discourse. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Corder, P. (1986). Language teaching and applied linguistics. English Language Teaching Journal, 40(3), 40, 185-190. Frawley, W. (2003). International encyclopaedia of linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Garshick, E. (Ed.). (2002). Directory of teacher education programs in TESOL in the United States and Canada, 2002-2004.

Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications. Grabe, W., Stroller, F. L. & Tardy, C. (2000). Disciplinary knowledge as a foundation for teacher preparation. In: Hall, J. K. &

Eggington, W. G. (Eds.). The sociopolitics of English language teaching. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 178-194. Hudson, G. (2000). Introductory linguistics. Massachutes: Blackwell Publications. Johnson, K. (2002). Second language teacher education. TESOL Matters, 12, 1-8. Kearns, K. (2000). Semantics. New York: Palgrave Publications. Lyons, J. (1999). Language and linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rose, K. & Casper, G. (2001). Pragmatics in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Snyder, B. (2002). Contribution to the discussion: The role of linguistic and language acquisition theory in teacher development.

Retrieved November 9, 2006, from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej22/f1.html. Widdowson, H. G. (1984). The intensive value of theory in teacher education. English Language Teaching Journal, 38(2), 86-90. Yates, R. & Muchisky, D. (2004). The authors respond: Defending the discipline, field, and profession. TESOL Quarterly, 38,

134-140.



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The emotions in teaching and learning nature sciences and

physics/chemistry in pre-service primary teachers*

María Brígido1, M. Luisa Bermejo2, M. Carmen Conde1, Vicente Mellado1

(1. Department of Science and Mathematics Education, Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura, Badajoz 06071, Spain;

2. Department of Psychology and Anthropology, Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura, Badajoz 06071, Spain)

Abstract: A study was made of different emotions that prospective primary school teachers report with respect to science subjects, when they were pupils, and during their practice teaching, taking into account the variables gender and the speciality they studied in the secondary education. The study consisted of a questionnaire completed by 63 primary education students at the University of Extremadura, Spain. The results show a great difference between the emotions related to the subjects of physics/chemistry and the nature sciences (biology/geology). The scientific subject influences the emotions of pre-service primary teachers, both in learning and teaching. In physics and chemistry, the emotions are mostly negative. While in nature sciences they are very positive. In nature sciences, there is a correlation between the emotions felt as secondary school pupils learning science and those they feel as teachers. In physics and chemistry, there is a correlation in the women between the emotions felt as secondary school pupils learning science and those they feel as teachers, but not in the men. The memory of their emotions in learning science at school is more negative than in teaching science during their teaching practice, except in nervousness in physics/chemistry. By gender, men declared a greater predilection for science content than women, with more of them describing such feelings as sympathy or confidence. The results highlight the influential role that emotions play throughout the professional growth of future primary teachers.

Key words: teaching and learning science; emotions; initial teacher education; primary teachers

1. Introduction

The processes of learning and teaching science are not merely cognitive, but are highly charged with feelings. Nevertheless, in schools and universities, science is for the most part portrayed as a rational, analytical and non-emotive area of the curriculum.

Recent results have questioned the independence of the rational and the emotional, since, according to the theory of affective cognitive moulds of Hernandez (2002), the cognitive configures the affective and vice versa.

* An earlier version of this article was presented as a paper at ESERA Conference 2009, Istanbul, Turkey, August 31st-September 4th. This work was financed by Research Project EDU2009-12864 of the Ministry of Education and Science (Spain) and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).

María Brígido, Ph.D. candidate, Department of Science and Mathematics Education, Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura; research fields: the emotions in teacher education, psychology of education.

M. Luisa Bermejo, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Psychology and Anthropology, Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura; research fields: the emotions in teacher education, psychology of education.

M. Carmen Conde, Ph.D., Department of Science and Mathematics Education, Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura; research field: science teacher education.

Vicente Mellado, Ph.D., professor, Department of Science and Mathematics Education, Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura; research field: science teacher education.

The emotions in teaching and learning nature sciences and physics/chemistry in pre-service primary teachers

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Research in science education also recognizes the importance of emotions in teaching and learning, and advocates the need to consider the cognitive and affective dimensions (Koballa & Glynn, 2007; Otero, 2006).

Numerous studies have noted that, primary school pupils usually show interest, excitement and generally positive attitudes towards science, but that decrease with age, especially during secondary education (Beauchamp & Parkinson, 2008; Murphy & Beggs, 2003; Osborne, et al., 2003; Ramsden, 1998; Simpson & Oliver, 1990; Vázquez & Manassero, 2008).

Zembylas (2001; 2002; 2004) reviewed the relationship between science teaching and emotion, and argued that emotions, both positive and negative, play an important role in teachers’ construction of pedagogical content knowledge, curriculum planning and relationships with children and colleagues. He suggested that, emotions in science teaching are constructed at a deep level, and may be seen as constitutive of the activity of science teaching. The affective domain is of increasing importance as a regulatory system of learning. Teachers have an “emotional ecology” that exists on 3 levels: individual, relational and socio-political, that are different aspects of their pedagogical content knowledge (Zembylas, 2005). They construct and use emotional knowledge to establish or strengthen their connections with pupils and content, or to perform teaching actions.

Although teachers’ conceptions, attitudes, emotions, values and classroom practice are related, depending on the teacher and the context, these aspects are often out of phase with each other, and even plainly in contradiction, and changes in one are not necessarily accompanied by a change in the rest (Mellado, et al., 2006). There is growing evidence that change is more likely to be consolidated if all its aspects are integrated and related (Sanmartí, 2001). As noted by Day (1999), teachers’ change is not just a matter of the head, but also of the heart. It will be difficult to put changes into effect unless they are compensated affectively, and contribute to greater personal job satisfaction.

Affective aspects are important during initial teacher education. Prospective teachers themselves have been pupils for many years, and as a result, have beliefs, attitudes, feelings, values, goals and teaching styles which are strongly internalized and difficult to change. Their own experiences at school lead many teachers to take as referents for their science teaching, whether positive or negative, the teachers themselves had when they were pupils, and to use teaching methods that are very close to what they preferred in their teachers when they were at school (Mellado, et al., 1998). Their teaching routines and strategies become most firmly set during their first teaching experiences in their teaching practice, and will subsequently be difficult to modify. Also, during their teaching practice, they are subjected to many dilemmas and stresses that naturally cause them anxiety and insecurity. These negative emotions can cause them to adopt defensive teaching strategies that are centered on the teachers and the contents rather than on the pupils and learning. While this allows them an apparently greater control of the class, and hence, makes them feel safer, it limits their teaching effectiveness. The anxiety that teaching science provokes in prospective primary teachers also has a repercussion on their self-efficacy in science teaching (Czerniak & Scriver, 1994).

For Hugo and Sanmartí (2003), traditional teaching models may be overcome by applying meta-cognitive and meta-affective strategies to control and regulate the emotions that arise when the model is changed. As Efkelides (2009, p. 139) observed, “Metacognitive regulation should be expanded to include not only cognitive but emotional regulation as well”. In initial teacher education, Oosterheert and Vermunt (2001) included emotion regulation as a functional component of learning to teach. This dynamic component is generated and evolves from the teachers’ own knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and emotions. It requires active personal involvement, reflection on the teaching process and practice in teaching the specific material in particular school contexts. This component is a form of


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knowledge in action, and hence, is related to the teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (Garritz, et al., 2008).

2. Purpose

The authors consider it necessary to study the affective and emotional factors in how future primary teachers teach and learn science, since their beliefs and emotions can greatly affect their pupils’ achievement, beliefs and attitudes towards learning science.

The aim of the study is to identify the emotions aroused by learning and teaching the subjects of physics/chemistry and nature sciences in a sample of pre-service primary teachers during their period as secondary school pupils and when doing their undergraduate teaching practice.

3. Methods and samples

The subjects participating in the study were 63 students of primary education at the Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura: 29 in the 2nd year and 34 in the 3rd year. They were selected by a non-probabilistic sampling procedure of convenience, based on the availability of time and of cases. There were 49 women and 14 men. Data were collected during the 2007-2008 academic year, after their periods of teaching practice. Obviously, the 2nd and 3rd year prospective teachers were different since they were from two distinct courses.

The instrument used was a questionnaire, in which the subjects noted from among the positive and negative emotions offered, which were those that they experienced when learning the different subjects of science as secondary school pupils, and when teaching them in their teaching practice (Blanco, Caballero & Guerrero, 2008). The questionnaire items were organized in terms of tables of emotions (Brígido, et al., 2009). The resulting data were subjected to the necessary processes of checking, coding and digital storage in order to proceed with their descriptive analysis using SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solutions) 13.0.

4. Results

4.1 Physics and chemistry Their recall of the subjects of physics and chemistry at secondary school (see Table 1) suggested fundamentally

negative emotions: nervousness, anxiety, tension, worry or despair, and only rarely positive emotions, such as confidence or enthusiasm. During their practice teaching also, they recalled more negative than positive emotions when teaching topics related to physics or chemistry. In each case, the percentages are relative to the sample that answered these questions as pupils or as teachers. The sample as teachers is smaller than that as pupils since many participants did not teach these subjects during their teaching practice, and therefore, did not answer.

Figure 1 compares the emotions as pupils when they were learning physics and chemistry in the secondary education with those experienced as teachers when teaching this content during their practice. One observes that the two are fairly strongly correlated, and except for nervousness, the negative emotions have decreased more notably when they were teaching these subjects than when they were learning them in secondary school. While this decrease in negative emotions is encouraging, the low percentage of positive emotions is still a cause for concern both for how it will affect the students’ learning on how to teach these subjects, and for the reflection, it makes of the negligible impact that their initial teacher education has had on their positive emotions as teachers.


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Table 1 Emotions aroused by topics related to physics and chemistry as pupils at school and when doing practice teaching

Positive emotions Negative emotions Teachers (%) Students (%) Teachers (%) Students (%)

Fun 17.5 12.7 Tension 37.5 31.7 Tranquility 20 3.2 Nervousness 47.5 42.9 Congeniality 10 11.1 Worry 37.5 39.7 Confidence 17.5 7.9 Uncertainty 30 47.6 Capacity 15 14.3 Fear 37.5 47.6 Pride 25 15.9 Anxiety 35 44.4 Gratification 17.5 7.9 Frustration 25 44.4 Satisfaction 10 7.9 Despair 30 42.9 Enthusiasm 17.5 12.7 Pessimism 30 46 Pleasure 7.5 3.2 Hate 25 34.9 Devotion 5 3.2 Anger 25 34.9 Joy 10 1.6 Depression 30 47.6 Contempt 22.5 33.3 Sadness 20 25.4

Figure 1 Emotions aroused by topics related to physics and chemistry as pupils at school and when doing practice teaching

There were few differences between men (14 participants) and women (49 participants) in the emotions, when they were learning physics or chemistry at school (see Figure 2), except for the feelings of hate and uncertainty which were more reported by men, or of tension, more reported by women.

Figure 3 shows the emotions reported by men (10 participants) and women (30 participants) when teaching physics or chemistry. One observes that, except for nervousness, the women report more negative and fewer positive emotions than men when they were teaching these subjects. It is noteworthy that men who taught these subjects during their teaching practice showed a noticeable improvement in their emotions relative to what they felt when they were studying these subjects in secondary school.


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Figure 2 Prospective teachers’ emotions when they themselves were pupils learning physics or chemistry by gender

Figure 3 Prospective teachers’ emotions when they were teaching physics or chemistry in their practicum by gender

4.2 Nature sciences (biology/geology) Their recall of the subjects of nature sciences during their time in secondary school suggested to them

fundamentally positive emotions: fun, tranquility, joy, satisfaction, congeniality, capacity, etc. On teaching topics related to nature sciences during their teaching practice, they also experienced positive feelings, even to a greater extent than when they were at school (see Table 2).

The results show a great difference between the emotions related to the subjects of physics/chemistry and the nature sciences. For the nature sciences, there was a strong correlation between their emotions when learning at school and as teachers during their practice teaching (see Figure 4).

Figure 5 shows the results of differentiating the emotions reported in learning nature sciences between men and women (14 men and 49 women). Both groups had many positive and few negative emotions. For men, there stood out feelings of capacity, pride, congeniality, satisfaction, confidence, tranquility and pleasure.

Various studies of pupils’ attitudes towards science in general which have included studies of their emotions have found that males tend to show more positive attitudes than females (Caleon & Subramaniam, 2008; Koballa & Glynn, 2007; Vázquez & Manassero, 2007).


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Table 2 Emotions aroused by topics related to nature sciences as pupils at school and when doing practice teaching

Positive emotions Negative emotions Teachers (%) Students (%) Teachers (%) Students (%)

Fun 76.6 42.9 Tension 6.4 17.5 Tranquility 76.6 49.2 Nervousness 10.6 11.1 Congeniality 59.6 47.6 Worry 4.3 12.7 Confidence 59.6 38.1 Uncertainty 4.3 6.3 Capacity 68.1 44.4 Fear 4.3 9.5 Pride 44.7 31.7 Anxiety 2.1 9.5 Gratification 53.2 30.2 Frustration 2.1 6.3 Satisfaction 57.4 41.3 Despair 2.1 14.3 Enthusiasm 51 39.7 Pessimism 4.3 14.3 Pleasure 53.2 38.1 Hate 0 3.2 Devotion 31.9 23.8 Anger 2.1 3.2 Joy 55.3 38.1 Depression 2.1 6.3 Contempt 0 7.9 Sadness 0 6.3

Figure 4 Emotions aroused by topics related to nature sciences as pupils at school and when doing practice teaching

Figure 5 Prospective teachers’ emotions when they themselves were pupils learning nature sciences by gender

Figure 6 shows the results for the emotions of the men and women reported when they were teaching nature sciences (12 men and 35 women). Again both groups report few negative emotions in teaching these subjects, and


31

present very high values for the positive emotions. Although the percentages are slightly higher for men than for women, there is a notable coincidence in the pattern between the two groups.

Figure 6 Prospective teachers’ emotions when they were teaching nature sciences in their practicum by gender

5. Conclusion and implications

The present results reflect a great difference in the emotions aroused in pre-service primary teachers by the subjects of physics/chemistry and nature sciences (biology/geology). In physics and chemistry, the emotions are mostly negative in women, both in learning and teaching, while men recall negative emotions in learning, but positive in teaching. In nature sciences, the emotions of both men and women are very positive, both in learning and teaching.

Overall, their memory of emotions in learning science at school is more negative than in teaching science during their teaching practice, except in nervousness in physics/chemistry. In nature sciences, the emotions felt as secondary school pupils learning science are strongly correlated with those they feel as teachers. In physics and chemistry, there is a correlation in women between the emotions felt as secondary school pupils learning science and those they feel as teachers, but not in men. Except for nervousness, men report positive emotions when they were teaching physics/chemistry, but negative emotions when they were learning these subjects in secondary school.

Comparing by gender, men declared more positive emotions for teaching science content than women. In learning science, men declared more positive emotions than women in nature sciences, and both of them reported negative emotions in learning physics/chemistry.

The present study is subject to two types of limitation. The first is because of the questionnaire may not have captured all the nuances of the emotions. For this, it would have to be supplemented with other more qualitative methods, such as interviews. And the second is because of the small size of the sample of prospective teachers enrolled in the year of the study. This was especially so for men, particularly when one considers that in their practice teaching, not all the participants taught science subjects.

With respect to the implications, the authors believe that the study of emotions is important in the context of initial teacher education (Shoffner, 2009). This is to help them, on the one hand, become aware of their own possible emotional vulnerability, of their time at school and of how emotions affect teaching and learning the different science subjects, and on the other hand, to enable them to develop the capacity to act to change and self-regulate those emotions. Younger teachers are more likely to incorporate educational changes into their practice and to consider the emotional dimension of those changes (Hargreaves, 2005). It is, therefore, necessary to develop programs of intervention and emotional support for prospective teachers (Appleton, 2008; Blanco, Caballero & Guerrero, 2008; Koballa, Bradbury, Glynn & Deaton, 2008) in order for them to gain in emotional competence—an aspect on which the authors are currently working.


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References: Appleton, K. (2008). Developing science pedagogical content knowledge through mentoring elementary teachers. Journal of Science

Teacher Education, 19(6), 523-545. Beauchamp, G. & Parkinson, J. (2008). Pupils’ attitudes towards school science as they transfer from an ICT-rich primary school to a

secondary school with fewer ICT resources: Does ICT matter? Education and Information Technologies, 13(2), 103-118. Blanco, L. J., Caballero, A. & Guerrero, E. (2008). Training program of general problem solving, mathematics problem solving, and

emotional control. In: González-Pienda, J. A. & Núñez, J. C. (Eds.). Psychology and education: A meeting place. Oviedo: Universidad de Oviedo, 2027-2033.

Brígido, M., Caballero, A., Bermejo, M. L., Conde, C. & Mellado, V. (2009). Emotions in science of primary education teaching students during their practice teaching. Campo Abierto, 28(2), in press.

Caleon, I. S. & Subramaniam, R. (2008). Attitudes towards science of intellectually gifted and mainstream upper primary students in Singapore. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(8), 940-954.

Czerniak, C. & Scriver, M. (1994). An examination of preservice science teachers’ beliefs and behaviors as related to self-efficacy. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 5(1), 77-86.

Day, C. (1999). Developing teachers, the challenges of lifelong learning. London: Falmer Press. Efklides, A. (2009). The new look in metacognition: From individual to social, from cognitive to affective. In: Clayton, B. L. (Ed.).

Metacognition: New research developments. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 137-151. Garritz, A., Nieto, E., Padilla, K., Reyes, F. & Trinidad, R. (2008). Pedagogical content knowledge in chemistry: What every teacher

should possess. Campo Abierto, 27(1), 153-177. Hargreaves, A. (2005). Educational change takes ages: Life, career and generational factors in teachers’ emotional responses to

educational change. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(8), 967-983. Hernández, P. (2002). The moulds of the mind: Beyond emotional intelligence. La Laguna: Tafor publicaciones. Hugo, D. V. & Sanmartí, N. (2003). Trying to reach a consensus with prospective science teachers on the objects and criteria of

evaluation. Enseñanza de las Ciencias, 21(3), 445-462. Koballa, T. R., Bradbury, L. U., Glynn, S. M. & Deaton, C. M. (2008). Conceptions of science teacher mentoring and mentoring

practice in an alternative certification program. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 19(4), 391-411. Koballa, T. R. & Glynn, S. M. (2007). Attitudinal and motivational constructs in science learning. In: Abell, S. K. & Lederman, N. G.

(Eds.). Handbook of research on science education. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 75-102. Mellado, V., Blanco, L. J. & Ruiz, C. (1998). A framework for learning to teach sciences in initial teacher education. Journal of

Science Teacher Education, 9(3), 195-219. Mellado, V., Ruiz, C., Bermejo, M. L. & Jiménez, R. (2006). Contributions from the philosophy of science to the education of

science teachers. Science & Education, 15(5), 419-445. Murphy, C. & Beggs, J. (2003). Children perceptions of school science. School Science Review, 84(308), 109-116. Oosterheert, I. E. & Vermunt, J. D. (2001). Individual differences in learning to teach: Relating cognition, regulation an affect.

Learning and Instruction, 11, 133-156. Osborne, J., Simon, S. & Collins, S. (2003). Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implications. International

Journal of Science Education, 25(9), 1049-1079. Otero, M. R. (2006). Emotions, feelings, and reasoning in science education. Revista electrónica de investigación en educación de

las ciencias, 1(1), 24-53. Ramsden, P. (1998). Learning to lead in higher education. London: Routledge. Sanmartí, N. (2001). Teaching to teach secondary education science: A comprehensive challenge. Revista Interuniversitaria de

Formación del Profesorado, 40, 31-48. Shoffner, M. (2009). The place of the personal: Exploring the affective domain through reflection in teacher preparation. Teaching

and Teacher Education, 25(8), 783-789. Simpson, R. & Oliver, S. (1990). A summary of mayor influences on attitude toward and achievement in science among adolescent

students. Science Education, 74(1), 1-18. Vázquez, A. & Manassero, M. A. (2007). In defence of attitudes and emotions in science education (II): Empirical evidence from

research. Revista Eureka, 4(3), 417-441. Vázquez, A. & Manassero, M. A. (2008). The decline in students’ attitudes towards science: A troubling indicator for science

education. Revista Eureka, 5(3), 274-292. Zembylas, M. (2001). A paralogical affirmation of emotion’s discourse in science teaching. In: Barton, A. & Osborne, M. (Eds.).

Teaching science in diverse setting: Marginalized discourses and classroom practice. New York: Peter Lang, 99-128. Zembylas, M. (2002). Constructing genealogies of teachers’ emotions in science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,

39(1), 79-103. Zembylas, M. (2004). Emotional issues in teaching science: A case study of a teacher’s views. Research in Science Education, 34(4),

343-364. Zembylas, M. (2005). Discursive practices, genealogies, and emotional rules: A poststructuralist view on emotion and identity in

teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(8), 355-367.



33

Factors affecting teaching and learning of computer disciplines at

Rajamangala University of Technology

Rungaroon Sripan1, Bandit Suksawat2 (1. Graduate School, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok 10800, Thailand;

2. Department of Teacher Training in Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technical Education, King Mongkut’s University of

Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok 10800, Thailand)

Abstract: This research aims to analyze and compare factors affecting teaching and learning of the computer disciplines at RMUT (Rajamanala University of Technology). A questionnaire was used as a research tool to survey perspectives of teachers and students. The numbers of sample were determined from Krejcie and Morgan table by using multistage sampling technique. The survey resulted from 92 teachers and 307 students were analyzed by descriptive statistical methods. The analysis of affecting factors of teaching and learning of the computer disciplines found that, the factors can be classified into 3 clusters, consisting of the factor of instructor, the factor of student and the factor of learning materials, with high correlation coefficient at 0.505-0.875. Comparison of the 3 factors by using one-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) found that, opinions of teachers and students have at least one factor different. The factor of student and the factor of learning materials significantly differed at 0.05 level. All analyzed factors that affect to teaching and learning of the computer disciplines will be determined as an important weight for a concept selection in order to develop the teaching and learning system of the computer discipline at RMUT.

Key words: factors affecting; teaching and learning; computer discipline

1. Introduction

According to its development, IT (information technology) has been used in several fields especially in education. Recently, a number of departments in the ministry of education largely focus on the policy of lifelong autonomous learning by using IT as an educational tool. The Thai government together with international organizations also have initiated and supported several projects to accomplish this policy, whose the operation is starting from primary schools up through university (Intratat, 2007).

RMUT (Rajamangala University of Technology), an institute of science and technology under the ministry of education, is willing to produce skillful and high performance workforces that are suitable for industrial sectors and other segments. RMUT also focus on developing the computer science disciplines for supporting several professions or enterprises. The teaching and learning do not only need the theory, but also require practices to achieve the objective of curriculum. According to Piyamongkonkul (2000), learners have to create and improve the contribution based on independent and logical thinking initiation and development of capability by oneself.

Rungaroon Sripan, Ph.D. candidate, Graduate School, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok; research field: education technology.

Bandit Suksawat, Ph.D., Department of Teacher Training in Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technical Education, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok; research field: engineering education.

Factors affecting teaching and learning of computer disciplines at Rajamangala University of Technology

34

This strategy aims to establish the learners’ knowledge and ability for working in the occupation. Since enhancement of the students’ practical knowledge and skills in computer discipline, the teaching and

learning system is based on the important factors consisting of professional lecturer, appropriate facility, good education management and modernization. The suitable factors for curriculum operation at the university can conduct learners to be the professionals, meet the needs of the labor market and have basic knowledge and skills for further higher education (Pichetgid, 2000).

Therefore, the study of general problems and confinement of teaching and learning in the computer disciplines will provide important information for improving the teaching and learning method or curriculum development at RMUT. Sripan and Suksawat (2009) investigated general problems of teaching and learning in the computer disciplines. The results showed that, most teachers did not evaluate students before teaching and learning in order to acknowledge the student backgrounds and classify the study groups. Furthermore, the teaching materials were unavailable for students’ learning. These problems significantly and directly impact on the development of learners’ knowledge and skill.

However, general problems were only reported in the previous study. The specification in statistical analysis of factors affecting teaching and learning of the computer disciplines has not been reported yet. Therefore, this paper aims to analyze and compare the factors affecting teaching and learning of the computer disciplines at RMUT.

2. Literature review

Factor of learning material has strongly positive effect on learning computer discipline. This factor is an interface tool between learning materials and teaching methods with learning object in order to create the knowledge of learning content to the learners (Leelitthum, 2000).

Features of the learning materials should be properly aligned with the content and purpose of education. Therefore, the right form of education appropriates to their learning style and the environment (Vatawatanasak, 2005). Accordingly, Leelitthum (2000) found that teaching and learning materials are important factors in learning management, because people who are interested in learning can learn more in class and has more understanding with the materials.

In addition, the teachers and the students also represent a significant impact on group learning of computer courses, because instructors have played a role in management of learning (Promchun, 2005). Instructors must understand the curriculums, learning objects, contexts and learning methods and have to focus on learning experience that is relevant (Thammetar, 1998). According to the concepts proposed by Pudenpar (2000), teachers should have good abilities to teach subjects and to manage a large number of students. Piyamongkonkul (2000)

found that, the inappropriate number of students per group results in very uncomfortable classrooms and unpleasant teaching and learning environments. The group learning of computer courses should provide sufficient computers to all the students in each group, in order to facilitate learning and build knowledge and skills of computer usages.

3. Methodology

The study of general problems of teaching and learning in the computer disciplines at RMUT was performed by using questionnaire as research tool to survey teachers and students’ perspectives. The numbers of sample were determined from Krejcie and Morgan table by using multistage sampling technique. The survey resulted form 92


35

teachers and 307 students were analyzed by descriptive statistical methods. The data of 5 factors, consisting of teacher, student, subject matter, learning activities and learning media, were used to analyze and compare in this paper. The details of 5 factors including 11 aspects are described as follows:

(1) The factor of instructor consists of the NTTCD (number of teachers who teach the computer discipline) and the UIMCE (using of instruction media and computer equipment);

(2) The factor of student consists of SLSC (students who lack skills in computer) and ENSG (excessive number of students per group);

(3) The factor of subject matter consists of BSMT (balance between the subject matter when teaching) and items related to RBPTTP (relationship between the time of theory and the time of practice);

(4) The factor of learning activities consists of CLATAS (consistent with the level of activity and teaching ability of students) and TPCS (time to practice on a computer student);

(5) The factor of learning media includes QCES (quantity of computer equipment of students), the QIMNE (quantity of instruction media is not enough) and the UCTOS (use of computer time outside of students).

The data analysis consists of the factor analysis method and ANOVA to compare the regression of the factor at 0.5 significant level.

The factor analysis process was performed as follows: (1) It should compute the KMO (Kaiser-Myer-Olkin) measure of sampling adequacy, the rule of thumb is

that the KMO value should be greater than 0.5 for a satisfactory factor analysis to proceed. And Bartlett’s test of specificity to determine whether correlation exists between measurable variable. It should be noticed that, if Bartlett’s test is not significant, this implies that correlation matrix is not significantly different from the identity matrix, hence the set of measurable variables are not correlated or each measurable variable is indeed a factor influencing response;

(2) Factor extraction based on principle component analysis is computing the Eigen values of the correlation matrix. The magnitude of the Eigen values exceeding a certain pre-predetermined threshold will identify one significant factor. The rule of thumb is that, if the sum of the Eigen values are greater than or equal to 1.0, and each factor must be weighted from 0.50 above (Thompson, 2004);

(3) It should compute the structure communality coefficient for each measurable variables, communality variable can measure the amount of variance;

(4) It should varimax orthogonal factor rotation.

4. Results

4.1 Analysis results of the KMO measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of specificity The samples to be back up 399 people to test the KMO measure and Bartlett’s test of specificity values have

to verify for appropriateness factor analysis. The value of statistical test for specificity based on a chi-square transformation of the determinant of the correlation matrix was 0.852, and the associated significant level was 0, which are summarized into that the KMO value should be greater than 0.5 for a satisfactory factor analysis to proceed. And Bartlett’s test of specificity to determine whether correlation exists between measurable variable is shown in Table 1.


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Table 1 KMO and Bartlett’s test

KMO measure of sampling adequacy 0.852 Bartlett’s test of specificity Approx. chi-square 1412.949 df 55 Sig. 0.000

4.2 Analysis results of the factor extraction based on PCA (principle component analysis) PCA was the variables that have correlation with other variables to extract significant factor, and then

describe the variability of most variables. The factor extraction based on the following basis factor is key factor that must be Eigen values greater than or equal to 1.0 and each factor must be weighted from 0.50 above. The results showed that, the principal component analysis yielded a 3-factor solution, representing 61.754% of the variance of the respondents’ scores on the 11 variable scale as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Total variance explained

Initial Eigen values Rotation sums of squared loadings Aspects

Total Variance (%) Cumulative (%) Total Variance (%) Cumulative (%) 1 4.200 38.178 38.178 2.777 25.242 25.242 2 1.459 13.266 51.445 2.578 23.436 48.678 3 1.134 10.309 61.754 1.438 13.076 61.754 4 0.747 6.789 68.542 5 0.675 6.138 74.680 6 0.619 5.626 80.306 7 0.595 5.413 85.719 8 0.511 4.644 90.364 9 0.440 3.999 94.363 10 0.343 3.118 97.481 11 0.277 2.519 100.000

4.3 Analysis results of the component factor analysis The principal of component factor analysis was used to determine the average of variance in teaching and

learning of computer disciplines. The dependent variable is teaching and learning of the computer disciplines. The independent variables consist of the factor of instructor, student and learning materials as mentioned above. The results of component factor analysis in confirmatory model of each variable are shown in Figure 1.

The detail of 3 factors including 11 aspects is in follows: (1) The factor of instructor consists of QCES, the UCTOS, the QIMNE, NTTCD and the UIMCE; (2) The factor of student consists of SLSC and ENSG; (3) The factor of learning materials includes items related to RBPTTP, the BSMT, CLATAS and TPCS. The obtained factors were named on the basis of research carried out on the general problems of teaching and

learning. The combination of items with loadings, which was greater than 0.505, was considered as a separated factors and defined as follows:

(1) The factor of instructor with 5 aspects, loadings between 0.505 to 0.810; (2) The factor of student with 2 aspects, loading between 0.730 to 0.821; (3) The factor of the learning materials with 4 aspects, loading between 0.611 to 0.875.


37

Figure 1 Model of confirmatory factor analysis of factors affecting teaching and learning of

the computer discipline at RMUT

The factor loadings analysis results are shown in Figure 1. The results revealed that RBPTTP is the most important variable as 0.875 in learning materials factor for the teaching and learning of the computer disciplines. Meanwhile, UIMCE is the less important variable as 0.505 in the factor of instructor for the teaching and learning of the computer disciplines.

4.4 ANOVA for comparison of 3 factors The data of 3 factors consisting of instructor, student and learning materials from the model of confirmatory

factor analysis were used to compare analysis of variance as shown in Table 3. Table 3 shows that opinions of teachers and students have at least one factor different. The factor of student

and the factor of learning materials were significantly different at 0.05 level. The factor of instructor was not significantly different at 0.05 level.

Learning materials

SLSC

ENSG

0.837

RBPTTP

BSMT

CLATAS

TPCS

0.875

0.812

0.779

0.611

0.742

QCES

UCTOS

QIMNE

NTTCD

UIMCE

0.810

0.772

0.665

0.642

0.505

0.029 0.625

0.821

0.730

Instructor

0.037

Student

Teaching and learning of computer

discipline


38

Table 3 One-way ANOVA analysis for comparison of three factors

Factor Sum of squares df Mean square F P Gender 0.016 1 0.016 0.03 0.869

Error 232.562 397 0.586 Instructor Total 232.578 398 Gender 8.191 1 8.191 14.75 0.000*

Error 220.491 397 0.555 Student Total 228.682 398 Gender 7.058 1 7.058 14.57 0.000*

Error 189.934 387 0.478 Learning materials Total 196.993 398

Notes: *p<0.05.

5. Conclusion

Analysis of factors affecting teaching and learning of the computer disciplines at RMUT found that the factor of the learning materials, the factor of instructor and the factor of student are critical elements. All factors were to give students the skills to learn effectively. Therefore, the proposed research is the concept of teaching computer disciplines, it has been concluded that:

(1) The teachers should be taught skills including the ability to transfer knowledge to students of insight, so the teachers should have a computer course in computer expertise for understanding of content, and the content of the course should always be improved to be modern;

(2) The learning materials should be selected to fit to computer disciplines, so that the learning materials should be appropriate to the level of knowledge and experience of students, and the opportunity for students engaged in learning activities should also be advanced.

References: Intratat, C. (2007, January-March). Investigation on advantages and disadvantages in using English CALL according to the opinions

of Thai university students and lecturers. King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi Journal, 3-19. Leelitthum, C. (2000). Creating the laboratory sheets of C language programming as required by higher vocational education

certificate course in computer technology (electronics). (Master Thesis, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi) (In Thai)

Piyamongkonkul, S. (2000). Status, needs and problems of computer instruction for bachelor degree of business computer in private higher education institutions. (Master Thesis, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi) (In Thai)

Pichetgid, S. (2000, January-June). Problems of vocational development. Journal of Research and Development Center Vocational, 33-36.

Promchun, S. (2005). Didactic for technical course. Bangkok, Thailand: King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, 8-14. (In Thai)

Pudenpar, S. (2000). A study of status problems and needs of the computer teachers of Rajabhat Institute and in Rajamangala Institute of Technology. (Master Thesis, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi) (In Thai)

Sripan, R. & Suksawat, B. (2009, September 3-4). Survey of status and problems of computer track in Rajamangala University of Technology. The National of Ramkhamhaeng University Research Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, 389-399.

Thammetar, T. (1998). The concept of teaching and learning of computer. Bangkok, Thailand: Silpakorn University. (In Thai) Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. Washington, D.C.:

American Psychological Association. Vatawatanasak, A. (2005). Learning materials. Retrieved May 26, 2009, from

http://school.net.th/library/create-web/10000/ generality/10000-13295.html. (Edited by Nicole and Sunny)


39

Teacher reflection in Indonesia: Lessons learnt from

a lesson study program*

Tatang Suratno, Sofyan Iskandar (Elementary Teacher Education Department, Indonesia University of Education at Serang Campus, Serang 42116, Indonesia)

Abstract: Although reflection is seen as a means to improve teacher professionalism, its practice in Indonesia has a scant regard until the lesson study program was implemented around the year 2005. In Indonesian context, lesson study is a process by which teachers and teacher educators work together to critically improve the quality of classroom practice through a planning, observation and reflection cycle based on the principles of collegiality and mutual-learning to develop a learning community (Suratno & Cock, 2009). This paper describes the nature of Indonesian teacher reflection based on the authors’ experience in implementing lesson study program at Indonesia University of Education with collaborating subject teacher groups in two districts in West Java province. Data gathered from program documents, field study and videos of reflection phase of lesson study were analyzed by using the interpretative and discourse analysis approach. In this paper, the authors outline the context of lesson study implementation and its strategy to promote teacher reflection and identify the structure and types—descriptive, dialogic, critical reflection—of teacher reflection. In addition, the paper also discusses issues and lessons learned of teacher reflection from the program, and future directions of the development of teacher reflection in Indonesia.

Key words: lesson study; teacher reflection; substantive aspects

1. Introduction

Literatures state that, reflection is considerably beneficial practice to support teacher professional development and teachers’ efforts to improve student learning (Fendler, 2003; Hoffman, Artiles & Lopez, 2003). Teacher reflection, therefore, can be used as a meaningful way of approaching learning about teaching in order to understand the knowledge base of teaching from practice setting (Loughran, 2002). Through reflection, teacher can consider, develop and articulate many aspects of practice in better way as part of their knowledge base and able to link theory and practice. Furthermore, teacher reflection is seen to sustain teacher professional health and competence (Day, 1999).

Although reflection is viewed as a means to improve teacher professionalism in Indonesia, its systematic practice has a scant regard until the lesson study program—originated from Japan, was implemented around 2000s. In Indonesian context, lesson study is a process by which educators (i.e., teacher and teacher educator) work together to critically improve the quality of classroom practice through a planning, observation and reflection

* The authors would like to thank Professor Didi Suryadi of IUE for his comments on earlier draft of this manuscript.

Tatang Suratno, M.Pd., lecturer, researcher, Elementary Teacher Education Department, Indonesia University of Education at Serang Campus; research fields: teacher education, science education, primary education, teaching and learning.

Sofyan Iskandar, Ph.D., lecturer, researcher, Elementary Teacher Education Department, Indonesia University of Education at Serang Campus; research fields: instructional design and technology, primary education, teacher professional development.

Teacher reflection in Indonesia: Lessons learnt from a lesson study program

40

cycle (Suratno & Cock, 2009). Lesson study, therefore, is an approach to improve teacher professional learning in which involves teacher reflection.

Lesson study researches in Indonesia (e.g., Liliawati & Hikmat, 2007; Daryanti, 2007; Maria & Supriyanti, 2007) show that, there are many studies on how to develop an engaging lessons, but research agenda to explore the nature of teacher reflection and the degree of current reflective practice through lesson study is rarely conducted. This concern derives from the tendency that, teachers perceive lesson study, particularly reflection phases, as a difficult session and less fruitful to improve their practice. According to Loughran (2002), reflective practice must be effective in order to avoid those problems.

This paper has 3 foci: (1) to outline lesson study implementation in Indonesia, its underlying principles and processes; (2) to identify cultural and practical constraints emerged in teacher reflection through lesson study implementation. In addition, it discusses the analysis of structure and content of teacher reflection by using interpretative and discourse analysis to lesson study documents, field observation and videos. These efforts will reveal the current development of teacher reflection and provide bases for further improvement of its practice; and (3) to identify lessons learnt from current situation and to propose a framework for teacher reflection of lesson study in Indonesia.

An element in teacher reflection is the notion of a problem (a puzzling, curious and perplexing situation) (Loughran, 2002). Furthermore, Loughran (2002) stated important aspect of understanding the nature of reflection and the value of reflective practice, such as “what that problem is”, “the way it is framed” and “what reframed is” (p. 33). Therefore, the analysis of structure and content of teacher reflection will help reveal the context, the nature of the problem and the way to make a valuable reflective practice.

Through interpretation to current practices, the paper describes the structure of teacher reflection in terms of activity, participant roles, discussion setting, guiding questions and flow of talk. On the other hand, content of teacher reflection is discussed in terms of emerging theme, types of content and level of teacher reflection. In particular, analysis of types of content of reflection is adapted mainly from criteria for the recognition of evidence for different types of reflection that differentiates it into the following: (1) descriptive story; (2) descriptive reflection; (3) dialogic reflection; and (4) critical reflection (Hatton & Smith, 1995).

2. Lesson study in Indonesia: A brief

Lesson study was originally developed in Japan at the beginning of the 20th century and it was derived from the Japanese word “jugyokenkyuu”, which can also be translated as “researching lesson”—indicating the level of scrutiny applied to individual lessons (Lesson Study Team UPI, 2006). Therefore, the development of lesson study in Indonesia is closely related to a cooperation program between Government of Indonesia and JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency). The aim of the program is to improve the quality of mathematics and science education, in which the program appoints 3 FOMASE (faculties of mathematics and science education) at 3 universities (i.e., IUE (Indonesia University of Education) or known largely as Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia at Bandung, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta and Universitas Negeri Malang). This paper focuses on FOMASE IUE experiences (Hendayana, et al., 2007; Suratno & Cock, 2009).

In general, lesson study at FOMASE IUE program derives from the following important projects: IMSTEP (Indonesian Mathematics and Science Teacher Education Project) (1998-2003), Follow-up IMSTEP (2003-2005) and the SISTTEMS (Strengthening In-Service Teacher Training of Mathematics and Science Education project)


41

(2005-2008) (Suryadi, 2005; Hendayana, et al., 2007). In short, IMSTEP program implemented “piloting activities” to introduce a new way of professional development that engaged teacher and teacher educator in a collaborative ways. Initially, the nature of lesson study was actually introduced at that time, yet it was not realized as lesson study until the follow-up IMSTEP implemented a “piloting” of lesson study between universities and several partnering schools. Furthermore, SISTTEMS project was executed for a large scale of lesson study implementation between universities and partnering districts.

Basically, lesson study program is developed by the principles of school-university partnership (Suratno & Cock, 2009). According to Eisuke Saito, a JICA expert (Hendayana, et al., 2007; Suryadi, 2005), the implementation of lesson study was based on the triangular scheme approach (see Figure 1). The improvement of mathematics and science education is achieved when there is collaboration between the teacher education institution as a pre-service provider, piloting schools and the subject teacher groups (e.g., mathematics or science teacher group) as an on- and in- service teacher education provider. The expected outcome is that, teacher education institution (pre-service box) produce quality student teachers after having received input from school based experience. At the same time, teacher education institutions provide consultancy to the piloting teachers (on-service box) to intervene in the quality of mathematics and science instruction in school. Subject teacher associations (in-service box) serve as a forum for professional development and the dissemination of the instructional innovations. In this context, the participating teachers, together with teacher educators, are able to improve teacher professionalism within their community.

Figure 1 Follow-up IMSTEP approach

Source: Hendayana, et al., 2007.

The main idea of the triangular scheme is the lesson study activity. At the time (2005), the term “lesson study” had gained popularity and familiarity among the faculty and school staff. This period could be viewed as the piloting phase of lesson study. The pilot program focused on the technical development of the lesson study approach. In the SISTTEMS phase, there is a greater understanding of the overall impact of the approach and greater understanding of how it works to improve learning outcomes for the students (Hendayana, et al., 2007).

In the Indonesian context, lesson study is defined as a model of professional development for educators by studying teaching and learning activities collaboratively and continually, based on the principles of collegiality

Enhancement of education

quality

Pre-service

(FOMASE UPI)

On-service

(Schools)

In-service

(Subject teacher association)

Consultancy Consultancy

Feedback on teacher’s needs

Feedback on school reality

Sharing experiences

Opportunities for expansion

Professional development

Interventionto students

Producing good prospective teachers


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and mutual-learning to develop a learning community among educators (Hendayana, et al., 2007). Accordingly, lesson study involves teachers and teacher educators, as well as other educational agents (e.g., superintendants and government agencies staff) in a “plan-do-see” cycle, that is, collaborative planning, implementation and observation and reflection of teaching and learning processes (see Figure 2). The gist of these lesson study activities is the development and analysis of teaching and learning based on 3 macro-indicators: collegiality, mutual-learning and continuous improvement in a learning community, and 3 micro-indicators: local materials, hands-on activity and connection to students’ daily life.

Figure 2 The lesson study cycle

Figure 2 describes the overall activities of the lesson study approach (Suryadi, 2005; Hendayana, et al., 2007; Suratno & Cock, 2009). In the “plan” stage, teachers and teacher educators along with superintendents and local education office officials conducted several workshops aiming: (1) to identify teaching and learning strategies used and to then identify how they could be improved; (2) to design and to develop teaching models (lesson plans, student worksheets, teaching materials, assessment strategies and classroom arrangement); and (3) to try out developed teaching materials. During the “do” stage, also called as “open lesson”, one teacher, or called as “model teacher”, conducted a planned lesson by applying the developed teaching model in the classroom, while teacher educators, other teachers and prospective teachers observed the lesson. The focus of the observation was student activities, such as interaction of student-student, student-teacher as well the interaction between the students and the teaching materials. Finally, in the “see” stage, the teacher and observers met for post-class discussion to reflect upon the lesson. Observers gave comments and suggestion regarding possible improvement for future lessons, hence, the cyclic nature of the approach.

Implementation of lesson study dispatches almost all faculty staff, about 80 lecturers, of FOMASE UPI. The faculty has already finished SISTTEMS project that involved 94 junior high schools and 556 mathematics and science teachers in Sumedang, the target rural regency near Bandung. However, the faculty is conducting similar project in 3 districts in Java island in cooperation with Sampoerna Foundation: Karawang, Pasuruan and Surabaya. This project, starting at 2008-2011, involves two partnering universities: Universitas Negeri Surabaya and Universitas Negeri Malang, and 500 teachers from 30 junior high schools in each area. In the mean time, government provides appropriate support for lesson study dissemination across the nation in which FOMASE UPI plays a key role for lesson study development in western Indonesia.

Recently, the success of lesson study implementation has gained momentum along with the government’s

DO

Implementation & observation

PLAN

Collaborative planning

SEE

Reflection

Local materials, hands-on activity, daily life

Continuous improvement

Mutual learning Collegiality

Learning community


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commitment to increase teacher competence and professional careers (Hendayana, et al., 2007). However, it seems that lesson study have become a working framework—albeit with the potential to develop and become an effective strategy, or to go in the other direction completely. The authors’ observation reveals that, there is tendency that teachers perceive lesson study as a new way that fits with their professional learning need but they find a bored session to attend. This is evident particularly in reflection session. The next section discusses the nature of teacher reflection in lesson study program at FOMASE IUE.

3. Teacher reflection in lesson study program: FOMASE IUE experience

Basically, the writers believe that, teacher reflection is a discourse phenomenon. Ovens (as cited in Hoffman, Artiles & Lopez, 2003) identified 3 discourse communities in teacher reflection: (1) phenomenological discourse community; (2) critical discourse community; and (3) situated learning discourse community. The first two focuses on individual reflection to quest for emancipation. On the other hand, the last one considers reflection in collaborative and collegial ways situated in school culture.

In the context of teacher professional development in Indonesia, teacher reflection activity has been developed particularly through classroom action research. However, it would argue that, this approach is not considered as a systematic way and perceives as too individual. Therefore, the growing concerns on the importance of teacher reflection emerge since lesson study was introduced. Through “see” phase of lesson study, teacher and educator have opportunity to reflect upon lessons. Its systematic approach based on the principles of collaboration and collegiality is viewed as key factors to improve teacher reflection practices. Although lesson study is considered as a successful method to establish the culture of teacher reflection, the changing nature of its development has two main constraints particularly in the initial stage of lesson study implementation.

Firstly, translating the lesson study into the Indonesian context faces some cultural barriers as indicated by Firman (2007). These are such things as the concerned teachers had about colleagues intruding into their classroom, issues around being observed by others and people making judgements about the quality of their work. These constraints seem obvious particularly in teacher reflection. One of the main thrusts of the implementation strategy to deal with the cultural issues was to ensure that the main effort faculty took to tackle this constraint was to make every stakeholder understand the what, how and why of the lesson study and to convince teacher that observation and reflection focused only on student learning. In this case, judging negatively to teacher is avoided.

Secondly, it relates to teachers’ ability to reflect upon teaching and learning processes. Teachers’ inability makes teacher reflection bored and meaningless practices. The teachers have difficulty in discovering lessons learnt from their reflections. The followings are identified constraints to reflection abilities:

(1) Theoretical-driven: Teachers tend to put forward their reflection based on a certain theoretical framework instead of observed facts; generally, it derives from tendency to criticize teachers;

(2) Surface interpretation: Teachers have difficulty in understanding the relation between observed facts and it leads them to make superficial analysis;

(3) Misinterpretation: Teachers are also difficult to interpret observed facts. For instance, teachers find difficulties in determining students’ behaviours whether they study or not;

(4) Missing link: They are not able to make a connection among planning, prediction and anticipation with situation happened in teaching and learning process. This causes the level of coherent analysis for reflection is weak;

(5) Quality of content: Previous problems affect to the content of reflection in terms of some aspects, such as


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argumentation, framing and reframing problem, exploring alternative solution and critical level of reflection. Considering those barriers and constraints, therefore, teacher reflection should be based on the following

principles: (1) Emphasizing on scrutinizing on how student learning; and (2) Designing a conducive discussion for reflection. These approaches are expected to reduce teachers’ resistance to reflection practice and even more improve teachers’ ability and sensitivity on how students learning as feedback for their teaching improvement. Furthermore, these underlying principles underpin the development of teacher reflection guideline in which consists of the following aspects: (1) Developing teacher reflection mechanism; (2) Developing guiding questions for classroom observation and reflection; (3) Emphasizing on factual observation analysis; and (4) Emphasizing on lessons learned and alternative solutions analysis from observed teaching and learning situation and problems.

Current teachers’ reflection development shows an evolutionary effort to make a meaningful and useful reflection to improve practice. This can be seen in terms of the structure and quality content of teacher reflection.

3.1 The structure of teacher reflection Basically, the structure of teacher reflection consists of two main activities: (1) briefing (pre-class discussion);

and (2) debriefing (post-class discussion). In addition, the structure of teacher reflection can be identified in terms of: (1) the role of participants; (2) discussion setting; (3) guiding questions; and (4) flow of discussion.

In general, there are 4 identified roles of participants, namely: (1) model teacher—teacher who delivers a lesson; (2) moderator; (3) observer; and (4) resource person, such as FOMASE IEU lecturers. During briefing session, model teacher explains his/her lesson plan, particularly the objective and activity of the lesson, and classroom setting. Meanwhile, other participants confirm things that need to be clarified so that they can imagine what will work in classroom. On the other hand, during debriefing, model teacher explains his/her experience of delivering the lesson and clarify changes he/she made as it is planned. Observers then suggest their findings and the moderator leads the flow of discussion. Therefore, compare to others, the moderator plays an important role, such as: (1) organizing the turn of discussion; (2) applying discussion rules particularly when a commentator tends to make negative judgment to the model teacher; (3) maintaining the flow of discussion; and (4) stimulating how to have lessons learnt and alternative solution.

Usually, discussion settings place model teacher, moderator and UPI lecture in front of observers. However, there are several settings of discussion, such as: (1) conventional—a meeting-like, setting; (2) “U” shape; (3) circle shape; and (4) video analysis setting. Conventional setting usually emerges in the early phase of lesson study implementation and it is seen effective for a large number of participants. In the further development, “U” shape—as well as circle shape, emerges in several small groups of teacher reflection sessions. In this case, these settings are seen can develop a “friendly” psychological-emotional relations of participant that make it flow. On the other hand, although it is seen more meaningful ways, video analysis setting is rarely emerged due to school facilities limitation. Through video analysis, participants can understand the context of observed lesson to discuss. Overall, conventional and “U” shape settings are the most used so far.

Basically, through reflection session, teachers can explore and study many aspects of teaching and learning processes. In order to make a structured observation and reflection, guiding questions were developed to help teachers in analyzing observed lesson. Besides, these questions can be used for structuring the flow of discussion. Table 1 shows the evolving nature of guiding questions from the earlier phase of lesson study implementation. The changes reveal that initially there is no question related to teacher, but it is so afterward when the expected culture of reflection is understood by teacher (i.e., a polite and positive climate of discussion).


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Table 1 Modes of guiding questions Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3

When is student starting to learn? When does student feel bored? What lesson is learned from the teaching and learning process?

How is the interaction between student? How is the interaction betwen students and teaching material? How is the interaction between students and teacher?

Do students learn and how is the proces? Is there any student who does not study and why does not he/she study? What is teacher’s effort to handle students who do not study? Does it work successfully?

Observation to teacher reflection sessions shows that, there are at least two types of discussion flow: (1) structured; and (2) unstructured. In an unstructured discussion, which usually emerges in early phase, teachers can convey anything they have in their mind. Teachers, particularly the moderator, meet difficult session. Therefore, the structured flow starts to emerge. In this case, the structured flow of discussion can be classified into two main types: (1) based on guiding questions; and (2) based on preferred themes (i.e., teaching materials, teaching strategies, etc.). Overall, at the end of the flow, lessons learnt and alternative solutions are discussed.

3.2 Content of teacher reflection Content of teacher reflection relates to theme, type and level of reflection. From transcripts analysis, there are

some identified themes: (1) teachers’ teaching; (2) students’ learning; (3) teaching materials; and (4) teaching strategies. Overall, the unity of themes concerns to analyze how a teacher facilitates collaborative learning for students to reach (to jump) their ZPD (zone of proximal development) as suggested by Vygotsky (as cited in Suryadi, 2008).

The results of discourse analysis identify types of content of reflection: (1) descriptive writing/story; (2) descriptive reflection; (3) dialogic reflection; and (4) critical reflection (Hatton & Smith 1995). Example of each type is shown in Table 2. Initially, in the earlier phase, direct comments to a teacher’s teaching (judgments) is common. So far, descriptive modes are the most emerging type.

Table 2 Types of content of reflection Types of content of reflection Examples

Judgement “In practicum, the most important thing is work instructions. It seems that the teacher does not do her job even it is her job to give explanation for students in order to be able to do their task.”

Descriptive story

“Congratulation to model teacher. I see that all students study actively. In group D, Widia is active and wants to work together with Ahmad only. She rare works with other students instead of Eva who sits in front of her. In group A, I see Kharis Erik works alone. In group C, Anwari has ability but Elly is silent and works alone and if she makes mistake, she will look at Anwari. A change understanding happened from Anwari to Asri when the teacher is explaining fraction.”

Descriptive reflection

“Usually, in student worksheet, it is explained detail procedure of what should be measured. I agree with model teacher who gives freedom to student to determine the measurement of element that they want to observe. For that reason, we see different results and then we know the level result of the experiment that they did. It will stimulate students’ way of thinking process.”

Dialogic reflection

“I salute to model teacher who has prepared well this practicum as a result students learn actively. However, I think that substance prepared in the lab is rarely found by them. I think it is better if we provide alternative substance easily gotten by them such as vinegar or alcohol with grape fermentation water. I think we will see different experiment results. It will stimulate students to think why it is so. More over, by providing alternative substance, it will be real for students.”

Critical reflection

“Thanks to model teacher who gave me precious lesson especially with things that relate to teaching material. I can see that it helps students learn. From the previous lesson, I think teaching material become necessary to be developed and it is not difficult. We saw that the teaching material is simple and the materials are able to be attained around school. Certainly, It will trigger my creativity and I think school will support that.”

Based on the analysis of the type of reflection content, there are some identified levels of reflection. These were determined according to the following aspects: (1) negative judgment to teacher; (2) argumentation; (3)


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alternative solution; and (4) relation to previous experience and wider context (see Table 3).

Table 3 Levels of teacher reflection Levels Description Level 0 Statement still evaluates teacher based on no fact (refer to certain theory) Level 1 Statement still shows superficial observation result without reason Level 2 Statement has shown observation result followed by reason Level 3 Statement has reflected observation analysis with its solution

Level 4 Statement analyzes one and another phenomenon that are happened which have the same type in order to make a generalization

4. Lessons learned: Proposed framework for teacher reflection

One outcome resulting from current lesson study implementation is the growing concerns of teacher to reflective practice. In this case, the “see” phase of lesson study is promising to promote teacher reflection. The evolutionary nature of structure and content of teacher reflection proofed the efforts that FOMASE IUE made to make teachers understand the nature and value of teacher reflection, i.e., in this case, by development of teacher reflection guideline of lesson study, FOMASE IUE tried to convince the need for teacher reflection.

Although there is positive improvement in terms of structure and content of reflection, further development to reach its improved level need to be realized. This concern derives that, there is issue to be dealt which could inhibit lesson study implementation and teacher reflection practices. This tendency can be seen such as in the following expression stated by some teachers that “Lesson study and reflection is good but bored, what are meaningful and useful things we achieve from this activity?”. This issue needs to be tackled by any efforts starting from the understanding of the nature, a substantive aspect of teacher reflection.

In order to sustain teacher reflection, it is not merely a need, but it should be fruitfully articulated in a meaningful ways. Therefore, teachers should understand the context, the nature of the problem, and the anticipated value of such reflection in all impact on what is reflected on and for what purpose (Loughran, 2002).

Teacher reflection activity in lesson study program does not only apply in “see” phase, but also in “plan” and “do” phases as well. This notion defines teacher reflection as the unity of activity of teacher from lesson planning to reflection session (the context). Overall, teacher will think and reflect on how to develop pedagogical-didactical situation (i.e., teaching and learning situation), the nature of the problem, that fits student learning demands for which promote student learning. From this notion, the authors propose that there are 3 types of teacher reflection (or thinking), what is reflected on, during lesson study implementation: (1) prospective analysis (“plan”); (2) situational analysis (“do”); and (3) retrospective analysis (“see”) (see Table 4). These constitute the substantive aspect of teacher reflection.

Table 4 Proposed frameworks for teacher reflection practices of lesson study Prospective analysis Situational analysis Retrospective analysis

Analysing LTD (learning trajectory design) Analyze possible learning demands and obstacles Identify possible student responses (prediction) and teacher intervention (anticipation) Develop LTD

Analysing ALT (actual learning trajectory) Does prediction and anticipation appear? How is the process? Is there any new response beyond the prediction and how does teacher interfere? Does it work? Do students experience learning obstacles? How to help them?

Analysing LTD vs ALT Analyse student responses (student learning) and how teacher intervenes Analyse learning obstacle and how to overcome it in vise versa Frame and reframe the analysed problem for alternative LTD


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Accordingly, the substance of lesson planning is prospective analysis, that is, analysis of prediction and anticipation to student learning demands. Prospective analysis will produce what is called a LTD. Prospective analysis, therefore, should be discussed during briefing session in order that the observers understand the planned context of teaching and learning processes. On the other hand, situational analysis is applied during lesson implementation in which observers are able to compare between LTD and ALT to understand the nature of pedagogical (teacher-student interaction) and didactical (student-subject matter) situation. During this open lesson session, model teacher thinks, acts and reflects directly to the situation, whereas observers think and reflect as if they are teaching in that situation. Finally, “retrospective analysis” is applied during reflection session in which emphasizes on the nature of inter-relation between teachers’ teaching and students’ learning (teachers’ perspective vs. students’ perspective), analyzed the designed and actual learning trajectory and possible alternative of LTD for future lessons.

The framework views teacher reflection as a holistic process. Through this framework, it is expected that teachers attain a fruitful understanding, articulation, ability to frame and reframe problem from effective reflective practice. Furthermore, it believed that, framework can promote the exploration of teacher tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge that enriches the knowledge base of teaching, artefacts or even the wisdom in practice (i.e., purpose and value of teacher reflection).

5. Concluding remarks

As Stigler and Heibert (1999) stated that, teaching is culture, and so does lesson study. It is believed that at the heart of lesson study is teacher reflection. The need for reflection is that, teacher can develop their understanding about the way they do their work, i.e., to establish their culture of teaching. Therefore, it demands an effective teacher reflection.

It is believed that an effective reflection is based on a sound understanding of the nature and value of teacher reflection. The proposed framework which is considered can promote reflection effectiveness, because it is a holistic way in nature. By using that framework, teachers can make meaning from the situation to understand the practice setting from a variety of viewpoints. In addition, it can impact teachers’ attitude to reflection, such as openmindness, responsibility and wholeheartedness (Loughran, 2002). This belief undepins current effort in so doing as it is being introduced to participating teachers. It is expected that the framework can be a guiding principle to sustain and develop further teacher reflection practice and lesson study in Indonesia.

References: Daryanti. (2007, July). Developing teachers and students’ self-concept through lesson study. Paper presented at National Seminar on

Exchange of Experiences on Best Practices of Lesson Study, July 27th, 2007, FOMASE IUE. Day, C. (1999). Researching teaching through reflective practice. In: Loughran, J. J. (Ed.). Researching teaching: Methodologies and

practices for understanding pedagogy. London: Falmer. Fendler, L. (2003). Teacher reflection in a hall of mirrors: Historical influences and political reverberations. Educational Researcher,

32(3), 16-25. Firman, H. (2007). Critical success factors for developing subject teacher group lesson study: Lessons learnt from Sumedang District

experiences. Paper presented at National Seminar on Exchange of Experiences on Best Practices of Lesson Study, July 27th, 2007, FOMASE UPI.

Hatton, N. & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(1), 33-49.

Hendayana, S., et al. (2007). Lesson study: A strategy to improve educator professionalism (IMSTEP-JICA experiences). Bandung:


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UPI Press. Hoffman, K. P., Artiles, A. J. & Torres, L. L. (2003). Beyond reflection: Teacher learning as praxis. Theory into Practice, 42(3),

248-254. Lesson Study Team UPI. (2006, November). Improving the quality of teacher through lesson study. Paper presented at Indonesian

Teacher Conference: Toward Education Quality, November 2006, Teacher Institute Sampoerna Foundation-Provisi Education, Jakarta, 27-28.

Liliawati, W. & Hikmat. (2007, July). Profiles of teacher ability to observe and to reflect upon lessons, the case of subject teacher group C in Sumendang city. Paper presented at National Seminar on Exchange of Experiences on Best Practices of Lesson Study, July 27th, 2007, FOMASE UPI.

Loughran, J. (2002). Effective reflective practice. In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), 33-43. (In Italic)

Maria, F. & Supriyanti, T. (2007, July). Collegiality as a means of improving teacher self confident in conducting chemistry instruction in junior secondary schools in Situraja region. Paper presented at National Seminar on Exchange of Experiences on Best Practices of Lesson Study, July 27th, 2007, FOMASE UPI.

Stigler, W. S. & Hiebert, J. (1999). The teaching gap: Best ideas from the world’s teachers for improving education in the classroom. New York: The Free Press.

Suratno, T. & Cock, K. J. (2009). A school-university partnership in Indonesia: Lessons learnt from lesson study. In: Lim, C. P., Cock, K., Lock, G. & Brook, C. (Eds.). Innovative practices in pre-service teacher education: An Asia-Pacific perspectives. Rotterdam: Sense Publisher.

Suryadi, D. (2005). Improving the quality of mathematics and science teaching for primary and secondary education in Indonesia. Paper presented on International Seminar on Best Practices in Science and Mathematics Teaching and Learning, National Institute for Educational Policy Research (NIER) and the Asia Pacific program of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID) UNESCO. Bangkok, November 14-18, 2005.

Suryadi, D. (2008). Metapedadidaktik in mathematics lesson: A strategy of self improvement towards professional mathematics teacher. (Professorial Inauguration Lecture of Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia). Bandung, October, 2008.



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Serving, learning and mentoring through the Big Brothers

Big Sisters Program

Thillainatarajan Sivukamaran1, Glenda Holland2, Leonard J. Clark1, Sarah Tyman3, Karen Marissa Boyd1, Patricia Ellerman4

(1. University of Louisiana Monroe, Monroe LA 71209, USA;

2. Texas A & M University Kingsville, Kingsville TX 78363, USA;

3. Big Brothers Big Sisters of Northeast Louisiana, Monroe LA 71202, USA;

4. Jack Hayes Elementary School, Monroe LA 71203, USA)

Abstract: This study describes the collaborative partnership between a Big Brothers Big Sisters organization, an elementary school and the College of Education at a public university. The partnership utilized a mentoring system consisting of elementary students, college students, elementary teachers and university faculty. Benefits of the various stakeholders are discussed.

Key words: education; mentoring; partnerships; collaboration

1. Introduction

The idea for BBBS (Big Brothers and Big Sisters) was conceived in 1906 by New York City court clerk Ernest Coulter who noticed a trend in the same troubled young boys who kept appearing in court. Concerned for their welfare, Coulter started the Big Brothers organization, which then spread rapidly throughout the country. The Big Sisters organization was later formed and the two officially merged in 1977 to become an international organization, that is now operating in 35 different countries across the world. For over 100 years, BBBS of America has been the leader in one-to-one youth mentoring, developing positive relationships that have a direct impact on the lives of children and youth (Karcher & Herrera, 2007).

BBBS of Northeast Louisiana was founded in 1998. Their core mission is, “To create hopeful futures for children and youth through professionally supported one-to-one mentoring relationships with measurable outcomes”. This statement accurately communicates the conviction of the BBBS of Northeast Louisiana and captures the dream of the visionaries, who believed that mentoring could make a difference in the lives of children.

BBBS of Northeast Louisiana has partnered with various schools to work with young students. Jack Hayes Elementary School has participated in the BBBS Program for 4 years. During that time, student participation

Thillainatarajan Sivukamaran, Ph.D., assistant dean, University of Louisiana Monroe; research fields: electronic assessment

systems, service learning. Glenda Holland, professor, chair, educational leadership and counseling, Texas A & M University Kingsville; research fields:

leadership, assessment. Leonard J. Clark, Ed.D., assistant professor, University of Louisiana Monroe; research fields: teacher preparation, service learning. Sarah Tyman, partnership and resource development coordinator of Big Brothers Big Sisters of Northeast Louisiana; research field:

service learning. Karen Marissa Boyd, M.Ed., instructor, University of Louisiana Monroe; research field: education. Patricia Ellerman, M.Ed., assistant principal, Jack Hayes Elementary School; research fields: education, service learning.

Serving, learning and mentoring through the Big Brothers Big Sisters Program

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greatly increased from 6 to 47 students and continues to increase, as more mentors become trained and available to participate in the program. BBBS has also collaborated with institutions of higher education, such as the University of Louisiana Monroe, to work with their teacher education candidates who serve as mentors (Bigs) to P-12 students (Littles).

This study examined the benefits of various stakeholders in the partnership between the BBBS of Northeast Louisiana, Jack Hayes Elementary School and the ULM (University of Louisiana Monroe). Questions addressed in this study are: (1) How do P-12 students who participate in the BBBS Program benefit? (2) How does BBBS benefit by having a collaborative partnership with the ULM? (3) How do teacher education candidates who participate in the BBBS Program benefit? and finally (4) How do Jack Hayes Elementary School children benefit by participating in the BBBS Program?

2. Literature review

Over the last 10 years, mentoring has seen unprecedented growth. This growth has been particularly noticeable in SBM (school-based mentoring), which is a relatively new form of mentoring, bringing mentors into schools to meet with students. A national poll conducted by MENTOR (2006) estimates that, close to 870,000 adults are mentoring children in schools. This estimate does not include the thousands of high school-aged volunteers currently mentoring in schools. This growth shows that, individuals are working towards finding their purpose and meaning of life.

One of the strengths for SBM is that, staff can supervise mentor-mentee matches at the school. Due to the direct supervision of the matches, other groups of mentors, including high school and college-aged individuals who may prefer or require the additional structure of the school context and on-site supervision, can be involved (Karcher, 2005b). Additionally, because teachers nominate students for the program, SBM can reach children whose parents might not have the resources necessary to seek out mentoring services for them (Herrera, 1999). The school context may also provide mentors with salient opportunities to influence school-related outcomes. For example, the mentor’s presence may provide youth an incentive to come to school more often and a disincentive to misbehave or drop out of school; some school-based mentors may even become a voice or advocate for the children at school (Herrera, 1999).

It is surprising that, even with the understanding of how much a mentor may affect a child’s life, in the past, teachers and teacher education students were not more involved in taking a proactive approach to the youth of today. Teacher education instructors have long been concerned with doing valiant work in preparing candidates to use effective teaching strategies to teach content and address the needs of diverse learners as well as assessing their learning, but have not as steadfastly involved teacher candidates in offering services to the community of students they may someday teach. A review of current research supports the notion that, children with mentors are less likely to abuse drugs, skip school and engage in violence or other risky behaviors. In addition, students with mentors are more likely to perform well academically due to improved confidence.

3. Methodology

In an effort to bring meaningful service learning programs to the teacher education program at the ULM, the College of Education and Human Development collaborated with BBBS of Northeast Louisiana. Teacher education candidates (Bigs) were paired with students (Littles) in P-12 schools that participate with the BBBS.


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Bigs mentored Littles for one semester (approximately 4 months). During this time, the Big-Little pairs met weekly for an hour at schools, such as Jack Hayes Elementary School. In these meetings, the Bigs did a variety of activities, such as playing basketball, tutoring, simply talking or helping the Littles with homework.

At the end of the semester, teacher education candidates were surveyed on their perceptions of serving as mentors in the BBBS Program. Additionally, observation data from faculty members who supervised or taught these students during that semester was logged. Outside evaluators conducted annual evaluation in 2009 of the BBBS Program and the data from that evaluation were used to evaluate the effect of the mentoring programs on the Littles. Additionally, the end of the year data collected by Jack Hayes Elementary School on disciplinary issues provided data regarding the effects of the BBBS mentoring program on the Littles. Interviews with administrators and staff of the BBBS Program provided qualitative data on the benefits of the partnership between the College of Education and Human Development at the ULM and the BBBS of Northeast Louisiana.

4. Results

4.1 Benefits to Littles There are great benefits for Littles who participate in the BBBS Program. In a study conducted in 2009 by an

outside evaluator for BBBS of Northeast Louisiana, statistics showed that 59% of participants improved in class participation, class preparedness, behavior and attitude, 70% improved in core academic subjects, 84% demonstrated improved self-confidence and 68% improved in their relationships with peers and adults. Not only do Littles display advancement in all of these areas, but they also get the added advantage of having a positive role model in their lives. A Big Brother or Sister is not only a child’s mentor, but also a friend on which the children can count regardless of what happens in the children’s life. Research shows that nearly 3 in 5 Littles (59%) are being raised by a grandparent or single parent due to a variety of family dynamics, such as incarceration, divorce, death or an absent parent. These children are exposed to greater vulnerability to being involved in high-risk behaviors, because they may not always have someone at home that they can look up to for companionship and unwavering support.

4.2 Benefits to teacher education students & faculty (Bigs) After only a year of partnership with Big Brothers Big Sisters, the college found that participation has

influenced the teacher education program on two distinct fronts: one from the perspective of an instructor in the teacher education program, and the other from the perspective of teacher education candidates themselves. Instructors found affirmation that, every teacher education program should have a component of mentoring and service learning, such as that offered by the BBBS or another similar program. In addition, university faculty are firmly convinced that they can better recognize and address dispositions, such as those requiring listening skills and reflective language used by teachers to help students resolve personal conflicts. Finally, the involvement of BBBS with teacher education candidates has allowed faculty to make informed decisions that can help candidates find relevance and congruity in teaching as an art and science.

Any influential perspectives relative to the mentoring experience teacher education candidates have had with BBBS can best be reported by the teacher education candidates themselves. A survey conducted on 39 teacher education candidates revealed that 47.4% of candidates were initially either neutral or disagreed with the idea of participating in the BBBS Program before the semester started. However, after participating in the program, 76.3% agreed they felt positively about participating in the program. Additionally, 71% said they would


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recommend the program to others. Importantly, 66% reported that participating in the program will help them as educators. After the required semester, 9 candidates continued serving as mentors.

Through observation, the authors were able to see obvious growth and understanding of differences in students in terms of race, ethnicity, culture and the community in which they live. This evidence was illustrated in class discussions and informal comments that indicated what began as a course requirement quickly became what should be found in the dispositions of one who has chosen the teaching profession. As the semester drew to a close, it was apparent that it was more important that the teacher education candidates made the best of their limited time to positively influence the life of the young person they mentored.

The university was able to count the Bigs’ volunteer hours toward grant requirements. This partnership provided the university with an opportunity to implement the model with other local universities and community colleges. University faculty strongly feel that, the academic development of the teacher education candidates and those whom they mentored, as well as the faculty’s own instructional experiences, have been enhanced by this partnership and engagement with BBBS of Northeast Louisiana.

4.3 Benefits to the school Of 661 students, approximately 5% of P-12 student population does not respond to traditional disciplinary

methods. These students may be emotionally disturbed or suffer from some other behavior related or environmental disorder. The BBBS Program has been especially effective with these particular students. Jack Hayes Elementary School saw a 60% drop in disciplinary issues among the most violent and/or behavior disordered students. This decrease in disciplinary issues was attributed in part, to the students’ participation in the BBBS Program. The Bigs were able to teach the Littles correct replacement behaviors through activities they did with each other during their weekly visits to the school. The relationships formed between the Bigs and Littles during these visits were of mutual respect. This respect carried over to the classroom and could be discerned through relationships the students grew with their teachers and classmates. The academic achievement of these students amplified due to increased compliance to classroom rules and to the goals students set for themselves in cooperation with their Bigs. The Littles could not wait to show their Bigs test papers or behavior reports when they showed improvement!

The enthusiasm the Littles had for the BBBS Program was conspicuous. Students eagerly awaited the arrival of their Bigs each week, and the disappointment was evident on students’ faces when they were occasionally unable to meet on their designated day. The faculty and staff of Jack Hayes Elementary School look forward to continued participation in the BBBS of America program.

4.4 Benefits to BBBS The BBBS of Northeast Louisiana organization also benefited greatly from the partnership with the ULM.

The organization gained visibility with attendance increases among volunteers as well as cash and in-kind donations through publicity and promotions throughout the community. They also attended the ULM College of Education and Human Development’s showcase and convocation, a field trip coordinated by ULM for the Littles, and participated in the college’s fundraising gala. A great benefit of the partnership was that BBBS could count on ULM’s College of Education and Human Development’s professors for any support needed to further the mission of the organization, whether it was a letter of support for BBBS’ grant initiatives, or for participation in the annual fundraiser. Perhaps the biggest benefit to the BBBS Program was that, the members were able to increase their capacity to serve more children in one-to-one mentoring relationships as a result of this partnership. Each semester, they are guaranteed mentors through the university’s curriculum 386 class.


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The mentors in this partnership, who are future teachers, will be great resources for the schools they will eventually work for by being able to share their experience with BBBS. Whether they are encouraging the Big BBBS Program to expand at their schools or introduce the program to schools, they will be helping the organization to further its mission by reaching out to more children in more schools.

5. Conclusion

The partnership created by this mentoring program allows each participant to benefit in multiple ways. The ones who benefit most are the Littles who, because of the partnership between the university, BBBS and the schools, can benefit from mentors who serve as a wonderful resource and support. Teacher education candidates (Bigs) also gain invaluable personal and educational experiences in return for working with Littles. They gain the opportunity to make a difference in the lives of those in need while learning about themselves, the lives and the cultures of students like ones they will one day teach. The teacher education program at ULM gained a valuable learning experience for its candidates through this partnership, an experience that might never be taught in a classroom. Jack Hayes Elementary School benefits from having teacher education candidates in their school to help their students in countless positive ways. Lastly, BBBS of Northeast Louisiana benefits from being able to continuously promote strong social and civic commitments within a successful program.

References: Herrera, C. (1999). School-based mentoring: A first look at its potential. Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures. Karcher, M. J. (2005a, March). Mentoring Latino adolescents in schools: What program practices and mentor characteristics are

most important? San Antonio: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools. Karcher, M. J. (2005b). Cross-age peer mentoring. In: DuBois, D. L. & Karcher, M. J. (Eds.). Handbook of youth mentoring.

Thousand Oaks, C.A.: Sage Publications, 266-285. Karcher, M. J. (2005c). The effects of school-based developmental mentoring and mentors’ attendance on mentees’ self-esteem,

behavior, and connectedness. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 65-77. Karcher, M. & Herrera, C. (2007). Issue 6: School-based mentoring. In: Rhodes, J. E. (Ed.). Research in action. Alexandria, V.A.:

MENTOR/National Mentoring Partnerst State of Mentoring. Retrieved April 23, 2007, from http://www.mentoring.org/leaders/fi les/pollreport.pdf.



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Development of the social network b-learning in the University of Alicante

Francisco Miguel Martínez-Verdú, María José Rodríguez Jaume, Herminia Provencio Garrigós, Jasone Mondragón-Lasagabaster, Juan Ramón Rico-Juan, Juan Ignacio Ferreiro Prieto, Mar Iglesias, Natalia

Albaladejo-Blázquez, María Dolores de Fez Sáiz, Valentín Viqueira Pérez, José Tomás García García, Mª Dolores Fernández-Pascual, Enar Ruiz-Conde, Begoña Lucía Fuster García, Josefa Parreño-Selva, Diana Jareño Ruiz,

Esther Perales Romero, Elísabet Chorro Calderón (University of Alicante, Alicante E-03690, Spain)

Abstract: This work describes the genesis, articulation and consolidation from 2007 of a social network of b-learning (blended learning) in the UA (University of Alicante) (Spain), with the institutional backing of the Office of the Vice President for Education Technology and Innovation, and the momentum and advice of professor Angel Fidalgo (UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) chair for University of Management and Policy). The social network currently has more than 25 teachers, working on different work linkages with the university, implementing or intending to apply the teaching methodology

Francisco Miguel Martínez-Verdú, Ph.D., professor, Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante; research fields: color science and technology, visual ergonomics.

María José Rodríguez Jaume, Ph.D., professor, Department of Sociology I, University of Alicante; research field: sociology of the population.

Herminia Provencio Garrigós, Ph.D., professor, Department of Spanish Studies, General Linguistics and Literature Theory, University of Alicante; research fields: Spanish language, technology, b-learning.

Jasone Mondragón-Lasagabaster, Ph.D., professor, Department of Communications and Social Psychology, University of Alicante; research fields: compensatory education, mediation, conflict resolution.

Juan Ramón Rico-Juan, Ph.D., professor, Department of Software and Computing Systems, University of Alicante; research fields: pattern recognition, edit distances, nearest neighbor techniques, prototypes selection.

Juan Ignacio Ferreiro Prieto, Ph.D., professor, Department of Graphic Expression and Cartography, University of Alicante; research field: graphic expression applied research in geographic information systems.

Mar Iglesias, professor, Department of Communication and Social Psychology, University of Alicante; research field: cyberjournalism.

Natalia Albaladejo-Blázquez, professor, Department of Health Psychology, University of Alicante; research field: psychology of crime.

María Dolores de Fez Sáiz, Ph.D., professor, Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante; research field: visual perception and psychophysics.

Valentín Viqueira Pérez, Ph.D., professor, Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante; research field: visual perception and visual ergonomics.

José Tomás García García, Ph.D., professor, Department of Sociology II, University of Alicante; research fields: evaluation, social structure, sociology of development, gender studies, world system, social participation and participatory research methods.

Mª Dolores Fernández-Pascual, professor, Department of Health Psychology, University of Alicante; research field: psychology of crime.

Enar Ruiz-Conde, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Finance, Accounting and Marketing, University of Alicante; research fields: diffusion of innovations, pharma marketing, innovation in higher education.

Begoña Lucía Fuster García, Ph.D., lecturer, Department of Applied Economic Analysis and Inter-university Institute of International Economics, University of Alicante; research field: international economics.

Josefa Parreño-Selva, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Finance, Accounting and Marketing, University of Alicante; research field: price promotions.

Diana Jareño Ruiz, researcher, Department of Sociology I, University of Alicante; research field: adoptions international in Spain. Esther Perales Romero, Ph.D., Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante; research field: color

science and technology. Elísabet Chorro Calderón, Ph.D. candidate, Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante; research

field: colour science and technology.


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b-learning during the course 2007-2008 in a variety of courses and degrees. To do so, several resource centers (blogs, wikis, Wimba Create (before CourseGenie), etc.), and digital platforms (Virtual Campus of the UA, Moodle, etc.) are used.

Key words: b-learning; Internet-based technologies; education practice trends and issues; tutoring and coaching; educational software; computer-supported collaborative work

1. Introduction

A social network is a direct consequence of the Web 2.0 approach, where members communicate and exchange resources through a digital communication platform, but always from a point of view of cooperative (bringing together) and team (distribution of tasks) work. Therefore, any social network builds a clear strategy of cooperative and teamwork among its members, some tools, mainly a software package for development (blogs, wikis and networks), a centre/communication forum for sharing resources, providing both individually and generated in the group, and in particular, it implements a context where resources can be applied. In the case of a social network in educational innovation, the context is focused on teaching practice at any level: pre-college, university, etc. And, paradigms and methodologies for teachers to apply or test can be more like b-learning (blended learning), e-learning (electronic learning), etc., but it is also possible to practice the various roles of a teacher, such as situational leadership. The main motivations that encourage a teacher to participate in social networks of educational innovation can be numerous, but at least some, such as the following are widespread among teachers. These are quality, dedication to service, empathy and excellence.

The social network of UA (University of Alicante) b-learning aims to bring together teachers, administration staff, and even UA students who are concerned with and interested in educational innovation, particularly in b-learning, i.e., the combined strengths of the master class (as a paradigm example of teaching) and ICTs (information and communication technologies) to promote the active participation (individual, collective and cooperative) of the students and teachers in virtual activities that strengthen the paradigm based on learning and serving to improve the academic performance of the students. This aspect is key to achieving the objectives set by the guidelines of the European Higher Education Area, and the UA objective to boost strategic and tactical levels over the next few years in order to achieve a high level of teaching quality differential over other competing universities and institutions. Therefore, this network of educational innovation will try to do as much as possible to ensure that the global future of the UA involves a model of quality and excellent practice in b-learning teaching.

This social network is intended to be a cooperative vision of Web 2.0 development (strategy), a set of software for development (blogs, wikis, Wimba Create, Moodle, etc.) to share resources (design and organization of learning contents, feed-back methods for students, tutorials, management indicators, such as the depletion curve, the factor of humanization, etc.) and context (subjects of the degrees) where resources can be applied. In this way, the main objective of this social network is that the whole collective research and teaching staff of the University of Alicante knows and implements, where appropriate, and with the support of administrative staff, the potential of the b-learning methodology in their teaching practice to achieve excellent levels of quality and academic performance (see Figure 1).


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Figure 1 Schemes for marking the differences between paradigms Web 1.0 and 2.0

2. Description and methodology

The core team of this network comes after attending a b-learning course (http://www.ua.es/ice/seminarios/ 2007/blearning.html) at the UA in spring, 2007 and given by professor Angel Fidalgo. It is a multidisciplinary and heterogeneous team, since the original members of the network cover different knowledge bases, skills and teaching methods, representing a wide variety of courses and degrees at the UA, but with great motivation, commitment and initiative to share teaching experiences and resources in the b-learning format. The network includes teachers associated different subjects and degrees (see Figure 2), including 3-year programms (management computing, optics and optometry, public management and administration, public works engineering, real estate studies, social work, etc.), 4-year programms (administration and business management, advertising and public relations, criminology, economics, psychopedagogy, sociology, etc.), 5-year programms (computer engineering, etc.) and official postgraduate programms (advanced optometry and vision sciences, marketing and market investigation, nursing science, etc.). From the beginning of the 2008-2009 course, some students from the final graduate and postgraduate courses have been incorporated.

Then, with the logistic support, both in human and technical resources, of the VRTIE-UA (Office of the Vice President for Education Technology and Innovation) and the ICE-UA (Education Sciences Institute), the authors want to develop some actions as follows:

(1) Sharing teaching experiences (bazaar model) of individual initiatives using blogs, wikis and the own learning content management digital platform, Virtual Campus (CVirtual-UA, the own learning content management system);

(2) Joining in complementary training courses about b-learning methods, both at the methodological level (design and generation of interactive educational documents using CourseGenie, now called Wimba Create, assessment modules, etc.) and the technological level (Moodle, etc.);


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Figure 2 Teaching staff and students of the b-learning social network of the UA

(3) Joining in any events related with educational innovation networks, and especially those related with b-learning methodology;

(4) Supporting the VRTIE-UA and ICE-UA in disclosure and training initiatives of new educational innovation methods, both internally through departments, centres and student unions, and externally, as an additional signal of the social projection of UA and in non-university training centres;

(5) Supporting to the VRTIE-UA and ICE-UA in training and joint actions of new teachers, managers and students for the social network.

At present, and from the last course, through the CVirtual-UA, the “Working Group” tool provides a resource centre trying to cover such activities as: (1) implementation experiences of blog and wikis for subjects; (2) external and internal dissemination of the social network; (3) CourseGenie (now Wimba Create) use in teaching; (4) Moodle use in teaching; (5) assessment strategies; (6) cooperative work management; (7) individually-directed work management; (8) teaching guides applying b-learning methodology, etc.

Part of this social network was stated as research network in university education, with some interests focused on: (1) design and implementation of teaching methodologies for development of competences and skills, and promotion of active participation and team work; (2) innovative methodological plans; (3) implementations of training evaluation; and (4) generation and implementation of curricula documentation.

3. Teaching experience results

Now it can show some examples of individual contributions from some network members, using for example, MSWord plug-in CourseGenie (now Wimba Create) for designing and generation teaching documents for in-classroom and virtual sessions, or classroom blogs, etc. In this way, for instance, it will be possible to progress in the development of educational documents suitable for networking members, when new opportunities occur,


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and prepare and request new educational innovation projects, such as the OpenCourseWare at the UA. 3.1 Visual ergonomics, degree in optics and optometry The most relevant features of this subject are: (1) classroom blog: http://blogs.ua.es/verduset70/ category/ergonomia-visual/; (2) feed-back in-class sessions intercalated among virtual sessions; (3) continuous assessment (see Table 1): participation in blog, short presentation using GoogleDocs or

PowerPoint (see Figure 3) by teacher coaching (situational leadership); (4) informal survey distributed at the end of the course about strong and weak points and improvement

suggestions for this subject.

Figure 3 Instructions in Spanish language inside the classroom blog for doing in team work the short presentations on

classroom at the end of the course for the subject visual ergonomics

Table 1 Results for continuous assessment (maximum 50% of total mark) in the same course, taking into account several activities: opinion, solved numerical problems, webquest and short presentations

Student number Opinion Solved problems Webquest Short presentation Total/10 1 9 10.00 7.78 8.50 8.71 2 3 0.00 1.11 9.00 5.02 3 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4 3 0.00 2.22 0.00 0.74 5 2 0.00 1.11 0.00 0.42 6 3 0.00 1.11 9.50 5.27 7 8 10.00 6.67 9.50 8.88 8 9 10.00 4.44 8.50 8.04 9 10 10.00 7.78 8.50 8.81

10 7 10.00 4.44 8.50 7.84 11 9 10.00 6.67 8.50 8.48 12 7 6.67 3.33 8.50 6.95 13 3 0.00 1.11 0.00 0.52


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3.2 Demographic analysis, degree in sociology The most relevant features of this subject are: (1) proactive tutoring (see Figure 4) using the tool “debate” in CVirtual; (2) hypermedia teaching documents for virtual sessions (see Figure 5) including in some cases

auto-assessment questions; (3) hypermedia teaching documents for in-classroom sessions (see Figure 6).

Figure 4 Examples in Spanish of several pro-active tutoring activities for the subject demographic analysis

(to be continued)


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Figure 5 Examples in Spanish of a virtual session (top) and its associated hypermedia teaching document

(bottom) for the subject demographic analysis

Figure 6 Example in Spanish of a hypermedia teaching document for an in-classroom session of

the subject demographic analysis

3.3 Graphic expression for engineering, civil engineering The most relevant features of this subject are: (1) group work tool from CVirtual-UA for students (see Figure 7); (2) webquest activities (see Figure 8) in CVirtual-UA.


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Figure 7 Example in CVirtual-UA of a group work tool applied to teaching experience with students

Webquest: Diseño en Ingeniería por Ordenador y Diseño Gráfico en Ingeniería civil

Introduction: Para definir la posición de un punto de interés, un edificio, un pueblo... sobre la superficie terrestre necesitamos definir un Sistema de Coordenadas. Para definir la posición de un punto sobre un plano o un mapa también necesitamos utilizar un Sistema de Coordenadas. Questions: 1. ¿Qué es un sistema de coordenadas? 2. ¿Qué sistemas de coordenadas puedes utilizar para situar un punto en el plano? 3. ¿Que sistemas de coordenadas puedes utilizar para situar un punto en el espacio? 4. ¿Qué sistema de coordenadas utilizas para situar un punto sobre la superficie terrestre? 5. ¿Cuáles son sus características? Resources: http://www.fpolar.org.ve/matematica2/fasciculo5.pdf http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Mcelcoor.htm http://www.personal.us.es/cshoyo/fisicaii/cil_esf.pdf http://html.rincondelvago.com/coordenadas-cilindricas-y-esfericas.html http://www.gr.ssr.upm.es/eym/www/eym1/sld0011.htm http://www.gr.ssr.upm.es/eym/www/eym1/sld0014.htm http://www.aularagon.org/files/espa/Atlas/longlatitud_index.htm http://www.sitiosespana.com/paginas/coordenadas.htm http://www.cartesia.org/data/apuntes/cartografia/cartografia-geograficas.pdf http://www.elgps.com/documentos/utm/coordenadas_utm.html Final question: ¿Qué relación existe ente el sistema de Coordenadas que se utiliza para localizar un punto sobre la superficie terrestre y el sistema de coordenadas que utilizas para localizar un punto en un plano o en un mapa?

Figure 8 Example in Spanish of webquest activity focused on systems of coordinates, raised for the subjects of design in engineering and graphical design in civil engineering


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3.4 New ITCs in teaching Spanish and English as second/foreign languages The most relevant features of this subject are: (1) OpenCourseWare guide (see Figure 9); (2) Classroom blog: http://blogs.ua.es/ticsl2le/2008/06/19/objetivo-de-este-blog/; (3) Hypermedia teaching documents for virtual sessions (see Figure 10); (4) Icons for teaching activities (see Table 2); (5) Student comments in video format about the virtual activities of this subject: http://ticsl2le.ning.com/

video/comentarios-sobre-la-docencia9, http://ticsl2le.ning.com/video/video2008_1216_224849-1.

Figure 9 OpenCourseWare guide in Spanish of the subject NTICs in teaching Spanish and

English as second/foreign languages

Figure 10 Examples of hypermedia teaching documents in Spanish of the subject NTICs in teaching

Spanish and English as second/foreign languages


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Table 2 Examples of icons used in “new ITCs” subject to design hypermedia teaching activities

Activity>virtual>individual>specific topic>reading and visualizing

Activity>in-classroom>collaborative>specific topic>key activity for topic

Tutoring>in-office>collaborative (even virtual-type)

3.5 Marketing strategy and simulation, masters in marketing and markets investigation, Faculty of Economic and Business Sciences Administration

This subject focuses on commercial policy decisions and marketing strategies in a virtual market. Within this kind of market, the students have to use a simulation game to adopt commercial decisions. In this context, the CVirtual-UA allows the authors to incorporate innovative educational and teaching techniques. For example, the most relevant features of this subject are:

(1) Virtual computer classroom (see Figure 11): In this page, the students of the UA can access the simulation program, among others, from everywhere;

Figure 11 Virtual computer classroom in the CVirtual-UA

Figure 12 Example of proactive tutoring using the “debate” tool for the subject “marketing strategy and simulation”


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(2) Proactive tutoring (see Figure 12) using the tool “debate” in CVirtual-UA: It allows the members of each group of students to communicate amongst themselves and also with the teacher, in order to take the commercial decisions for the simulation game. However, this information is not accessible to the other students of the subject;

(3) Hypermedia teaching documents for in-classroom sessions. 3.6 Spanish economy, degree in economics, Faculty of Economic and Business Sciences Administration The most relevant features of this subject are: (1) Institutional RUA (Repository of the University of Alicante): RUA offers open access to full-text online

documents generated by UA members in their academic and research activity. Several documents about the subject Spanish economy have been placed on RUA (see Figures 13 and 14);

Figure 13 Example of a document, “regional disparities”, for the subject “Spanish economy” in the

institutional repository of the UA

Figure 14 Example of statistics of a document, “regional disparities”, for the subject “Spanish economy” in the

institutional repository of the UA


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(2) OCW-UA (OpenCourseWare-UA): The syllabus of the subject Spanish economy (contents, aims, methodology, bibliography, resources, notes, didactic, practical activities, exercises, etc.) is offered freely and it is accessible universally in OCW-UA (see Figure 15);

(3) Proactive tutoring/teaching interaction using tool “debates” in the CVirtual-UA.

Figure 15 Example of UA’s OCW for the subject “Spanish economy”

3.7 Physiological optics, degree in optics and optometry The most relevant characteristics of this course are: (1) tutoring activities/group debates (see Figure 16) by means of the tool “debates” of the CVirtual-UA; (2) resources for the virtual sessions (see Figure 17), including for all the topics the accomplishment of

activities and self-assessing questionnaires; (3) resources for a practical in-classroom session (see Figure 18).

Figure 16 Examples (in Spanish) of debates in the physiological optics course


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(to be continued)


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Figure 17 Example of virtual session (in Spanish) in the CVirtual-UA along with the available resources, the offer of

self-work activities and self-assessment questions for the physiological optics course

Figure 18 Example (in Spanish) of a hypermedia document for a practical in-classroom session for

physiological optics course

3.8 Psychopaths and multiple killers The general objective addressed is that, the student should acquire the necessary bases for responsible

learning focused on developing their competence and skills in the subject psychopaths and multiple killers, all of


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which is implemented by applying a b-learning teaching methodology and the student-centered learning paradigm. The lecturer makes use of the CVirtual-UA work tool which is the distance learning platform most commonly

used at the UA. This platform has organized all the resources through the “sessions” option, in which the tasks that the student is required to perform both in class and online are indicated for each block of subjects.

Efforts are made to ensure that the contents provided are varied, clear in design, with an internal structure, presence of visual elements, etc., providing clear explanations in documents, structuring the organization of information and using summaries, diagrams and examples which all makes the student comprehension and study more flexible.

Figure 19 shows a diagram of the 3rd session in which themes on the definition and aetiology of multiple killers are raised. As may be seen, students are provided with the following sections:

(1) PowerPoint presentations concerned with the various themes of the subject addressed during contact classes; (2) Online activity indicating that, students should watch an audiovisual presentation which may be found on

the attached web link as well as carry out exercises which they should subsequently send through the assessment option “checks” provided by the CVirtual-UA for evaluation by teaching staff;

(3) Web links; (4) Bibliography pertaining to the session.

Figure 19 Example of virtual session (in Spanish) in the CVirtual-UA


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4. Future trends and issues

With the support of VRTIE-UA and ICE-UA, a new step to consolidate this social network will be the external projection of the current resources centre (opened projects inside of “work team” in CVirtual). The authors want to do this by generating a website, a blog and a wiki for this network, and even other cooperative and teamwork tools, such as Google Docs, or any free type-LCMS digital platform which permits interaction among members and active participation of observers (non-members), etc. Therefore, in the near future, more advances to the educational initiatives shown above will be described.

5. Conclusion

The UA (Spain) wants to boost, as a differential quality signal in educational innovation, the b-learning teaching methodology among its teaching and management staff and students. The genesis, articulation and consolidation from 2007 of a social network focused on b-learning within UA was described with the institutional backing of the Office of the Vice President for Education Technology and Innovation, the Education Sciences Institute, and the momentum and advice of professor Angel Fidalgo (UNESCO Chair for University Management and Policy). The current work shows that the advances developed along the last and current courses in many degrees to articulate and consolidate this educational social network, which has allowed people to share teaching experiences in b-learning methodology following a preliminary strategic plan in order to both internally and externally project this network into pre-university and university environments.

References: Bartolomé, A. R. (2001). Teaching method for distance education. Retrieved from

http://www.e-learning21.org/website/index2.php? option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=20. Bautista, G. & Borges, F. (2001). Methodologic proposal for higher education in virtual environments: An experience based on the

student participation. Oral communication presented in the First Meeting on Application of New Technologies in On-Classroom and Virtual Teaching, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU.

Bautista, P., Borges, S. & Forés, I. M. (2001). University art of teaching in virtual environments of learning-teaching. Madrid: Nancea.

Cabero, J. & Llorente, M. (2007). The interaction in network learning. Use of tools, analysis elements and educative proposals. RIED (Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia). Retrieved February 20, 2007, from http://www.utpl. edu.ec/ried/index.php?option=com_content&task= view&id=453&Itemid=83.

De Miguel, D. M. (2005). Teaching methods focused on the development of competences: Guidances for promoting the methodologic change in European higher education area. Spanish Ministry of Education and Science, University of Oviedo.

Fidalgo, A. (2009). Educative innovation blog. Retrieved from http://innovacioneducativa.wordpress.com/. Ministry of Education, Spanish Government, Commission for updating of teaching methodogies in the Spanish University. (2006).

Proposals for updating the teaching methodologies in the Spanish university. Retrieved from http://www.lacuestionuniversitaria.upm.es/web/articulo.php?id_articulo=12.

Michavila, F. (2004). Study of the education innovations based on ICTs in on-classroom and virtual university teaching. Retrieved from http://liti.dmami.upm.es/elearning2004/.

Martínez, V. F. M. (2009). Universities pioneer blog. Retrieved from http://blogs.ua.es/verduset70/ category/ergonomia-visual/. Office of the Vice President for Education Technology & Innovation. (2009). Education technology & innovation blog. Retrieved

from http://blogs.ua.es/blogvrtie/. Provencio, G. H. (2008). Teaching guidance of the subject “new ITCs” in the guidance of second foreign languages. Retrieved from

http://rua.ua.es/dspace/handle/10045/8962. Pérez, B. R. & Mestre, G. U. (2007). Monograph on b-learning or bimodal learning. La Habana: Editorial Universitaria. Pérez, I. (2007). Design of treasure hunt. Retrieved from http://www.isabelperez.com/webquest/taller/treasure3.htm. Salinas, J. (2004). Teaching innovation and ICTs use in university teaching. Journal of University and Knowledge Society, 1(1).



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Are practical activities and ICTs important? Thoughts and practice of a

physics teacher

Saúl Alejandro Contreras Palma (Department of Education, University of Santiago de Chile, Santiago 8330001, Chile)

Abstract: The influence of teachers’ beliefs in curriculum implementation has been explored in a number of contexts. With the aim of describing curricular beliefs about practical activities in laboratory and ICT (information and communication technology) resources, and the relationship between thinking and practice, the author has carried out the case study of a physics teacher, both in his classroom activities and those in laboratory. The sources of information include field notes, questionnaire, interviews, planning and class observation. The results indicate that, what teachers believe is not the same as what they do, appearing more constructive in thinking and more traditional in practice. For example, they believe that ICT must be used to teach science, however, in practice, the most utilized resource is the textbook. The author considers that, taking into account this kind of incoherence is essential in order to reflect about teachers’ knowledge of sciences, practices and the relationship between these.

Key words: beliefs; resources; planning; activities; ICT

1. Theoretical framework

1.1 The new resources in the teaching of sciences Since textbooks, one of the most widely instruments used by teachers, it comes to incorporate informatics

means in educational activities. It is particularly in the teaching of science where this trend has gained more relevance. Nowadays, the use of the PC (personal computer) in physics laboratories is quite frequent for the processing of experimental data and carrying out virtual practices and simulations. Thus, it is not surprising to encounter a science laboratory with management programs, interfaces and sensors, all of which has offered a number of advantages. For example, simulations have allowed to reproduce natural phenomena which is hardly observable in a direct way. Computer-assisted experimental activities have permitted to increase the quality, quantity, speed, storage and security in data collection (Martínez & Parrilla, 1994). Another advantage is that, laboratory practices can be developed in a way that the student is in physical contact and be able to manipulate the instruments, devices and instrumental required for the experiment.

Nevertheless, the use of ICT (information and communication technology) and NT (new technology) alone is no guaranty of improvement in the teaching and learning processes in formal educational contexts. In fact, in reform contexts, the results are far from a qualitative change and it has generated a continuity effect of the traditional models rather than changes in teachers’ practices (Sierra & Perales, 2000; Smith & Southerland, 2007). Research indicates that, which teachers and students do in classrooms that incorporate ICT may not differ much from what was used to be done in the classroom before ICT incorporation (Colomina, Onrubia & Rochera, 2001;

Saúl Alejandro Contreras Palma, Ph.D., Department of Education, University of Santiago de Chile; research fields: science

teacher’s beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, science teacher thinking, pedagogical knowledge of science content.

Are practical activities and ICTs important? Thoughts and practice of a physics teacher

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Twining, 2002; Pozo, et al., 2006; Barberá, Mauri & Onrubia, 2008). About this, Gil (2007) pointed out that, without an adequate pedagogical focus, the same technologies might have a negative effect. Therefore, rethinking teaching ways, the role of experimental practical activity and the use of new technologies among other aspects, constitute a necessity if what people want is change (Manjares, 2000; SanMartí & Conxuta, 2003; Nieto, Carrillo, González, Montagut & Sanson, 2005).

1.2 Beliefs and practice This pedagogical focus that people talk about does not only refer to the teaching process and the utilization

of diverse activities and/or resources, but moreover, they deal with aspects related to knowledge and professional development of experimental science teachers. Thus, teachers’ thinking plays an important role in this focus for change and beliefs make up for a central element (Porlán & Rivero, 1998; Tardif, 2004).

Beliefs help teachers interpret what is going on in the classroom and guide them towards new challenges, problems or dilemmas, for instance, contents and new curricular materials (Powell & Anderson, 2002). In this sense, they influence about what knowledge must be taught, how to teach them and how to be assessed (Pajares, 1992; Chan & Elliot, 2004). As Tardif (2004) pointed out, practice-related decisions depend on the beliefs and knowledge that teachers posses. For instance, knowing how to design and plan a set of activities involves knowing what, when and how to incorporate diverse activities, such as problems, laboratory practices, questioning, pen and paper activities among others (García & Martínez, 2001; Martínez, et al., 2001, 2002; Bryan, 2003; Bartholomew, Osborne & Ratcliffe, 2004; Wallace & KANG, 2004). Nonetheless, it also involves beliefs, routines and action guidance that allow to predict which and how the activities to carry out in class will be, i.e., how the sequence of actions will be about (Porlán & Rivero, 1998; De Longhi, 2000).

Beliefs are filters and precursors, through which the new learning take place, new actions are considered and practices are changed (Haney & Mcarthur, 2002). In this sense, beliefs correspond to that, which teachers identify as peculiar, believe they do, say they do, say must be done, and that which they think they are going to do or mean to do (Porlán & Rivero, 1998; Bryan, 2003; Contreras, 2009). Therefore, beliefs can also show affective aspects of the teachers’ personality and their personal truths, constituting into informative elements of attitudes, generators of a personal knowledge and a reference for action and change.

Particularly, researches indicate that, experimental science teachers believe that one of the most important purposes of science teaching is the transmission of scientific knowledge and to experiment (Gustafson & Rowell, 1995; Lemberger, Hewson & Park, 1999; Sánchez & Valcárcel, 2000; Gil & Rico, 2003; Luft, Roehrig & Patterson, 2003). Namely, there is the tendency to believe that, teachers must teach oriented by a rather instructional objective (Friedrischen & Dana, 2005). For example, physics teachers believe that, the most important thing is experimentation (Aiello & Sperandeo, 2000; Wallace & KANG, 2004), which is always guided by the scientific method (Rodrigo, 1994; Thomaz, et al., 1996). It has also been found that, science teachers value the procedures, though when linked to practical activities (García & Martínez, 2001; Skamp & Mueller, 2001). In this sense, even though physics teachers tend to incorporate scientific and empirical evidence into their classes, they present serious difficulties for designing and developing experimental activities (Taylor & Dana, 2003). In fact, it has been pointed out that in physics, chemistry and biology teachers, there is a predominance of the traditional tendency in the aspects related to class development (Martínez, et al., 2001, 2002; Azcarate & Cuesta, 2005; Contreras, 2009).

On the other hand, Bryan (2003), researching thinking and its relationship with practice, indicated that science teachers believe in traditional learning and teaching objectives. This is related to the types of activities that teachers develop and discourse in practice (De Longhi, 2000; Bartholomew, Osborne & Ratcliffe, 2004; Treagust,


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Chittleborogh & Mamiala, 2003; WU & Krajcik, 2006). In this line, Peme-Aranega, Mellado, De Longhi, Moreno and Ruiz (2009), in a case study with a physics teacher, stated that the most explicit conceptions are constructivists but these are not related to practice unlike those more implicit and traditional. Meyer, Tabachnick, Hewson, Lemberger and Park (1999) suggested that, there is no relation among the more constructivists with practice (So & Watkins, 2005). This indicates an incoherence between what the teacher believes and does, and in the case that there is a transfer towards practice of that constructivist thinking, it is done in a linear way (Moreno & Azcarate, 2003; Rivero & Porlán, 2004). For example, Richoux and Beaufils (2003) pointed out that, physics teachers believe it is important to plan the laboratory activities, however, with the purpose of knowing what to do with the materials and to achieve students learn the concepts.

Thus, a substantial contribution to the knowledge and teachers’ professional development, and therefore, to the improvement of practical activities development and the use of more and better resources, will be to explore teachers’ thinking and practice and the relationship between these (Skamp & Mueller, 2001). However, as indicated by Martín (2001), it will also be important to focus on the content of beliefs and their relationship to practice. In this sense, the objective that the author set out is to explore the beliefs that a physics teacher possesses and how these are related to their practice, specifically to explore the thinking of a physics teacher, in terms of planning, the development of the teaching and the use of ICT resources and the relationship of this thinking with practice.

2. Methodology

2.1 Context and general description of the case study The work described in this paper is part of a wider research, whose objective is to explore the curricular

beliefs and practices of experimental science teachers in Chile. Particularly, here it describes the case of a physics teacher. Luis has 15 years of experience and is involved in the Advanced Technology in Scientific Education Project (TAVEC, 2002-2006). The purpose of this project is to contribute to improving the quality of science teaching by means of the implementation of a system of LBM (laboratories based on microcomputers) networking and connected to Internet. For this, the teachers involved in the project have been trained from a constructivist perspective, considering for the experimental activities an active role of the student and a cooperative learning.

2.2 The sources of data The data and the results, that are presented and discussed, are collected from a case study. The sources of

data that are analyzed are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Sources of data analyzed in the present study Design and purposes of the course Provided by the course

(design and observation) Class sessions (based on a semi-structured guide provided by the researcher) Questionnaire (beliefs and curricular practice beliefs) Interview (what he does in his classes) Lesson planning (design)

Provided by the participant (a physics teacher, Luis)

Record guide, non-participating observation (T: teacher; S: student)

2.3 The analytical procedure and the categories system The training course had a 30-hour duration, which constituted the first stage of the research. In this stage, the

author observed teachers and recorded in written form data concerning their participation in the developing of the course. In the second stage, it took place the exploration of teachers’ beliefs and curricular practices. For that, the


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author utilized questionnaire, semi-structured interview, didactic unit (experimental activity proposal) and a guide for observing his classes in the laboratory, which correspond to the levels of identification, declarative, design and action respectively.

The categories were proposed in advance and correspond to those proposed in a majority of researches that deal with teaching and their associated curricular beliefs, that is: contents, methodology and assessment as shown in Table 2 (Barquin, 1991; Carrascosa, Fernández, Gil & Orozco, 1991; Rodrigo, 1994; Martínez, et al., 2001, 2002; Luna, 2007; Fernández, Tuset, Pérez & Leyva, 2008; Contreras, 2009).

Table 2 The categories system Category Sub-category

B. Methodology

B.1. Planning B.2. Class development B.3. Adaptation to teaching processes B.4. Motivation and participation B.5. Resources

The data was submitted to a content analysis (Bardín, 1996; Candela, 1999; Martín, 2001; Rivero & Porlán,

2004). The selection and classification of the information units was carried out in function of the categories. Thus, the definitive analysis was carried out in 3 stages: categorization of the units of each source of data (questionnaire, interview and didactic unit), registration guide for class observation, course design and course sessions recording.

Data triangulation is from different sources in each category and data triangulation from different categories. The dimension of the data collected makes it impossible, within the boundaries of a paper, to present the analysis of all the categories. Therefore, given the purpose of this paper, here the author presents the results related to the sub-categories of planning (B.1), class development (B.2) and the resources used (B.5) to teach physics.

3. Presentation and analysis of the results

3.1 Curricular practices observed during the developing of the course In relation to the perfection stage, Luis presented a passive participation, limited to take notes and carry out

the activities the instructor indicated. The most meaningful aspects to be pointed out are: (1) Luis presents a limited knowledge in the handling and use of computers; (2) At the beginning of the course, Luis presents a technological perspective that is characterized by the

scientificity criterion he attempts to put on every activity proposed by the instructor; (3) Although the instructor insists on considering the importance of students ideas in the formulation and

development of the experimental activities, Luis reduces them to conceptual errors that can possibly be clarified with the use of these new technologies;

(4) The didactic unit worked out by Luis during the course (practical activity proposal) follows a recipe structure, in which the students must follow predetermined steps until they reach the elaboration of a final report.

3.2 Beliefs and curricular practices related to class design (B.1) Luis identifies himself with the didactic units to plan his classes, but he considers that, it is more appropriate

to plan in rather structured lessons, which corresponds with his practice beliefs. On the other hand, in the interview, he declares to extract the contents for his class from a diversity of sources, among which he mentions technological means, Internet and textbooks.


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I extract the information for my classes from the knowledge I acquired previously, from the exchange with other teachers, technological means, Internet and textbooks. (Unit 9, Interview)

Moreover, he declares to plan once a week for all courses, always in function of those who advance more rapidly. He comments that teachers should plan with the purpose of extracting the contents that must be taught and follow the official program, since in this way, it is possible to direct, put in order and feedback the work. Following this line, he declares to use planning as a line of action that can enrich his classes.

Teachers should plan their lessons because you achieve order with it, besides, this allows you to take a step back and

get feedback. (Unit 16, Interview)

When analyzing the design of his classes, the author finds that he designs to work on the contents in a preset time and that he sets out to develop contents and activities related to conceptual acquisition mainly.

The heading of this unit is waves and sound. The expected learning outcomes in this unit are: ... The compulsory

minimum contents of this unit are: ... The activities for this unit are: ... The transversal fundamental objectives in this unit are: ... The estimated time is: 8-9 weeks. (Unit 5, Design)

Moreover, although he pretends to work on diverse activities (solving exercises, experimental activities, demonstrative activities and construction of models), he gives special importance to the application of formulas. It is not mentioned in an explicit and detailed way the resources he means to use.

3.3 Beliefs and curricular practices related to class development (B.2) Regarding class development, Luis identifies himself with the notion that contents must be explained

following the textbook that the teachers must facilitate students’ learning with different activities including the restructuration of ideas. However, these practical activities must help prove the theory fundamentally, all of which correspond to his teaching practice beliefs. In a declarative level, Luis states that he does not do the same in all of his classes. He comments that he has 3 types of class: content development classes, practical activities and solving exercises. He explains that the practical activities in laboratory are symmetrical with a work guide through which students must hand in a report.

I don’t always do the same. I have 3 types of classes, one is content development, one is laboratory activities and

another is exercising. In laboratory class, often once or twice a semester, I often bring a work guide, an experimentation equipment that I bring already armed, because it is a bit difficult and they work on the guide. In the first laboratory I make them an entry test with previous concepts and then they develop the experiment using the guide. Of the latter, they must hand in a report that contains a series of steps to follow. (Units 19, 19.1, 19.2, Interview)

On the other hand, he indicates that, in the exercising class he works on the content trough a list of exercises he extracts from the textbook, and when there is not the opportunity of working in the laboratory, he declares to build some models suggested in the textbook and presents them in his classes, the latter with the purpose of achieving the students understanding of how an experiment works.

In exercising class, I take the content and propose a list of exercises. For example, within the textbook there are good

questionnaires with exercises, which they have to solve. (Unit 19.3, Interview)

Luis declares that a teacher must present and work on the content in different ways, with purpose of favoring, the diversity of students or at least having two different ways of delivering the content, because physics contents are very abstract, difficult to explain and apply for the students. Besides, he considers that first there must be a theoretical exposition based on the textbook, then solving exercises in order to apply the content, and finally, a


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practical activity in laboratory.

To teach physics one must search for 2 or more ways for developing a concept, this because science content is an abstract content, difficult and not very applicable. Sometimes, one gets a bit carried away with the theory, that is why I say that, first there must be a theoretical exposition that is generally within the textbooks or some other backing document. After the theoretical part, there must be exercising in order to achieve students’ applying and comprehending. This may be verbal or quantitative and if possible linked to experimentation. (Unit 20, 21, 21.1, Interview)

In addition, Luis says that it is fundamental that the students carry out practical activities in laboratory, however, it is precisely there where his students participate.

I do not see my students with much initiative in the experimental and practical area, it is like they are used to be

given everything. I remember when I was in college, we were given the materials and that was it. We had to figure out how to put the experience together. I think that is the way it is supposed to be but it takes me a lot of effort to have them working. It is fundamental the frequency in which the students go to the laboratory, we go once every semester but the most adequate would be to go once a month. (Unit 26.4, 26.5, 26.6, Interview)

In congruence with what he declares, at a design level, he thinks of developing a variety of activities, among which the author finds practice in laboratory, demonstrative classes, solving exercises and the construction of models. Moreover, the author finds procedural contents, for example, designing, distinguishing, describing, constructing, analyzing, calculating and solving exercises (frequency, period and amplitude). However, the activities focus on the acquisition of concepts and resources are practically not mentioned.

The activities to be developed with the students on this unit are: experiment with stretched strings, vibrating planes

and air in cavities, carrying out and designing experiences to visualize and characterize vibrations. They distinguish frequency, period and amplitude in them; they confirm that frequency and period are inverse; they describe the ear anatomy and relate it to the process of hearing; they analyze the features of the acoustic spectrum distinguishing infrasound, sounds and ultrasounds; they construct a musical using simple elements of sound. (Unit 6, Design)

On the other hand, during the practice, he constantly uses the textbook to explain the content he delivers in his classes and he uses the textbook to extract information, exercises and/or activities.

T: Therefore, it is the distance between the equilibrium point and the mount or valley. Then we go to page 17 in the

textbook to complete the exercises. “B” is the wavelength or length of wave that is symbolized by the letter “٨”. (Unit 35, Class 2)

T: So ... if it is a number, what else can be done? (Students do not respond to the questions made by the teacher) T: Counting ¡¡ ... and what do we use? S: Hour, seconds ... (¡). T: There is an exercise on the page. (Unit 38, Class 2)

During the activities, he constantly gives students instructions about procedures they must follow, both to solve and develop the activities he proposes. Furthermore, he usually uses concept maps he extracts from the textbook and dictates in order that the contents remains written down in students’ notebooks.

T: The first part is only about definitions of concepts, only answer those who know (Students pay attention to what

the teacher says and take notes). T: In the second part of establishing relations: What does it mean to link the concepts and establish two relations

only. (Students write or take notes of what is being explained). T: In the third item, point out units of measurement. S: How many magnitudes do we have to write down? T: All of them ... (¡). (Unit 4, Class 1) (He finishes distributing the textbooks. He requests to observe and analyze first concept map)


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T: There ... you will be able to understand how the content is developed. The first content we will see for the next class will be waves and sound. Though ... the map is not quite clear, right? It is on page 11 with the activities you must do.

T: Therefore, it is necessary to manage waves and sound concepts, you can draw upon the dictionary to elaborate a definition and then ... next class, we will elaborate a definition and then ... a laboratory. (Unit 17, Class 1)

T: Do not forget when I check your notebooks all of that must be written down. T: To represent graphically a wave these diagrams are the most frequently used. You do these “monitos”, the best

you can. (He uses the word “monito”, model or diagram to refer to the same. He draws on the board) (Unit 31, Class 2)

The author finds two types of activities: pen and paper and laboratory practices. For example, the teacher works with two crosswords from the textbook, so the students identify concepts and get to establish relations between them. In practices in laboratory, the author finds information of what is pretended to be done and what is actually done. Luis sets a number of objectives and procedures which are related to what students may record, graph and analyze sounds by means of a software, that is to say, they determine experimentally the speed of the sound wave. Moreover, he elaborates a laboratory guide in which he sets the objectives, the minimum contents, the activities, the assessment and the intention to contextualize conceptual contents, however, the activity turns out completely different.

When you throw a stone into the water, what do you observe in the water? What shape does the observed have?

When the fans form a wave in the stadium, what features does the movement of the fans have? Do the fans go with the wave? When putting a cork in the water and be reached by a wave, what do you observe in the movement of the cork? Does it move horizontal or vertically? (Excerpt from the laboratory guide)

Finally, the activity becomes demonstrative and does not work on what is proposed in the guide. Luis introduces attitudes (values) related to environmental care that he exposes to the students by means of transparencies. Students copy a graphic the teacher obtains and they restrict to answering the questions that are proposed on the guide, for instance, “what is a wave, how is it generated and what does it carry? What type that characterizes the wave?” (Excerpt from the laboratory guide).

3.4 Beliefs and curricular practices related to resources (B.5) In reference to resources, although he is not identified with the textbook as the main resource, on his practice

beliefs, he mentions he uses it frequently. In a declarative level, he mentions about the use of flipcharts with less frequency transparencies. He declares that, these resources have been made by himself and that he uses them during a whole week with all the classes. He also mentions the use of videos which can help start or close an activity.

I have more or less ready the materials I’ll use during the week. Generally, those work well when I remake them and

reuse them. I also use video for 15 minutes. This can help start or close an activity. When I start an activity, I present a video, then I give some explanations trying to justify what was seen. Ultimately, the resources I use in the most are the flipchart, some transparencies and video. (Unit 30.1, 30.3, 30.5, 30.6)

Moreover, he declares that, when he has the chance to develop a practical laboratory activity, he uses an experimentation equipment and a guide for the students to work on. Otherwise, he brings materials and resources to the classroom, for example, models that he builds based on the textbooks. He also declares that a diversity of resources should be used in science classes for students learn in different ways and with different stimuli. In this way, the author gets a majority to learn and comprehend. In his opinion, a way to favor the learning of students is by presenting the contents in different fashions and using every means at hand, including those contributed by the students.

A variety of resources should be used in science classes, for we serve diverse students, who receive sensory and in several

other ways. Some due to visual aspects, others to sound issues, etc. If a wide range of resources is offered, it is possible to achieve a majority of students learn. We must teach for diversity, hence, the content must be presented in the most varied way


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that is possible. Always within the means at hand, but with a bit of creativity it can be achieved. Students prepare materials as well, for instance, for dissertations they do a fine work and use PowerPoint a lot. (Unit 31, 31.1, 31.2, 31.3, Interview)

At an action level, and as noted earlier, Luis has thought of using a variety of resources for practical activities,

e.g., interfaces, sensors, computer, printer, TV set. “... Necessary equipment: interface and accessories, sound sensor (microphone), sound transmitter, computer and printer ...” (excerpt from Didactic Unit). However, the author observes that he uses and works with the textbook to explain the contents, extract activities and exercises, plus, the whiteboard and the activity guide.

T: The first activity we’ll do is the crosswords over there. The main subject is sound, only with what you know so far,

it will be enough. (Students work on the puzzle) T: Look, due to timing issues, we will do a demonstration. And then each of you is going to work on their monitor.

Now ... what does not seem right to me is your group distribution. (Students pay attention to what the teacher is explaining, some others talk) T: Read the guide in the group first ... (Students start to push it, and end up drawing the diagram on their notebooks, because the printer does not work)

(Unit 56, Class 3)

4. Synthesis and discussion of results

4.1 Lesson planning (B.1) Luis believes that, the most appropriate is to use well-structured lessons to plan the classes. He indicates that

he extracts information for his classes from a variety of sources, including Internet, textbook and his own planning. Moreover, he points out that, planning is a route that guides and feedbacks his work. In this sense, he declares the importance of the development of a varied type of activities and using a variety of resources. The latter is coherent with what he actually designs. Luis considers varied types of activities, however, he does not refer to the resources in his planning.

4.2 Class development (B.2) Luis identifies explaining the contents properly as something important, where possible following the

textbook and developing various activities, which is coherent with what he declares and what he does in practice. In this line, he declares to use various types of activities, all of them with a back up guide. Moreover, he comments that, before a practical activity, there must be a theoretical exposition, since the purpose of practice is to prove theory, which corresponds to the level of identification. At a design and action level, the author finds varied activities, focused on concept acquisition though. In fact, the activities are extracted from the textbook, and in their development, he constantly gives instructions, including those activities in which he uses NT making the activity become demonstrative.

4.3 Resources (B.5) Luis does not identify with the use of textbooks alone, in fact, he declares to use varied resources for

teaching, including computer resources, which is coherent with his practice. However, the author observes that he constantly makes use of the textbook as a source and resource to extract and explain the contents. On the other hand, although he uses means of ICT and/or NT resources in the end, he does not use them and goes back to focus on recordings and concepts. In Table 3, the author presents this synthesis by level of research.


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Table 3 Synthesis of the results by level of research Level of research Luis

Identification

What he believes he does I plan well-structured lessons. Computer resources and practical activities are present in my planning. I use varied resources, computer resources (ICT and NT) among them. I explain the concepts properly and for this I use varied resources and activities. The purpose of my practical activities is to prove theory.

Declarative

What he says he does Planning guides work. I develop a diversity of activities. I use a diversity of resources, but the main one is the textbook. I use guides for practical activities.

Design

What he believes he is going to do My students are going to follow the instructions step by step, until reaching data collection and the elaboration of a report. I am going to develop various types of contents (concepts, procedures and attitudes). I am going to use varied ICT and NT resources.

Practice

What he does The development of the class does not follow as planned. He develops varied activities, but all of them focused on concepts. The practical activity becomes a demonstrative activity. He uses varied resources, but the main one is the textbook. He gives computer resources (ICT and NT) an accessory value and does not use them finally.He focuses on concepts and cares more for the registration of data.

5. Conclusion and discussion

As indicated at the beginning of this article, the author considers that a substantial contribution to teachers’ knowledge and professional development will be to explore the content of beliefs and their relationship with practice. In other words, exploring the level of appraisement that teachers give to curricular aspects related to planning, the development of teaching, the use of ICT resources and the relationship between this concept and practice. In this sense, here the author presents the following conclusions and discussion.

5.1 It is important to organize teaching knowing why and how to use the resources For science teachers, it is important to organize teaching and consider various activities (Bricones, et al.,

1986; Rodrigó, 1994; Martínez, et al., 2001, 2002; Richoux & Beaufils, 2003; So & Watkins, 2005). However, these plans are very general, and basically, they consider about concepts, objectives and time (Sánchez & Valcárcel, 2000). In this sense, like in Luis curricular proposal, planning tends to focus on hierarchical contents, with few relations and some linear and cumulative sequences (Sánchez & Valcárcel, 2000; Martín, 2001).

Specifically, the results of this study indicate a planning more focuses on a wide variety of specific concepts about a particular topic that arranged as lists and few times fully developed (Martín, 2001; Wallace & KANG, 2004). On the other hand, although Luis tries to develop all the contents, he always seems to be conditioned by the textbook and he only sometimes modifies the activities or contents extracted from this resource. Besides, this modification implies only a reduction of concepts or simplification. In this line, the author considers that, for teachers, planning the activities in detail represents knowing why and how to use the resources in their classes, but it does not represent that planning is necessary (Rodrigó, 1994; Skamp & Mueller, 2001; Richoux & Beaufils, 2003; Wallace & KANG, 2004).


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5.2 It is important to convey and explain properly scientific concepts There is a tendency to attach importance to the transmission of concepts, even in practical activities (Rodrigo,

1994; Fernández & Tuset, 2008; Fernández, Tuset, Pérez & Leyva, 2009). For instance, Luis shows a tendency to design and practice considering to relate the concepts to daily life, but concepts are always the most important aspect. This tendency is also pointed by Van, Bulte and Verloop (2005), chemistry teachers always more focus on the concepts of theories and methods. In other words, in practice, teachers tend to focus on scientific terminology and in the solid comprehension of scientific concepts, despite identifying, declaring and planning the teaching of a variety of contents and the development of various activities (Martínez, et al., 2001, 2002; Martín, 2001; Moreno & Azcarate, 2003; Friedrishsen & Dana, 2005; Van, Bulte & Verloop, 2005).

On the other hand and in line with the results of this study, various researches indicate that, teachers consider important to explain the concepts properly, because in this way, students understand and learn better (Porlán & López, 1993; Wallace & KANG, 2004). In fact, teachers believe that, their role is explaining contents which they take to practice (Mitchener & Anderson, 1989; Bryan, 2003; Chan & Elliot, 2004; Mellado, 1996). As observed in Luis’ case, explanations are accompanied by external aids, as readings, instructions, exercises and guides. The author considers that an important factor leading to this tendency is related to the predominance of traditional conceptions and beliefs about learning (Hollon, Roth & Anderson, 1987; Porlán & López, 1993; Gustafson & Rowell, 1995; Gil & Rico, 2003; Wallace & KANG, 2004). Hence, explanations are fundamental part of a necessary pattern to follow in order to make students learn the contents (Gil & Rico, 2003; Moreno & Azcárate, 2003). These explanations, as observed, can be repeated as many times as necessary (Mitchener & Anderson, 1998; WU & Krajcik, 2006). Thus, a majority of interventions of teacher are questions, instructions, concept clarification and solving exercises, with few liaisons to the social and technological aspects of science (De Longhi, 2000; Treagust, Chittleborough & Mamiala, 2003).

5.3 Practical activities are important to prove the theory Just like the results of this study, a number researches indicate that, teachers declare and perform considering

that laboratory practices are verifications allowing to illustrate concepts (García & Martínez, 2001; Wallace & KANG, 2004). For example, Hirvonen and Viiri (2002) and Verjovsky and Waldegg (2005) agreed in indicating that, physics teachers consider that by means of these activities, students comprehend and learn better, motivation and interest increase and corroborate theory. Thereby, practical activities are used as a vehicle to reach the contents (Aiello & Sperandeo, 2000; Martínez, et al., 2002; Bartholomew, Osborne & Ratcliffe, 2004).

In this sense, it is agreed that, there is a tendency of focusing the practical activities on conceptual contents (Meyer, et al., 1999; Luft, Roehrig & Patterson, 2003). In fact, for teachers, the choice of activities is related to contents and they consider that it is not necessary to plan for them and rather they organize these activities around a central question of a conceptual kind (Tobin, Tippins & Hook, 1994; Azcárate & Cuesta, 2005; Friedrichsen & Dana, 2005).

On the other hand, the author has also detected that, Luis focuses his practical activities in the use of various instruments and resources, ICT among them. Nevertheless, concepts, material handling and records are the fundamental. For instance, in developing the practical activity, it is fundamental that students manipulate the LABPRO software and record the data through sensors. In this line, Moreno and Azcárate (2003) stated that laboratory practical activities are instrumentalist, i.e., they focus on the manipulation of various materials. This implicates that teachers regard as important that students learn procedures, such as handling of materials and resources (Rodrigo, 1994; Skamp & Mueller, 2001). Therefore, the more manipulable and simple the activities to


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develop, the more they help students to understand (Lavonen, Jauhiainen, Koponen & Kurli, 2004). 5.4 The textbook is one of the most important resources For teachers, the textbook is a guide and fundamental resource to develop their classes. As the author

observed in Luis case, the textbook is used as a source of contents and activities to carry out, the exercises to solve and as a reference for planning (Lemberger, Hewson & Park, 1999; Sánchez & Valcárcel, 1999, 2000; García & Martínez, 2001). In this sense, it is that Azcárate and Cuesta (2005) pointed out, in science teachers, there is the tendency of frequently using the textbook as a reference to organize contents and as a source for selecting activities. Moreover, and in congruence to the results of this study, the teacher uses the textbook to explain contents since it is regarded as reference for validity (De Longhi, 2000; Martínez, et al., 2001, 2002; Joram, 2007). Therefore, even though teachers consider important to plan and develop varied activities and use various resources, this rating is not coherent with what they do in practice. In this sense, the author considers that, no matter the improvements that can be done to learning and teaching environments, the beliefs teachers have regarding the role and use of the various resources, including ICT and NT, define their true utility in science teaching.

6. Implications

The results of this research contribute relevant information about the elements that must be taken into account for the processes of transformation and change of teaching practices. For people must consider that, teachers’ present beliefs about teaching and learning of sciences influence their practice. In this sense, projects for the incorporation of new technologies have contributed to improve the quality and equality of teaching. However, an important aspect that has not been discussed extensively is knowing which is the opinion teachers have about experimental activities and the use of new technologies. In other words, knowing their thoughts and how these are related to their practice.

In this line, to differentiate what is said about how they teach of what they do in their practices, i.e., to differentiate those implicit conceptions from the explicit ones, and take into account the incoherence constitutes a key factor, if what is wanted is to improve teaching practices. For “ What the teacher believes does not equal what he does”, and moreover, there are differences in thinking between “What he believes he does, what he believes must be done, what he says he does” and “What he believes he is going to do”. Therefore, questioning teachers’ thinking is a fundamental axis when proposing any task that holds as an objective to contribute to initial and continuous training of teachers. Ultimately, what the author promotes is a reflection about those aspects to transform action guidance’s and to relate teachers’ professional development influencing in the process of knowledge construction and its progression.

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Perception of Nigerian secondary school teachers on introduction of

e-learning platforms for instruction

Peter Ayo Ajelabi1, Alaba Agbatogun2 (1. Department of Teacher Education, Highbury College, Portsmouth PO6 2SA, UK;

2. Moray School of Education, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ, UK)

Abstract: This paper examines the view of Nigerian secondary school teachers on the introduction and utilization of e-learning platforms (blackboard, moodle, e-college, Web CT) to support and enhance learning. Six hundred teachers were drawn from 50 different schools in all the education districts located in Lagos state, Nigeria. A 25-item, 5-point likert scale questionnaire was validated and used for the study. The result showed that there was no significant difference in perception based on gender. However, there was significant difference as a result of the school type. Findings further showed that the teachers were of the view that e-learning platforms should be utilized in schools as soon as possible to support learning. Suggestions were given on how to make this feasible in Nigerian schools despite the challenges.

Key words: perception; e-learning platforms; instruction

1. Introduction

Secondary education in Nigeria is the form of education children receive after primary education and before the tertiary stage. The duration is 6 years given in two stages—junior secondary school and senior secondary school, each for 3-year duration. According to the National Policy on Education (2004), the junior secondary school is both “prevocational and academic”, while the senior secondary school is “comprehensive with a core-curriculum designed to” broaden pupils’ knowledge and outlook. Taking a critical look at the broad goals of secondary education, the curriculum is expected to “provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology and commerce at sub-professional grades” and “inspire the students with a desire for self-improvement of excellence”.

Considering these two among the broad goals, one would realize that there is a need for self-development among the students, knowing fully well that the students’ enrolment is outrageously high. With the implementation of the UBE (Universal Basic Education) scheme, the programme is likely to enroll about 14 million students in Nigerian secondary schools from year 2008 (Okebukola, 2004), out of the estimated 140 million citizens declared by the Federal Government of Nigeria, based on the 2006 national census exercise.

Despite the astronomical growth in enrolment, the tier is also faced with other challenges, such as shortage of professionally qualified teachers, high students to teacher ratio, shortage of space and facilities and inadequate

Peter Ayo Ajelabi, Ph.D., lecturer, Department of Teacher Education, Highbury College; research fields: educational technology,

teacher education, curriculum development. Alaba Agbatogun, M.Ed., Ph.D. candidate, Moray School of Education; research fields: educational technology, research methods,

online learning.

Perception of Nigerian secondary school teachers on introduction of e-learning platforms for instruction

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instructional materials among others. This is the reality on ground. If the above scenario is what Nigerian secondary school system is facing, the major question that one should

address right now is: “How do we resolve this challenge(s) in secondary education curricular in Nigeria practically”. This is because it is obvious that the Nigerian Government should look for alternative means (apart from the face-to-face teaching) to ensure that the large number of students are taught effectively with or without the shortage of the professionally qualified teachers.

Certainly, there is a need for innovations and reforms. The reform should make the instruction in Nigeria secondary schools much more interesting and relevant to meet not only the needs of the smaller society, but also the outside world as well. This involves the application and integration of technology.

A chronological analysis of the application of technology in education shows that, various technologies had made impact and contributions in the past—invention of the alphabets, books, chalkboard, overhead projector, video projector and the computer. Carr (2000) noted that since early in this century, various “new” educational technologies have been touted as the revolutionary pedagogical wave of the future. Classroom films, language laboratories, educational television, computer-assisted instruction, interactive videodisc, and more recently, electronic learning, which is any type of online learning that is relevant and realistic to the user, are now adopted and integrated into the curriculum with varying degrees of success most especially in the developed countries.

Cattagni and Farris (2000) claimed that, e-learning, which is also known as Internet-based hybrid learning, is now one of the most significant new learning technologies to emerge in the last 10 years. It is further revealed that, the evolution of Internet in K-12 schools is having a profound impact on the evolution of computer use and the curricular integration of new learning technologies in America.

E-learning was given various definitions on the web, one web defines it simply as “Internet-enabled learning that encompasses training, education, just-in-time information and communication” (http://www.eng.wayne.edu/ page/php). Another web says that, it is “the delivery of a learning, training or education program by electronic means. It involves the use of computer to achieve these” (http://www.intelera.com/glossary.htm). Also, it is “any virtual act or process used to acquire data, skills, information or knowledge in a virtual world where technology merge with human creativity to accelerate rapid development” (http://www.mountainquestinstitute.com/ definitions.htm). Others equate it with online learning. In summary, e-learning is an amalgamation of education, training and structured information delivery by computer through the Internet, the web or from the hard drive of the computer.

Some of the tools and activities that make up e-learning were highlighted by Ajelabi (2005). These include Internet chatting, video referencing, discussion forum and other tools that can be shared.

Many nations in the world had transformed their educational systems and training by new ICT (information and communication technologies) production methods (Brill & Galloway, 2007). Many Institutions now adopt different learning platforms to support learning.

Learning platforms are software-controlled infrastructures that attempted to replicate what teachers do in the face-to-face classroom. These platforms are normally located on a computer on the Internet (or an Intranet) and are typically accessed by means of a web-browser. It can be used for students’ enrolment, induction and support, chalk and talk combined with class discussion, practice of skills, assessment and accreditation. The popular ones include WebCT, topclass, the learning manager, Moodle, virtual learning environment, blackboard and e-college.


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Since it has been realized that, modern technologies, such as electronic learning platforms present new opportunities and enhance individualized instruction at the secondary school level, so it is pertinent to state that there may be a need to introduce it for instruction in Nigerian secondary schools.

However, the use of e-learning platforms is still a developing link in Nigerian educational system and training. The Nigerian educational system must be alert to meet these intellectual challenges in solving Nigerian secondary school instructional programs.

2. Purpose of the study

The current study was carried out to investigate the perception of secondary school teachers on the adoption of e-learning technology for teaching and learning in Nigerian junior and senior secondary schools. Precisely, the study aims at finding out the extent of technological gaps in the Nigerian secondary educational system, as well as determining the suitability of e-learning to Nigerian secondary education curriculum. Furthermore, the study seeks to find out whether gender factor will bring about a difference in perception. Also, the paper is interested in examining the difference in perception based on school type (private or public).

3. Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses is postulated for this study and will be tested at 0.05 level of significance: (1) There will be no statistical significant gender difference in teachers’ perception on the introduction of

electronic learning for instruction; (2) There will be no statistical significant difference in teachers’ perception on the introduction of electronic

learning for instruction based on school ownership (public/private).

4. Methodology

4.1 Sample Six hundred secondary school teachers drawn from 50 different private and public schools in all the 6

education districts in Lagos State, Nigeria constituted the participants for the study. The subjects were randomly selected from both the junior and senior secondary schools. Four hundred and nineteen female and 181 males constituted the participants. They all hold various certificates ranging from NCE (National Certificate in Education), H.N.D (Higher National Diploma), First (B.A. (Ed.), B.A., B.Sc., B.Sc. (Ed.)) to postgraduate (PGD, M.A., M.Sc., M.Ed., Ph.D.) degrees. Their status also vary. The same applies to their years of teaching experience which was between 1 year and 31.

4.2 Instrument A questionnaire was used in collecting data for this study. This 25-item 5-point likert scale questionnaire was

captioned “perception of secondary school teachers on introduction of e-learning for instruction”. This was designed by the researcher.

In order to ensure the face validity of this questionnaire, the instrument was given to 3 senior tutors (teachers) in private and public secondary schools, a colleague in the Faculty of Education and 2 experts in ICT (one based on the faculty, and the other on the Faculty of Science). It was properly scrutinized and appropriate corrections


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were made. Thereafter, it was subjected to content reliability, whereby, the test-retest co-efficient was determined within two weeks interval. The value obtained was 0.88. This was high.

4.3 Data analysis The researcher subjected the data collected to statistical treatment in order to obtain means and SD (standard

deviation). The two hypotheses stated earlier in the research were tested by using the t-test. Findings were held significant at 0.05 alpha level.

4.3.1 Hypothesis 1 There will be no statistical significant gender difference in teachers’ perception on the introduction of

e-learning for instruction. Table 1 clearly shows that the t-calculated value is less than the t-critical value, i.e., 1.77<1.96. This implies

that, there is no statistical significant difference in the perception of female and male teachers on the introduction of electronic learning for instruction. Therefore, it upholds hypothesis 1.

Table 1 T-test analysis of male and female teachers’ perception on introduction of e-learning platforms

Variable N x SD df t-calculated t-critical Male 181 81.40 8.98 Female 419 79.95 8.55

598 1.77 1.96

4.3.2 Hypothesis 2 There will be no statistical significant difference in teachers’ perception on the introduction of electronic

learning for instruction based on school ownership (public/private). From Table 2, the t-calculated value is more than the t-critical value, i.e., 2.55>1.96. Since the t-calculated is

greater than the t-critical, this implies that there is a statistical significant difference in the teachers’ perception on the introduction of e-learning platforms for instruction based on school type or ownership. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected, and the alternative hypothesis is upheld.

Table 2 T-test analysis of public and private school teachers’ perception on introduction of e-learning platforms

Variable N x SD df t-calculated t-critical Private owned 243 88.40 10.43 Public owned 357 71.36 9.99

598 2.55 1.96

5. Major findings

From the above data, there are 6 findings as follows: (1) There is no significant gender difference in teachers’ perception on the introduction of e-learning for

instruction; (2)There is a significant difference in the perception of teachers in private and public secondary schools on

the introduction of e-learning platforms for instruction; (3) Teachers in privately owned secondary schools were more favorably in support of the introduction of

e-learning for instruction more than their counterparts in the public schools; (4) The teachers strongly perceive that, e-learning for instruction in the secondary schools should be


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introduced as soon as possible for the improvement of instruction; (5) Majority of the teachers were of the view that, there is a great gap in the application of “educational

technologies” to teaching and learning in the secondary schools; (6) Finally, few of the teachers were of the opinion that e-learning may not be suitable in the Nigerian

secondary education system for now, because of environmental and political factors. 5.1 Discussion of the findings From the above findings, Table 1 shows that, gender does not have a significant difference in perception on

the introduction of e-learning for teaching and learning. Notwithstanding the male respondents obtained a slightly higher mean score than the female respondents. This may be because males are more interested in experimenting than the females and they are more interested in trying new skills.

In addition, the result in Table 2 shows that there is no significant difference in the perception of teachers in private and public schools on the introduction of e-learning platforms for instruction. However, Table 2 further reveals that, those in private schools obtained a far higher mean score, compared to their counterpart in the public schools. This may be due to the fact that most of the teachers in the private schools (which are usually fee-paying) are youths, and are aware of the importance and application of computers to enhancing instruction. In addition, some of them have been using computers to support learning, and had been giving assignments to students on the Internet. This has always yielded positive responses.

The study also revealed that the teachers are interested in the introduction of e-learning. This is because it is an innovation. The teachers certainly wants to move with technological developments. They had already seen the uniqueness of the Internet and its usefulness to education.

5.2 Implications of the findings Today, technology application and interaction in the classroom is one of the most challenging innovations

that several teachers have to contend with. This is because the use of computers and information technology is regarded as essential to everyday activity, and there is increasing pressure to adapt teaching to accommodate new technologies (Villegas & Reiners, 2003).

A developing nation like Nigeria is faced with lots of challenges in order to meet up with the new technological demand. On the part of the teachers, they will need to meet with pressures and expectations from the society, parents and students. They must also have access to and make appropriate use of relevant technologies. On the part of the schools, they must have access to the new technology, especially computers and other gadgets. Government should also acquire teachers and students to learn how to use computer effectively for teaching and learning. Other challenges include finance, power and energy failure as well as the resistance to change by Nigerian teachers, students and even the government.

6. Recommendations

First, most of the teachers were of the view that e-learning should be introduced. Therefore, all teachers should be encouraged to be computer literate. Practical training programmes should also be organized for the students.

Second, the government should provide adequate funding to cater for internet facilities which would make e-learning much easier. Issue of power supply should also be reviewed.


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Finally, the citizens should learn to adapt to new situations. For example, as at 2005, more than 3.2 million students were participating in on-line learning at institutions of higher education in US.

In conclusion, there is a need for all the stakeholders—students, teachers, administrators, ICT providers, Ministry of Education officials, engineers as well as government and the society representatives to meet and find a practical means of making the use of e-learning a reality in Nigeria. References: Ajelabi, A. (2005). Essentials of educational technology. Lagos: Raytel Communications Limited. Brill, J. M. & Galloway, C. (2007). Perils and promises: Universities instructors integration of technology in classroom-based

practices. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(1). Carr, V. H. (2000). Teaching adoption and diffusion. Retrieved from http://tlc.nlm.mih.gov/resources/publication. Cattagni & Farris. (2000). Computer aided learning in the United States. Retrieved from

http://www.ncrel.org/tech/elearn/ framework.htm. Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: Federal Government Press. Okebukola, P. (2004). Promoting the integration of ICT in higher education: The Nigeria experience. Paper presented during the

Sub-Regional Ministerial Conference on Integration of ICT in Education, Abuja-Nigeria, July 26th, 1-6. Villegas, C. & Reiners, F. (2003). Teachers professional development; An international review of the literature. (International

Institute of Educational Planning). Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/iiep, 133-136.



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On building a web-based university

Dana Constantinescu1, Gunnar Stefansson2 (1. Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Craiova, Craiova 200585, Romania;

2. Mathematics Department, University of Iceland, Reykjavík 121, Iceland)

Abstract: This paper describes some of the principles for building a freely available web-based university with open content. The “tutor-web” is an international project for web-assisted education, including such free and open access. This project was initiated by the University of Iceland in partnership with many universities around the world, among them the University of Craiova, Romania. The aim of this paper is to present this project, to point out its specificity and to arouse interest for collaboration in the project, which uses http://tutor-web.net as the home location.

Key words: e-learning; tutoring systems; web-based university

1. Introduction

Many theories and (conceptual) models are available of how students learn and many approaches have been suggested on how to change a student’s learning experience or simply to drastically change approaches to teaching (with a given purpose in mind). Some of these models are used to classify different teaching methods and/or methods of assimilation of new material. For example, in many cases, distinctions are made between traditional schools and adult education (Mezirow, 1981), but this distinction is blurred in the case of undergraduate and graduate studies, which is the primary interest of this project. A more formal approach to defining key dimensions of learning and teaching is considered (Felder & Silverman, 1988), indicating how the teacher can get the attention of all students by catering to how each “type” of student learns, the main features of the “transformative learning” are discussed (Moore, 2005), etc.

Currently, most of the world’s teaching probably uses a blackboard and chalk, whereas the Western world is moving towards whiteboards and pens along with (electronic) slide presentations in many cases. Using web-assisted in-class learning is fairly recent and in most areas considered a very modern tool.

Elaborate uses of electronic media abound but most uses actually consist of the lecturer making electronic slides available in electronic or paper format (Stefansson, 2004). This applies to the actual use of most commercial and open-source systems available today, although some systems may offer more options. These simple uses are not of much interest since they merely give the student access to copies of slides presented during class. Similarly, storing handouts online are rather petty uses of the web’s potential. Apart from savings in printed matter, in neither case is anything gained over and above simply distributing printed information in the classroom. To use the possibilities of the web, a system should at least interlink the material and make it easy for the student to go from an in-class slide to the corresponding content.

Dana Constantinescu, lecturer, Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Craiova; research fields: education, dynamical systems and Hamiltonian dynamics.

Gunnar Stefansson, professor, Mathematics Department, University of Iceland; research field: statistical models in education and marine science.


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The same comments apply to most online testing schemes. In many cases, these are merely repetitions of paper schemes, i.e., a student is handed a fixed set of questions and required to solve the test in a given amount of time. Although this may save instructor-time, this gives no credit to the immense possibilities in the interactive nature of the web.

Different systems for computer-aided instruction have different characteristics. Comparisons between the various approaches to storing and presenting educational content are virtually impossible since these approaches are based on completely different design principles.

Two main features of the web-assisted learning systems will be analyzed in the following comparison: (1) Most systems are used mainly for storage of educational material; (2) Content provision alone does not offer evaluation of students, i.e., there is no grading mechanism nor are

credits given in any form. Such providers do not include quizzes, slides, portability between systems or open standards for content (which are needed for complete portability from the teacher’s application to the end product, printed or web page).

The complete courses and the tutorials represent the two main forms for the presentation of the scientific information. Attempting to set up an online version of a complete course is, therefore, quite prohibitive for an individual instructor in any given year. A tutorial, on the other hand, typically consists of only a few lectures, e.g. 4-10 lectures, i.e., 1-3 weeks of lectures. Setting up a computer version of such a small subset of a course is a much more feasible undertaking. The tutorial can, therefore, also be on a more isolated topic, which can also be more easily reused in several different courses.

A totally different approach is taken with the Educommons OCW (Open CourseWare, http://cosl.usu.edu/ projects/educommons) approach used by many universities, including USU (Utah State University, http:// ocw.usu.edu), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT, http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/web/home/home/ index.htm), Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health (http://ocw.jhsph.edu/) and others. A simple description of the system can be found on the MIT web-page, when referring to the OCW at MIT ... , “It is a snapshot in time of how a particular subject was taught by a particular member of the faculty in a particular semester ...”. Notably, these tend to be PDF (portable document format) files containing lecture slides and notes, not suitable for editing by others, and thus, permanently static. This is useful material, but not the kind of material best suited for collaboration and exchange of teaching material with the intent of also enhancing it.

Encyclopedias on the web include Wikipedia which is exactly that: A free and publicly available encyclopedia on the web.

Alternate systems include Moodle (http://moodle.org/), which is not as tightly integrated as the “tutor-web” and relies on a fairly different philosophy regarding content, presentation and interactions between instructor and students. Finally, Wikiversity (http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity) should be mentioned, a Wikipedia university which only stores content. Other content providers include Connexions (http://cnx.org/), which has many resemblances with the “tutor-web” but does not include any form of evaluation, nor the tight coupling of slides and content.

Several online private and closed source/content initiatives also exist. These are not really competitors with the “tutor-web”, but notice should be taken by some of the approaches used. Most of these systems require extensive instructor-student interaction (more than in a regular classroom) and this is not acceptable in most scenarios. However, a few systems have been developed paying great attention to detail and learning theory. Most of these systems appear to be highly specialized and only applicable for the narrow topics for which they were designed.


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The fact that content providers do not generally provide (free) evaluation of student knowledge is a weak point of a system, since it has already been demonstrated that students tend to prefer the online quiz over homework. Further, the use of the online quiz has a positive impact on knowledge, as demonstrated by the statistically significant on-going improvements while using the web (Sigurdardottir, 2006).

It will be seen in the following that the principles underlying the “tutor-web” provide all the functionality needed in a classroom, e.g., interlinked electronic slides and handouts, with corresponding quiz questions.

2. The tutor-web

The “tutor-web” has been developed with input from several teachers, students and programmers from around the world. This system is thus based on experience gained by instructors while teaching university courses or giving presentations at several universities and funded by several organizations. Presentation experience taken into account when designing the “tutor-web” includes regular classroom teaching through public presentations to highly variable audiences. The corresponding material includes a variety of topics (mathematics, fishery science, applied and theoretical statistics, computer science and even business proposals).

The “tutor-web” is a system for computer-assisted education and research on education, both for in-class use and for remote learning. The system is a freely accessible resource which can store the educational material used in a classroom and provide online evaluation. It includes an internal database based on structured storage of text, figures and other objects in predefined formats.

From an instructor’s view, the system permits collaboration on and exchange of teaching material from slides to books and quiz questions.

From a student’s view, the system provides freely available online access to material and the freedom to take quizzes at any location.

From a researcher’s view, the system is a vehicle for research into, e.g., the online student’s behavior and the effect of grading schemes.

2.1 Objectives The main objective of the tutor-web is to contribute to the development of an accessible online system of

education that can be used for in-class activities and home study. Some objectives are presented in the following. 2.1.1 To provide a database of teaching texts, courses, slides and applications There would be considerable benefit if teachers should join hands to allow general access to all their material,

free of personal or institutional concerns. It would certainly benefit students to have easy access to course materials from as many good instructors as possible.

There is a need not just for public domain software. Publicly available teaching material is also needed. The more teaching material is put into the public domain, the better a teacher can make his/her course, the more tutorials a student can get access to, the better the chance of understanding difficult material. In this manner, underprivileged students and/or universities can gain free material, evaluation schemes and collaboration by using free educational sites, but schools of any quality can improve their material through accessing high-quality publicly available material, as is clearly seen by the general use of Wikipedia.

The “tutor-web” shares the idea of using small parts of lectures as a knowledge unit. These modules are called “tutorials”, typically corresponding to 5-10 lectures.

However, the text of some complete courses can be inserted in the “tutor-web” in a PDF format, in order to be


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seen by a large community of interested persons. Although not the ideal approach for storing and sharing material, this approach has been used to store (legally) scanned books which thus supplement other teaching material.

Currently, initial tutorials in mathematics, statistics and fishery science can be found on the “tutor-web”. Since its implementation in Plone (a leading open source Content Management System, see http://plone.net/),

the “tutor-web” has access control, so instructors have full control over their own tutorials as well as improved accessibility for instructors. Instructors are given access to insert whose content ranges from a handout or a few slides to a complete tutorial.

The “tutor-web” is intended for use in a wide range of situations (in-class activity, home studies, as prerequisites for taking a real-world course). Hence, the information must be organized and presented in an attractive, accessible and clear manner.

The material is aggregated around slides, which are grouped along with quiz questions into lectures, which again group into tutorials, corresponding to a topic within a course and a department. A typical tutorial may correspond to 5-15 real-world lectures, and hence, a course may, e.g., correspond to 5-10 tutorials. Figure 1 presents the “tutor-web” structure of content.

Figure 1 The “tutor-web” structure of content

Notes: Departments contain courses that consist of tutorials; Each tutorial has lectures that in turn contain the actual educational material and quiz questions; The material is arranged around “slides” with examples and handouts.

A slide can have certain pre-specified features (title, main graphic, and so forth). It must contain the main informational text, eventually, some representative images and examples. A slide may contain links to additional material, e.g., more detail on a topic, references, examples, handouts or homework.

The structure implies certain implicit links, the obvious being that slides belong within lectures and quiz questions also belong within lectures.

The “tutor-web” has been developed to include an easy-to-use interface for instructors. This provides the instructor with the layout seen in Figure 2. Subsequent development will include improved previews, easier text entry, more format options, and so forth.


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Figure 2 Design of an interface for the teacher

Note: This includes simultaneous access to all content related to a slide; In addition, instructors have full access to their quiz items.

The relation between item exposure and the computerized adaptive testing has been of considerable interest (CHEN, Ankenmann & Spray, 2003), but there are many more questions of interest with regard to how student learning is affected by different question allocation schemes. The “tutor-web” permits quantification of the effect of different item allocation schemes on various such aspects. Thus, it is a fairly easy matter to various programs, such schemes to see the effect of reminders on performance, iterative presentations of the same quiz items, etc.

2.1.2 To realize the online evaluation of the students The “tutor-web” can be used in the evaluation of the students, because most lectures are accompanied by

online multiple choice quizzes. The quiz formats basically consist of a question, a correct answer and 2-3 incorrect answers, with an option of a “none of the above” answer, which may of course be correct or incorrect (or a similar option of “all of the above”). This is a typical method for testing the students’ knowledge (Briggs & Wilson, 2007; CHEN & LEI, 2005).

An obvious attribute to a tutorial is a list of prerequisite tutorials; another is a definition of internal “tutor-web” credits which need to be included with the “tutor-web” as in any other system. Typical credit systems in the real world give 10-30 credits for a full-time semester with, e.g., 4-5 courses. Here, a finer scale is needed since each course may consist of 10 tutorials. An internal credit will therefore be defined so that 10 internal “tutor-web” credits correspond to 1 credit in the ECTS (European credit transfer system), where there are typically 30 credits in one 15-week semester. How (and if) the “tutor-web” credits transfer into real-world credits will depend on the real-world university and some research is warranted before any suggestions are made on this topic. There are, however, several possibilities, linked to the possible uses which a university may put the “tutor-web”.

In-class uses of slides and corresponding uses of quizzes for a basic usage, the instructor is in control of material and the students take an exam at the end of the semester. In this case, the “tutor-web” merely augments the usual in-class sessions.

In the more general case, students may be directed to undertake independent studies or may have done so on their own accord. It is in these cases that the most interesting scenarios arise and they give rise to the greatest


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potential. A student directed to take a tutorial (sequence) in order to accommodate an instructor’s requirement is a simple example. In a sense, this implies that the instructor has accepted the “tutor-web” content as a surrogate for taking certain courses and this is an easy way of merging the “tutor-web” into real-world requirements.

The scheme of the possibilities to interact with the “tutor-web” are presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Different user “views” from the “tutor-web” database correspond to “views” into a data base

Note: These include a method to view slides in a classroom, a view for a content provides when inserting content, and several views for the student who may be accessing different parts of the system, such as registering, studying or taking a quiz.

In addition to the above examples, there are many situations when online evaluation is necessary and it is desirable or impossible to allocate instructor time to the issue:

(1) The student wants to take a course, but it is not obvious whether he/she satisfies the basic course requirements. In these cases, the students will not have completed the formal prerequisite coursework, and in many cases, it is then left to the discretion of the instructor whether or not the student is permitted to register. It requires no work at all from the instructor to tell the student to complete a certain online tutorial and come back with a high grade before taking the class in question;

(2) Some remedial measures may be imposed if a student has problems: Commonly, an instructor sees, early on in a class that certain students have problems with their homework or mid-terms. These students can then be told that they should take a remedial tutorial until they pass it with a high grade, rather than fail the course.

Many other possibilities can be envisaged on how the “tutor-web” may be used in the educational process. One such concerns applications from little-known universities for graduate studies at other (larger) universities. In such cases, it would be highly beneficial for all parties to have a general method of evaluation. The recipient university (or instructor) could simply advise the applicant to take a certain course on the “tutor-web” and submit the resulting grade. Since the student is permitted to learn within the system, thus, improving the grade, this is not a “hard” requirement. Naturally, a student might prefer to pay a colleague to take the online quizzes but this is no more of a concern than general forgery of documents.

Another important quality feature of the “tutor-web” will be to include teacher evaluation of teachers, or TET


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(teacher evaluation of tutorials). This would be a useful feature in many systems, but is quite important when there may be many instructors with material of variable quality. In this case, the best approach is to allow instructors to evaluate (“grade”) material.

2.1.3 To facilitate research on computer-aided education The “tutor-web” forms an excellent platform for research on how students accumulate knowledge and how

students respond to and learn from online quizzes. In particular, research is needed on the most effective online quizzing methods. These should not be designed only for evaluation but much more importantly for enforcing learning, i.e., to transform quiz-taking into a learning experience. The term “enforcement” refers to setting a grade requirement for continuation and permitting the student to continue to request work until a satisfactory grade is obtained.

The “tutor-web” has already been used for evaluating simple research questions: (1) Is there any gain from using such a system in conjunction with a classroom? The answer is positive. It has

been found that students tend to take online quizzes enthusiastically and tend to try to continue until the maximum grade is obtained, if this is permitted;

(2) How to select questions to give to students and how to evaluate their grade in a dynamic environment, where it appears to be optimal to permit students to repeat requests for questions ad infinitum?

Earlier analyses of “tutor-web” data have been based on contingency tables along with (generalized) linear models but future analyses will be based on specially designed experiments where mixed effects models will play an obvious role.

In a social research context, the present proposal will generate a more general test-bed for evaluating how on-line quiz material can be utilized. The first such test, within the project, will be a non-statistical (qualitative) social study on how low-income participants respond to a requirement of the form “You do not have the requirements for entry into this program, but you will be considered for entry when you complete course X on the “tutor-web” with a grade of Y”. The same approach will be tested on active graduate students who lack background in math or stats as well as on other student groups.

The “tutor-web” provides an environment where researchers can not only test theories on real data and where it will be possible to evaluate and develop testing schemes on pre-collected data, but also to use experimental design with subjects randomly placed into groups.

It has been demonstrated that current models for analyzing quiz results are not adequate in the dynamic and learning-based quiz environment provided by the Internet (Stefansson & Sigurdardottir, 2010). The “tutor-web” provides the tools required to explore alternative methods better suited for Internet-based environments.

2.2 Uniqueness of the “tutor-web” The “tutor-web” is intended for handling and storing everything an instructor might use in class, and

allowing a student to use these from other locations, as well as for student evaluation, and doing this in a linked manner using only non-proprietary solutions.

The uniqueness of the “tutor-web” thus comes from having all of the following features: (1) Storage of all educational content, e.g., slides, examples, additional details, handouts and quizzes; (2) Stored material is linked and can be viewed in various ways: as web-slides or PDF-slides, as booklets

containing slides interspersed with other material, other views can be generated; (3) Code is “Open source”; (4) Material is “Open content”; (5) Source material is available in raw form (not just as PDF) so, for example, data behind an image can be


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viewed by the student, text or graphs can be borrowed for inclusion in another lecture; (6) Students can freely take online quizzes; (7) Students can take quizzes repeatedly until results are satisfactory; (8) Content is stored in a modular manner (object-orientated data base); (9) Content can be viewed in different ways (will be user-defined); (10) All views are easily modified.

3. The partnership

A considerable part of the work involved is conducted by Ph.D. students, programmers, postdocs and other staff (at present with the main thrust coming from the University of Iceland and the United Nations University). A major part of this project is to entice other instructors to use and expand the “tutor-web”, initially in statistics and mathematics. In order to obtain a critical mass of students and university lecturer using the system, the proposed strategy is to recruit academic professionals and students from Europe (in particular, Iceland and Romania) and beyond (including South America, Asia and Africa) to use and add to the “tutor-web” is considered. More than 20 academic staff of universities from Australia, Barbados, Bulgaria, Botswana, Benin, Greenland, India, Iceland, Malta, Malawi, Nigeria, Norway, New Zealand, Romania, Swaziland, Taiwan and USA make up a consortium to support the “tutor-web” initiative through submission of material, and so forth.

Most of the cooperation around the “tutor-web” will be informal in that selected professors and students in each target university will become a test-base. Test-bases will include some with a clear need for support and others with capacity to participate in evolving the “tutor-web”. The first test-base will be within the University of Craiova, Romania.

Initially, most courses within the system are developed in English, but other languages can certainly be accommodated (several tutorials in Icelandic were inserted in a pilot version of the “tutor-web”).

4. Future work

The current (beta) version of the “tutor-web” at “http://www.tutor-web.net” along with existing test cases should be considered a proof of concept, following an initial pilot study which led to the present system, stored within a content management system. The following describes on-going development to enhance the “tutor-web”.

Future hardware upgrades and research will be funded by grants, but the system will mostly be self-sustainable like other open systems, such as Wikipedia.

An important difference between the “tutor-web” and Wikipedia is that, since the “tutor-web” is designed in part for in-class use, content is “moderated”, i.e., only “instructors” are permitted to insert material. Further, although the basic concept of an online university already exists in several forms, none of these encompasses the simple requirements of being freely available, providing complete access to all material and providing evaluation.

The documentation and much of the material is currently written in English. Individual tutorials can be in any language and there is nothing in the “tutor-web” design, which specifies the

language of content. In order to better accommodate languages, it would be useful to split up this web according to the language of the tutorial. This is a very easy thing to do and could be done with no central coordination. However, a coordinated approach, such as using “http://es.tutor-web.net” for a Spanish version is a trivial matter. A new front page could then be set up merely to guide the user to select a language. On a technical note, this


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approach also implies an easy way of modularizing the “tutor-web” since different languages can reside in different domains which again can live on different servers (in different countries for that matter). This expansion of use and content in one language does not affect the use of the “tutor-web” in another language. The only links between languages occur when a student takes courses in more than one language.

Several technical upgrades will be implemented: (1) Extensions will include user-selected designs, where a lecturer may select in-class slide format,

student-selected content-view layout (e.g., view slides, theory and examples side-by-side) and quiz questions may contain pointers to explanatory material and/or an explanations for incorrect responses.

(2) The correction of errors in material may be made possible by instructors (and officially pointed out by students). The simplest is by providing an e-mail address where students can report errors in questions, and so forth. This is already very useful since it can be quite hard to verify hundreds of questions but students inevitably find these errors. More generally, students and other instructors must be able to comment on the quality of lectures, though not arbitrarily modify an instructor’s material without permission (but they are free to copy the material).

All these features will transform the “tutor-web” to a steadily more useful tool in a modern educational environment. It is thus a step towards building a web-based university accessible from any part of the world.

References: Briggs, D. C. & Wilson, M. (2007). Generalizability in item response modeling. Journal of Educational Measurement, 44(2), 131. CHEN, S. Y. & LEI, P. W. (2005). Controlling item exposure and test overlap in computerized adaptive testing. Applied

Psychological Measurement, 29(3), 204. CHEN, S. Y., Ankenmann, R. D. & Spray, J. A. (2003). The relationship between item exposure and test overlap in computerized

adaptive testing. Journal of Educational Measurement, 40(2), 129. Felder, R. M. & Silverman, L. K. (1988). Learning and teaching styles in engineering education. Engineering Education, 78(7),

674-681. Mezirow, J. (1981). A critical theory of adult learning and education. Adults Education Quarterly, 32(1), 3. Moore, J. (2005). Is higher education ready for transformative learning: A question explored in the study of sustainability. Journal of

Transformative Education, 3(1), 76. Sigurdardottir, A. J. (2006). Analysis of student progress within a web-based quiz system. (Master’s thesis, University of Iceland) Stefansson, G. (2004). The tutor-web: An educational system for classroom presentation, evaluation and self-study. Computers &

Education, 43(4), 315. Stefansson, G. & Sigurdardottir, A. J. (2010). Web-assisted education: From evaluation to learning. Journal of Instructional

Psychology (forth coming).



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Teaching and learning in kindergarten

Jurka Lepicnik Vodopivec (Department of Preschool Education, Faculty of Education, University of Maribor, Maribor 2000, Slovenia)

Abstract: Teaching and learning in kindergarten is related, on the one hand, to the principles, methods and forms of teachers’ work that should optimally contribute to pre-school child development and learning, and on the other hand, to the issues of the developing their reasoning and other aspects of their personality. It is for this reason that the responsibility of kindergarten teachers, in view of instruction and learning of young children, is huge. Kindergartens must strive to ensure quality teaching and learning environment for very young children, which in addition fosters an atmosphere of pleasure and comfort. This paper aims to present the significance of instruction and learning of pre-school children today, in particular that within the institutionalised education (in kindergarten). The author’s points of interest were how instruction and learning of young children in kindergarten was perceived in the past and the contemporary view on modern instruction and learning of pre-school children in kindergartens.

Key words: teaching; learning; pre-school child; kindergarten

1. Introduction

Opinions of experts, regarding instruction and learning of small children, are split to a certain extent. Kroflič (2001) said that, curricular theoreticians are those that should define the basic guidelines of a curriculum for each educational level and thereby direct the focus of people implementing it, i.e., kindergarten teachers, to adequate forms and methods these should use in their teaching. Kroflič also defended a position that modern planning of pre-school curricula cannot circumvent experts in specific subjects, which have been included in the planning process for each activities area, yet he claimed that these experts are primarily committed to a planning logic that arises from the subject and special didactics, which often tends to lead to overly “scholarised” educational activities. As it is not convinced that, there is a uniform viewpoint among curricular theoreticians regarding this issue, it is believed that it is necessary to encourage polemic discussions supported by expert argumentation of curricular theoreticians, experts in different subjects and practitioners. One of the bases for such a discussion is the psychological theories on learning, which defend diverse opinions on encouraging reasoning and learning with very young children.

2. Objective

The objective of this paper is to account for the significance, in present time, of teaching pre-school children and their learning, in particular in light of the institutionalised education (in kindergartens). The key research questions the author will try to provide answers to are:

(1) Why is it important to discuss instruction and learning of young children? (2) What is the historical view on instruction and learning of young children in kindergartens?

Jurka Lepicnik Vodopivec, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Preschool Education, Faculty of Education, University of

Maribor; research fields: environmental and media education, development of teachers and cooperation between parents and teachers, education in kindergarten, hidden curriculum.


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(3) What is the view on contemporary young children in kindergartens?

3. Methodology

This paper is a theoretical discourse on teaching small children in kindergartens and their learning, based on a descriptive method of non-experimental pedagogic research and on the methods of analysis, synthesis and description.

4. Why is it important to discuss instruction and learning of young children?

A child’s development is a dynamic process, which is in interaction defined by both the heredity and the environment, whereby the latter implies both the physical and the social environments. The majority of recent pedagogic concepts eclectically combine the discoveries of various theories, pertaining to developmental psychology, most commonly quoting the authors, such as Piaget, Bruner, Vygotsky, Freud, Erikson and their colleagues or disciples in the very basis of kindergarten curriculum itself.

When trying to interpret a child’s development, it cannot and should not by-pass the plurality aspect of developing and growing up in different cultures and therewith neglect neither the influence of various circumstances within a culture or among cultures nor views on a child’s development and learning, which was formed in distinctive socio-historical contexts. These have been marked by scientific discoveries of psychology and developmental psychology as part of the latter, as well as a number of other disciplines (philosophy, sociology, pedagogy, anthropology and ethnology) and prevailing educational concepts over individual periods, which are always more or less dependent on the ruling ideology (Woodhead, 1999).

In most contemporary concepts in pre-school education, a child represents the centre or the basis of any educational activities in kindergarten and in this respect of developmentally adequate programmes or curricula.

Heredity and the environment (physical and social) are important for a child’s development. Both determinants contribute to their growth and development, excluding the black-white dichotomy of nature versus nurture. Although heredity has greater influence on, e.g., a child’s temperament, energy level or sequence of physical or intellectual development, none of the physical traits, apart from maybe eye and hair colour, shape of nose, is determined only by heredity or only by the environment (external influences). Learning to walk thus depends on the muscle strength and the development of coordination (both of which is hereditary), yet it also depends on the environment, not only in the development of walking as a skill, but also in view of encouraging other skills, such as rolling, sitting and climbing, which people naturally acquire prior to the ability to walk.

Development is intertwining of quality-and quantity-related changes or development periods and development linearity, whereby new aspects of the development incorporate the preceding ones and build on them. The development proceeds in foreseeable directions towards improved integrity, organisation and internalisation. It is about the possibility of widening and deepening children’s experience and knowledge, using different levels of symbolic knowledge, for example through drawing, painting, discourse, etc. Malaguzzi (1993) used the metaphor of “100 languages” to describe the diverse models which children use to illustrate a certain meaning. Children will use different sets of symbols to represent their experience and knowledge, such as imitations as part of symbolic play (using a cooking spoon to imitate the mixing moves of a grandmother), followed by object and word transformation (children use a random object to represent a phone and converses through it with a person that does not exist).

Social context and supportive atmosphere are also vital for children’s development. Bowman and Stott (1994) agreed with Bronfenbrenner (1989), who said that children’s development can be understood best within a


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socio-cultural context, by underlining that the rules are the same for all children, yet the social context is the one that shapes children’s development into different forms. A child tests his/her own hypotheses in various ways: through social interaction or physical manipulation or by means of his/her own structures of mind. The development of mind structures, for example, results in understanding of different symbols, yet the symbols that the child uses (numbers, alphabet) are the ones that are commonly used within his/her culture and transferred to him/her from the adults.

5. Historical aspect of instruction and learning of young children in kindergarten

The attitude towards children and childhood keeps changing all the time. History hence recognises different views on children’s development and infancy. Today, the latter is considered as a vital period in the development of a human being. Western culture, which Slovenia people are a part of, assumes that children need protection and special and great care. In order to be able to understand people’s attitude towards children, and with it their learning and development, they must look back onto children and childhood as perceived in the past.

Classical antiquity, for example, did understand the significance of infancy but did not dedicate enough care in relation to children. In the Middle Ages, the church emphasized the pure and innocent nature of children on the one hand and exploited and abused children on the other hand. They believed that, infancy was a dangerous period. In Renaissance, people started to take greater care of children and in the 17th century, pedagogic viewpoints on children’s development adhered mostly to the Descartes’ mind/body dualism. Locke, Rousseau and Darwin (Horvat & Magajna, 1989) are the main founders of the 3 theoretical traditions which have marked scientific developmental psychology and pre-school education until the present day. The first focuses its theory on the influence from children’s environment, the second emphasizes the role of children’s cognitive development, and the third is mostly engaged in children’s evolution roots. With the emerging of child study movement in the 20th century, research into children’s development has become an interdisciplinary matter, laying foundations for future analyses of children and their development which is recognised in 3 major disciplines: behaviourism, psychoanalysis and cognitivism.

5.1 Behaviouristic approach This theory is based on Locke’s viewpoint that children’s environment and experience are the basis for

understanding their behaviour. Children’s development is first and foremost a result of conditioning and learning processes, and thus, depends exclusively on the environment. The personal history determines who are as people, shaped as a result of their own development. Extreme viewpoints of the supporters of behaviouristic theory (Vasta, Haith & Miller, 1995) are founded on literally “clear” theory on environmental influences, according to which, not a single personality trait, is innate and children are entirely a result of their action and the environment. Behaviourists believe that, a child learns through habituation (which is considered the simplest form of learning), classical or respondent conditioning (learning, based on unconditioned stimulus that always causes an unconditioned reaction), operant conditioning (use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behaviour) and discriminating learning (learning in which children adjust their responses to the stimulus) (Lepičnik Vodopivec, 2006). Based on this concept, a child is on principle ready for action; his/her behaviour is based on the principle of trial and error. Bandura’s social learning theory is also considered as one of behaviouristic approaches, according to which, learning via modelling is of utmost importance in children’s development. Through researches, including children at 3-6 years of age, Bandura discovered that children observe and imitate adults from their birth on (Hayes & Orrel, 1998). That being the case, it can come to the


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conclusion that behaviourists perceive the environment as a set of stimuli that determine the way of development and therewith learning and behaviour of each individual.

5.2 Psychoanalytical approach According to Gudjons (1994), Sigmund Freud was the first theoretician who was committed to interactive

view on development, according to which children’s development is a result of heredity on the one hand and the environment on the other hand. So, there is the unconscious mind hidden behind every conscious and rational thought or behaviour. Mental structures are formed in the process of cognitive and emotional interactions among parents, children and the environment. According to Freud, a child is developed through interaction with the environment, which has remained valid despite numerous critiques of his theory on children’s development. On the other hand, the theory of psychosocial development by Erikson is equally important. As Piaget before him, he too defined the development of a child/human as a transition between interdependent stages (as cited in Horvat & Magajna, 1989; Gudjons, 1994; Vasta, Haith & Miller, 1995). He distinguished 8 stages, and at each one, the individual has to reorganise his/her relation to the environment and the personal understanding of himself/herself. Reorganisation is a result of changes in each individual (maturity, new experiences) and variability of requirements of the environment towards the same individual. Erikson’s theory argues that a person’s ego is being developed across one’s whole lifespan and that every stage of life brings about a different set of problems and conflicts. This theory, placing particular emphasis on constant and lifelong development, differs considerably from the Freud’s theory. But regardless of whether it talks of Freudian psychoanalytical approach to development or Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, the basic postulate in both cases is the assertion that infancy is an optimal phase of human learning and that childhood experience has indelible consequences for one’s entire future development. The first interactions of a child with the environment set a pattern for any future adaptations and control over primal anxieties (Čudina Obradović, 1995).

5.3 Cognitive approach The bases of this theory date back to the 18th century. Rousseau saw the development as a series of foreseeable

stages with only minimal aid of the environment (Mitzenheim, 1985). Piaget assumed that, assimilation (a new experience is interpreted on the basis of existing recognised structures) and accommodation (a sub-process that produces changes in the existing cognitive structures towards aligning them with new experience) go hand in hand. In the course of reciprocal impact of these two sub-processes, Piaget (as cited in Labinowicz, 1989) established yet another vital aspect of his theory—the concept of constructivism. He determined that, instead of a passive absorption of knowledge from their environment, children actively engage in its formation. Piaget claimed that, a child helps form the knowledge of the world rather than just taking it in and storing it. Over the past years, there has been increasing interest in researching children’s social development. A number of psychologists who research this area are convinced that both nature and level of a child’s cognitive skills influence his/her social development. A new research area, social cognition, has emerged thereby, focusing research activities predominantly on understanding social phenomena pertaining to children, such as children’s perception of themselves, their deduction regarding moral issues and alike. In order to be able to understand children’s behaviour in the first place, one first needs to know and understand the knowledge structures that a child has in a given moment and be at the same time familiar with how child’s behaviour changes with growing up. The basic principle of cognitive approach to development as well as the Kohlberg model of moral development (Vasta, Haith & Miller, 1995; Kroflič, 1997) is the development of cognitive abilities of empathy, which provides the foothold for moral judgements. Supporters of social constructivism hence believe that, learning is not an isolated process which takes place inside each individual but


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rather a process that emerges through dialogue (among children as well as between children and adults), the possibility of verifying the sense of what has been learned, taking one’s personal stand in a group and the like.

Throughout the history of institutionalised pre-school education, two opposing concepts seem to have been alternating constantly, appearing on the one hand as a tendency towards a carefully planned and systematic education, and on the other hand as a tendency to enable and allow children to engage in as free, playful and care-free childhood as possible. In the background of both concepts is the question of the relation between learning and development (Kamenov, 1987; Kroflič, 2001). It is a dilemma whether teaching and learning is tailored according to the development or is it the development that is subject to teaching and learning.

6. Outline of modern teaching and learning in kindergarten

The perspective that emphasized the importance of the environment in which a pre-school child lives and of the quality and quantity of incentives he/she receives, considering that he/she is developing intensely at this stage, gained ground in pre-school pedagogy and developmental psychology only in the 1960s. As a result of scientific discoveries, speaking in favour of the respective viewpoint, the so-called compensation programmes (such as head start) started to spawn. The main goal of these programmes was to provide necessary incentives to children from socially underprivileged environments and thus diminish the difference among children entering school. Yet over the last decades, it has been increasingly more often assumed that, the role of kindergarten is not just in minding pre-school children but also in their upbringing and education. The role of kindergarten is thus not so much about correction and compensation of less favourable learning circumstances, but above all, about supplementing children’s upbringing within families as it offers a completely different set of experiences compared to kindergarten. The highly structured programmes that prevailed in the 1960s and 1970s focused mostly on preparing children to school. The educational objectives of programmes based on such concepts were normally defined through deduction of mental functions or derived from the contents of school subjects and basic notions of scientific disciplines (Špoljar, 1993). According to Hagan and Smith (1993), the main function of kindergartens was to prevent any future failures in one’s education. A typical example of a didactic-oriented programme, as quoted in literature, is the compensation programme by Bereiter and Engelmann (Lay-Dopyera, 1990). In the 1980s, experts (Kamenov, 1987; Špoljar, 1993; Bredekamp, 1996) increasingly criticised the didactic-oriented programmes, basing their arguments mostly on the highly structured nature of these programmes and suggesting they be replaced by less structured and “open” programmes, which provided more opportunities for taking into account the features, interests and wishes of each individual. Bruce (1997) and Kamenov (1987) talked of “child-oriented” and “developmentally adequate” programme (Bredekamp, 1996) or curriculum. What distinguishes different curricula is the perception of nature, knowledge and ways to acquire knowledge, which all define the base for different strategies of defining educational objectives and practice evaluation (De Vries, 1990). The prevailing strategy, which is subject to most criticism in the expert circles today, is cultural transmission which is frequently related to the behaviouristic interpretations of development and learning. In that respect, Kroflič (1997; 1999) connected the cultural-transmission model of education with content-based and goal-based planning of instruction activities. Typical for the cultural-transmission model is behaviouristic theoretical base and thereof proceeding instrumentalism and technicism, which are frequently cloaked in a make-believe scientificality. These two imply that, it is possible to express the objectives of a certain programme in the form of desired changes of one’s behaviour and reasoning. As opposed to this, the process-development model does not set goals


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in the form of desired ideal images but rather as procedural principles. The main goal of planning is to find such content and methods that will yield maximum contribution to children’s development (Kroflič, 1997).

Modern concepts of pre-school education underline the principle of active learning, which is in line with the ascertainment that a pre-school child can acquire most knowledge through active participation and specific experience. This idea was first observed in Fröbel’s kindergarten and later on in Montessori and Waldorf kindergartens (Bruce, 1997). The active learning principle was mentioned in the theory by Montessori (as cited in Loschi, 1996), which points out that a child builds his/her knowledge and personality through experience which he/she gains in his/her environment and through interaction with objects and people. This same principle is supported in a number of psychological theories of cognitive development, such as the one by Piaget or the one by Vygotsky (as cited in Thomson, 1995). Among the circumstances that influence development of one’s thinking, Piaget specified physical experience which a child gains through manipulation with the objects in his/her environment and the use of all senses (as cited in Thomson, 1995). Similarly, Vygotsky also claimed (as cited in Thomson, 1995) that children build their reasoning by taking part in activities that help them develop the latter. It is a process in which children internalise the results of their interactions with the environment.

Marentič Požarnik (2000) considered that active learning arouses a child on all levels (mentally and emotionally) and is in addition of great importance to him/her and incorporated in real-time life situations. The author further elaborated that, learning is still predominantly considered a process of piling and memorising what other people have learned. In contrast to this type of knowledge (transmission), she juxtaposed that learning is a result of numerous interactions between a teacher and children, and among children themselves (transaction). According to Marentič Požarnik, active learning also implies changes of one’s views of the world as well as transformation of one’s personality. According to the Kindergarten Curriculum (1999), active-learning principle implies ensuring an encouraging environment, which allows for following the teacher’s planned or unplanned guidelines on the one hand and observing children’s initiatives on the other hand. Developing one’s sensitivity and awareness of the issues is in the forefront of learning, next to getting children accustomed to the use of various strategies and aids in their search for answers, helping and encouraging children to use language in different functions and to use alternative means to express themselves. “Through active learning, having direct and immediate experience and deriving meaning from them through reflection, young children construct knowledge that helps them understand their world. As they follow their intentions, children invariably engage in key experiences, creative, on-going interactions with people, materials and ideas that promote children’s mental, emotional, social and physical growth” (Hohmann & Weikart, 2005). Active learning is a base for complete development of one’s abilities. Piaget claimed that, knowledge is derived neither from objects nor from a child but from the interactions between both. So it could define active learning as learning, in which a child has a certain effect on objects and interacts with certain people, ideas and events which all lead to new uncovering and understanding. In kindergartens that promote active learning, children always have enough room to play either alone or with other children. By taking into consideration individual differences in children’s development and learning as well as the principles of an integral and balanced child development, by recognising and understanding the children’s perception and experience of the environment, by offering a wide variety of subjects, methods and forms of work, and by assuring professional autonomy of all practitioners, it can create optimal conditions for playing and learning in kindergarten. The planning must also take into account children, so one needs to respect them as unique and complete personalities, accept them as competent individuals, and consider the differences on the level of individuals as well as that of a group. In order to be able to realise the planned development process, it


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is best to include children in the planning process. This provides children with their first practical experience in exploring themselves and an environment, allows for several ways of presenting their discoveries and creates a number of opportunities to use basic mathematic skills or spoken and written language.

Several authors, for example, Tietze, Sylva, Wiltshire and Melbuish (as cited in Marjanovič Umek, et al., 2002) who have been exploring this area, have recognised the quality of kindergarten as an institution as one of the determinants that influence child development. Owing to differences in the way pre-school education is being organised across Europe (different working hours, difference in the number, type and duration of programmes, the age of children attending kindergarten, teachers’ level of education, goals, methods, forms of work, etc.), it cannot identify it. Yet despite the differences, it can be observed that, political and economic changes, new discoveries that regard development, learning and instruction, as well as new scientific paradigms foster changes in education in all countries, regardless of their current political or economic situation. It is thus obvious that, in most countries, institutionalised pre-school education is based on providing support to parents in raising their children, in particular due to their absence because of their jobs. Values that constitute the foundation of the European dimension in education are human and children’s rights, pluralistic democracy, tolerance, solidarity and rule of law. These values represent the basis for the organisation as well as for any programmes of pre-school education (even short ones) within it are intended for various individuals and/or members of individual groups (gypsies, talented children, children with special needs, etc.).

7. Instead of a conclusion

The view on children and infancy has been changing throughout the history and with it also the view on instruction and learning of young children. Behaviouristic theory is based on Locke’s idea that perceives environment and experiences as the basis of understanding children’s behaviour. Behaviourists believe that children learn by means of habituation (the simplest way of learning), respondent conditioning (learning, based on unconditioned stimulus that always causes an unconditioned reaction), operant conditioning (use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behaviour) and discriminating learning (learning in which children adjust their responses to the stimulus). Psychoanalytic approach argues that, childhood is the optimal phase of one’s learning and experiences in our childhood bear indelible consequences for the entire future development of an individual (Čudina Obradović, 1995). It may be concluded from this that infancy is the optimum stage for learning which is why people should pay considerable attention to instruction and learning, in particular in view of the subject matter. Cognitive models of development argue that, it is the process that emerges from the interaction between children and adults and among children that is vital for a successful instruction and learning.

Modern curricula of pre-school education underline the principle of active learning which arises from the understanding that a pre-school child acquires most knowledge by virtue of concrete experiences and participation in activities. Today, this is considered a generally accepted principle of pre-school education. The idea that a child learns best from concrete experience is traced back to Fröbel’s kindergarten and is later on found in the concepts by Montessori (1990) and in Waldorf kindergartens. Recent researches, quoted by Bredekamp (1996), confirm the findings that a child learns best when subject to concrete, play-oriented approach to pre-school education.

Pre-school education is generally considered exceptional in light of a child’s actual life and treated merely as preparation to the next educational stage. Yet it should take as much advantage of each development stage, just as it is, as possible. Kindergarten education should be based on children’s abilities and lead them to acquisition of


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new experiences, encounters and understanding by means of setting reasonable requests and problems that encourage children’s active learning which in turn enables expression, involvement and a strong social and emotional engagement. Experts claim that, children can develop certain notions on their own, solely on the basis of direct experiences, yet without being included in formal education, they will be able neither to learn most of sign systems nor to reach the level of abstract ones, e.g., recognising letters or numbers, reading, writing, algebra (Marjanovič Umek & Fekonja Peklaj, 2008). Therefore, the key guideline of each kindergarten should be the awareness that, each situation is an experiential moment on which a child builds his/her relationship to himself/herself, to other people and to life in general.

References: Bowman, B. & Stott, F. (1994). Understanding development in a cultural context: The challenge for teachers. In: Mallory, B. & New,

R. (Eds.). Diversity and developmentally appropriate practices: Challenges for early childhood education. New York: Teachers College Press, 119-33.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological system theory. In: Vasta, R. (Ed.). Six theories of child development. Grenwich: Jal Press. Bredekamp, S. (Ed.). (1996). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through

age 8. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Bruce, T. (1997). Early childhood education. London: Hodger & Stoughton. Čudina Obradović, M. (1995). Psychological merits of preschool education in kindergarten. Napredak, (1), 64-76. Dahlberg, G. & Moss, P. (2000). In: Pence, A. (Ed.). Beyond quality in early childhood education and care: Postmodern perspective.

London: Falmer Press. De Vries, R. (1990). In: Kohlberg, L. (Ed.). Constructivist early education. Washington, D. C.: NAEYC. Gudjons, H. (1994). Pedagogy. Zagreb: Educa. Hayes, N. & Orrel, S. (1998). Developmental psychology. Ljubljana: The National Education Institute. Hohmann, M. (1995). In: Weikart, P. D. (Ed.). Educating young children. Michigan: High/Scope Press. Hohmann, M. & Weikart, D. P. (2005). Education and learning pre-school children. Ljubljana: State published Slovenia. Horvat, L. & Magajna, L.(1989). Developmental psychology. Ljubljana: State published Slovenia. Kamenov, E. (1987). Preschool pedagogy. Beograd: Institute for Textbooks and Materials. Kroflič, R. (1997). Learning-goal and process of curriculum development planning. In: Barle, L. A. & Bergant, K. (Eds.). Curriculum

content. Ljubljana: National Curriculum Council. Kroflič, R. (1999). Process-development model curriculum for public kindergartens. In: Puš Seme, S. (Ed.). About education (XII

ed.). Community Consultation Kindergatens Slovenia. Portoroz: Slovenia Kindergarten Community, 18-24. Kroflič, R. (2001). Underlying assumptions, principles and objectives of the curriculum for kindergarten. In: Marjanovič Umek, L.

(Ed.). Children in kindergarten: Guide to the curriculum for kindergarten. Maribor: Založba Obzorja. Ministry of Education, Office of Education. (1999). Kindergarten curriculum. Ljubljana: Ministry of Education, Office of Education. Labinowicz, E. (1989). Original Piaget. Ljubljana: State published Slovenia. Lepičnik Vodopivec, J. (2006). Environmental education in kindergarten. Ljubljana: AWTS. Lay-Dopyera, M. (1990). In: Dopyera, J. (Ed.). Becoming a teacher of a young children. Mc Graw Hill Publishing Company. Loschi, T. (1996). Montessori: Children build their autonomy. In: Monessori pedagogy. Ljubljana: Glotta Nova. Mitzenheim, P. (1985). The importance of Rousseau’s developmental thinking for child psychology. In: Eckardt, G., Bringmann, W. G.

& Sprung, L. (Eds.). Contributions to a history of developmental psychology. Berlin: Mouton. Malaguzzi, L. (1993). History, ideas and basic philosophy. In: Edwards, V. C., Gandini, L. & Forman, G. (Eds.). The hundred

languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Marentič Požarnik, B. (2000). Psychology learning and teaching. Ljubljana: State published Slovenia. Marjanovič Umek, L., et al. (Eds.). (2002). Quality in kindergarten. Ljubljana: Scientific Institute of the Faculty of Arts. Marjanovič Umek, L. & Fekonja Peklaj, U. (2008). Modern kindergarten. Ljubljana: Scientific Institute of the Faculty of Arts. Montessori, M. (1990). The discovery of the child. New York: Ballantine Books. Newcombe, N. (1996). Child development: Change over time. New York: Harper Collins College Publishers. O’hagan, M. (1993). In: Smith, M. (Ed.). Special issues in child care. London: Bailliere Tindall. Rinaldi, C. (1993). The emergent curriculum and social constructivism. In: Edwards, V. C., Gandini, L. & Forman, G. (Eds.). The hundred

languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Špoljar, K. (1993). New approaches to an active education program in modern concepts of preschool education. Educa, (5), 13-20. Thomson, B. J. (1995). Natural childhood: A practical guide for the first seven years of life. Radovljica: Didakta. Vasta, R., Haith, M. M. & Miller, S. A. (1995). Child psychology (2nd ed). New York: The Modern Science. Woodhead, M. (1999). Towards a global paradigm for research into early childhood education. European Early Childhood Education

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Role of Nigeria in the development of higher education in Africa

Akinwumi Femi Sunday (Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 234, Nigeria)

Abstract: In most countries of the world, higher education is highly subsidized by the public sector. The subsidy is a result of the role of higher education sector on the economy and good governance of the nations. Enrolment into higher institutions of learning is quite low in Africa compare to other continents of the world due to the continent’s low and declining spending on her higher institutions of learning. This shabby contribution by the continent could be likened to a result of some imminent challenges, which ranged from inadequate financial resource due to economic and social crisis to the challenges posed by the HIV/AIDS (Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) pandemic. The contributions of Nigeria to the development of higher education in Africa is quite worthy of note. This can be affirmed by the increase in the number of states and federal universities in the country over the years since independence. This can be further reaffirmed by the promulgation of Decree 9 of 1993, which made the provision for the establishment of private universities, which further increased the nation’s total number of universities to 93 from 59 and further strengthened the nations contributions to higher education development in the continent. In spite of all efforts made by the FGN (Federal Government of Nigeria), the nation is yet to reach her potential in the development of her higher education sector as the percentage of potential students that gained admission into the nation’s higher institutions of learning still stand below 15% of the total number of applicants. The study therefore recommended that budgetary allocations to higher institutions of learning be increased to meet the financial demands of the institutions. In addition, multi-campus should be encouraged in order to allow for more access to higher education.

Key words: role; quality assurance; higher education; knowledge-based economy; enrolment; policies

1. Africa higher education: A historical perspective

Higher education in Africa is as old as the pyramids of Egypt, the Obelisks of Ethiopia and the Kingdom of Timbuktu. The oldest university still existing in the world of Egypt, Alzaazhar, founded as, and still the major academic institution in the world organized according to the original Islamic model. All other universities in Africa have adopted the western model of academic tradition, the fact is that, traditional centers of higher learning have all disappeared or were displaced by the effects of colonialism. Today, the continent is demanded by academic institutions shaped by colonialism and organized according to the European model as in the case of the developing worlds. “Higher education in Africa is an artifact of colonial policies” (Altabach & Selvarantnam, 1989).

2. The policies of the colonial higher education in Africa

The colonial higher educational policies had some peculiar features, among which are limited access,

Akinwumi Femi Sunday, Ph.D., senior lecturer, the deputy coordinator of Distance Learning Centre of Department of Educational

Management, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan; research field: quality assurance and system control in higher education.


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language, limited freedom, etc. That colonial authentic feared a widespread access to higher education, because this may jeopardize their missions. They were only interested in the training of a limited number of Africans to assist in administering the colonies. Throughout Africa then, the size of the academic system was very small as at the time of independence. A World Bank study of 1991 reported that, at independence, less than one-quarter of all professional civil service posts were held by Africans, most trade and industries throughout the continent were foreign-owned and only 3% of high school age students received a secondary education.

In 1961, Zambia had only got 100 universities graduates. University of East Africa (Serving Kenya, Tanzannia and Uganda) turned out a total of 99 graduates, form a combined area of a population of 23 million at the same year. Zaire, now Democratic Republic of Congo, got her independence without a single engineer, lawyer and doctor who were citizens of the country.

French-speaking African countries could only produce 4 graduates in the field of agriculture in 1952-1963, a period of 11 years while English-speaking African countries turned out 150 (Eisermon, 1988).

After independence, the number of students’ enrolment in the continents’ higher educational institutions was within 1 million. However, the present estimation shows that 4-5 million, students are currently enrolled. Egypt has the highest number in Africa with over 1.5 million (including about a quarter of 1 million part-time students). Nigeria came second with close to 1 million, 93,000 students enrolled in her post-secondary institutions (Jubril, 2003). Subotzky (2003) opined that South Africa has more than half a million students in her 21 universities and 15 technikons. She has the third largest number of enrolled post-secondary school students in the continent.

Higher educational institutions in Africa have assumed a positive role in improving the entire education system and the pattern designed to prepare young people at all levels for an improved and commendable citizenship. In addition to its functions of teaching and advancing knowledge through research, the roles of higher education in Africa are as follows:

(1) to ensure unification of Africa; (2) to maintain adherence and loyalty to world academic standards; (3) to encourage the comprehension and appreciation of African cultural heritage; (4) to train every individual for nation building; (5) to develop over the years, a truly African institution of higher learning dedicated to Africa and its people,

a kinship to the larger society. At present, the total number of African students enrolled in institutions of higher education both in Africa and

abroad has been estimated at 165,000 with 141,000 studying in Africa and 24,000 abroad (Conference of African States on the Development of Education in Africa, Addis-Ababa, 1968).

The Addis-Ababa reports stipulated that, by 1980, 60% of students enrolled in the universities would be studying in scientific and technological fields.

Among the findings of studies undertaken for the conference, it appeared that the actual distribution of students enrolled in middle African universities according to their fields of study was in the following arrangement: science, engineering, medical science, medical studies (medicine, pharmacy and dentistry), agriculture, forestry, social science and technology, and all other fields.

3. The state of higher education in Africa

According to the report of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) in


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2002, the enrolment rates for higher education in Sub-Sahara Africa are by far the lowest in the world, though the gross enrolment ratio has increased in the past years. Between 1985 and 1989, 17% of the worldwide education sector expenses were on higher education, but from 1995 to 1991, the portion allotted to higher education declined to just 7% as the focus shifted to primary education (World Education Conference, 1990).

UNESCO Report (2005) confirmed this asserting that, this reduction in spending has adversely affected higher education in Africa. The average percentage of gross enrolment conceals wide disparities among countries. In several countries, enrolment stood at 1% or less in 2003. However, signs of progress for higher learning are now appearing in sub-Sahara Africa. The International Development Community has begun to recognize the importance of advanced schooling, and African countries have introduced innovative policies to strengthen tertiary education systems there.

Higher education in Africa faces novel challenges at present. Not only is the demand for access unstoppable particularly in the context of Africa’s usual low post secondary attendance levels, but also higher education is recognized as a necessary factor for modernization and development.

Among the challenges facing higher education in Africa are inadequate financial resources coupled with an overwhelming demand for access, the legacy for colonialism, long standing economic and social crisis in many countries and the challenges of HIV/AIDS (Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) in part of the continent.

As regards limited access, colonial authorities feared widespread access of higher education. They were only interested in training a limited number of Africans who would assist in administering the colonies. Some colonial power, notably the Spanish, Portuguese, Belgians and French, kept their enrolment very small thereby making the size of the academic system very small at the time of independence. At independence, Africans held less than a quarter of professional civil service posts, only 3% of high school age students received a secondary education and the language of institution was the language of the colonizers—limits on academic freedom and on the autonomy of academic. Institutions were the order of the day. Also, the curricular was dramatically restricted.

Another challenge facing the higher education in Africa is the legacy of colonialism—For most of the African countries, independence has been the national reality and the former colonizers have remained strong. The fact that in many African counties, the colonial language has been adopted as the language of instruction is significant, importance and illustrative. The impact of the colonial influence remained crucial in an investigation of African higher education.

Considering inadequate financial resources in virtually all the African countries, the demand for enrolment is gradually restricting the resources of higher education institutions. Students had to be admitted into institutions designed originally for fewer students. Since the enrolment increased rapidly, the financial resources had not been able to meet up with it.

In the estimation, 4-5 million students are currently enrolled in the continent’s post-secondary institutions. Task Force on Higher Education (2000) in a report put this figure at 3,3489,000 students. There is over 150,000 academic staff in African’s post-secondary institutions. Egypt has the highest number of enrolment with 15,000,000 students and 31,000 academic staff. Jubril (2003) asserted that, Nigeria came closely behind with about 900,000 students in 92 universities. South Africa with more than half 1 million students in its 21 universities and 15 technikons is the third in the procession.

At the beginning of this century, the central reality for all African higher education systems was severe financial crises. Academic faces economic problems everywhere but the problems are more pressing in Africa


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than anywhere else. The causes of these problems are not difficult to discern, they include: (1) The pressure of expansion and massification, which have added large number of students to most African

academic institutions and systems; (2) Individual African countries’ fiscal problems have made it difficult to increase the funds for higher

education; (3) A changed economic climate induced by multilateral lending agencies, such as World Bank and

International Monetary Funds led to it; (4) Misallocation and poor privatization of available financial resources, such as the tradition of providing

highly subsidized or even free accommodation and food to students, and maintaining a large cumbersome non-academic personnel and infrastructure is faded;

(5) The inability of students to afford the tuition rates necessary for financial stability and some cases of inability to impose tuition.

The financial situation appears to be relatively less severe or be improving gradually in few places in Africa. During a series of military regimes in the past, Nigeria had suffered serious social, economic and political upheavals.

Jubril (2003) opined that funds are expected to increase by 25.2% under the current elected government. Confirming the fact that the expansion of the tertiary institutions through greater enrolment has led to inadequate financial and personnel resources, and that the available resources are not well allocated, it is considered that, Botswana, which has a small population and considerable mineral wealth, has been able to provide for her higher education sector with adequate funds.

In the area of governance, public higher education institutions predominates Africa and governments’ involvement in university affairs is the norm. This legacy is reflected in the current governance structures in many African universities. In many parts of Africa, the head of State holds the ultimate authority as the president in appointing the vice-chancellor and other administrators in the institutions. This is typical of the Anglophone countries in Africa. The chain of administrative power starts with the vice-chancellor and then moves to the deans or directors and finally the departmental heads. The deans and directors in most cases are appointed either by the vice-chancellor or directly by the government officials constituted for that purpose (the boards of directors or trustees). In many cases, fellow members of the department elect the departmental heads.

Excessive intake of non-academic staff is another challenge facing the higher institutions in Africa— Observation results give it that, the teaching and research staff in quite a large number of African institutions are smaller in population than the administrative staff. The administrative bureaucracy in African universities is disproportionately large. For instance, Maliyamkono (1991) reported that at the National University of Lesotho, there is twice as many administrative staff as there are academics and more than 60% of the institution’s budget goes on the staff’s salary. In Madagascar, Jimenez (1987) reported, “The student-to-administrator ratio remained highly relative to other countries (with 6 students to each administrator)”.

4. Development of higher education in Nigeria

The height of a process of maturity and systematic training through experience, and the extensive development of the intellect, orientation and values imbued in the individual in question at the primary and secondary levels are conceptualized as higher education (Longe & Agabi, 1990). In fact, it is a more or less


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specialized type of education that individual students obtain at the post-secondary levels of schooling, such as universities, polytechnics, colleges of education, colleges of agriculture and other monotecnics. Akinwumi (2004) opined that, the establishment of higher education institutions in Nigeria emerged as part of the colonial struggles championed by the nationalist elites, majority of who obtained tertiary education outside the country. Education was perceived by the nationalist as the most forceful weapon for mental de-colonization, political and socio-economic developments. Considering the nationalist’ relentless agitation for higher education, the British government established the Yaba Higher College in 1932 with the objective of providing average manpower in relevant government departments by offering sub-degree courses in medicine, engineering, agriculture, teachers’ education, and other vocations.

The British Colonial Administration also found the Elliot Commission on Higher Education in West Africa, in 1945. This body recommended for a University College in Nigeria. The University College, Ibadan was then established in 1948 as an off-shore and branch of the University of London. In 1949, a delegation of the Inter-University Council for Higher Education in the British colonies gave another report which made a strong case for promoting technical education at the regional levels, hence, the establishment of 3 polytechnics, one in each administrative region of the country. These polytechnics, namely, the Nigeria colleges of arts, science and technology, Zaria, then for the Northern region (1952); Ibadan, for the Western region (1954) and Enugu for the Eastern region (1955).

The Ashby Commission named after its chairperson (Sir Eric Ashby) submitted its report that more courses should be introduced into technical education in 1959. Consequently, the number of the universities increased to 7 in order to accommodate an expanded production of high level manpower to meet the Nigerians needs.

Longe and Agabi (1990) opined that historical inventories of the first sets of universities in Nigeria are the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, which was established in 1960, Obafemi Awolowo University in 1962, University of Lagos in 1962, and the University College, Ibadan, was converted into an autonomous institution at the same year. Thus, by the end of 1962, there were 5 universities in Nigeria. Four more universities were established in Sokoto, Maiduguri, Jos and Calabar in 1975 for wider geographical spread of institutions of higher learning. Three colleges were also instituted in Ilorin, Port-Harcourt and Bayero University Kano respectively. Several state governments instituted universities alongside those of the federal government in many states in 1980. Private universities later equally came into the scene in 1999 with the emergence of Igbinedion university, Babcock university and covenant university. At present, there are 27 federal universities, 34 state universities and 41 private universities. Altogether, there are 102 universities in Nigeria (NUC (National Universities Commission, 2010) (see Table 1).

Table 1 Present state of universities in Nigeria

Period Federal State Private Total 1948 1 - - 1 1950-1959 - - - - 1960-1969 4 - - 4 1970-1979 8 1 - 9 1980-1989 9 6 - 15 1990-1999 3 6 3 12 2000-2009 2 21 38 61 Total 27 34 41 102

Sources: NUC, 2010; Okebukola, 2010.


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5. The Nigerian educational system

The exit of the Colonial government in Nigeria in 1960 provided opportunities for Nigeria to recognize education as an important tool for the development and strategic for changes in demographic dynamics.

The pluralistic nature of the Nigeria and different religious inclinations made the realization of policies difficult in all sectors. The dichotomy between the Northern and Southern Nigeria also manifested in their educational policies. While because of their long-time exposure embraced Western education in the Southern, the North vehemently adhered to Islamic education. English language is associated with Western education while Arabic is the language associated with the Islamic education.

In an attempt to bridge the gap between these two regions, the national policy on education which was formulated in 1970 adequately took care of the interests of the entire population by addressing both formal and non-formal systems and providing parallel systems of education to include all the segments of society. Before the year 1970, the system of education in Nigeria was a 6-5-2-3 system which is similar to British system of education and a legacy of Nigeria’s colonial part (Odejide, 2002).

After the end of the Civil War, Nigeria emerged with a realization of her true potentials and the pursuit in greater degree of policy of self-reliance in all fields of national life. The National Development Plan (1970-1974) laid down 5 social, political and economic objectives for the nation which also is seen as the foundation for the national policy on education: (1) a free and democratic society; (2) a just and egalitarian society; (3) a united strong and self reliant nation; (4) a great and dynamic economy; and (5) a land of input and full opportunities for all citizen.

The national policy on education is associated with a numerical formula 6-3-3-4 which represents the number of years that a child is expected to spend at various level of education. The first 6 stands for 6 years in primary, followed by 3 years at the junior secondary, 3 years at the senior secondary and 4 years at the tertiary level.

The new policy is in conception and design, a radical departure from the former British implanted educational system in Nigeria. A striking feature of colonial education in Nigeria was that, it was guided by the imperial utilization considerations.

The primary education curriculum is designed to enable pupils use their minds and hands. The objective is to produce better farmers, fishermen, craftsmen, carpenters and better citizens.

The secondary system is divided into two: the junior and senior secondary. At the first level, which is junior, students are expected to have a good mastery of craftsmanship, carpentry, wood works, etc. Its belief will make them to be self-reliant and independent. Instead of becoming job-seekers, they would be job-creators. However, for those who can make it to senior secondary school, higher curriculum tailored towards sciences and humanities are designed for them.

However, what as good as the system is, it lacks foundational planning. Teachers with relevant knowledge or competence, in vocational and technical education were nowhere to be found. Because of their non-professional teachers lacked the methodological aspect of delivering their lectures.

These amongst others, therefore, makes a mockery of the system both academic and practical disciplines in the universities and polytechnics. They are designed to produce high level human resources.

6. Is there any role Nigeria is playing at all?

The above question leads people to the main topic of this paper. The Federal Government of Nigeria has being


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doing well in bringing improvement to the higher education in Nigeria. Some of the efforts include the follows. 6.1 Private participation in higher education in Nigeria The recent upsurge in secondary education has multiplier effects on the demand for higher education in the

country in which government finds it difficult to cope with. Many youngsters in Nigeria are left scrambling for places in universities, polytechnics and colleges of education. According to Oyebade (2005), since 1991-1992 academic year, the unsatisfied demand for university education has been above 70%. In 1992-1993 academic session, the unsatisfied demand was 83%. This issue of unfulfilled demand for university education coupled with the undignified system run by the public universities which is characterized by strikes, poor funding, cases of cultism and of most predominantly declining in quality had increased the request for private universities by stakeholders (see Table 2).

Table 2 JAMB (Joint Admission and Matriculation Board) application and admission profiles (2006)

No. of application No. admitted Percentage admitted (%) 1986-1987 193,774 39,915 20.6 1987-1988 210,525 36,356 17.3 1988-1989 190,353 41,700 21.9 1989-1990 255,638 38,431 15.0 1990-1991 287,572 48,504 16.9 1991-1992 398,270 61,49 15.4 1992-1993 357,950 57,685 16.1 1993-1994 420,681 59,484 14.1 1995-1996 508,280 32,473 6.4 1996-1997 472,362 76,430 16.3 1997-1998 419,807 72,791 17.3 2000-2001 550,399 60,718 11.0 2001-2002 828,214 78,416 9.5 2002-2003 828,334 83,405 10.1 2003-2004 851,604 91,280 10.7 2004-2005 913,559 92,103 10.1

Sources: (1) Jegede 2000 Experts consultants report on Commonwealth of Learning World Bank Project; (2) Executive Secretary of NUC (2005), paper delivered at the National Workshop on Distance Education in Nigeria.

In the words of Adekanmbi (2007), he posited that the universities could not afford to become a beehive of commercial activities, where the search for money beclouds the search for knowledge and the truth. It becomes a kind of contradiction in terms if it were to be. It must satisfy the yearnings for its existence. How for example would it be different from the ordinary business organization? To allow universities to become financial corporations is itself a dangerous enterprise. The university must be the theoretical basis for development, and the guide for the praxis of such a goal.

Due to this massive demand for education, government in Nigeria in 1980s received several applications for the establishment of private higher institutions. Concern for quality and for the need to set out guidelines led to the applications not being approved until the end of 1990s. Several private higher institutions have since been approved. The private sectors have responded by successfully getting so many private higher institutions licensed in the past 9 years. This private sector response to creation of higher institutions has been quite intense and has


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made Nigeria become aligned to the change in the deregulated education industry worldwide, where private sector participation is taking a pride of place in the provision of what was originally regarded as government preserves. Apart from the above, it will be of great interest to note that the Federal Government has taken steps to expand access to higher education in Nigeria. Some of the giant steps taken by the Federal Government include: (1) increasing the number of both state and federal universities; (2) expanding enrolments; (3) introducing an admission quota system to address regional and class imbalances; (4) approving the establishment of more private universities; and (5) establishment of National Open University (see Table 3).

Table 3 Distribution of students by institution

Type of institution Enrolment 1987-1988 1990-1991 1994-1995 1998-1999 2006-2007 Increase from 1987-1988to 2006-2007 (%)

University — 158,758 195,759 256,780 319,914 723,213 418.53 Polytechnic — 72,134 106,926 187,738 219,770 323,684 348.73 College of education — 61,890 85,574 95,502 105,416 331,396 435.46

Source: National Manpower Board (NMB, 2007).

With this development, there has been serious concern about the quality of products of private higher institutions especially in the light of the sudden rise in their number as well as of the number of students, factors that had a serious telling effect on the institutional facilities.

6.2 Curriculum development The reality of a knowledge-based economy, in which producing, disseminating, adapting using and applying

knowledge are the key factors of economic growth and competitiveness, requires the university curriculum and its implementation and must be dynamic and be relevant to the needs of the society in a rapidly changing world. Employers believed that, academic standards have fallen considerably over the past decade and that a university degree is no longer a guarantee of communication skills or technical competence. As a result, university graduates are commonly viewed as half-baked (Dabalen, Bankole & Olatunde, 2001). There is therefore the need for tracer study by institutions of higher learning to find out the relevance of their degree programmes. The curriculum of university education should prepare student for global labor market.

However, the Nigerian government through NUC (National Universities Commission) of recent introduced some new dimensions to salvage the battered image through re-positioning of curriculum. One of these strategies is the inclusion of new content in the field of study arising from public, demand with existing programmes. Babalola and Jaiyeoba (2008) opined that, “Government often respond to the demands of the society concerning relevance of academic programmes through policy statements and directives from the NCE (National Council on Education), which communicates such decisions to the NUC and in turn issues directives to the universities for action”. The introduction and adoption of post-JAMB, screening by all the universities in Nigeria is a giant step aiming at sanitizing the quality of education in Nigeria. Besides, due to the dynamic nature of the society and nature, the injection of entrepreneurial studies and citizenship education into the curriculum is like a harmattan fire spreading the self-sustainability of the graduates and thus, reducing the unemployment.

The packaging and repackaging of some university programmes to meet the changes in the knowledge environment goes a long way to improve the old moribund curriculum. For instance, the inclusion of courses like, bio-chemistry and geo-physics are in response to the market trends.

One other way of strategizing curriculum in Nigeria, according to Babalola and Jaiyeoba (2008), is the


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systematic and professional approach. Curriculum development should follow a due process. That is, a proposed curriculum should be drafted by the department to faculty board then to the senate. The approved document should now be sent to NUC and finally to the Ministry of Education for ratification (see Tables 4 and 5).

Table 4 Distribution of total graduate out-turn by types of institution and academic year

Type of institution Enrolment 1987-1988 1990-1991 1994-1995 1998-1999 2006-2007 Increase from 1987-1988to 2006-2007 (%)

University — 37,286 41,497 48,219 61,749 97,376 161.16 Polytechnic — 25,573 31,321 43,965 58,823 100,766 293.64 College of education — 19,803 21,757 19,158 21,147 45,348 129.00

Source: NMB (2007).

Table 5 Admission quota into Nigerian private universities for undergraduate programme (2007-2008)

University Total Igbinedon University, Okada 1,097 Madonna University, Okija 2,266 Babcock University, Ilisan Remo 1,937 Pan African University, Lagos 200 Benson Idahosa University, Benin 960 Covenant University, Ota 1,500 Bowen University, Iwo 981 ABTI America, University, Yola 500 Bingham University, New Karu, Nasarawa 500 Caritas University, Enugu 500 Al-Hikmah University, Ilorin, Kwara State 500 Cetep City University, Lagos 500 Redeemers University, Ede 500 Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo 500 City University, Ibadan 500 National Open University — Total 9,578

Source: NUC (2008).

Globalization poses a big threat to universities in South. Universities in developing countries are under tremendous pressure to carry out their responsibilities due to government inability to provide adequate fund to sustain university education. There is substantial migration abroad for academic work. Globalization encourages these flows and will ensure that growth continues. As academic systems become more similar and academic degree more widely accepted internationally, as immigration rules are tailed to people with high skills level and as universities themselves are more open to hiring the best talent worldwide. At present, a large exodus of Nigerian academic to the Southern African Countries, US, Canada and UK is very rampant, because of low salaries and deteriorating facilities in Nigerian universities. However, federal government is encouraging scholars through the provision of scholarships and research grants. Also, the NUC has introduced entrepreneurial programme to the university curriculum. This will enable graduates to acquire the required skills that will make them self-reliant.


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6.3 Competitive driven reform The competitive driven reform introduced by the National Universities Commission is a welcome

development. This annual rating of universities will help promote healthy rivalry among the institutions. It will make each university to know their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. This in essence will help universities bring innovation into their programmes and this will enhance creativity and resourcefulness. This will have an overall effect on the productivity of labor and higher educational institution. In addition, the National Universities Commission has introduced new initiatives to stimulate quality university system. These include virtual library, best in teaching Nigerian UMIS (University Management Information System), NUNET (Nigerian Universities Network), Nigerian universities COMPULIE (Computer Literacy Programme), e-learning, pedagogic and management training programme for university staff and managers and database of expert in higher education.

6.4 Finance driven reforms Government in recent times has introduced the finance-driven reforms, particularly the issue of cost sharing

as government alone. This is not unconnected to the International Monetary Fund which has played an important role in setting the conditions for nation/states to develop economically. A major part of the IMF (International Monetary Fund) package for countries preparing the IMF package for countries preparing themselves for “sound” economic growth to reduce the size of the public deficit and shifting national resources form government control to the private sector. This in turn means the reduction of public spending relative to the private sector.

The IMF is concerned primarily with reducing the cost of public service delivery. They have settled on 3 main finance driven reforms: (1) the shift of public funding for education from higher to lower levels of education; (2) the privatization of secondary; and (3) higher education.

This issue of commodification of knowledge has been resisted by both academic staff unions and students unions. Their stand is based on the fact that, knowledge has always been power as well as a public good and access to it and its role in innovation determine both the place of nation in the world order and of individual in the society, but that commodification displaces the creation and passing on of knowledge. The issue has not been resolved.

6.5 Science and technology The Federal Ministry of Science and Technology was created in 1979 by the Federal Government to provide

leadership in the Development of Science and Technology in Nigeria. A policy on Department of Science and Technology in the country is woven into the teaching of the subjects at the higher institutions of learning, and is therefore relevant to education policy.

It is only at the secondary school level that the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology has encouraged good performance in science and mathematics through various inter-school competitions and awards, which always include girls’ colleges, as well as boys’ colleges.

Further efforts to promote science and technology have been noted more amongst non-governmental organizations and international networks, such as GASAT (Gender and Science and Technology) and the TWOWS (Third World Organization for Women in Science). These organizations conduct seminars and competitions for girls at the secondary school level and work to sensitize parents and girls to the benefits of science education. Special academic grants and research awards have also been given via these organizations to encourage retention of women in the field and to show case role models. The Helena Rubenstein Award for women in science has promoted this and 2 Nigerian female academics won this global award consecutively in the late 1990s.

The NUC has ratified the establishment of pre-degree remedial programmes in science in most of the universities. However, it has no gendered targets. It is expected that, while this has enhanced access for many


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students through bypassing the UME (University Matriculation Examination) examinations in favor of internal examination, more girls than hitherto now have the opportunity to improve their eligibility for entry into the science courses. Statistics are required to show if this has positive affect on girls’ access.

7. Recommendation

Based on the above discussions, the study therefore recommends that budgetary allocations to higher education be increased in order to meet that ever-increasing demands of the institutions. This obviously will facilitate the development and competitiveness of local universities with their foreign counterparts.

Since education is perceived as a public good and therefore its demand always surpasses its supply, in developing countries, the adoption of multi-campus system should be encouraged among the higher institutions of learning for both regular and distance learning students in order to increase accessibility to higher education among the populace of the nation. E-learning could also be strengthened to further boost this cause.

Finally, a standard procedure for quality control should be embarked upon by the higher education regulatory body, such as NUC, in order to ensure favorable comparison and competitiveness with the foreign counterparts.

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Editor-in-Chief Prof.dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre, Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania Editorial Board Dr., prof. Boris Abersek, University of Maribor, Slovenia Dr., prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil Dr., prof. Janis Gedrovics, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia Dr., prof. Martin Bilek, Hradec Kralove University, Czechia Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh. Abovyan, Armenia Dr. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State M.Tank Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Karelian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Karelia, Russia Dr., prof. Danuse Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czech Republic Dr. Yuriy Pelekh, International University of Economics and Humanities named after Academician Stepan Demianchuk, Ukraine Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania Dr., prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria

Website: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/Problems_of_Education.htm

Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, non-periodical, peer reviewed scientific collection, issued by the SMC “Scientia Educologica”.

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