Urban Energy Source Book

Urban Energy Sourcebook

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Urban EnergySourcebook Final Draft

UN HABITAT

“In 1900 the world produced 150 million barrels of oil. In 2000, it produced 28 billion barrels,

an increase of more than 180-fold.”

…

“In 1900 there were only a handful of cities with a million people.

Today 414 cities have at least that many inhabitants.”

…

–Lester R. Brown, Plan BJuly 2009


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Cover Picture: http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/02/picture-hong-kong-at-night.phpby Trey Ratcliff. (Photo credits awaited)

This Urban Energy Sourcebook has been prepared by a team led by Dr. Brahmanand Mohanty, visitingFaculty in the School of Environment, Resources and Development (SERD) at the Asian Institute ofTechnology (AIT).

The following team members from BCIL Altech Foundation have helped put the ideas together:

Krish Murali Eswar, Chief Innovation Officer

Shashi Kad, Sustainable Development Director

Radha Eswar, Chief Knowledge Officer

AmitKumar Gope, Researcher

Jitendar, Researcher

Thanks are due to Dr. Chandrasekhar Hariharan, Founder, BCIL Alt Tech Foundation, Bangalore, India forinvaluable mentoring from time to time. Thanks are also due to Mr. Bernard Barth of the Training andCapacity Building Branch of UN-Habitat for his continuous guidance, constructive criticism andencouragement for the preparation of this document.


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TABLE OF CONTENTSSUMMARY.......................................................................................................................................................10

CHAPTER 1......................................................................................................................................................14

THE URBAN ENERGY SWEEPSTAKES.............................................................................................................14

1.1 CITIES HOLD THE KEY TO ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY.........................................................................15

1.2 THE MANY FACETS OF URBAN NEEDS...............................................................................................20

1.3 THE TIPPING SCALE OF ENERGY IN URBAN METABOLISM..................................................................25

CHAPTER 2......................................................................................................................................................31

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY IN AN URBAN CONTEXT.............................................................................................31

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.................................................................................................................31

2.2 WHO DECIDES WHO NEEDS ENERGY?................................................................................................33

2.3 LOOPHOLES IN ENERGY SYSTEMS........................................................................................................37

2.4 LACK OF SYSTEMS-BASED APPROACHES:...............................................................................................41

CHAPTER 3....................................................................................................................................................45

METAMORPHOSIS INTO SUSTAINABLE CITIES.............................................................................................45

3.1 UNDERSTANDING THE URBAN FABRIC—THE BOTTOM-UP APPROACH................................................45

3.2 FROM CONSUMPTION TO PROSUMPTION: ROLE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES (RET)....59

3.3 THE WORLD OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES.......................................................................................67

3.4 KNOW YOUR CITY- AN EXERCISE FOR POLICY MAKERS.......................................................................74

CHAPTER 4.......................................................................................................................................................78

LEADING FOR ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY—IMPLEMENTING SUCCESSFUL POLICIES.......................................78

4.1 URBAN AUTHORITIES LEADING THE WAY............................................................................................78

4.2 INTEGRATED ENERGY PLANNING............................................................................................................83

4.3 CHOOSING THE RIGHT TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS................................................................................89

4.4 IMPLEMENTING THE IDEAS FOR SUSTAINABLE ENERGY.......................................................................98

REFERENCES:......................................................................................................................................................103

ANNEXE 1: DESIGNING THE FUTURE OF TRANSPORTATION IN CITIES.............................................................119

ANNEXE 2: IMPACT OF RECYCLING ALUMINIUM.........................................................................................120

ANNEXE 3: URBAN ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS..............................................................................120

ANNEXE 4: COMPUTER MODELS THAT HELP WITH ENERGY PLANNING..........................................................122

ANNEXE 5: IMPACT OF POLICIES ON SUSTAINABILITY AND COST...................................................................124

ANNEXE 6: BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVENESS OF POLICIES....................................................................................125

ANNEXE 7: STRATEGIES TO PICK UP FROM INITIATIVES AROUND THE WORLD:..............................................126

ANNEXE 8: THE URBAN ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY PLEDGE.............................................................................127

ANNEXE 9: TRAINING ACTIVITIES...................................................................................................................129

ANNEXE 10: A SAMPLE SCRIPT FOR ROLE PLAY..............................................................................................136

ANNEXE 11: FURTHER READING....................................................................................................................143

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1.1 : URBAN AND RURAL POVERTY PERCENTAGES IN ASIAN COUNTRIES............................................18

TABLE 1.2 : SECTORAL SHARE OF URBAN ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN FOUR ASIAN CITIES IN 1998.............21

TABLE 1.3 : EMBODIED ENERGY OF COMMONLY USED CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ....................................22


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TABLE 1.4: PASSENGER VEHICLE OWNERSHIP PER THOUSAND POPULATIONS IN SOME ASIAN CITIES..........24

TABLE 2.1: POWER CONSUMPTION FOR DIFFERENT GADGETS IN WATTS ON VARIOUS MODES....................39

TABLE 2.2: ELECTRICITY TARIFFS IN INDIAN STATES SHOWING PRICE DISTORTIONS FOR POWER SECTOR.....43

TABLE 3.1: SMART GROWTH VS SPRAWL –IMPACTS ENERGY USE- ESPECIALLY TRANSPORTATION NEEDS......48

TABLE 3.2: CONVERTING DIESEL POWERED VEHICLES TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN KATHMANDU, NEPAL........50

TABLE 3.3: ANNUAL SAVINGS DUE TO CLEANER PRODUCTION FROM ALL INDUSTRIES.............................52

TABLE 3.4: ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES AND PRACTICES FOR BUILDINGS......................................55

TABLE 3.5: CATEGORIES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES........................................63

TABLE 3.6: CURRENT STATUS AND POTENTIAL COSTS FOR FUTURE RET.......................................................66

TABLE 4.1: IEP PROCESSES FOR DESIGN OF ECO-CITY.................................................................................84

TABLE 4.2: VARIOUS INSTRUMENTS THAT POLICY MAKERS CAN USE FOR ACHIEVING THEIR POLICY GOALS......89

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1.1: URBAN SHARE OF GDP.................................................................................................................14

FIGURE 1.2: ASIAN URBAN POPULATION IN 2005 AND 2015............................................................................17

FIGURE 1.3: WORLD PRIMARY ENERGY SUPPLY IS DOMINATED BY FOSSIL FUELS............................................18

FIGURE 1.4: PRIMARY ENERGY SUPPLY BY SOURCE FOR ASIA (1971-2020)..................................................19

FIGURE 1.5: URBAN HEAT ISLANDS FIND SOLUTIONS THAT ARE IN A VICIOUS SPIRAL......................................23

FIGURE 1.6: AIR POLLUTANTS IN ASIAN CITIES................................................................................................26

FIGURE 1.7: SHARE OF ASIAN URBAN POPULATION BY PERCENTAGE IN LOW ELEVATION COASTAL ZONES...27

FIGURE 1.8: FLOW OF OIL FROM EXTRACTION TO CONSUMPTION SITES. .......................................................28FIGURE 1.9: ENERGY FLOW THROUGH THE CITY LINEAR IS FINITE.............................................................29

FIGURE 2.1: ENERGY STAKEHOLDERS- LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AT INTERFACE BETWEEN ALL STAKEHOLDERS......33

FIGURE 2.2: URBAN SLUM POPULATION IN SOME ASIAN COUNTRIES..............................................................34

FIGURE 2.3: WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION INEQUITIES DUE TO USE OF ENERGY IS HIGH...........................35

FIGURE 2.4: PER CAPITA ANNUAL CO2 EMISSIONS FROM INDIAN HOUSEHOLDS..............................................35

FIGURE 2.5: LOSSES ALONG THE POWER HIGHWAY...........................................................................................38

FIGURE 2.6: ENERGY FLOW LOSSES IN A PUMPING SYSTEM ALL ALONG THE CHAIN........................................39

FIGURE 2.7: AVERAGE POWER RATING AND USAGE OF ELECTRIC APPLIANCES IN CAMBODIA........................40

FIGURE 3.1: ENERGY SERVICE, THE END OBJECTIVE......................................................................................46

FIGURE 3.2: CLOSING THE LOOP AT THE SOURCE FOR WATER, ENERGY AND WASTE.................................47

FIGURE 3.3: UNDERSTANDING MOBILITY ISSUES..........................................................................................50

FIGURE 3.4: TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN CLEANER PRODUCTION OF ENERGY...................................................51

FIGURE 3.5: COGENERATION VS. SEPARATE GENERATION............................................................................53

FIGURE 3.6: PROGRESSIVE STEPS TO ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN INDUSTRY......................................................53

FIGURE 3.7: BUSINESS AS USUAL SCENARIO IN A CAMBODIAN HOUSEHOLD FOR ITS MONTHLY POWER BILL.......56

FIGURE 3.8: ENERGY EFFICIENCY SCENARIO IN A CAMBODIAN HOUSEHOLD FOR ITS MONTHLY ELECTRICITY BILL...56

FIGURE3.9: ENERGY EFFICIENT T ZED HOUSES IN BANGALORE.......................................................................57

FIGURE 3.10: USE OF RETS AROUND THE WORLD, SOLAR AND WIND TAKE THE MAJOR SHARE...................61

FIGURE 3.11: ENERGY DEMAND MANAGEMENT................................................................................................62

FIGURE 3.12: POSSIBLE REDUCTION IN CARBON EMISSION WITH EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES......................73

FIGURE 3.13 : ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIÉTAL, ECONOMIC AND NATURAL RESOURCE INDICATORS..................75

FIGURE 4.1: PARTICIPATORY PROCESS FOR URBAN PLANNING.....................................................................79


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FIGURE 4.2: INTEGRATED ENERGY PLANNING................................................................................................85

FIGURE 4.3: SUSTAINABLE URBAN ENERGY GOALS PLAN AND INSTRUMENTS..................................................87

FIGURE 4.4: SPECIFIC THERMAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION COMPARISONS FOR CEMENT MANUFACTURING......93

FIGURE 4.5: EARLY START WITH ENERGY POLICIES.......................................................................................95

FIGURE 4.6: POLICY INSTRUMENTS .....................................................................................................................96

FIGURE 4.7: THE 3 PS (PATH, PROCEDURE AND PARTNERS) PROCESS..........................................................98

LIST OF BOXES

BOX 1: JOURNEY OF A TOOTHPICK.....................................................................................................................29

BOX 2: WASTE TO MANURE............................................................................................................................47

BOX 3: CITY FARMING, EVERY LITTLE HELPS.....................................................................................................51

BOX 4: MAP THA PHUT ECO INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX.....................................................................................54

BOX 5: COOL AIRPORT.........................................................................................................................................54

BOX 6: BANGLADESH LOW COST HOUSING....................................................................................................55

BOX 7: ENERGY SAVINGS DURING CONSTRUCTION-THINKING OUT OF THE BOX.............................................57

BOX 8: WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS FOR MALDIVES?............................................................................................58

BOX 9: LESSON IN SELF-HELP—NEED BASED SOLUTIONS................................................................................64

BOX 10: PIONEERS IN RET USE AROUND THE WORLD.....................................................................................68

BOX 11: TIANJIN AND DONGTAN..........................................................................................................................75

BOX 12: THE CITY OF RIZHAO...........................................................................................................................80

BOX 13: ANN ARBOR MUNICIPAL ENERGY FUND.............................................................................................91

BOX 14: MULTIPLYING BENEFITS.....................................................................................................................91

BOX 15: CREATING JOBS THAT CLEAN UP THE CITIES..........................................................................................92

BOX 16: A WELFARE ASSOCIATION IN THE CITY...........................................................................................96

BOX 17: AUCKLAND ECOWISE.............................................................................................................................99


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LIST OF ACRONYMSADB Asian Development Bank

ADEME Agence de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l’Energie (FrenchEnvironment and Energy Management Agency)

BELP BESCOM Efficient Lighting programme

BIM Building Information Modelling

BMRC Building Management Resource Centre

BP British Petroleum

BTU British Thermal Units

CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamp

CHP Combined Heat and Power

CCS Carnon capturing and sequestration

CO2

Carbon dioxide

COGEN Cogeneration

DEFENDUS Development Focused End Use Oriented Service

EIC Energy Information Centres

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EPR Extended producer responsibility

ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GWe Gigawatt electricity

GWth Gigawatt thermal

H2

Hydrogen

HDI Human Development Index

ICICI Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India

IT Information technology

ICT Information and Communication technology

IDA International Development Agency

IEA International Energy Agency

IEP Integrated Energy Planning

IGES Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change

KPI Key Performance Indicators

kWh Kilowatt-hour

LECZ Low Elevation Coastal Zone

LED Light Emitting Diode

LNG Liquid Natural Gas

MBD Million Barrels a day

Mtoe Million tonnes of oil equivalent

MWe Megawatt electricity

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NGO Non Governmental Organisation


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NPCL Noida Power Company Limited

PJ Peta Joule

RES Reference Energy System

RET Renewable Energy Technology

RMB Ren Min Bi (official currency in China)

ROI Return on Investment

SME Small and Medium Enterprises

t tonne

TWh Terawatt - hour

UNDP United Nation Development Programme.

US United States

USD United States Dollar

VMC Vijayawada Municipal Corporation

VQS Vehicle Quota System

WEA World Energy Assessment

ZJ Zettajoule or zeptojoule

UNIT PREFIXESK kilo (103)

M mega (106)

G giga (109)

T tera (1012)

P peta (1015)

E exa (1018)

CONVERSIONS1 metric tonne = 2204.62 lb= 1.1023 short tons

1 kilolitre = 6.2898 barrels = 1 cubic metre

1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.187kJ = 3.968 Btu

1 kilojoule (kJ) = 0.239kcal = 0.948 Btu

1 British thermal unit (Btu) = 0.252 kcal = 1.055 kJ

1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 860 kcal = 3600 kJ = 3412 Btu


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SummarSummarSummarSummarSummar yyyyy“There can be no sustainable development without sustainable

energy development.”

–Margot Wallstrom, European Union Environmental Commissioner

(2004)

With urban population having outpaced the rural number for the

first time in the world in 2008, urban energy has assumed centre-stage. Asia, which is home to about four billion people, is witnessinga sudden surge in economic growth with its cities emerging as majoractivity centres. It is increasingly becoming a challenge for Asia toprovide access to energy to billions who do not yet have access toclean and affordable energy and at the same time to decarboniseand reduce risk of local and global environmental catastrophes.

The challenge is difficult to address, as energy underpins almost allinfrastructural initiatives. Maintaining economic growth and providingaccess to basic shelter, transport, education, health and sanitation,all assume uninterrupted, stable, secure and affordable energy. Whilethis could have been met by energy from fossil fuels, as it has beenfor industrialized countries, world’s finite reserves of fossil fuels aredwindling rapidly and the threat of global warming and climatechange make Asian cities and many island countries very vulnerable.

An alternative model of development is the need of the hour. Thechallenge is to sustain the economic growth but make a tangibleshift to decarbonised energy systems. It seems possible andpromising based on the various initiatives across the world, and alsofrom Asia, which have impacted environmental, social and economicspheres positively. What we now need to do is to replicate and scaleup these efforts in the Asian context, keeping the urgency of theissues in mind.

This source book is akin to a ‘manual for city managers’ withillustrative plates, and an engaging account of the renewed quest,isolated but inspiring, among many cities across Asia and the world,for exemplars—of models of good practices in the formidable interactbetween people and their cities amid the hovering dark clouds ofthe environment and energy security threats.

This quest has several dimensions, and underlying the theme of thisbook is a historical search that seeks examples of ecological harmonyand learning, to either live within our natural means, or to stretchthe value of every resource we extract. Here is a comprehensivenarrative that can serve as a guide to the how-to’s of designing citiesthrough new planning, and reinventing lifestyles through systemsthat demand reduced energy.


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Business as usual is not an option at all. Developing in a way theindustrialised world grew will cost far more in terms of energy,pollution, traffic chaos and global catastrophes such as climatechange, which threaten the very existence of certain communities inAsia. There are indeed no precedents from post-industrial societythat can offer solutions to this future that is already upon us. Weneed to ensure that there is no false concern on meeting arbitraryshort-term targets, but instead a genuine desire to improve the social,economic and environmental context, in the local, regional andnational framework of every city across Asia with an eye, always, onthe long term.

The efforts of city administration for providing and facilitating newand efficient technologies, incentives and regulation cannot bedelayed without facing the problems which have started surfacingalready. This sourcebook serves as an informative document thatcan help Local Governments to take stock of their own situation,analyse the system wastages, and look for innovative solutions toreduce energy demand.

Energy supply has to come from clean sources. Wherever possible,renewable options should be explored. Local Governments need tobe aware of options for them, which they can adopt independentlywithout having to pass on the responsibility to other agencies, andenhance access to clean energy for their cities. This effort needs tobe made in every city, small or big in Asia. A primary goal should beto have well-planned, well-managed and well-governed cities in thespheres of sustainable urban energy, in Asia.

In an attempt to understand this journey towards sustainable energyfor the cities, this sourcebook provides appropriate and relevantinformation in the Asian context. The first chapter introduces someof the key challenges that cities of Asia face. Target readers willidentify some of these challenges as problems in their own cities.This chapter also highlights the local and global implications ofunrelenting energy use in cities of Asia.

The second chapter introduces the conceptual framework for thesourcebook and deals with the sectoral entry points for managingurban energy.

Chapter three is a detailed description of various solutions that havethe potential to change the energy map of the cities. What cities cando to address the problem of energy crisis is demonstrated throughcarefully selected case studies that can inspire the Local Governmentsto replicate the measures.

The last chapter is focussed on providing a road map to local leadersto move towards the goal of energy-frugal and low carbon cities


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through certain innovative tools and instruments. It outlines theimportance of integrated energy planning and details how a city canachieve low carbon status by taking comprehensive energy planningand policy, and implementation measures.

The annexes provide interesting information including a table showingpossible indicators for energy sustainability. This annexe is intendedfor local government authorities to help them kick-start their localaction plan for urban sustainable energy.

For this sourcebook Sustainable energy may be defined in a systemicway as the energy system put in place that meets the energy needsof the present generation without compromising on the ability of thefuture generations to meet their own energy needs. It becomes cleartherefore that amongst many ways of managing energy, those thatenable energy efficiency and demand management are an inseparablepart of the solution for sustainable energy.

Objectives of this sourcebook are

· To understand the challenges before developing Asia to meetthe energy demand and provide basic energy access to all.

· To understand the concept of sustainable energy in the urbanAsian context.

· To understand the linkages of various sectors and subsectorsand therefore a need for understanding the integrated holisticapproach to address the energy issues.

· To find solutions for sustainable energy, balancing economic,environmental and social criteria.

· To learn from the experiences of other local leaders.

· To assist in designing policies or planning and executing localaction to help cities march towards carbon neutrality.

To achieve these objectives:

A review of existing toolkits was carried out to get relevantinformation. In the Asian context, an updated source which providesconcise and relevant information for urban energy is required. Thissourcebook, particularly targeted towards local governments,attempts to fill that gap. Extensive review has been carried out forall urban energy sectors and sub sectors. Data sources arepredominantly secondary and draw on a wide range of sourcesprimarily from the experience of donor agencies, NGOs, governmentagencies, local governments, multi-stakeholder partnerships andcommunities through case-study method. Analysis of case studiescarefully selected through a reiterative process has helped inpresenting relevant themes for urban energy management in Asia.The constraint however is the availability of material from Asia forall thematic areas which are considered as priority in the urbancontext. Some examples of case studies are taken from the European


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and Latin American countries purely because of material constraintfrom Asia. Some topics that are fairly important in an energysourcebook are not discussed in detail because of the focus on theurban context.

This sourcebook is not a primary research product. It builds upon thereal practical experiences of local task managers and leaders aspresented in various case studies. The emphasis on local action thatthis source book talks about has a firm basis in experiences on theground and particularly from developing Asia. Wherever there areexperiences shared from other parts of the world, these are analysedin the context of Asia or presented because the authors think thatthey are relevant for Asia. The sourcebook aims to deliver practicaladvice, information and guidelines which have already worked toachieve the goals of sustainable energy at the local level.


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Chapter 1.

Energy for cities is emerging as one of the key developmentalconcerns across the globe, particularly for Asia. There is no activitythat human beings perform that does not require energy; life in thecity today exerts a phenomenally high demand on energy. Thischapter touches upon how crucial energy services are for growingurban centres and the challenge before developing Asia to provideenergy to millions who do not yet have access to it. And just havingaccess to energy is not enough. It needs to be done without impactinglocal or global environment adversely, and by sustaining economicgrowth required to draw millions out of poverty.

Energy is all pervasive and is one of the key facilitators of humanlife. All essentials of modern-day urban living such as water supply,waste management, transportation, housing, industry and runningof a commercial or social enterprise, depend on energy. For all theseservices, different sources and forms of energy are used dependingupon a country’s geographic location, resource reserves, status ofdevelopment, and the prevailing socio-economic context.

Asia is a very diverse continent with varying physical conditionsranging from landlocked cities like Chengdu, Delhi and Lahore to

Figure 1.1 Urban share of GDP

The figure shows percentage of urban contribution to national GDP

GDP= Gross domestic product, PRC = People’s Republic of China, ROK= Republic of

Korea. Source: Compiled from United Nations Human Settlements Programme

database in ADB, 2008

The Urban EnergyThe Urban EnergyThe Urban EnergyThe Urban EnergyThe Urban EnergySweepstakesSweepstakesSweepstakesSweepstakesSweepstakes

Energy is all pervasive

and is one of the key

facilitators of human

life. All essentials of

modern-day urban living

such as water supply,

waste management,

transportation, housing,

industry and running

of a commercial or social

enterprise, depend on

energy.


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coastal cities such as Hong Kong, Manila, Seoul and Tokyo. Whilesome of these cities may be nearer to sources of primary energy,others are dependent on distant energy sources. Urban areas in Asiaare major energy consumers, and they contribute about 60-80 percent to national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on an average andprovide greater employment opportunities. However, they are alsobig contributors to pollution, waste, congestion and resourcedegradation. Figure.1.1 shows the percentage share of national GDPof many Asian countries.

The question then arises as to how energy can be managed andused sustainably. Further, it is concomitant to provide drinking water,sanitation, transportation services and shelter to urban poor, too.But how would all these services be secured for an ever-increasingurban population without having enough, clean and affordableenergy? What are the constraints before local leaders, decisionmakers, and task managers to supply the quantum of energy requiredto make Asia a developed continent? The aim of this chapter is tointroduce the key challenges that developing Asia’s urban decisionmakers and managers face to provide continuous supply of energy.

1.1 Cities Hold the Key to Energy Sustainability

“Cities all over the world are getting bigger as more and more people

move from rural to urban sites, but that has created enormous

problems with respect to environmental pollution and the general

quality of life.” –Alan Dundes (2002)

Cities across the globe account for two per cent of the earth’slandmass and host about fifty per cent of the world’s population asof 2008. This fifty per cent consumes about seventy five per cent oftotal energy available (UNESCAP, 2008). Asian cities are on the pathof economic growth and population increase. With dependence on

Plate 1 : Emerging cityscapes: Energy guzzling concrete jungles

Such high-rise buildings marked the skyline of Tokyo and Hong Kong in the past;

however it is no longer characteristic of these places as more and more urban

areas all over Asia have similar high-rise buildings.

Photo Credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/travel_aficionado/3374852585

Cities across the globe

account for two per cent

of the earth’s

landmass and host

about fifty per cent of

the world’s population

as of 2008. This fifty per

cent consumes about

seventy five per cent of

total energy available

(UNESCAP, 2008).


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fossil fuels, there are huge constraints that growing Asia faces. Thissub section outlines the major issues facing Asian cities that havean implication on its energy use. It also talks about the dependenceon limited resources such as fossil fuels which cannot quench Asia’sthirst for more and more energy.

Pinning the problem down

It is estimated that the urban population will increase to about sixtyper cent in 2030, adding about 77 million people a year to cities(Johnson, 2007). Asia, which is still more rural than urban as of now,is only likely to remain so until 2030 and by 2050, it is estimated toreach sixty three per cent or about 3.3 billion people. It is interestingto note that in 1950, only 231 million (17.1 per cent) people lived inurban areas in Asia, and by 2000 they had increased five times toabout 1.22 billion (34.9 per cent) (Hugo,2003).

Two of the most populated countries in the world are in Asia, sevenof its cities rank among the top ten in the world population list, withonly one featuring in the top ten by area (CM, 2006). One of the keydrivers of energy demand growth in Asia, therefore, is the urbanpopulation explosion1.

Twin forces of industrialization and globalization have acceleratedurbanization in Asia at a faster rate than it happened in the westernworld. Many cities were minor settlements for a thousand or moreyears, but the spurt of urbanization has changed the face of thesesmall towns as they expanded to host more and more inhabitants.Such unbridled exponential growth of Asian cities against the morestable growth patterns of the early 20th century has thrownunprecedented challenges that were nonexistent during the timewhen the western world developed.

1 Urban population explosion is a result of local population increase and migration. It is

beyond the scope of this book to discuss reasons behind Asian urbanization in detail.

Plate 2: Earth at night showing extent of urbanization on earth.

Photo credit: C. Mayhew & R. Simmon (NASA)

Asia, which is still more

rural than urban as of

now, is only likely to

remain so until 2030 and

by 2050, it is estimated

to reach sixty three per

cent or about 3.3 billion

people.


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Figure 1.2 .Asian urban population in 2005 and 2015

It is clear that the number of cities with 1 to 5 million people will rise sharply

over a decade. Source: (World Urbanization Prospects, 2005).

The major challenges before developing Asia is to expandinfrastructure and services in these growing urban centres, toalleviate poverty and to provide basic living conditions to millions.This has to be done along with having to deal with the economic,social and environmental problems that emerge as a consequenceof providing these services in a resource-constrained, energy-insecure and an ever-warming world (UNESCAP, 2008). Providingthese services depends considerably on the availability of cheap,clean and affordable energy. However it may not be an overstatementto say that days of cheap affordable energy are over.

Where do we begin?

The imperative now is not only on development but also on survivalstrategies for future. While there are challenges for both small andlarge cities, it is the smaller cities like those which currently havemore than 500,000 to one million people that will see most growthand new cities will emerge from rural settlements (ABC, 2008).Figure 1.2 shows the expected growth of some cities in Asia from2005 to 2015. Cities that have 1 to 5 million people will also witnessconsiderable growth (UNESCAP, 2008). However, small and mediumtowns find the going tough, as they lack necessary human,institutional, financial and political capital (UNESCAP, 2008). Onethird of Asian population lived in slums as of 2005. This has gone upand will continue to rise with the rise in population in these smalland medium-sized cities. Although rural poverty is still more acutethan urban poverty in many Asian countries, with an exception ofMongolia (Table 1.1), the situation is slowly changing as more andmore migrant workers from villages make a move for urban areas.

While there are chal-

lenges for both small and

large cities, it is the

smaller cities like those

which currently have

more than 500,000 to

one million people that

will see most growth

and new cities will

emerge from rural settle-

ments (ABC, 2008).


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Figure 1.3: World Primary Energy Supply is dominated by fossil fuels.

Source: EIA, 2008. * includes wind, waste, solar and wind.

Total Urban Rural

Mongolia 35.6 39.4 32.6 1998

Indonesia 18.2 14.5 21.1 2002

Malaysia 7.5 3.4 12.4 1999

Myanmar 26.6 20.7 28.4 2001

Bangladesh 49.8 36.6 53.0 2000

India 26.1 23.6 27.1 1999

Nepal 30.9 10.0 35.0 2004

Pakistan 32.6 25.9 34.8 1999

Sri Lanka 22.7 7.9 24.7 2002

Country Population in Poverty Year data

(per cent) National collected

Poverty Line

Table 1.1 Urban and rural poverty percentages in Asian countries

(Source: World Development Report 2005).

The Eye of the storm

Kenneth Boulding (1965) used the term “Spaceship Earth” to describeour planet, highlighting its limited resources for extraction. Fossilfuels, which are finite, supply over ninety per cent of primary energyglobally (WEI, 2006) (Figure 1.3). Around the world, oil reserves in2008 stood at 1258 billion barrels, and at the current rate ofconsumption of 87 million barrels a day (mbd), it will last only foraround 42 years (BP2009) (OPEC, 2008). Similarly, coal, at the currentrate of extraction, in the best scenario, would be around only foranother 150 years (Strahan, 2008).

Moreover, these resources are not uniformly used across the world

Around the world, oil

reserves in 2008 stood at

1258 billion barrels, and

at the current rate of

consumption of 87

million barrels a day

(mbd), it will last only

for around 42 years

(BP2009) (OPEC, 2008).


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Figure 1.4: Primary energy supply by source for Asia (1971-2020)

Asian dependency is primarily on coal and oil and this likely to remain so in

near future. Source: Institute for Energy Economics, Japan (2006)

or a country. In developing Asia, it is the cities that account for mostof the energy consumption. In India, one third of the population thatlives in cities consume 87 per cent of the nation’s electricity while inChina, 40 per cent more energy is used commercially in urban thanin rural sector (Starke, 2007).

The increase in the use of primary energy—of around 80 per cent—from now to 2030 is expected predominantly from rapidly urbanizingnon-OECD countries of which Asia (Taylor et al, 2008) dependsprimarily on coal and will continue so till 2020. Coal is followed byoil, natural gas and nuclear energy (Figure 1.4).

Asian dependency on energy is mainly on fossil fuels. The dependenceon these limited finite resources will have ramifications far beyondjust supplying of energy. It will be detrimental to social, economicand environmental health of countries, especially those with limitedpurchasing capacity and huge environmental constraints. With thethreat of global warming looming large, incessant use of coal andoil will further contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, the impactof which is likely to be felt more by developing Asia and many otherpoor countries of the world.

How can dependency on finite resources be reduced while providingrequired energy services to a city? How can we do away with theexpensive and the imported when it comes to fuel procurement?How can the threat to global warming be arrested so that ongoingdevelopment is not undermined? Local governments are best suited

The increase in the use of

primary energy (80 per

cent) from now to

2030 is expected

predominantly from

rapidly urbanizing non

OECD countries of which

Asia (Taylor et al, 2008)

depends primarily on

coal and will continue till

2020.


20

to tackle these questions related to sustainability of cities of thefuture.

Key message: The limits to growth

While cities across the globe are major consumption centres ofenergy, significant increase will come from growing urban Asia,especially from its small and medium-sized towns because ofpopulation and economic growth. Fossil-fuel based energy sourceson which the world runs today are finite. An ever-increasingdependence on these resources can put tremendous pressure onAsian economy and environment. The single, pressing agenda beforecity leaders today, is urban energy sustainability.

Points to ponder:

• Per capita energy consumption in cities is 1.8 times higherthan national averages in 2006 (WEO, 2008)

• Cities are expected to increase energy use from 7,903 Mtoeto 12,374 Mtoe by 2030. (WEO, 2008). Will existingexhaustible fossil reserves continue to support this?

• Until the recession closed down activities dramatically, Chinaadded the equivalent of nearly the entire UK power grid eachyear for nearly 20 years (CATF, 2007).

• In 1973, Asia and the Pacific consumed only 13.3 per cent ofthe world’s total primary energy supply (TPES). By 2003,energy consumption had grown by 230 per cent and the regionaccounted for over 25 per cent of the world’s TPES. Between2003 and 2030, energy use in Asia and the Pacific wasestimated to increase another 89 per cent, accounting foraround 30 per cent of total world energy consumption (ADB,2007).

• 1.6 billion people in Asia live in urban areas (Zlotnik, 2008)and worldwide 1.2 billion live in extreme poverty (UNHSP,2003). How can equitable energy access for all beaccomplished?

• There are 25,339 power plants around the world that emitcarbon dioxide. If these got replaced or converted to enablecarbon-free energy production, at the rate of one plant a day,they would all become carbon neutral in 70 years (CSTPR,2008).

1.2 The Many Facets of Urban Needs“Our modern industrial economy takes a mountain covered with

trees, lakes, running streams and transforms it into a mountain of

junk, garbage, slime pits, and debris.” – Edward Abbey

Energy should be seen in the context of activities it enables andsectors it serves within any city. Brought to a finer detail, the amountof energy required by consumers varies with the level of servicedesired and also with the efficiency of the energy carrier (Reddy etal, 1995). This demand for a desired service cumulatively buildssectoral demand for each energy service which varies from one cityto another. Sectoral share of energy in four big cities in Asia is shown


21

in Table 1.2. For all these cities the share for industrial, commercial,transportation and residential energy is very different. Mostsignificant range seems to be of that related to industry, rangingfrom 62 per cent for industry in Beijing to 11 per cent in Tokyo (APERC,2006).

Table 1.2 : Sectoral share of urban energy consumption in four Asian cities in

1998. (Source: APERC, 2006)

The way a city has developed also determines its energy footprints.As land prices increase in the heart of the city, the city starts toexpand horizontally. Some cities end up consuming more energy thancities that have allowed denser growth around city centres. Urbansprawl, as these horizontally expanded cities are known as, is veryenergy inefficient. Sprawl leads to “more travel, more fuelconsumption, more air pollution, and also to inefficiencies ininfrastructure provision. It is estimated that sprawl development usesfive times more pipe and wire, five times more energy for heatingand cooling, twice as many building materials, three times moreautomobiles, and causes four times more driving. It also consumes35 times as much land, and requires 15 times as much pavement ascompact urban living” (Sierra Club, 2009).

As an example, the daily residential energy need for Hong Kong, oneof the densest cities in the world, is just 20 mega joules (MJ) percapita compared to, say, the average consumption of an OECD countryof 70 MJ/capita. The energy needed for its transport is just 8 MJ/capita compared to Houston’s at 75 MJ/capita (UN HABITAT, 2006).

A closer look at where energy gets spent shows that substantialenergy is used by the built environment and transportation. Thesealso serve the residential, commercial and other industrial sectors.The following sections discuss these sectors in detail.

Energy and the built environment

Skylines of Asian cities are changing rapidly. While high-rise buildingshave become a norm for most cities, the peri-urban and rural areashave made way for multi-storied apartments, building complexesand malls. Building sector has been one of the booming industries inAsian cities. It is estimated that more than half of the world’s newconstruction is taking place in China and India alone (BEC, 2009).Buildings account for around 30-40 per cent of the world’s total energyconsumption and a similar percentage of the world’s greenhousegas emissions. This figure goes up to 50 per cent and more whenembodied energy of building materials and processes are also

Cities Industry Transport Residential Commercial

Beijing 62% 8% 17% 13%

Shanghai 80% 10% 7% 3%

Seoul 18% 25% 37% 20%

Tokyo 11% 37% 22% 30%


22

Embodied energy

of Materials kWh/ton

Wood 640

Brick 4X

Concrete 5X

Plastic 6X

Glass 14X

Steel 24X

Aluminium 124X

640kWh/ton=X

included (ABC, 2008). The embodied energy of a given productrepresents the sum of all the energy inputs into it, during all stagesof its life cycle. For example, the embodied energy of the clay brickcommonly used in buildings includes the energy to extract the clay,transport it to the brickworks, mould the brick, fire it in the kiln,transport it to the building site and put the brick into place. It alsoincludes all the indirect energy required, i.e. all the energy requiredto manufacture the equipment and materials needed to manufacturea brick, e.g. trucks, kilns and mining equipment. All have a proportionof their energy invested in that brick. For a full product system orservice, the use and disposal phase may also be included inthat value.

Most buildings in Asia are surprisingly inefficient at using energy forlighting, heating and cooling. It will ultimately have a strong bearingon Asian energy consumption (BEE, 2009). Moreover, the waybuildings are built today is bound to have a strong impact on theenergy demand due to the high embodied energy of most constructionmaterials that are employed to suit the present trend of urbanarchitecture. Materials such as steel, cement and glass are producedin energy-intensive industries and are transported over long distancesto reach the cities. Table 1.3 shows embodied energy of commonlyused building material, highlighting the fact that steel can have 24times the embodied energy of wood and aluminium a whopping 124times.

Table 1.3: Embodied energy of commonly used construction materials

(expressed in terms of kWh of energy used per kg weight). (Based on some

buildings in UK) (TSG, 2009)

We think that systems with high embodied energy are the price wepay for progress and development but their hidden costs are moretelling than they appear. If as a society we do not consider life-cyclecosts of materials, we would soon end up having to pay dearly forsuch excesses.

Built environments designed with little concern for bioclimatic

2 Heat Island: The buildings, concrete, asphalt, and human and industrial activities of urban

areas have caused cities and spaces within cities to maintain higher temperatures than their

surrounding areas. This increased heat is known as an urban heat island. The air in an urban

heat island can be as much as 5-10°C higher than surrounding areas (Geography2009)


23

parameters create heat islands2 (Figure 1.5) that necessitate theuse of air-conditioning, causing energy wastages. In some of theAsian cities such as Tokyo and Shanghai, the rise in temperature isfound to be about five degrees higher than the surroundings. Thisstarts the vicious cycle of more and more air-conditioning (UNHABITAT, 2006), which is growing as a huge urban demand and isresponsible for more than half of peak power demand in many Asiancities (UN HABITAT, 2006). Japan heads the list with hundred percent air conditioning in the service sector (APERC, 2006).

Energy in mobility systems

The increase in disposable income of urban dwellers and a demandfor mobility and comfort have triggered the growth of motorisedtransport in Asian cities. Independent vehicle ownership owing topoor mass transit systems or inadequate public transport system isbecoming a norm. This is a sector that is mostly dependent on oil.Roads form the most used mode of transportation within cities. Forsome cities like Beijing and Shanghai, they bear over 95 per cent ofpassenger transportation.

Transport sector in Asia in 2002 accounted for 21 per cent of thetotal energy consumed by all sectors and was projected to generateover 60 per cent of increase in the total energy use by 2025 (ADB,2008). Much of this growth will come from emerging economies ofAsia. Also, transport-sector related emissions in Asia are expectedto grow thrice in the next 25 years. Congestion, air pollution andglobal warming potential of increased transportation growth, mostly

Figure 1.5: Urban heat islands find solutions that are in a vicious spiral. One of

the principal reasons behind this rise is the use of air conditioners. (Source:

ROTH, 2002)

Roads form the most used

mode of transportation

within cities. For

some cities like Beijing

and Shanghai, they bear

over 95 per cent of

passenger transportation.


24

Economy 1980 2002 2020 1980-2002(%) 2002-2020(%)

China 2 19 65 10.8 7.1

Beijing 9 80 177 10.4 4.5

Shanghai 5 47 100 10.7 4.3

HKC 41 59 70 1.7 1.0

Indonesia 5 16 26 5.4 2.7

Jakarta 34 143 161 6.7 0.7

Japan 203 428 522 3.4 1.1

Tokyo 159 266 271 2.4 0.1

Korea 7 204 284 16.6 1.9

Seoul 15 205 288 12.6 1.9

Thailand - 100 158 - 2.6

Bangkok - 324 389 1.0

attributed to personal possession of vehicles, can have graveconsequences for Asia (ADB, 2006). These would include damageto the health of the environment in alarming ways in the decades tocome. Congestion and road safety are other important issues thatemerge because of the mismanaged transport issues.

The economic cost of traffic congestion for Asian nations is estimatedto be 4.4 per cent of GDP in the Republic of Korea and as high as 6per cent of GDP in Thailand (Shuien, 2006). Walking on the streets inmany Asian cities is almost like manoeuvring between life and death,as poor traffic management which does not favour pedestrians, leadsto many accidents almost every day. This also results in motivatingmore and more pedestrians to get onto a vehicle to feel safer.Table 1.4 shows passenger vehicle ownership per thousand peoplewhich increased for all countries, but was maximum for Beijing andSeoul from 1980 to 2002 (Shrestha, 2007).

Table 1.4: Passenger vehicle ownership per thousand people in some Asian

cities. Source: Shrestha, 2007 (APERC database)

Industry and Commerce run the city

Industrial growth drives economic development but also raises thedemand for energy. Urban industry is usually fossil-fuel driven anddirectly contributes to increased air pollution and greenhouse gasemissions. The industrial sector in Shanghai uses 80 per cent of itstotal energy (Table 1.2). In urban industrial set up, vast amounts ofenergy are used in activities such as processing and assembly. InThane city, near Mumbai, industry that forms only 2 per cent of energyusers of this bustling city, consumes 44 per cent of all energy(ICLEI, 2009).

Similarly, the commercial sector is the backbone of any city. Hotels,restaurants, shopping malls, entertainment places are what definesthe new urban life. Table 1.2 shows that commercial sector in Tokyo

The industrial sector in

Shanghai uses 80 per cent

of its total energy


25

uses 30 per cent of the total energy while for Shanghai it is only 3per cent. Energy use in the industrial or commercial sector in somecities is so huge that it can draught all energy that is supplied,impacting severely those living on the peripheries.

Key message: The sectors that draw most energy

Energy situation is very challenging in Asia, as the demand of energyemerges from various sectors. City planning, construction industryand transportation are seldom driven by a motive to conserve energy.Asian building industry, transportation and industrial sectors areresponsible for the rapid growth in energy demand and emissions.

Points to ponder:

• The developing world had only 18 per cent of the global vehicleownership in 1980. This will change by 2020 to about 50 percent of the world’s projected 1.3 billion cars, trucks and buses.More roads would need to be built. (CA, 2008)

• Over 50 per cent of the foreign exchange earnings go toimporting fossil fuels in many countries to run the transportsector. Often only a minority can access these facilities. (UNH,2008)

• Transportation takes up more than half the total energyconsumption in cities like Mexico, Cape Town and Hong Kong.It takes roughly a quarter in cities such as London, Seoul andBologna (UNH, 2008). This growth depends on fossil fuelsfor nearly 80 per cent.

• An 18-storey modern high-rise building in Singapore or HongKong is equivalent to 900 cars in energy consumption (ABC,2008)

1.3 The Tipping Scale of Energy in Urban Metabolism

For 200 years we’ve been conquering Nature. Now we’re beating

it to death – Tom McMillan, The Greenhouse Trap, 1990

What are the constraints and impacts associated with energy usedetailed so far? Imported fuels impact economy, increase vehiculartraffic, cause congestion and impact road safety. Greenhouse gasesemitted by energy production and consumption are a threat to thelocal as well as the global environment. Air pollution from indoorcooking, thermal power plants and transport sector, is detrimentalto the health and well-being of people. Some of these impacts havean immediate effect but some others have profound regional andglobal impact on the environment as we shall see in the followingpages.

The air we breathe and its effect on the environment and health

The way energy is produced and consumed, unfortunately, has manyadverse impacts. Greenhouse gases from vehicular emissions, flyash from thermal power plants, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide andsuspended particles from various industries are some of the offshoots of energy consumption. In developing countries, apart from

Energy use in the

industrial or commercial

sector in some cities is so

huge that it can draught

all energy that is

supplied, impacting

severely those living on

the peripheries.


26

transportation and industrial pollution, household cooking alsocontributes considerably to air pollution as there is still a sizeablepopulation that uses fuels such as wood and other forms of solidfuels inside homes for cooking.

People in cold countries use fuel to keep the warmth, often in poorlydesigned and poorly ventilated small-sized homes. Fuels like woodand charcoal are ill-suited in an urban environment and eventuallybecome one of the leading sources of air pollution. Even if there isan access to these resources, the technologies used are primitiveand inefficient. There is ample evidence that exposure to indoor airpollution from badly designed stoves and use of kerosene as fuelleads to acute lower respiratory infections in children under five andchronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer in adults(WHO, 2009). These lead to other problems like low birth weight,prenatal mortality, asthma, and middle ear infection in children (Bruceet al. 2000). Figure1.6 shows high level of pollutants in some of theAsian cities.

Figure 1.6 Air pollutants in Asian cities.

These pollutants are a major cause of respiratory illnesses (Clean Air Asia, 2006)

There is ample evidence

that exposure to indoor

air pollution from badly

designed stoves and use

of kerosene as fuel

leads to acute lower

respiratory infections in

children under five and

chronic obstructive pul-

monary disease and lung

cancer in adults

(WHO, 2009).

Plate 3: Pollution in Linfen, one of the dirtiest cities in China. Result of being the

world’s workshop for the past two decades.

Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/96434059@N00/856693325/


27

Global Impact of Imbalance

The economic pall that global warming has laid over our planet isanother disastrous upshot of unbridled urban energy use. It hasresulted in climatic turbulence bringing natural disasters to coastalareas, spelling doom to many innocent lives and livelihoods.Seventeen per cent of urban population in Asia lives in coastal areaswith low-elevation. South-East Asia alone has more than one-thirdof the urban population living in these coastal areas. (UN-HABITAT,2008b). “Many coastal populations are at risk from flooding –particularly when high tides combine with storm surges and/or highriver flows. Between 1994 and 2004, about one-third of the 1,562flood disasters, half of the 120,000 people killed, and 98 per cent ofthe 2 million people affected by flood disasters were in Asia, wherethere are large population agglomerations in the flood plains of majorrivers (e.g. Ganges- Brahmaputra, Mekong and Yangtze) and incyclone-prone coastal regions (e.g. Bay of Bengal, South China Sea,Japan and the Philippines)” (Roger and Matthies, 2006). Most ofAsia’s big cities such as Mumbai, Tokyo, Kolkata, Shanghai, Beijingand Manila are in fact coastal towns. As can be seen in Figure 1.7,

about 32 per cent of the urban population of large Asian cities thatlives in Low Elevation Coastal Zones (LECZ) is potentially under directthreat from global warming (McGranahan et al, 2000). If the sealevel rises about one metre, one of the poorest nations in the world,Bangladesh, is projected to lose 17.5 per cent of its land area. (ADB,2008).

There are many other regional and global impacts of energy use inAsian cities. To combat global climate change, bio fuels are beingpromoted in many Asian countries, without paying much heed to

“Between 1994 and 2004,

about one-third of the

1,562 flood disasters, half

of the 120,000 people

killed, and 98 per cent of

the 2 million people

affected by flood disas-

ters were in Asia.”

Figure 1.7: Share of Asian urban population by percentage in low elevation coastal

zones of different sizes. (Source: McGranahan et al 2007)


28

how it is impacting the forest cover. Singapore has strict laws foremissions yet suffers from trans-boundary haze from the neighbouringIndonesia. We live in a world today, to recall the butterfly effect ofEdward Lorenz, that when a butterfly flaps its wings in Brazil it couldstart a tornado in Texas.

The long haul—economics of imported fuel.

All major sources of world’s primary energy like coal, oil and naturalgas (LNG), which are finite, are concentrated in specific parts of ourglobe—oil in Middle East, coal in Asia-Pacific and the USA. The longhaul to transport these to the different nations from its source asseen in Figure 1.8, makes many countries vulnerable to supplydisruption because of political issues apart from the untold damagesto the environment. Energy security is a significant issue for mostcountries, either developing or developed, and countries keep stocksof oil as a buffer to tide over the price or supply fluctuations.Moreover, import costs are significantly high, acting as a deterrentto other developmental investments. If the Philippines saved evenhalf of its net oil imports, it could send 17 million children toelementary schools, build 250,000 classrooms, put up 135,000 healthcentres, feed 14 million families and build 38,000 km of farm-to-market roads (REC, 2009). Figure 1.8 shows the long haul from siteof extraction of oil to its final consumption, which is laden with highembodied energy.

Linear is finite

A typical city consumes resources, generates waste and makesdemands on soil, water supplies and forests for timber. If this is

Figure 1.8: Flow of oil from extraction to consumption sites. High embodied

energy of imported fuel. (Source: World Energy Assessment, 2000)

If the sea level rises about

one metre, one of the

poorest nations in the

world, Bangladesh, is

projected to lose

17.5 per cent of its land

area. (ADB, 2008).


29

calculated for all inhabitants of the planet, it would show that weexceeded our limit of living within one planet as early as 1985. In aworld where all inhabitants share their resources equally, the percapita sustainable footprint would be 1.8 Hectares. The averagefootprint of the Asian giant China is 1.6, while that of Shanghai isalready at 7.0 (ADB, 2008).

A megacity consumes around 100 to 1000 peta joules (PJ) of energya year to operate its transportation, electrical, and climate-controlledinfrastructure. Figure 1.9 shows a picture of input and output flowsin a city, with a limited environmental capacity. The challenge is tounderstand the flow and find solutions within this flow. The firstpoint to consider is the fact that most of the energy that a cityconsumes is seldom produced in the city itself. Almost everythingelse that the city uses and disposes has a bearing on energy. Is thereany possibility of retaining this material flow within the city whileproviding requisite energy services to urban dwellers? This issomething that can be handled by city planners alone.

In a world where all

inhabitants share their

resources equally, the per

capita sustainable

footprint would be 1.8

Hectares. The average

footprint of the Asian

giant China is 1.6, while

that of Shanghai is

already at 7.0 (ADB,

2008).

Box 1: Journey of a toothpick

David Morris, an environmentalist tracks the journey of a toothpick, which he says, he picked up afterfinishing his lunch in a restaurant in Minnesota. He learnt from the plastic packing of the individualtoothpick that the toothpick had landed at his table from Japan. Morris deduces that a country thatprobably thought that it was cheaper to ship toothpicks to Minnesota from Japan probably sent itswood and oil across to the island, thus a toothpick travel 50,000 embodied miles. He further revealsthat Minnesota had set up a factory to make chopsticks for exporting to Japan. This is the import-exportparadigm in which our global economy runs. It is also the way our waste economy runs. (Morris, 1988)

Figure 1.9: Energy flow through the city Linear is finite (Ravetz, 2009)


30

3Factor-Four is essentially an economic concept. Amory Lovins talks about achieving Factor

Four by halving the use of resources while doubling the

economic growth.

With the threat of energy security, global warming, air pollutionlooming large, ignoring energy planning would fail to solve theproblem of access to clean energy. To live in a finite world withequitable access to resources implies taking stock of the resources,which requires policy-level efforts that can make energy-use efficientand address demand in a way such that system wastages are reduced,people are made aware and enabled to control demand themselveswithin the limits of sustainability. Those who are best placed to dothat are the local leaders. The time for action is now. We need toknow and we need to act. We have just one earth.

Key message: Taking stock of the impacts of energy use

Imbalance in energy production, distribution and consumption willget out of hand if not checked in time. Energy production and usehave far reaching global impact. Plundering of resources, mindlessuse of energy and being unmindful of emissions, can no longer sustainus. The way material flow happens in the city is all interconnectedwith the health of the city and of the planet. Urban leaders and policymakers need to understand and face the fact that we just have oneplanet. To borrow from a French saying ‘We probably need to changeeverything as everything is linked’.

Points to ponder:

• Climate refugees number 24 million today and the number isexpected to rise to 50 million by 2010, most of them comingfrom Asia (ET, 2009).

• Factor-Four economy3 should become the looking glass forall processes (Wuppertal,2009)

• China has over 100 cities with 1 million or more residents ineach city—fewer than half of these cities actually meetChina’s own minimum standards for air quality (SEPA, 2007).

• Energy policy is like the Victorian medicine at the mercy ofquack remedies and snake oil salesman (Jenkins, 2009).

To live in a finite world

with equitable access to

resources implies taking

stock of the resources,

which requires

policy-level efforts that

can make energy-use

efficient and address

demand in a way such

that system wastages are

reduced, people are made

aware and enabled to

control demand

themselves within the

limits of sustainability.


31

Chapter 2

The previous chapter made a point that energy is a prerequisite forthe urban way of life, the consumption of which however hastremendous impact on the local and global environment today,besides being economically unsustainable. To bring in a change, itis important to understand what is meant by sustainable energy inan urban context. Who needs it and how much and who decidesthat? What are the systems that deliver it and are those systemswell-designed? Will there be room for change, if needed? This chapteraddresses these questions by looking at the role of local leaders inaddressing energy issues despite challenges, and the pitfalls inenergy systems that they need to know, for bringing about requiredchanges. The chapter also outlines the conceptual framework whichforms the foundation of this book.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

The world will not evolve past its current state of crisis by using the

same thinking that created the situation. – Albert Einstein

Asia is a diverse continent. What we mean by ‘urban’ in an Asiancontext may be understood in different ways by different people.UNESCAP conducted a survey in 26 countries and territories, and outof these, 15 defined urban areas based on administrative criteriaand four on population size and density (UNESCAP, 2008). The sourcebook however draws on a broader definition of ‘urban’ area which isan area with an increased density of human created structures incomparison to areas surrounding it. This excludes villages andhamlets (Wiki, 2009). What is ‘sustainable energy’ is anotherpertinent question which requires a little bit of discussion at theoutset.

Sustainable energy in early days of industrialization may have meantsustenance of an energy source which can keep providinguninterrupted energy services. However in today’s context,sustainable energy is more complex to define. Looking through thesocial, environmental and economic window, energy has to be sociallyacceptable, affordable, clean, safe, uninterrupted and withoutadverse impact on the environment. Often this term is usedinterchangeably with green or alternative energy, by some. However,many renewable forms of energy may not be presently affordable bysome, in the ways these are popularly presented. Hence, which formof energy is sustainable, for whom and in what form is a matter ofsubjective debate. This sourcebook does not advocate any specificform of energy as sustainable energy. Rather it is a guide book or a

Sustainable Energy inSustainable Energy inSustainable Energy inSustainable Energy inSustainable Energy in

an Urban Contextan Urban Contextan Urban Contextan Urban Contextan Urban Context

Energy has to be socially

acceptable, affordable,

clean, safe, uninterrupted

and without adverse

impact on the

environment.


32

tool to understand what form of energy can be sustainable for aspecific location or context. It is for the leaders to decide forthemselves what may be sustainable for their cities or towns.

Key considerations in the creation of the sourcebook

The sourcebook is targeted towards local leaders such as mayors,councillors and task managers. However, it can also serve as aguidebook for NGOs working in energy field or for creating awareness.

The sourcebook focuses on energy issues in urban areas, butproviding energy services to the urban population includes lot ofnon-energy sectors such as waste and water and also some deliverymechanisms that have a bearing on energy services such asgovernance, management and planning. Key considerations that haveenabled the creation of this are as follows:

1) Holistic approach: Energy is closely linked with many basic andfundamental services that urban dwellers need. An integratedapproach to urban planning, infrastructure and services is the key toenergy management. The sourcebook recognizes the need for anintegrated planning approach required to manage the energy demandin cities.

2) Focus on medium to large-sized cities: The pivots for thesourcebook are the medium to large-sized cities. For the purpose ofthe sourcebook, medium-sized cities are defined as those havingpopulation between 1 and 2 million and large-sized cities as thosewith population over 2 million. Small-sized cities would havepopulation between 500,000 and 1 million. However, during thepreparation of this document, it was realized that there is very littlespecific data for small, medium or large-sized cities. Sometimes dataon cities are available but it is not easy to segregate such data atthis stage.

3) Context and Heterogeneity of the continent: One-size-fits-allapproach may not work for a continent as diverse as Asia.Geographically and politically, the situation of one Asian countrydiffers from its neighbour. Solutions that will work in a particulartype of geographic location and under relevant style of governanceare very specific to each of these locations. While the examples arediscussed from all over the world, mostly from developing Asia, theidea is to make it relevant to city leaders of Asian countries.

4) Focus on Immediate Action: The emphasis on time is veryconsciously done. The authors of the sourcebook believe that thetime to act is now. If we miss the bus for global climate change andreach the point of no return, all progress in Asia will be futile.

5) Emphasis on local: Finding solutions at the local level in thesemedium and large-sized cities is the main focus of the book. Localleaders such as mayors, councillors, task managers are at the centreof the sourcebook. All energy-related sectors are discussed with localleaders in mind. All energy-saving measures are also discussed inrelation to a local context. Although it is understandable that certain

The sourcebook focuses on

energy issues in urban

areas, but providing

energy services to the

urban population includes

lot of non-energy sectors

such as waste and water

and also some delivery

mechanisms that have a

bearing on energy

services such as

governance, management

and planning.


33

policies trickle down from central policies and very often localleadership follows national or regional action plans, the emphasison proactive and independent decision-making by local leaders andits benefits helps readers understand the importance and power ofsuch actions. Whether it is mobilizing communities (micro level) ormaking policies and regulations, local leadership plays a crucial rolein bringing about this change.

6) Emphasis on need and strength: The emphasis is onunderstanding the demand for energy through needs analysis andnot entirely about supply-side solutions. Needs analysis is one ofthe primary tools that can help policy-makers understand possibleoptions and areas to focus on.

2.2 Who decides who needs energy?One of the great challenges of leadership is to develop harmony

between service and the power that is necessary for the exercise of

leadership. – Keshavan Nair

Energy holds sway over different groups of people within cities. Itdetermines the quality of life for energy consumers; productivity andprofitability for industries, commercial houses, energy suppliers andintermediaries; and ease of governance for administrators (Figure 2.1).However, at the centre of it all are the local authorities. Localgovernment is an interface for all these stakeholders and is the pivotof control, managing and delivering day to day needs of stakeholders.How do local authorities strike a balance between conflictingdemands of stakeholders for a given availability of energy? Whoseneeds are most important? Are the needs of industries demandinguninterrupted supply the first to address as they provide the basisfor any country’s GDP growth or should leaders pay heed to the needsof commercial enterprises or households, or should they enableaccess to those who have been denied energy up till now? Shouldsolutions be in terms of subsidies or incentives? Local Governmentsoften have these dilemmas to face while trying to improve the energysituation for their cities.

Figure 2.1: Energy Stakeholders- Local governments at interface between all

stakeholders. Here, Intermediaries are Federation of Industries, Chamber of

Commerce, Industrial research organizations, Industrial Development

organizations, etc.

Local government is an

interface for all these

stakeholders and is the

pivot of control,

managing and delivering

day to day needs of

stakeholders.


34

Princes and Paupers

Situation analysis of Asian cities reveals that about 1.3 billion peoplein Asia live in slums, of which more than 300 million live in Indiaalone (ADB, 2008) (Figure 2.2). Many of them still do not have accessto basic energy services or other infrastructural necessitiesdependent on energy such as water and sanitation.

Having said that, other urban dwellers have all the basic amenitiesand hi-tech gadgets that they use to communicate, move around,work and entertain themselves with. Twenty per cent of the world’speople in the highest-income countries account for 86 per cent oftotal private consumption expenditures and the poorest 20 per centa minuscule 1.3 per cent (WEC, 2009). Figure 2.3 shows the extentof consumptive styles of developed, developing and under-developednations. There is a very high level of consumption in Asian cities, inspite of which, there is a lot of difference between the consumptionindex of developed and developing world. Using consumption indicesas proxies for energy consumption, there are gross inequities thatcan be seen around the globe.

However, looking at Asian countries more closely, there are inequitieswithin a country, too. It has been often commented that rich peoplepay less for the same energy service than the poor because of manygovernance related issues. Between 2002-2005, because of the risein oil price, cost of energy services in four developing Asian countries,

Twenty per cent of the

world’s people in the

highest-income countries

account for 86 per cent of

total private consumption

expenditures and the

poorest 20 per cent

a minuscule 1.3 per cent

Figure 2.2: Urban Slum population in some Asian countries. (Source: ADB, 2008)


35

Figure 2.3: World energy consumption: Inequities due to use of energy is high.

Source: (WEC, 2009)

Figure 2.4: Per Capita annual carbon

dioxide emissions from Indian

households for different income

groups. Rich seem to be hiding behind

the poor. (Greenpeace, 2007)

⊳

China, India, Indonesia and Laos affected the poor in these countriestremendously. On an average they paid 74 per cent more for energyservices: 171 per cent more for cooking fuels, 120 per cent more fortransportation, 67 per cent more for electricity, and 55 per cent morefor lighting fuels compared with rich households (UNDP, 2007).

If energy related emissions are the indicators of consumption, thena report from India argues that India’s rich are hiding behind its poorfor its average low per-capita emissions. As shown in Figure 2.4, thehighest income group accounts for nearly five times energy-related(household and transport) emissions than the poorest income group(Greenpeace, 2007).While many governments of developing countries strive and work

If energy related

emissions are the

indicators of

consumption, then

a report from India

argues that India’s rich

are hiding behind its poor

for its average low

per-capita emissions.


36

Plate 4: Slums of Dharavi. Training a blind eye to such inequity has compounded

the challenge.

Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/graceandpoise/3722978833/

sizes/o/

towards making lives better for their poor, policies do fall short ofconsidering what affects the common man on a daily basis. Slumslike Dharavi in Mumbai, India, did not materialise overnight. Theyare so huge that they cannot even be classified as an oversight!Addressing issues for Dharavi, which has a population of a million, acity in itself, needs exceptional leadership and commitment by localleaders. What can improve the access to energy for the millions liv-ing in slums? Can improving supply alone assure access to energy?

While assuring access to poor is one of the main agenda of localleaders, it is also important for them to look after the aspirations ofmiddle class in urban areas. Products and services that increasecomfort levels of consumers flood the market today. These gadgetsdirectly raise demand for electricity. Air-conditioning use is almostan essential component of multinationals, large companies and anincreasing number of households in most urban areas in Asia. Howdo local governments cater to this demand? Many industries claim adisproportionate share of available energy, and these affect domesticusers too, through the high occurrence of electricity outages. In somecities industry sector claims over 40 per cent of energy generated.But industries are revenue earners and job providers in the cities. Itwould be difficult to ignore demands of industries. Commercialenterprises which are generally over-illuminated and over-conditioned also cannot do without energy during peak businesshours. They cannot be ignored either as they too bring in revenuesand benefits to any city. All these stakeholders keep their own back-up systems to deal with interrupted energy supply which has becomea part and parcel of any developing country’s urban energy scenario.

Local leaders often get brickbats for occurrence of such interruptionsand power outages. With growing demand, the infrastructure for

In some cities industry

sector claims over 40 per

cent of energy generated.

But industries are

revenue earners and job

providers in the cities.

It would be difficult to

ignore demands of

industries.


37

public transport usually improved, but seldom on time or in adequatequantities. Local leaders need to think innovatively to solve theseissues, not only to address consumer frustrations but to do so insuch a way that solutions are sustainable.

Key message: Policy-makers—the change makers

According to José Goldemberg, energy is a tool to attain a minimumquality of life. Great care needs to be taken to avoid backlash on anystakeholder or environment from mismanaged energy systems. Localgovernments have a central role to play in balancing energy needsand demand. Policy-makers are usually blamed for power outagesand other energy problems. By addressing energy issues in asustainable manner, they can overcome their challenges better.

Points to ponder:

• Mayor Bill White of the City of Houston has signed a contractwith Siemens committing 271 facilities to significantlyimprove the energy efficiency through a retrofit programme(C40, 2008)

• Mayor Villaraigosa of the City of Los Angeles has started anenvironment-friendly LED lights project, largest everundertaken by a city, to reduce CO

2 emissions by 40,500

tonnes and to save the City of Los Angeles $10 millionannually. (C40, 2009)

• The plans of London’s Mayor to cut energy and tackle climatechange could bring about 10,000 -15,000 jobs and contribute£600 million a year to the capital’s economy by 2025 (C40a-2009).

2.3 Loopholes in Energy Systems

“Every gallon of oil each one of us saves is a new form of production.

It gives us more freedom, more confidence, that much more control

over our own lives.” –Jimmy Carter (1979)

There is a story behind every product we acquire. Consumptionpatterns have evolved over time, based on the influence of thosewho can control it. Thirst for power and control has resulted intremendous waste within this system. Added to this is the fact thatenergy systems are developed in a way that conversion of primaryenergy to usable energy, transmission and distribution of it, are allfull of inefficient mechanisms, sometimes because of the ageingtechnologies and at other times, due to poor maintenance,operations, carelessness and human error.

How losses Multiply

Losses multiply all along the energy chain from primary energysources to its end-use at different stages of production, conversion,transmission, distribution and usage. Although these losses happenin any energy conversion and transmission system, it is more so inthe power sector as it is generally a centralized grid-based systemwith gigantic networks that become unwieldy to manage (Figure 2.5).

Local leaders need to

think innovatively to

solve these issues, not

only to address consumer

frustrations but to do so

in such a way that

solutions are sustainable.


38

Figure 2.5: Losses along the power highway

Transmission & distribution losses

There are hidden losses in energy systems such as technical losseslike energy dissipation in conductors and in high-induction equipmentused for transmission, transformation, sub-transmission anddistribution of power (Figures 2.5 and 2.6). In India, transmissionand distribution losses are reported to be as high as 33 per cent,higher than that of any other country (BL, 2005).

Losses at the end-use level: The Silent Killers

After all the losses incurred due to transmission and distribution,the story of losses continues at the end-use level, too. Consumersmindlessly waste energy, mostly through ignorance, by opting forenergy-inefficient appliances and by keeping appliances on stand-by or by their wrong patterns of usage. A laser-printer sitting idleconsumes 17 W—the same as the average consumption of a smallrefrigerator (Mackay, 2008).

Switching off appliances alone is not enough to ensure stoppage ofenergy use. Some stereos and computer peripherals consume severalwatts even when switched off. Standby losses happen silently tooand figures shown in Table 2.1 indicate by how much. To be sure

A laser-printer sitting

idle consumes 17 W—

the same as the average

consumption of a small

refrigerator


39

Figure 2.6: Energy losses in a pumping system all along the conversion chain.

Table 2.1: Power consumption for different gadgets in Watts on

various modes. The silent killers. (Mackay 2008).

Gadget Power Consumption (W)

On and On butactive inactive Standby Off

Computer and peripherals: Computer box 80 55 2Cathode Ray display 110 3 0LCD display 34 2 1Projector 150 5Laser printer 500 17Wireless & Cable Modem 9

Laptop 16 9 0.5Portable CD player 2Bedside Clock Radio 1.1 1Bedside clock Radio 1.9 1.4Digital Radio 9.1 3Radio Cassette Player 3 1.2 1.2Slow Amplifier 6 6Stereo Amplifier 11 13 0Home Cinema Sound 7 7 4DVD Player 7 6DVD Player ii 12 10 5TV 100 10Video Recorder 13 1Digital TV Set Top box 6 5Clock in Microwave Oven 2Xbox 160 2.4Sow Play Station 3 190 2Nintendo Wii 18 2


40

Figure 2.7: Average power rating of electrical appliances (left) and average hours

of use of electric appliances (right) for an urban household in Phnom Penh,

Cambodia.

that a gadget is truly off, consumers need to switch it off at the wall.Figure 2.7 shows the power rating and everyday usage of electricalappliances in an average upper-middle class household in PhnomPenh, Cambodia. In comparison, almost 80 per cent of the Cambodianpopulation does not have access to grid-quality electricity. Localgovernments have a role to play in creating awareness amongconsumers so that these holes are plugged. Many times one unit ofelectricity saved at a home could correspond to 3 to 5 units of primaryenergy saved for the electricity-generating utility.

Costly mistakes

Cities also multiply their opportunity costs due to slips in systemslike power outages. Power looms sit idle in Bhiwandi (a city nearIndia’s Mumbai) for long periods each day because of frequent poweroutages. Storeowners frequently compensate with back-upgenerators that are far more expensive to operate and produce morepollution than a well-managed central power plant.

Other hidden costs that escape attention while planning include lossin productivity due to overburdening of the poor. Basic needs likeeducation for young girls, who attend to home chores such as fetchingwater, are lost sight of. This and more such occurrences add to highercost of energy due to lost opportunity for livelihood and downgradingin the quality of life.

Operation & Maintenance (O&M) and energy efficiency

O & M activities relate to the performance of routine, preventive,predictive, scheduled, and unscheduled actions aimed at preventingequipment failure or decline, with the goal of increasing efficiency,reliability, and safety. Energy losses from steam, water and air leaks;dissipation through non-insulated lines; losses through maladjustedor inoperable controls, and other losses from poor maintenance areoften considerable.

Urbanites pay small fortunes to buy a flat but do not like to spend on

Many times one unit of

electricity saved at a

home could correspond

to 3 to 5 units of primary

energy saved for the

electricity-generating

utility.


41

maintenance. Predictive or preventive maintenance is relegated tothe back-burner. Creating buildings takes half of all the energygenerated, and about a sixth every year on just running it. A life-cycle analysis by Treloar et al (2004) estimates that building anAustralian road costs 7,600 kWh per metre (a continuously reinforcedconcrete road), and that, including maintenance costs, the total costover 40 years is 35,000 kWh per metre. Awareness creation of suchissues while making it easy and attractive for end-users to followmore vigilant systems is in the hands of local governments.

Key Message: Greening the transmission highway

Policy-makers need to know that if the inefficiencies of existing energysystems are not taken care of, then leakages in transmission anddistribution become so high that they can undermine any new supply-side solution. Greening the transmission highway is one of the mostsignificant ways of improving energy-efficiency of any system.Inefficiencies in operation and maintenance routines are importantloopholes which need to be plugged to optimize functioning of energysystems.

Points to ponder:

• United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)estimates that transformer losses account for 60 to 80 billionkWh annually. These losses cost end-users $3 to $4 billion,and can tie up nine days of U.S. generating capacity annually(ECM, 2003).

• Anywhere in the world, older power plants consume moreenergy. Those in developing countries consume between 18and 44 per cent more fuel than the ones in the developedcountries for every kilowatt hour of electricity produced bythem (ECM, 2003).

• A new study by the International Energy Agency (IEA) suggeststhat there is a technical efficiency improvement potential of18–26 per cent for manufacturing industries worldwide if thebest available technologies were adopted. These savingswould equal 5–7 per cent of the total worldwide energy useand reduce the CO2 emissions by 7–12 per cent worldwide(IEA, 2007).

2.4 Lack of systems-based approaches:

The cheapest energy is the energy you don’t use in the first place.

– Sheryl Crow

Lack of coherence grips policy-framing when economics, energy anddecision making mingle. This is because global issues do not form apart of local planning. Further, in spite of the resources being limited,we end up overusing and wasting energy. We see the result of suchplanning all around us. Local governments are constantly fightingbad legacies—oversized transformers, cables in a tangle, poorcarrying-capacity wires, and staggering numbers of flyovers. Considerthe grand plan floated by the government of Shanghai to removetraffic congestion. Multi-layered flyovers were soon on the anvil and

Creating buildings takes

half of all the energy

generated, and about a

sixth every year on just

running it


42

halfway through constructing them, it dawned on the local populationthat their cityscape was taking on monstrous dimensions andconsuming a lot of money, too. (ADB, 2006)

Impartial Policies

Urban infrastructure planning today is partial to state actors andlarge businesses much more than concentrating on good governance.It does not succeed in serving the basic needs of the most vulnerable.Perverse incentives and subsidies only reward expenditure and donot encourage savings. Subsidies have helped people in urban areasadopt relatively cleaner forms of energy such as LPG, however, mostof these subsidies are mis-targeted and do not reach those whodeserve it. Even though there is a growing understanding amongstmost stakeholders that subsidies are not economically viable,political will still favours them.

Distorted energy prices are another cause of energy losses forgovernments in developing countries. Table 2.2 gives an insight intothe range of price distortion that occurs in India.

Distorted energy prices

are another cause of

energy losses for

governments in

developing countries

Plate 5: Shanghai Plan: Shanghai is reconsidering flyovers to avoid congestion

Photo credit: Pushpa Prakash; http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/

dggLiyS6QSYCHgQrCOvJbA


43

Table 2.2: Electricity tariffs in Indian States showing price distortions for the

power sector. Source: ( Ministry of Power, Government of India, 2009)

There are also tremendous wastages due to unaccountability inenergy systems, particularly with electricity and household cookingfuel, if these are subsidised. Local governments can make a sea ofchange in the way these pilferages are handled by infusing morebalanced policies for the management of energy systems.

When governments struggle for directions

China proclaimed to have 440 gigawatts (GW) of electricity powergeneration, while there were 110 GW more of undeclared, not-sanctioned power generation units (Lester and Steinfield, 2007 ).China is not the only country to have such issues. This is typical ofgovernments fighting fires as systems are not in place. Systemicplanning and setting examples by leading could change things around.For example, street lighting happens to be the second majorcontributor to electricity cost for municipalities after water pumping.Excessive illumination during off-peak hours and unnecessary lightingduring daylight are some of the wastages that can easily be avoided.

Most of our planning is based on norms that do not meet parametersof efficiency or service. They are rarely questioned. Such normsbecome foundations on which policies are built. Can systems becreated to question these?

Supply side versus demand side

The easiest way of managing the increasing demand for energy isby increasing the supply of energy in most parts of the world. If itwas not for oil shocks and climate change, the world may have neverlearnt that there are other aspects to energy management thanmerely increasing supply. Supply-side solutions seem to be favouredby national, regional and local governments. On one hand these makea statement about how progressive the ruling government is, and onthe other many corrupt decision-makers profit through such big supply-side infrastructure projects. What needs to be understood is thatwhile any political decision taken today may help a narrower political

State

Electricity

Boards

Electricity Tariffs in Indian States,1998, US cents per kilowatt hour

Domestic Commercial Agriculture Industry Rail Export to AverageTransport other states

Haryana 4.7 7.5 1.2 7.5 7.5 3.2 5.3

Himachal

Pradesh 1.6 4 1.4 3.5 Na 3.5 2.6

Jammu

Kashmir 0.7 1.2 0.2 0.9 Na na 0.8

Kerala 1.4 4.6 0.5 7.4 11.8 2.1 5.1

Madhya

Pradesh 1.7 7.3 0.1 7.4 11.8 2.1 5.1

West Bengal 1.9 4.7 0.0 5.9 0.7 na 3.8

Average 2.9 4.7 0.5 6.9 8.5 2.9 4.1

Street lighting happens

to be the second major

contributor to electricity

cost for municipalities

after water pumping.


44

agenda, it would however impact future generations and the planetadversely. Mayors are often tested on their ability to increase capitalinvestment in infrastructure during their term of office with nounderstanding of the hidden costs or their adverse impact on theenvironment. Mayors in China, for example, are assessed by the localGDP growth-rate rather than by their contribution to enhancingsustainability.

While supply-side options are essential and efficiency on the supply-side can be productive, demand-side options can encourage furtherefficiency by promoting efficient appliances, value engineeringdemand itself, and managing peak load.

Key message: Mastering losses

Supplying more energy cannot solve the energy problem completely.An integrated approach to fix the loopholes within systems is moreimportant. Policy-makers have to gain deeper understanding of theexistence of these issues—of the hidden costs and losses—and howthey occur. They will then be able to sensitize and mobilise actionframeworks. There is apparently a higher demand for primary energythan what should be, because of inherent losses in systems andconsumerist behaviour of public. Local governments are the keyplayers who could plug these holes.

Points to ponder:

• Indonesian government provided heavy subsidies in Jakartafor ordinary Indonesians and faced a subsidy bill of as muchas 13.2 billion USD (Leong, 2005).

• From Mexico to India to China, governments fearful of inflationand street protests are heavily subsidizing energy prices,particularly for diesel fuel. But the subsidies—estimated at$40 billion in 2007 in China alone—are also removing muchof the incentive to conserve fuel (Hall, 2008).

• According to the oil company BP, countries with oil subsidiesaccounted for 96 per cent of global increase in oil use in2007 (Zwaniecki, 2008)

• Lighting and air-conditioning are generally the most wastefulcomponents of commercial use. A number of case studiesindicate that more-efficient lighting and elimination of over-illumination can reduce lighting energy by approximately 50per cent in many commercial buildings.

Mayors are often tested

on their ability to

increase capital

investment in

infrastructure during

their term of office with

no understanding of the

hidden costs or their

adverse impact on the

environment.


45

Chapter 3.

We need alternatives that would conserve energy, make its use moreefficient, enable its cleaner production and craft better policies tosustain it. The alternatives detailed in this chapter show the hugerange of options that are available, and, in some cases, being putinto practice in many cities across the globe. Many of the examplescited are decentralized, democratic and pro-poor. These carefullyselected options and examples cater to a variety of cities, somespecifically chosen for small island countries such as Fiji, Maldivesand Papua New Guinea. What renewable and emerging technologiescan they use? How can equity for all become a reality? How can citymanagers themselves set the trend? What can the cities do to marchtowards energy sustainability? These are the questions that policy-makers are expected to address. The chosen examples talk abouttechnology enabler and tools used, but details about these tools arediscussed in the subsequent module. The focus of this chaptertherefore is on delineating options for sustainable energy. Thischapter also emphasizes the use of Renewable Energy technologies(RETs) which potentially have tremendous scope for the Asiansituation.

3.1 Understanding the Urban Fabric—Understanding the Urban Fabric—Understanding the Urban Fabric—Understanding the Urban Fabric—Understanding the Urban Fabric—

the Bottom-Up Approachthe Bottom-Up Approachthe Bottom-Up Approachthe Bottom-Up Approachthe Bottom-Up Approach“You never change things by fighting the existing reality. To change

something, build a new model that makes the existing model

obsolete.” –Buckminster Fuller

What is the new model that will make old models obsolete for citiesin Asia? This change will require new ways of thinking, planning,innovatively using technologies and through new ways of governance.There is a need to take a holistic approach to address urban issues,cropping up due to the need for energy. Reforms in spatial planning,closing energy loops, changing the way mobility is handled in a city,all require a critical look into the energy systems in the urban context.

Energy Systems

A typical energy system is composed of interconnected components,such as natural energy sources (sun, wind) and ‘transformertechnologies’ that convert these natural sources into convenient formsof energy for easy transportation, distribution and storage. Theseconvenient forms of energy or “currencies” (Gasoline, oil) areconverted into useful forms of energy through “service technologies”which end users make use of for various energy services (Scott in Li,1996). Scott explains that both natural energy sources and humanneeds typically do not change. What changes are the intermediatecarriers of energy or service and transformer technologies. So, when

Metamorphosis intoMetamorphosis intoMetamorphosis intoMetamorphosis intoMetamorphosis into

Sustainable CitiesSustainable CitiesSustainable CitiesSustainable CitiesSustainable Cities

Reforms in spatial

planning, closing the

energy loops, changing

the way mobility is

handled in a city, all

require a critical look into

the energy systems in the

urban context.


46

we look for solutions, we need to focus on crafting efficienttransformer and service technologies and choose currencies wiselyand sustainably (see Figure. 3.1).

Demand for energy service begins at its very first level with anindividual. This can be addressed at that level itself by promotingthe option of closing the loop at the source. For example, for a cityplanning to be sustainable, wet waste need never leave homes; itcould get decomposed within individual households. Demands thatare not dealt with at an individual level spiral into a collective demandin a city, throwing several complicated long-winding conveyor beltsinto the urban landscape which become unwieldy and energy-consuming. Most municipalities transport wet waste across theircities to either segregate it or to dump it in landfills. If these longand linear belts could be shortened and looped as shown in Figure

3.2, management of various systems would get decentralised and acity could start its march towards energy sustainability. A system ofmini-loops could function if activities are streamlined to begin andend within their limits.

Reforms in Spatial Planning and activities within

Money and materials flow through services and products into cities.Cities are therefore centres of global and local economic transactions.

Figure 3.1: Energy service, the end objective.

Human need drives energy that is harnessed from nature using technologies,

which keep changing for the same needs and similar ultimate sources of

energy. (Source: Scott 1995 in Li, 2005)

A system of mini-loops

could function if activities

are streamlined to begin

and end within their

limits.


47

Figure 3.2: Closing the loop at appropriate levels.

Closing it at minimum levels ensures saving of energy for any city

Box 2: Waste to Manure

Daily Dumps, an NGO in Bangalore, India, sells terracotta vessels designed to convert household

waste into useful high-quality, nutrient-rich manure. The concept is based on the fact that an

average urban citizen generates over half a kilogram of solid waste everyday, which is disposed

off without being segregated. Replacing dustbins with these pots is an easy solution for citizens

to do their share of environment-friendly work. Local governments can facilitate such initiatives

of “closing the loop”. If every city-dweller in a city does this, it would save half a kilogram of solid

waste for the landfill for every citizen. This would result in saving a lot of transportation and

labour cost. The other bigger benefit is the local manure can help to lower the need for fossil

fuels used to manufacture and transport chemical fertilizers. (DD, 2009)

They enable social control, political discourse and cultural exchange.When energy challenges take on bigger dimensions that communitiesor groups of communities cannot manage at individual or federatedlevels, they need to be combated at the centralized city managementsphere. How do we plan new cities such that daily trips to jobs, marketand schools are reduced?

Shops could be in the neighbourhood at walking distances. Schoolsand work-spaces could be within communities. This would result inurban compactness which has direct impact on energy used fortransport, cooling, heating, water, energy and waste management.Consumption can greatly be modified without any change in lifestylesthrough careful planning and management.For example, small communities could be linked by a very good public


48

transport system at the city level instead of policies that encourageindividual vehicle ownership. Here again, appropriate land-uselegislation for residential and commercial sites and access to publictransportation services can lessen demand for more energy-intensivetransport. This is important as spatial structure and function of acity would greatly affect energy use as they influence mobility demandof citizens. Table 3.1 shows the differences between the urban sprawland smart growth. The way sprawl is designed requires increaseddemand for transportation.

Table 3.1: Smart Growth and Urban Sprawl; makes a lots of difference for

energy use

Plate 6: High-rise residential buildings of Hong Kong: Higher density leading to

Spatial structure and

function of a city

would greatly affect

energy use as they

influence mobility

demand of citizens.

Smart Growth and SprawlSmart Growth Sprawl

Emphasis Accessibility – to goods services, and activities Mobile-physical movement,particularly by car

Density Higher Density, clustered activities Lower density, dispersedactivities

Growth pattern Infill development Urban Periphery (Greenfield)development

Land Use Mix Mixed Single use, segregated

Public services Local, distributed, smaller, walking access Regional, consolidated,larger, requiring car access

Transport Multimodal transportation and land-use patterns

that support walking, cycling, and public

transportation Car oriented, poorly suited towalking, cycling and public transportation

Connectivity Highly connected roads, pavements and paths

allowing more direct travel by motorized and

non motorized transport modes Hierarchical road networkwith many unconnected roadsand walk-away, and barriersto non motorized transport

Street Design To accommodate a range of activities with

street calming Designed to maximise vehiclethroughout

Planning process Planned and coordinated between jurisdictions

and stakeholders Either unplanned/littlecoordination, or planned (eg.US)

Public Space Emphasis on streetscape, pedestrian areas, Emphasis on the private

public parks, and public facilities realm-of shopping malls,gated communities, privateclubs


49

better resource utilization.

Photo credit: Japneet Chahal

Increased population densities enhance urban sustainability as theper capita demand for occupied land, use of building materials anduse of individual modes of transport would all get lowered. HongKong’s density, both commercial and residential, comes from thespecial Administrative Region having gone high-rise on its citydevelopment. Apartments have been built 50 to 60 stories or tallerfor both residential and commercial use. Hong Kong’s densityaverages to around 70,000 people per square mile (Wills, 2009).

The art of sustainable mobility

Transportation options depend much on the way the city develops.Vertical cities may have easier transportation options; a horizontallysprawling or growing city may require different options to adopt.However, to enable energy savings in the transportation sector oneneeds to understand issues connected with it. While the numberand length of person trips in a city determine the demand for mobility,per capita income is also a critical factor for choosing a particulartransport mode. Now, to have an efficient transport system in place,everything from behaviour of drivers to traffic management, matters.This would include parking prices, congestion charges, transit fares,transportation infrastructure, vehicle fleet and fuel dependence, whichare all critical to optimising energy use. As shown in Figure 3.3,

understanding mobility issues, demand for access and deriveddemand for mobility, are the basis which would lead to theimprovement of transport systems for a given type of demand.

Down the ages transportation has shifted from non-motorised to rail-based public transport onto personalized transport means. Reducingand discouraging privately owned vehicles through a better publictransport system can bring down energy consumption drastically.

Increased population

densities enhance urban

sustainability as the

per capita demand for

occupied land, use of

building materials and

use of individual modes of

transport would all get

lowered.


50

One way of deciding how the future of transport in a growing cityneeds to be, is offered in Annexe 1. Table 3.2 shows the efforts putin by Nepal. Local governments played a key role from bringingregulations to facilitating the change.

Table 3.2: Converting diesel powered vehicles to electric vehicles in Kathmandu,

Nepal. Key dates when the hill capital made an effort, even though slowly.

Industrial Production: Norm rather than an exception

Figure 3.3: Understanding mobility issues

(Source: Torrie, 2002)

Year Activity

1991 Ban on new registrations of three-wheels

1993 Techno-economic feasibility demonstration ofelectric three-wheelers by Global ResourceInstitute

1994 Announcement of in-use vehicle emissionstandards

1996 Reduced import customs tariff and sales tax onelectric vehicle parts

1999 Ban on in-use diesel three-wheelers

2001 Number of electric three-wheelers exceeded 600

Asian industry

has been a considerable

source of pollution and

wastage.


51

Box 3: City farming, every little helps

Transportation-planning in a city could be greatly helped by reducing food miles. Urban farms

are a potential option to reduce transportation needs. The Cuban government has, in the past

decade, transformed unused land into urban agricultural plots. In Havana, 90 per cent of the

city’s fresh produce came from local urban farms and gardens, making travel cost from food

almost negligible. In contrast, food in the US travels at least 1500 km before it reaches plates

(CDA, 2009). Apart from reducing food miles and cutting down transportation costs urban farms

can also provide additional benefits of creating local livelihoods. Several European and some

Japanese supermarket chains have introduced the concept of carbon labelling on food products,

which will indicate the amount of carbon dioxide consumed for bringing them on the shelf.

Figure 3.4: Techniques involved in cleaner production of energy should become

the norm for every industry. (Source: NEA, 2009).

Industry creates employment and income. However, Asian industryhas been a considerable source of pollution and wastage. Industriescould transform sustainability of energy in cities. There can be actionat the level of individual firms, where cleaner production replacesinefficient production through activities that reduce, recycle andreuse. Cleaner production of energy would minimize waste andemissions and maximize product output. Processes involved in gettingclean production involve reduction at source, recycling and product/process modification (Figure 3.4).

Cleaner Production in Industry (CPI) project in Vietnam, sponsoredby the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), hascarried out many activities for promoting CP application in industry,including capacity building, information dissemination on CP and


52

policy development on CP in the industry (NEA,2009). Combinedsavings from cleaner production of all industries that participated inthis improvement project are shown in Table 3.3. If such norms aresystematically adopted by industries, energy demand would getgreatly reduced, and thereby reduce the pollution, too. Localgovernments can play a key role in incentivizing or regulating theindustries, making them aware that cleaner production indeed resultsin annual savings.Examples from India have shown good effort at reducing emissions,too. Financing from banks like ICICI helped Noida Power CompanyLimited (NPCL) replace bare cables with insulated cables, replaceold pumps with efficient ones and set up meters in all places whichresulted in a quick climb of 55 per cent savings in energy (ADB, 2008).Clean production of energy by using exhaust gases from engines toproduce steam (cogeneration) and by using steam in vapourabsorption machines to produce cooling (tri-generation) cuts downemissions drastically.

Table 3.3: Annual savings due to cleaner production from all industries.

Every little act counts. (NEA, 2009)

Cogeneration or CHP, also known as combined heat and power, makesuse of heat which is normally a by-product of electricity generationin a power plant. This heat could be used for industrial purposes.When compared with a separate generator, it has potential to save40 per cent of energy (Figure 3.5).

At another level, industry could look at the life-cycle analysis whichincludes life-cycle accounting for each product through its design,selection of materials, production, distribution, transportation andfinally disposal. Efforts are made to reduce energy and resource-waste throughout its life-cycle. As an example, the Japanese companyToshiba encourages consumers to recycle all electronic goods free

Enterprise of Electricity Coal FO DO Gas Water Chemical Annual Investment

Sector (Mwh) (ton) (ton) (ton) (ton) M3 (ton) Saving USD

USD

Textile &

Dying 6.991 17.47 6.510 0 0 1.014.223 496 2011205 506.149

Paper 44.338 24.541 1.901 0 0 2.906.570 1.228 3297851 766.246

Metal

Finishing 911 490 111 21 41 150.203 77 503414 307.481

Construction

Material 6,746 5,330 0 285 208 2,064,314 2,677 1081404 593,669

Food

Processing 727 383 163 30.2 0 80.143 60 797434 173,840

Others 1,690 4,732 29 0 0.2 1,115.477 22 367642 372.892

Total 61,403 37,223 8.714 336.2 249 7,330,930 4,560 8,058,950 2,720,277

Industry could look at the

life cycle analysis which

includes life-cycle

accounting for each

product through its

design, selection of

materials, production,

distribution,

transportation and

finally disposal.


53

Figure 3.5: Cogeneration vs. separate generation

Less loss with cleaner production

of cost as part of their social responsibility. Although, through life-cycle reduction of wastages, production can get economicallyefficient, much of the focus of industries has been on safe disposalof products.

A significant change happening across the globe is the spurting ofeco-industrial parks. Industrial clusters are developed for industrialsymbiosis where waste of one industry becomes a resource ofanother (Figure 3.6). Eco-efficiency is about boosting productivityalbeit by reducing the need for excess resources and by minimizing

A significant change

happening across the

globe is the spurting of

eco industrial parks.

Industrial clusters are

developed for industrial

symbiosis where waste of

one industry becomes a

resource of

another.

Figure 3.6: Progressive steps to energy efficiency in Industry

Cleaner production (micro), Life cycle management and Industrial ecology (Macro)

Source: Chiu, 2008.


54

Box 5: Cool Airport

The district cooling system of Suvarnabhumi airport in Bangkok and its power plant gets operated

by using natural gas. The exhaust heat from generation of electricity is tapped to produce steam.

A small part of this steam is used to meet the hot water demand of the airport hotel and the

airlines catering unit. The remaining steam is used in environmentally-benign vapour absorption

chillers to produce chilled water for the air-conditioning system of the passenger terminal complex

(EGAT, 2009). The city of Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia has been a leader in applying such principles

into practice, as demonstrated by the Kuala Lumpur City Centre (KLCC), the recently created

administrative zone of Putra Jaya and the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA).

the environmental impact. Eco-Industrial Park is a concept thatrequires to be taken up in a big way. Kalundborg in Denmark was oneof the pioneers in developing a prototype of such an industrial park.Similarly cluster management in ceramic industry are being developedin Lampang, Philippines, Viet Nam and in India. There are immensebenefits to the industry such as reduced toxicity and health risks,minimizing costs and market opportunities.

Energy savings within built environment

Bringing efficiency within processes used in construction industriesand facility management through building information modelling(BIM) and choosing local and eco-friendly materials can result inenergy savings and lessening of GHGs. Buildings that are beingconstructed to meet specific certification criteria (e.g. Green Starrating in the USA, GRIHA in India, HQE in France and LEED in manyparts of the world) are reported to have led to 30-50 per centreduction in operating energy consumption. Solutions for issues dueto climate pressures like green air-conditioning systems for heatingand cooling offer a potential to bring in savings, too. Energy savingscan also result from waste-reduction practices, such as recyclingand reuse; and reduction in demand for raw material and energyinputs at the manufacturing stage of life-cycle. These can conserveenergy and reduce GHG emissions. Table 3.4 lists some energy-efficient technologies that could be adopted in the built environment.

Energy efficiency

Commercial and residential units consume massive energy, and muchis wasted on lighting and space-heating or cooling. China’s greenlight programme (WEA, 2000) which was initiated by the UNDP withthe State Economic and Trade Commission of China is designed to

Box 4: Map Tha Phut Eco Industrial Complex

Map Tha Phut industrial estate in Rayong, Thailand, has an example of a cogeneration company

that supplies electricity, steam and demineralised water to industrial operators. Manufacturing

process at Rayong plant occurs in a sequential manner. Heat is recovered from the flue gases of

the power-generating plant. Similarly, sulphuric acid vaporizing during the pickling process is

recovered. The by-product of this process is used as a soil-conditioner. The sulphuric acid is used

in making fertilizers, which further has gypsum as a by-product, which can be recycled.

Bringing efficiency

within processes used in

construction industries

and facility management

through building

information modelling

(BIM) and choosing local

and eco-friendly

materials can result in

energy savings and

lessening of GHGs.


55

increase the use of efficient lighting systems. The programme aimedat replacing incandescent lamps with 300 million compact fluorescentlamps and other high illumination products, leading to huge energysavings; the sulphur dioxide emissions were targeted to be lower by200,000 tonnes and carbon dioxide emissions by 7.4 million tonnesduring the project implementation period (WEA, 2000).

SELECTED ENERGY-EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES AND PRACTICES FOR BUILDINGS

Building Envelope Energy-efficient windows, insulation (walls, roof, floor) reduced air infiltration

Space conditioning Air conditioner efficiency measures (e.g. thermal insulation, improved heatexchangers, advanced refrigerants, more efficient motors), centrifugalcompressors, efficient fans and pumps, and variable air volume systems forlarge commercial buildings

Appliances Advanced compressors, evacuated panel, insulation (refrigerators), higher spinspeeds in washing machines/dryers

Cooking Improved efficiency biomass stoves, efficient gas stoves (ignition, burners)

Task Lighting Compact fluorescent lamps, improved phosphors, solid-state electronic ballasttechnology, advanced lighting control systems (includingday-lighting andoccupancy sensors), task lighting

Motors Variable speed drives size optimisation Improvement of power quality

Building energy

management Passive solar use (building design), solar water heaters

Box 6: Low-cost housing in Bangladesh

Habitat for humanity is an international organization that works in many countries including

Bangladesh. Women’s savings groups receive interest-free loans from the organization. The model

is known as “Save and Build” model, and involves “sweat equity”; that is to say manual labour

carried out by the future homeowner, with the help of volunteers, to reduce building costs and

construction time.

Financial management and practical training is provided to people through the six-month savings

period. The houses that are built by the organization are permanent houses, built at minimum

costs to local standards related to housing; appropriately serviced for water, electricity, sewer or

septic tank and roads; appropriately mitigated for local hazard risks; on land with secure land

titles and tenure; part of an appropriate settlement design with adequate human services such as

schools, clinics, religious facilities; and, using designs and environment that are culturally

appropriate. Habitat housing is sustainable and durable. These houses have positive effects on

health, economic and socially well-being. Habitat has been able to build sustainable, durable,

proven house for $1,500 USD, including the administrative and transport costs. Volunteer work

by locals, people from Japan, India and United States has been the backbone of this programme.

(Habitat Bangladesh, 2009).

Table 3.4: Energy efficient technologies and practices for buildings

(WEA, 2004a)


56

A typical upper-middle class urban household in Phnom Penh,Cambodia, spends a major chunk of its electricity on refrigeratorand electric fan, and under normal scenario the monthly electricitybill is around USD 21.50 (Figure 3.7). If the inefficient applianceswere replaced by efficient ones (incandescent lamps by CFLs) andcare was taken not to leave the appliances on standby, the electricitybill of the household would reduce to 14.87 USD per month (Figure 3.8).

Figure 3.7: Monthly electricity bill for a household in Phnom Penh under the

business-as-usual scenario.

Household Electricity Bill - USD 14.87/Month

(Efficiency Scenario)

Household Electricity Bill - USD 21.49/month

(Normal Scenario)

Rice Cooker10%

Iron10%

Refrigerator35%

TV8%

ElectricFan23%

Lamp12% VCR

2%

Figure 3.8: Monthly electricity bill for a household in Phnom Penh under the

energy efficiency scenario.

Refrigerator26%

TV6%

Electric Fan16%

VCR1%

Lamp3%

Iron8%

Rice Cooker8%

Savings

32%


57

Box 7: Energy Savings during construction-thinking out of the box

Communities like T-Zed in Bangalore, India are shining examples of sustainable architecture

that have used building materials and processes of lesser embodied energy. The multi-storied

residential housing complex of T-Zed consumed 71,940 GJ lesser energy during its construction

in comparison with a conventional building and designed the apartments such that it uses only

4,532 GJ in its operation per annum (Figure 3.9). This led to a saving of 20,000 T of carbon

dioxide during its construction and 1,262 tonnes during annual operations. Some of the reduced

embodied energy has been achieved by using local material, soil stabilized blocks, laterite block,

reclaimed timber and natural stone flooring. Passive solar building, with adequate ventilation

and lighting, low energy bulbs for lighting and energy-efficient appliances help in achieving a

low-carbon status for the operational aspect of this building. Interestingly, one of the ways

energy is saved in this complex is by not sourcing water from municipality. All required water is

harvested and recycled to provide water from within the community itself. In comparison,

Bangalore city transports millions of gallons per day from the river Cauvery that is 80 km away

from Bangalore and 700 m below its altitude. The energy spent per day to bring water to

Bangalore is mind boggling.

Figure 3.9: Energy efficient T ZED houses in Bangalore-showing emission

reductions during construction.


58

Box 8: What are the sustainable energy options for Maldives?

One of the small islands off Indian Ocean, Maldives is amongst the most vulnerable countries to

the projected impact of climate change. Like other small island developing states, the Maldives

depends overwhelmingly on petroleum imports for their electricity production, which creates

serious economic and financial difficulties for the small nation. The island is characterized by

insufficient supply of electricity, increasing use of imported fossil fuels as almost all of its electricity

comes from diesel generators, insufficient fuel storage, high energy cost affecting quality of life

for inhabitants and to top it all, lack of public transport facilities on land and sea. The Government

of Maldives has been actively pursuing utilization of RETs. Solar and wind systems are being

utilized but are not very dependable. Can Maldives find an interesting way to dispose its solid

waste and go for cogeneration?

To reduce the use of air-conditioner, Germans pioneered the idea ofcool rooftops (rooftop gardens) in the 1960s. Ten per cent of all roofsin Germany grow vegetables, spices and herbs. These homes are3-4 degrees cooler in summers and use 30 per cent less heat inwinters.

Key message: Promises to keep

The urban fabric and movement of energy through cities is complex.Closed loop systems that promote stepped decentralisation wherenecessary with room for relevant city-centralised systems should befollowed in every system. There is scope for improvement in everysector and in the way we design and plan our cities. It is also importantto understand that while finding sectoral solutions to address aspecific problem such as congestion is important, it may not be theonly way to address the issue. It may make more sense to addresscongestion, pollution and commute-time issues holistically than inisolation.

Points to ponder

• In Villa Clara Province innovative and environmentallysustainable building materials are being manufactured locallyin small workshops, creating job opportunities andconstructing an estimated 2,300 housing units. This has cuttransport costs from centralised units, transport costs throughimport of goods and embodied energy of high energyresources. Eco-materials manufactured here use recycledwaste products and include micro-concrete roofing tiles, lime-pozzolana cement, pre-cast hollow concrete blocks (WHA,2009).

• Planting 50 million trees to shade east and west walls ofresidential buildings in California was projected to reducecooling by 1.1 per cent and peak load demand by 4.5 per centover a 15-year period (Gregory and Simpson, 2001).

• Cagayan de Oro, Philippines saved 14,925 kWh per year byretrofitting 4,604 street lamps with energy-efficient bulbs.Converting 40-Watt fluorescents with magnetic ballasts to32-Watt units with electronic ballasts resulted in the removal


59

of 32 tonnes of CO2 per year from the atmosphere (IGESa,

2008).

• Cebu, Philippines had its 700 mercury vapour lamps convertedto high-pressure sodium vapour (SV) lamps. This resulted ina CO

2 reduction of 150 tonnes per year (IGESb, 2008).

• Puerto Princessa, Philippines floated a Green Homes Project.Thousand units planned to be built would save P1.9 million/year and reduce CO

2 emissions by 167 tonnes a year.

Interesting initiatives implemented include energy-efficiencyprojects in public buildings and police on bicycles apart fromother things (IGESc, 2008).

• Bhopal, India replaced pump sets and installed capacitors ateight major pumping stations and at 400 mini pumping units,fixed leaks and reduced friction. Other measures includedremoval of redundant fittings in high-mast lighting atintersections, installation of daylight sensors and automationof streetlight operations, and switching 150 W SV inresidential colonies to 75 W SV (IGESd,2008).

• The city of Ahmedabad in India upgraded its water pumpingoperations by replacing piping; reducing water loss andfriction; and improving power quality of motors. This resultedin energy savings of Rs. 4.4 million a year, 3.7 million kWh ayear, and decreased peak demand for energy by 11 per cent(IGESe, 2009).

• Thane in India spends Rs. 4,000 million [about USD 85 million]on waste management in a city of 100 sq km and a populationof 1.4 million. Seventy per cent diesel cost will be saved ifthe garbage was managed locally (ICLEI , 2009)

• In 2005, 47 years after being covered with concrete, to forma highway, Cheonggye Stream, Seoul, Republic of Korea, wasrestored to its old state of water freely flowing through thehighway. This has reduced the heat island effect of the stretch(LIK, 2009).

3.2 From Consumption to ProsumptionFrom Consumption to ProsumptionFrom Consumption to ProsumptionFrom Consumption to ProsumptionFrom Consumption to Prosumption44444 : Role of : Role of : Role of : Role of : Role of

Renewable Energy TRenewable Energy TRenewable Energy TRenewable Energy TRenewable Energy Technologies (REechnologies (REechnologies (REechnologies (REechnologies (RET)T)T)T)T)“Use of solar energy has not been opened up because the oil industry

does not own the sun.” –Ralph Nader

Fossil fuels take millions of years to get produced. But we consumethem at the rate of 88 million barrels a day to sustain consumptivelifestyles, and this is rising by the day (Simmons, 2008). The actualenvironmental and health-care costs of using fossil fuel show themto be costlier than what we perceive them to be. If this gets factoredinto the actual cost of energy, RET which otherwise appears expensivemay look to be a good bet for investors. In fact it is important to lookat the life-cycle cost of an energy system rather than only at the

4 Prosumption is the ability to produce a part of what one consumes as product or ervice in a

sustainable manner that will not have any adverse social, environmental or economic impacts.

Powering activities with sustainable energy from renewable energy systems relevant to local

conditions is an example of prosumption.

Fossil fuels take millions

of years to get produced.

But we consume them at

the rate of 88 million

barrels a day to sustain

consumptive

lifestyles.


60

upfront cost. As an example, wind power may not look as aneconomically attractive option as its upfront cost may represent 70-80 per cent of its life time cost, while in the case of thermal powergeneration, the upfront cost may only represent 20-30 per cent of itslife-cycle cost. When comparing renewable energy with nuclearenergy, which also has low-carbon impact, we can see that the truelife-cycle cost of nuclear power generation will be very high, if thecost of decommissioning the power plant is also included. It may notbe the most attractive option.

Many pioneers around the world have made their communities, (and,on a larger scale, cities) self-sufficient through renewable energytechnologies. While RETs currently supply 13 per cent of the world’sprimary energy supply, their share is as high as 32 per cent for Asia(IEA 2007b).

Many forms of RETs

Intermittence5 is one of the main deterrents apart from the highupfront cost in case of renewable energy technologies. Continuity ofenergy supply is what most urban areas need. However, one of theintrinsic strengths of RETs is the variety of sources that can be tappedto overcome intermittence. Solutions could come from many sourcesbut not all solutions will fit every location. A careful analysis of theenergy source available locally needs to be done. Solutions may evenbe hidden as in the case of energy from waste and heat recovery.

Plate 7: solar panels atop roofs in southwest Turkey

Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/uwebkk/3411169548/sizes/o/

5 Intermittence is a source of energy (power) which can get interrupted; this term is mostly used

for power supply that is erratic and not continuous.

Intermittence is one of

the main deterrents apart

from the high

upfront cost in case of

renewable energy tech-

nologies.


61

The strongest growth in RET use has been in grid-connected powerfacilities such as small hydro, wind farms, solar PV and biomasscogeneration facilities. The distribution of RET in the world asprovided in Figure.3.10, shows that wind and micro-hydro seem totake up the major share of RET use globally. A World Bank studyconcluded that for off-grid or mini-grid systems, most RETs couldindeed work out cheaper than gasoline or diesel generators (WB,2006).

Succeeding with RETs

Success of any RET depends on many parameters. RETs may notmake much sense if the demand is not analysed carefully andcontrolled through other efficiency measures. As shown inFigure.3.11, an integrated energy strategy looks first at the demandwhich can be reduced substantially through sustainable design andthe selection of efficient appliances. Translating the existing demandfor energy into basis for RET designs can end up being costlier. Thetrick lies in first looking into reducing the demand throughconservation and efficiency before looking for RET solutions. Oneneeds to start with the appropriate design of urban infrastructure tosuit the local conditions, followed by judicious choice of energy-efficient appliances, chosen on the basis of value-engineereddemand. Once the demand is well managed, one can then invest inRETs to meet the much reduced demand affordably. RET could beused in many ways as can be seen in Table 3.5 (WEA, 2004b).

Figure 3.10: Use of RETs around the world. Solar and wind take the major share.

(Source: REN21, 2009)

A World Bank study

concluded that for off-grid

or mini-grid systems, most

RETs could indeed work

out cheaper than gasoline

or diesel generators

(WB, 2006).


62

Figure 3.11: Energy Management: starts with demand management and then

looks for sustainable supply options

Amount of electricityfrom supply-side inbusiness as usualscenario

Amount afterimplementationof DSM practices

Amount suppliedby RETs

Amount requiredof suppy-sideafter installationof RETs


63

Table 3.5: Categories of renewable energy conversion technologies

Source: (WEA, 2004b)

Technology Energy Product Application

Biomass Energy

Combustion(domestic

scale)Combustion(industrial

scale)Gasification/power

productionGasification/Fuel

ProductionHydrolysis &

FermentationPyrolysis/

production of liquid

fuelsPyrolysis/production of

solid fuelsExtractionDigestion

Wind EnergyWater pumping &

battery chargingOnshore wind

turbinesOffshore wind turbines

Solar EnergyPhotovoltaic solar

energy conversionSolar thermal

ElectricityLow temperature

solar energy usePassive solar

energy useArtificial

photosynthesis

Hydropower

Geothermal EnergyMarine

energyTidal energyWave

energyCurrent energyOcean

thermal energy

conversionSalinity gradient/

osmotic energyMarine Biomass

production

Heat (cooking, space heating)

Process heat, steam, electricity

Electricity, heat (CHP)

Hydrocarbons, methanol,

H2Ethanol Bio-oils Charcoal

Biodiesel Biogas

Movement, power Electricity

Electricity

Electricity Heat, steam,

electricity Heat (water & space

heating, cooking, drying) &

coldHeat, cold, light &

ventilation H2

or hydrogen rich

fuels

Power, electricity

Heat, steam, electricity

Electricity Electricity Electricity

Heat, electricity Electricity

Fuels

Widely applied; improvedtechnologies availableWidelyapplied; potential forimprovementDemonstrationphaseDevelopmentphaseCommercially appliedfor sugar/ starch crops;production from wood underdevelopmentPilot phase;some technicalbarriersWidely applied; widerange of efficienciesApplied;relatively expensiveCommercially applied

Small wind machines,widely appliedWidelyapplied commerciallyDevelopment &Demonstration phase

Widely applied; ratherexpensive; furtherdevelopmentneededDemonstrated;further developmentneededSolar collectorscommercially applied; Solarcookers widely applied insome regions; solar dyingdemonstrated &appliedDemonstration &applications; no activepartsFundamental &applied research

Commercially applied; small& large scale application

CommerciallyappliedApplied; relativelyexpensiveResearch,development &demonstrationphaseResearch &developmentphaseResearch,development &demonstrationphaseTheoreticaloptionResearch &development phase


64

RETs—the inevitable choice

The development of alternative energy systems is crucial to manysmall islands which depend heavily on steady supplies of fossil fuelproducts. Some lead-user examples show intelligent solutions thathave greatly addressed the unique problems of island countries.

Box 9: Lesson in self-help—Need based solutions

Plate 8: Wind turbines powering Samsoe. A creation born out of the will of the local population.

Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/mprinke/535180037/sizes/o/

In 1997, the energy supply in Samsoe was based almost entirely on fossil energy sources. They

were heading for disaster as their dependence on imports was getting out of control. They took

matter into their own hands, drafted and implemented a sustainable energy plan. Thanks to this,

11 onshore wind turbines were built that supply enough energy to meet the island’s electricity

needs. About 70 per cent of island’s heating needs are met through RET based on straw, solar

power and woodchips, and 100 per cent of the energy used for transportation is met by the

island’s 10 offshore wind turbines. (DENMARK, 2009)

Say no to diesel

Vaturu and Wainikasou Hydro projects of Fiji will produce about 38 GWh of electricity annually,

displacing diesel power from the grid. (MNRE, 2009)

Going YIMBY (Yes, In my back yard)

The PRERURE (Local energy plan) and ARER ( Regional Energy Agency) have enabled 40 per cent

of households of the Reunion island in the Indian Ocean get equipped with solar thermal water

systems, wind farms and photovoltaic systems that benefit from the local tax and electricity

purchase incentives. One-third of Reunion Island’s energy is clean, mostly derived from the

combustion of sugarcane ‘bagasse’ in efficient power plants and huge hydroelectric facilities. This

has made the French government to target Reunion Island as the French laboratory for innovative

energy with the scope to reach 100 per cent of RETs in 2030, covering electric transport facilities

too. (ARER, 2009)


65

While energy efficiency measures lessen load on energyconsumption, RETs would offer alternate sources of energy that leavea much lower carbon footprint on the earth. Local governments wouldgain immensely by gradually making RETs mandatory. Israel has allbuildings less than 27m high equipped with solar water heaters. Thishas resulted in over 80 per cent of domestic hot water being providedby solar energy, accounting for up to three per cent of the totalprimary energy (WEC, 2007).

Winning strategies with RETs

Urban dwellers who do not find it technically feasible or economicallyviable to install RET systems in their localities, could invest in thedevelopment of RET in far-flung areas through establishedorganisations reaping good Return on Investment (ROI) while helpingthe people with no energy access become energy-positive (e.g. windenergy could be promoted through investments made by urbanites,benefitting rural population through distributed energy generationsystems). This would also help spur economic development outsidecities and improve quality of living for non-urbanites, acting as astrong incentive against migration to cities.

The RET industry consists predominantly of small and medium-sizeenterprises (SMEs). Its use could also be combined with incomegeneration strategies. Studies reveal that RETs provide several-foldhigher employment opportunities in comparison with those for thedevelopment of fossil fuels (Kammen et al, 2004).

Odanthurai, in Tamilnadu, India, has created waves recently in therenewable energy space. It has powered 650 streetlights throughsolar panels, has energy supplied through a gasifier and a 350 kWwind farm. The power crisis in the state of Tamil Nadu within whichlies Odanthurai, forces a load shedding of 3 hours in this area but itsresidents are not worried as their basic needs for streetlighting andelectricity for water pumps run on a 24x7 energy system. This makesOdanthurai depend only on 50 per cent of power from the State grid.The loan taken for setting up wind farm will be paid back in sevenyears time after which the residents’ electricity bills from renewableenergy sources would become nil.

When policies promote greater use of RETs, the cost of energyproduction tends to come down (Table 3.6).

When policies promote

greater use of RETs, the

cost of energy production

tends to come down


66

Table 3.6: Current status and potential costs for future RET

Source: (WEA, 2004c)

Increase in

installed

capacity in

past five

years(per

cent a year)

Operating

capacity,end

1998

Capacity

factor

(per cent)

Energy

Production

1998

Turnkey

Investment

costs (U.S.

dollars per

kilowatt)

Current

energy

cost

Potential

future

energy

costs

Biomass

energy

Electricity

Heato

Ethanol

Wind

electricity

Solar

photovoltaic

electricity

Solar

thermal

electricity

Low-

Temperature

Solar Heat

Hydro

electricity

Large

Small

Geothermal

energy

Electricity

Heat

Marine

energy

Tidal

Wave

Current

OTEC

40

GWe>200

GWth18

billion

litres

10 GWe

500MWe

400MWe

18 GWth

(30 million

m2)

040GWe

23GWe

8GWe11G

Wth

300 MWe

Exp. Phase

Exp. phase

Exp. Phase

25-60 25-

60

20-30

8-20

20-35

8-20

35-6020-

70

45-9020-

70

20-30

20-35

25-35

70-80

160

TWh(e)>700

TWh(th)420

PJ

18 TWh(e)

0.5TWh(e)

1TWh(e)

14TWh(th)

2510TWh(e)

90TWh(e)

46TWh(e)

40TWh(th)

0.6TWh(e)

Unclear

Unclear

Unclear

900-3000

250-750

1100-1700

5000-

10000

3000-4000

Close

Flyout

500-1700

1000-3500

1200-3000

800-3000

200-2000

1700-2500

1500-3000

2000-3000

Unclear

5 -15¢/

KWh1-

5¢/

KWh8-

25$/GJ

5-13¢/

KWh

25-

125¢/

KWh

12-

18¢/

KWh

3-20¢/

KWh

2-8¢/

KWh4-

10¢/

KWh

2-10¢/

KWh

0.5-5¢/

KWh

8-15¢/

KWh 8-

20¢KWh

8-15¢/

KWh

Unclear

4-10¢/

KWh1-

5¢/

KWh6-

10$GJ

3-10¢/

KWh

5 or 6-

25 ¢/

KWh

4-10¢/

KWh

2or 3-10

¢/KWh

2-8¢/

KWh3-

10¢/

KWh

1or 2-

8¢/KWh

0.5-5¢/

KWh

8-15¢/

KWh

Unclear

5-7¢/

KWh

Unclear

~3

~3

~3

~30

~30

~5

~8

~2~3

~4~6

0

-

-

-

Current Status &Potential future costs of renewable energy technology

Technology


67

Other forms of RETs

Some advanced alternate energy technologies can bring relief toenergy consumption, as in the case of co-generation, tri- or poly-generation. Other technologies like syn-gas and energy fromhydrogen fuel cells are also making headway but have some distanceto go before finding market acceptance. Nuclear power has tocontend with managing its wastes better. It also is not cost-efficientwhen costs of opening new plants get mapped against costs thatwill be incurred in shutting down old plants and securing new onesagainst possible terrorist attacks, and hence has been left outsidethe scope of this document.

Key message: Know your RETs

RETs are here to relieve the pressure induced by drawing energyfrom non-renewable sources. But it has to be resorted to afterconducting study of the suitability of relevant RET technologies andcost-benefit analysis. While promoting RETs, care should be takento promote those options that are most suited to a given locationinstead of promoting any form of RET irrespective of its costs.

Points to ponder:

• “The amount of solar energy that hits the surface of theearth every minute is greater than the total amount ofenergy that the world’s human population consumes inone year.” (SNL, 2009)

• ‘Smart grid’ which uses information technology or digitaltechnology for distribution of power helps in overcomingintermittence of solar and wind power. Smart grids saveenergy, reduce costs, increase transparency and reliability

• While the production of energy from fossil fuels wouldencourage wars between nations, use of RET would only fostercooperation and transfer of technologies.

• RET’s main function should be to ensure energy security fora given location.

• Global power capacity from new renewable energy sources(excluding large hydro) reached 280,000 megawatts (MW)in 2008 – a 16 per cent rise from the 240,000 MW in 2007and nearly three times the capacity of the United Statesnuclear sector (REN21, 2009).

• Today, at least 73 countries have renewable energy policytargets, up from 66 at the end of 2007. In response to thefinancial crisis, several governments have directed economicstimulus funding towards new green jobs that the renewableenergy sector can provide, including the U.S. package thatwill invest $150 billion over ten years in renewable energy(REN21, 2009).

3.3 The World of Emerging TThe World of Emerging TThe World of Emerging TThe World of Emerging TThe World of Emerging Technologiesechnologiesechnologiesechnologiesechnologies“The Asian region must be committed to the role innovation will

play if we are to succeed in a truly sustainable economic model of

development.” –President Gloria Arroyo, Philippines

Some advanced alternate

energy technologies can

bring relief to energy

consumption, as in the

case of co-generation,

tri- or polygeneration.


68

Box 10: Pioneers in RET use around the world

Plate 9: Växsjö bike with factory in the background. Freedom through fossil-free energy systems.

Photo credit: Flickr, Creative Commons (SC, 2009)

In 1996 Växjo, a small town in Sweden decided to be fossil-fuel free. The municipality

engineered a partnership with local firms, industries and transport companies to

achieve this goal. They created a policy commitment “Fossil-Fuel-Free Växjö” to stop

using fossil fuels and reduce CO2

emissions in heating, energy, transport, businesses

and homes. Rigorous planning and close monitoring of all CO2 emissions is their recipe.

They have been particularly successful in using biomass for district heating. The city

is now ahead of its goals in majority of these commitments. More than half of its

energy comes from sources such as biomass, hydro power, geothermal and solar

energy. In little over a decade, emissions have been reduced by 24 per cent per

person to 3.5 tonnes of CO2 annually—well below the European average (8 CO

2t/a)

and world’s average (4 CO2t/a). With this track record, Växjö may well be the world’s

first fossil-free city by 2015 (SC, 2009).

Planners have used RET to reduce health risks by innovative cooking stoves in India

and Africa to a great extent. The Kenya Ceramic Jiko (KCJ) project for promoting

biomass technologies is one such example (SS, 2009).

Kuzumaki, Japan hosts a population of 8.37 thousand at an altitude 400 meters.

Farming and forestry are key industries. Its mayor started the use of RETs using

livestock, woody waste, solar and wind. Since then, “Be top of Japan in the use of

renewable energy” has become their policy slogan. At present, about 56 million kWh

accounting for 185 per cent of total annual electricity supply is from RETs (Times, 2008).


69

Another impressive example is Quezon City, the largest city of Metro Manila with a

population of about 2.7 million people. The city captures methane from a waste

dumpsite and converts it to electricity. This has reduced greenhouse gas emissions

by 116,000 tonnes a year, generated 42 MW of clean energy, created local jobs for

planned construction (Newsbreak, 2007).

The use of solar water heaters can save up to 80 per cent of the energy used by

conventional electric water heaters. Barcelona, the first European city to have a Solar

Thermal Ordinance, made it compulsory to use solar energy to supply 60 per cent of

running hot water in all buildings. Thanks to this, over 25,000 MWh/year are saved

(UNEP, 2008). India’s private initiative, the Sulabh Sanitation Movement has been

promoting the construction of public toilets connected to biogas plants to provide

clean energy for households (SSM. 2009).

Sludge treatment system of Antalya, Turkey, provides heat and electricity for the

city from waste. Antalya, a tourism city on the Mediterranean coast of south-western

Turkey, has a population of 1 million (which doubles in summer months) and a 16 per

cent annual growth rate. Here the water and wastewater companies have responded

to the energy and environmental challenges by upgrading the sludge treatment

system, to generate electricity and heat from the anaerobic digester gas and reuse

treated water, saving the companies almost US$1 million a year and reducing carbon

emissions by some 2,400 tonnes annually (Kivanc, 2008)

Emerging policies and effective technologies

In the previous section, it was seen how promising technologies havebeen used to manage energy demand and move towards carbonneutral cities. New technologies combined with effective policiescan propel energy sustainability into new heights faster than whathas been achieved by the existing technologies. People fromindividuals to big organisations who have shown resolve and deeperurge to solve energy problems have come up with innovations thatbring hope for the planet. How can such technologies bemainstreamed and brought to other cities through innovative policiesis the question.

These innovations bring about changes for the better in certain ways:1. Efficiency in existing systems as in buildings, electric

appliances, vehicles, and production processes.2. Alternative use of RET, though more expensive to begin with,

will show marked reduction in cost over the operations period.3. Emerging technologies offer technological alternatives to

processes that consume fossil fuel.

Growing cities can leapfrog6 beyond technological advances madeby mega cities. Developing world need not go through the same steps

New technologies

combined with effective

policies can propel energy

sustainability into new

heights faster than what

has been achieved by the

existing technologies.

6 Leapfrogging is the notion that areas which have poorly-developed technology or economic

bases can move themselves forward rapidly through the adoption of modern systems without

going through intermediary steps


70

that industrialized countries had to adopt owing to a gradual changein technological improvement. We can see a glimmer of hope,witnessing newer technologies that promote energy sustainability,which should be promoted as much as possible. Care should betaken however to balance labour and capital that would suit thesecities better than what could have been used for mega-cities. This isespecially true for the growing cities of the developing world.

Bridging the gap between policy-making and technology

‘High-tech’ is not about complexity or novelty of function of a product,but is the choice of a production function that makes the mostintelligent use of materials, energy, and human resources. Anyenterprise or government-driven activity can and should be high-tech.Governments in developing countries have traditionally been seenas “bottlenecks” to emerging technologies. If the gap betweentechnology and effective policy-making could be bridged by mutualeffort, cities would benefit by such synergies in exemplary ways.The gap could be bridged by more than one way. Rewarding andrecognising innovators, encouraging experimenting at low-cost andenabling research and development are some of the more obviousways.

Policies that enhance skill-based experiential education, that propeleducation of the city to be recognised globally for its high quality,those that promote financial systems, others that offer capital overa wide range of options such that small and big enterprises benefitby them would go a long way in ensuring technologies helpsustainability. Incubation of good ideas through research anddevelopment needs nurturing through qualified taskforces from thegovernment.

Governments should also motivate collaboration between localplayers and international partners, which will enable indigenouscompanies strengthen their knowledge, expertise and market reach.

A window to technology

A glimpse of what exist today as emerging technologies is shownhere in the gallery.

Emerging Technologies outlined by the Blue Map Scenario7 for a lowcarbon future (Figure 3.12)

o Widespread conversion of buildings to very low energyconsumption, and even ‘zero’ energy buildings, is part of thescenario.

o Improvements in the efficiency of conventional vehicles anduse of low carbon to zero carbon emission fuels.

o Tough efficiency regulations for buildings, appliances andvehicles will be essential.

‘High-tech’ is not about

complexity or novelty of

function of a product,

but is the choice of a

production function that

makes the most

intelligent use of

materials, energy, and

human resources.

7 Blue Map Scenario: The IPCC has concluded that emissions must be reduced by 50 per cent to 85

per cent by 2050 if global warming is to be confined to between 2°C and 2.4°C.

BLUE scenarios demand deployment of technologies still under development, whose progress and

ultimate success are hard to predict and require urgent implementation of unprecedented and

far-reaching new policies in the energy sector.


71

Plate 10:

Tinted windows saving air

conditioning cost

Converting low temperature heat

into energyConcentrating solar panels

Solar thermal power stations Roof-top wind turbines Solar ventilator fan

Venetian Blinds with solar panels Japan Airline using biofuel Tidal power systems

Building covered with PV cells Aeroponics for high IAQ Solar thin film

Pots from e-waste Speedbreakers generate electricity Solar powered water purifier

for street lights


72

LED luminaires More efficient fan systems CHP home heating system

Biodiesel from waste oil Train run on biogas from sewage Biogas station in Sweden

Biogas for electricity Tubular solar light Power generated when

fresh water from cities

mingle with salt water

60’ sailboat made from recycled Inn made of 93 per cent recycled AC propulsion batteries

plastic bottles construction material using new Lithium ion

technology, power electric

vehicles

Electric bikes and scooters Solar LED bricks Agro housing—urban farming


73

Solar power to charge ac in cars Solar and wind powered ferry 90,000 homes powered by

biogas from chicken manure

Bio composite materials Solar powered air conditioner Ambiators

Figure 3.12: Possible reduction in carbon emission with emerging technologies.

Comparison of World Energy Outlook 2007 450 ppm case and blue map

scenario. What we need is the will to achieve it.

(Source: IEA, Energy technology Perspectives, 2008)

o CO2 capture and storage for power generation in industry is

the most important single new technology for CO2 savings

o Considerable flexibility to choose which precise mix of CCSand RET to use by local regions to decarbonise the powersector.

o Bigger improvements than what exists in energy efficiencytrends.

o A huge effort of research, development, and demonstrationwill be needed that enhances the science base and its linkswith technology.

o Governments must enhance deployment programmes of newtechnologies as prices will come down only with bettermarket response.

o There is an urgent need to design and implement a range ofpolicy measures that will create clear, predictable, long-termeconomic incentives for CO

2 reduction in the market. However,


74

targeted schemes can be planned for the most expensivetechnologies.

o International collaboration is essential to accelerate thedevelopment and global deployment of sustainable energytechnologies.

Key message: Staying ahead to stay in control

Local governments are now in an era of using Information Technology(IT) strategies to function and enable innovation unlike the role ofbeing the economic regulator of the bygone era. IT has helped inreducing time, enhancing quality and enabling better control overactivities. If city leaders kept upgrading their knowledge and appliedthat to their planning and actions through IT and emergingtechnologies they would be more successful in implementingmeaningful solutions. They should also be able to decentralise andlet private sector and market forces take over instead of lettinginnovations be controlled through regulations.

Points to ponder:

• Solar power panels that use nanotechnology, which can createcircuits out of individual silicon molecules, may cost half asmuch as traditional photovoltaic cells, according toexecutives and investors involved in developing the products(WIKI, 2009)

• The City of Melbourne is generating 252,000 kWh of electricityeach year from what is the largest urban solar installation ofits kind in the Southern hemisphere (C40 cities, 2009)

• Wind power grew from 59 GW in 2005 to 121 GW (REN21,2009)

• The concentrating solar power industry saw many newentrants and new manufacturing facilities in 2008 (REN21,2009)

3.4 Know your city- An exercise for policyKnow your city- An exercise for policyKnow your city- An exercise for policyKnow your city- An exercise for policyKnow your city- An exercise for policy

makersmakersmakersmakersmakers

Sustainable Energy Indicators

“An indicator is something that helps you understand where you are,

which way you are going and how far you are from where you want

to be.” –Sustainable Measures

Before policy-makers decide what tool can be used for their owncities, they may like to know where they stand in terms of energysustainability. A set of Energy Sustainability Indicators for a carbon-frugal city is therefore one that helps show deviations from requiredpossessions, good health, adequate consumption sans greed, goodquality of life, with low coping stresses. It can be an importantinstrument to use for policy-making. These indicators per forceencourage participation from citizens—an integral need for any goodform of governance. It will secure buy-in and avoid citizens protestingagainst ills of urbanisation and have them enrolled.

A set of Energy

Sustainability Indicators

for a carbonfrugal

city is therefore one that

helps show deviations

from required

possessions, good health,

adequate consumption

sans greed, good

quality of life, with low

coping stresses.


75

Indicators have an important role to play in energy sustainability ofcities. Annexe 3 has some important urban sustainability indicatorframeworks which could be used to understand the quintessence ofsuch systems. But no single framework is appropriate for all analyses.Policy-makers must consider intended goals of indicator use andcarefully choose metrics to maximize their relevance andeffectiveness.

A methodology to choose an appropriate indicator framework couldbe as follows: (Keirstead, 2006)

1. What are the goals? Defining goals for which indicators arerequired.

2. What is the Scope? How many indicators, their boundaries,constraints, time scale, unit and area of influence.

3. What are the criteria for selecting indicators? Policyrelevance, measurability and other similar criteria.

Tianjin, which is a Sino Singaporean future city, is making use of indicators (KPI, 2009). Similarly,

designers of Dongtan, Arup, the eco city in China made use of environmental, social, natural and

economic indicators. (ASME, 2009) (ARUP, 2009)

Figure 3.13: Environmental, Societal, Economic and Natural Resource Indicators

(Source : ARUP, 2009b)

Dongtan, the eco city, is coming up on a 8,600 hectare (86 sq km) site adjacent to a wetland of

global importance. An integrated design approach is being adopted to enable the creation of the

sustainable city. This will include a sustainability appraisal framework comprising a set of

objectives, Key Process Indicators and targets for the management of social, economic,

environmental and natural resources. The urban area will occupy only one-third of the site. The

remaining land will be used for organic farming and wetlands to promote biodiversity. Dongtan

will produce its own energy from wind, solar, bio-fuel and recycled city waste. Vehicles will either

be of zero emission, like cycles, or use hydrogen fuel cells.

Policy-makers must

consider intended goals

of indicator use and

carefully choose metrics

to maximize their

relevance and

effectiveness.

Box 11: Tianjin and Dongtan


76

4. Identify direct and indirect indicators. Indirect indicators likenumber of accidents or amount of green spaces in a city,which can indicate the impact of energy on urban systems.

5. Evaluate and select final indicator list.

4. Collect data and analyse the result, prepare the report.

5. Assess indicator performance.

Vested interests may resist changes in cities. Indicators would be apowerful rational tool which would diminish the strength of suchnegative interests.

There are many types of indicators. The most relevant indicator wouldbe specific to each city and the issues relevant to it. Indicators suchas population growth and prosperity level can provide driving forceindicators. Current air quality and noise level can be state indicators,while carbon dioxide emission could be a pressure indicator.Percentage of children suffering from air borne diseases would forman impact indicator, while decrease of air quality with time would bea good rate indicator. Standards for desired air quality could be atarget or goal indicator and desired increase in public transportpassengers could stand as a steering indicator.

Key message: The guiding gauge

City problems are challenging but not daunting. Simple indicatorscan offer a clear picture and indices for analysis to frame solutionsfor large and small issues that dog our cities (refer annexe 3). Theyact as a “catalyst” for providing collaborative learning and action.(Paterson 2003)

Points to Ponder

• Quality of life and sustainability cannot be measured directlyand need a systemic approach. They are very important andneed to be transparent, measuring performance on healthrelated issues due to pollution from energy use, damage toenvironment due to processes in production of energy, etc.,to keep the public well informed on the pulse of energy intheir cities. This heightens involvement of stakeholders andeases governance.

• The level of GDP per capita or economic growth cannot showthe status of social or political structures. To understand theseproblems, economic data needs to be supported with socialindicators like acquisition of material possession such astelephones, televisions, radios and the use of banks, schools,cinemas and provision of housing, medical or educationalservices (Peter Droege 2008)

• Ecological Footprint Analysis approaches the issue ofsustainability by using indices for the overall ‘carryingcapacity’ of the planet. This links individual behaviour toorganisational, regional and global targets using concepts

Vested interests may

resist changes in cities.

Indicators would be a

powerful rational tool

which would diminish

the strength of such

negative interests.


77

such as the ‘earthshare’ – the average, sustainable,bioproductive capacity available per person.

• In a major study for the World Bank, having clean, ironedclothes to wear were cited by poor people as one of theindicators of not being poor (Deepa et al. 2002).


78

Chapter 4.

Leading for EnergyLeading for EnergyLeading for EnergyLeading for EnergyLeading for Energy

SustainabilitSustainabilitSustainabilitSustainabilitSustainability—y—y—y—y—

ImplementingImplementingImplementingImplementingImplementing

Successful PoliciesSuccessful PoliciesSuccessful PoliciesSuccessful PoliciesSuccessful PoliciesSustainability is the most overused yet underachieved term of ourtimes. For a city to be energy sustainable, a city plan is required thattakes a holistic approach for optimizing energy use. Localgovernments can make their cities attractive for investors and itscitizens. This chapter looks at how in spite of the odds, some urbanauthorities and charismatic local leaders have taken the lead in theirown cities to bring about urban energy sustainability. It also outlinesthe kind of planning leaders need to undertake, the type of instrumentsthey can use to execute their ideas that could make urban areascarbon neutral and yet provide energy facilities to all stakeholders.

4.1 Urban Authorities Leading the WayUrban Authorities Leading the WayUrban Authorities Leading the WayUrban Authorities Leading the WayUrban Authorities Leading the Way “We know the problems.... and we know the solution; sustainable

development. The issue is the political will.”

–Tony Blair, ex-Prime Minister of Britain

Although local leaders are not involved in framing all policies, theycould certainly play a vital role in influencing them as they are theimplementing authorities and could offer valuable feedback andanalysis with recommendation for better policies at the state andnational level. A participatory urban decision-making begins withthe stakeholder analysis and profiling to prepare and mobilisestakeholders, prioritises the issues and ensures local leaders getcommitment and support from stakeholders. If this is followed bystrategy-formulation and implementation through transparent action-planning and programme-formulation, it helps in the successfulimplementation and institutionalization of policies and programmes.It is equally important for the policy-makers to follow up and verifytheir achievements through evaluation and monitoring tools.

Figure.4.1 describes the participatory process essential for successfulurban planning.

If there is one overriding theme that comes out of this book, it is theneed for greater democracy—genuine and greater stakeholderparticipation initiated by the local leaders. With governments

Although local leaders

are not involved in

framing all policies, they

could certainly play a

vital role in influencing

them as they are the

implementing authorities

and could offer valuable

feedback and

analysis with

recommendation for

better policies at the

state and

national level.


79

engaging stakeholders more responsibly and resorting to betterpolicies and emerging technologies that draw less on non-renewablenatural resources, they can hope to become leaders of energy-sustainable urban centres. How can they do this intelligently? Howcan they map their responsibility against resources and infuse it withinnovative processes that bring in dynamic change for greatersustainability in urban energy? Are there any leaders who have donethat? What can others learn from them?

Outstanding local leaders

Charismatic mayors can be spotted around the globe. These areofficials who went the extra mile to seek correct advice, get informedin energy-efficiency practices that hurt the planet less and improvedthe quality of life for their constituencies and implementedcommendable projects in their cities. The Mayor of Rizhao (China)and the local government adopted several measures and policiesaimed at popularizing clean energy technology.Fine examples of good leadership can be seen in cities like Curitibathat rose out of the ashes the day it had an army of workers shovelling

Figure 4.1: Participatory Process for urban planning.

Involvement of stakeholders will spell more success (Source: UNCHS Habitat 2001)


80

away road sides to create pedestrian pavements. Protests ofhysterical shopkeepers soon died down when they realised that thepavement increased their sales without pulling them down as theyassumed initially. Curitiba today is the world’s best example ofintegrated city planning that the visionary Mayor Jaime Lernerexecuted (ICLEI, 2009). Curitiba is best known for its impressive publictransport system, the efficiency of which just encourages people toleave their cars at home despite being the city with highest carownership in Brazil. With highest public ridership of any Braziliancity, it has the country’s lowest rate of ambient pollution (ICLEI, 2009).Builders get tax breaks if their projects include green space. Peopleliving in shanty towns can exchange their garbage for bus ticketsand food. The city that recycles 70 per cent of its garbage is anexemplar in showcasing to the world the enormous possibilities opento the local leaders (ICLEI, 2009).Many dynamic mayors and governors who chose to strengthen public

Plate 11: Curitiba: An exemplary showcase of strong political will.

Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/thomashobbs/98286047/sizes/o/

The city of Curitiba that

recycles 70 per cent of its

garbage is an exemplar in

showcasing to the world

the enormous possibilities

open to the local leaders

(ICLEI, 2009).

The city of Rizhao received a World Clean Energy Award in the “Policy and Law-making’’ for its

popularization of clean energy. It is a shining example of mainstreaming renewable energy in a

nation known for its dependence on coal. Local administration in Rizhao dramatically reduced

their energy costs per annum, provided health and environmental benefits to its 1.5 million

residents by putting large scale solar power and marsh gas applications. The city’s clean energy

revolution happened because of the initiative of the Mayor and the local government involving

many measures and policies, such as implementing solar energy and standardizing the

construction practices that emphasize the use of solar energy such as solar water heaters in new

buildings, laying down procedural guidelines for building examiners. Ninety nine per cent of

buildings in Rizhao have solar water heaters, with around 6000 families using solar cookers. City

has 560,000 sqm of solar PV, which have reduced electricity usage by 348 million kWh per year.

City’s innovative usage of marsh gas from its agricultural waste replaced 36,000 tonnes of coal

each year by producing 13,500 kWh of electricity. (Mukherjee, 2007)

Box 12 : The City of Rizhao


81

transport facilities instead of building infrastructure for privatelyowned vehicles showed the way forward and showcased whatindividual leadership could achieve. The Mayor of Bogota cancelleda massive ring road and used the money to build 300 km of bikelanes, a state-of-the-art bus rapid transit system, more libraries,playgrounds, and schools (NYT, 2007). The Mayor of Seoul (Peoples’Republic of Korea), Lee Myung Bak also known as “Mr Bulldozer”,built a bus rapid transit system, tore down an elevated highway inthe city centre, restored waterways and pedestrian bridges, builtmore pedestrian zones and created extensive green spaces. As apart of traffic demand management policy, he introduced “leave yourcar once a week” campaign which encourages car owners to leavetheir cars at home and get tax breaks. His strategy called the ‘pushand pull strategy’ is based on the practical experience of havingmore and more congestion as you keep on building more and moreroads. The bus rapid system along with the existing subway servesmore than 4.5 million passengers everyday (ITDP, 2009). The Governorof Jakarta has already constructed three bus rapid transit lines (ITDP,2009). Pedestrian zones are also springing up all over Chinese cities.What is their motivation? Are they better placed than the Mayors ofother cities? Local leadership can certainly change the way the cityruns or evolves.

Technologists and town planners

If a town planner could be empowered to turn down sanction plansthat are offered without solar collector hot water systems, localizedwet waste management systems and other such systems that reducethe load on city’s infrastructure, urban energy sustainability wouldbe greatly enhanced right at the approval level.

There are many tools that technologists and planners can use. Manyof these tools are in the form of software which can be run on personalcomputers such as Long Range Energy Alternatives Planning (LEAP)1990, Energy demand model for developing countries (MEDEE-S,1995) and BEEAM-TESSE (Brookhaven Energy Economy AssessmentModel) -TERI Energy Economic Simulation and Evaluation (Pachauriand Srivastava, 1988). The Energy Technology Systems AnalysisProgramme (ETSAP) of the International Energy Agency which has

Plate 12: Solar energy advertisement in Rizhao.

The concept has penetrated well within the citizens’ circle.

Photo credit: Auqapfel, Flickr, Creative Commons

If a town planner could

be empowered to turn

down sanction plans

that are offered without

solar collector hot water

systems, localized

wet waste management

systems and other such

systems that reduce

the load on city’s

infrastructure, urban

energy sustainability

would be greatly

enhanced right at the

approval level.


82

developed MARKAL Model (run on the mainframes) that helpstechnocrats:

- to identify least cost energy systems- to identify cost effective responses to restrictions on emissions- to perform long term energy balances under different scenarios- to evaluate new technologies and priorities for R & D- to evaluate the effects of regulation and taxes and subsidies and- to project inventories of greenhouse gas emissions (ETSAP,

2009).

So far the model has been used by industrialized countries with theexception of Taiwan (WEC, 2009b). Technologists need to be trainedin using certain models that help the communities or cities achievethe low-carbon status. Another model that evolved in developingthe country context is DEFENDUS (Development Focused End UseOriented Service (Reddy et al, 1995). It is important that there islocal capacity building to use such models which help formulatescenarios and therefore options for a specific energy system.

The areas where leaders can influence

Local governments can influence better energy management throughbetter planning and administration, “how-to” of which are discussedin the subsequent sections. Interestingly many things are possibleand can be in the purview of local governments without having todepend on any other agencies.

(Torrie, 2002) delineates some of the areas where local governmentscan influence directly such as:

– Management of energy utilities.– Use of fuels and electricity by administration– Planning, operation, and policy framing for urban planning– Enterprise and economic development– Investment management in the community– Environmental and public health and safety– Zoning and urban planning needs of individual projects– Regulation for built environment, including residential and

commercial buildings, site layout– Water supply and sewage treatment management– Storm sewers and drainage management– Solid waste management, recycling and landfill facilities– Local roads, traffic management and parking– Transportation other than roads– Recreational, green space and cultural facilities– Policing, fire fighting and protection of people and property– Social welfare services

All these areas are sometimes looked after by different departmentsand all decision-making takes place within them. This gives hugescope for policies that address only one issue, say, solid waste

Technologists need to be

trained in using certain

models that help the

communities or cities

achieve the low-carbon

status.


83

management to be counterproductive for other public infrastructurelike local roads and traffic management. How can we think of a cityas a unit and look at all the issues collectively? City Mayors andCouncillors are in a position to play that central role which bringsabout integrated solutions and make sure none of these departments,while trying to address individual issues, is counter-productive tothe efforts of others.

Key message: Walking the talk

The first step for city administrators is to think bottom-up and thinkof eventual benefit. Having the courage to say ‘no’ to programmesthat may be big but may not deliver in the end and to turn the focuson benefits that accrue at the homestead or the local community isa quality that should pervade all government offices. They should betrend-setters of sustainability. F inding innovative social,environmental, localised solutions to energy should be their mantra.

Points to ponder:

• Through their daily purchases, governments exert substantialpower over the market. Therefore, by instituting greenpurchasing requirements, governments can instantly createa stable market for energy-efficient products.

• Pensions and bonuses of public officers could becomeinvestments for local RET projects, multiplying the returnsfor the officers while enhancing energy sustainability forcities.

• The local government of Anhui province offered tax rebatesfor companies interested in investing in retrofitting ofunsustainable buildings. In total 35.8 billion RMB weredistributed to 475 energy-saving projects (Econet, China2008).

4.2 Integrated Energy PlanningIntegrated Energy PlanningIntegrated Energy PlanningIntegrated Energy PlanningIntegrated Energy Planning“Holistic process to carry out planning by integrating all the sectors

in an economy and all aspects are linked to the three pillars of

sustainable development - social, economic and environmental.”

– Matakiviti

We see clearly now, the way local governments function hasenormous bearing on the energy sustainability of a city, as they areresponsible for providing various infrastructure services. Once thepolitical will is there, and the local leadership wants to take issueshead on, the next steps in panning out ideas they consider best fortheir cities and the way to successfully deliver those would be thepoints to consider. Taking decisions in silos do not help. Integratedenergy planning is the first step towards energy sustainability.

To ensure that cities become sustainable in energy, we need foolproofprocess plans that look at the problem on hand critically from allpoints of view, an eye trained on the future too.

Integrated Energy Planning [IEP] is a powerful tool that can be defined

Taking decisions in silos

do not help. Integrated

energy planning is the

first step towards energy

sustainability.


84

Plate 13: Development using integrated planning.

Always provides better quality of life for the people.

as ‘’an area based decentralized energy plan to meet energy needsfor the development of alternate sources at the least cost to theeconomy and the environment’’ (NRDMS, 2009). Alternatively, it isestimating ‘’how much energy all the different consumers (e.g.industry and households) will need in the future to deliver certainservices; and then identify a mix of appropriate sources and formsof energy to meet these energy service needs in the most efficientand socially beneficial manner’’(EL,2009).

Three key requirements for integrated energy planning are inclusionof all energy service needs and supply-side solutions, includingenergy savings and efficiency interventions. The inclusion of all costsand benefits—long term and short term; in describing possible futurescenarios; in understanding impact on the three sustainability drivers;and in setting goals for the future lies at the core of this planning(EL, 2009). This also allows cities to compare effectiveness of allenergy alternatives on both demand and supply sides, helping toaccount for their different financial, reliability, social acceptance andenvironmental characteristics. IEP process for the design of an ecocityis elaborated in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: IEP processes for design of eco-city

(Source: ARUP, 2009)

Three key requirements

for integrated energy

planning are inclusion

of all energy service

needs and supply-side

solutions, including

energy savings and

efficiency interventions.

· Air emissions (NOx, SOx, Particulates)

· Water consumption

· Energy consumption

· Waste generation

· Import/export

· Land Use

· Job Creation

· Financial / economic viability

Measurements made to keep target in

view for Dongtan:

Targets during Construction: Targets during Operation:

· Reduce predicted CO2emissions

from freight andwaste vehicles by 60

per cent

· Reduce predicted freight and waste

collection vehicle numbers in Dongtan

by 50 per cent

· Move 20 per cent of construction

material and waste using alternative

means of transport

·Reduce construction waste by 40 per

cent through control of material to,

and on the site

· Reduce predicted CO2emissions

from freight and waste vehicles by

60 per cent.

· Reduce predicted freight and

waste collection vehicle numbers in

Dongtan by 50 per cent

· Move 20 per cent of freight and

waste using alternative means of

transport

· Maximum of 10 per cent to landfill


85

IEP is a new concept in most cities of developing countries. Oftentimes, utilities project least-cost plans, but these have been least-cost supply schedules rather than integrated supply and efficiencyplans (D’Sa, 2004). Through IEP, better performance based revenuescan be generated (Figure 4.2).

Integrated Energy Planning is finding acceptance in many developedand some developing countries, e.g. in South Africa (EL, 2009). Whilethe way the entire exercise of IEP is carried out can be different,typically there are some commonalities. It can however be differentfor different cities/states or regions. Based on the best processesfrom the South African practices and a few others, an indicativeframework for a possible IEP could be as follows:

Reference Energy System (RES)

Using standard energy units, data are collected on the primary energysupply (like oil and coal), its transformation, transportation anddistribution and end-user consumption (in all sectors and subsectors).Data on useful energy are also collected, for example, data onconditions required to use a service. Data on trends and analysiswhich led to current situation are also collected which then help inthe analysis of demand drivers, price mechanisms and correlation ofprice versus demand.

Energy Forecasting and Scenarios

Based on the reference scenario, choosing a time horizon, the futureenergy demand is forecasted and future energy supply to meet thedemand is also visualised. Various scenarios can be created usingmany tools available, as mentioned in the previous section. Thesescenarios calculate cost, viability for various technologicalalternatives which can be readily compared on the grounds of costs,environmental impact, and social acceptability.

Scenario planning is an integral part of IEP and can bring together,

Scenario planning is an

integral part of IEP and

can bring together,

on “neutral grounds”

and on “equal terms”,

various traditionally

opposed local groups in

order to formulate

consensus on a vision for

making any city

sustainable by opting for

sustainable energy.

Figure 4.2: Flowchart of a typical IEP process. Planning in a holistic manner.

Source: Urban Energy Management, India Infrastructure Report 2006

⊳ ⊳

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⊳ ⊳

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⊳⊳

⊳⊳

⊳

⊳

⊳

⊳

⊳⊳

⊳

⊳⊳

Load forecast

Identity objectives

supply

Social and

environmental factors

Public feedback and

approvals

Monitor Acquire resources

Define suitableresource mixes

demand T & D Rates

Existing resourcesNeed for new rexources

Uncertainlyanalysis


86

on “neutral grounds” and on “equal terms”, various traditionallyopposed local groups in order to formulate consensus on a vision formaking any city sustainable by opting for sustainable energy. Thecelebrated success in sustainability at Freiburg in Germany was notachieved overnight. The publicity campaign that outlined the scenarioof what the city could turn into (“Wohnfrühling in Freiburg”) excitedthe response of 1,500 interested people (either families or singlepersons) and by July 1996 more than 350 questionnaires withindividual proposals and requests were returned to Forum Vauban(that is equal to about 800 persons). (EAUE, 2009)

Planning

Based on the different possibilities and on various scenarios, policymakers can now look at the goals they like to have at the forefrontand consider the best and most cost-effective ways to achieve thosegoals. What they choose as best options can be supported throughvarious tools such as regulations and taxations.

Drawing up the plan:

The strategy for a low-carbon city begins with conceptualising anenergy plan that has clearly spelt out energy goals, which could leadto writing of a local action plan and identifying tools and technologiesto achieve those goals. Komor and Bazilian (2005) used these threesteps for the renewable energy strategy for Ireland, which is modifiedfor preparing a local action plan based on energy goals and thenchoosing relevant instruments for achieving the goals (Figure 4.3).

Step 1: Setting the Energy Goals

Securing the availability of energy and making it affordable, whileproducing it does not sizably increase carbon emissions, should bethe goals for any energy planning. This can be achieved by markinggoals under three focal areas of social, environmental and economiccategories. These goals need to further be quantified throughmeasures and targets for short term and long term.

Step 2: Setting up Local Action Plan

A strategy to achieve energy goals decided in Step 1 will then needto be crafted. This could be the Local Action Plan, which synthesizesgoals, provides a schedule and outlines policies and measures, thelocal government will pursue to achieve the target. Ideally the LocalAction Plan incorporates public awareness and education campaigns.To arrive at this plan, policy-makers would have to adopt a mix andmatch of instruments and tools.

Step 3: Identifying instruments and technologies

Once instruments and social goals get set, the implementation canbe supported by various new emerging technologies that werediscussed in the previous chapter (energy efficiency, RETs and otherareas). Broadly these would include CO

2 reduction through demand-

side management, CO2 reduction in energy production, and change

of urban structure.

The tools policy-makers use need a detailed discussion, many of

The strategy for a low-

carbon city begins with

conceptualising an

energy plan that has

clearly spelt out energy

goals, which could lead

to writing of a local action

plan and identifying tools

and technologies to

achieve those goals.


87

which can have a revenue bearing potential as well. These arediscussed in the following section.

Containing destructive impact on energy sustainability and economicsby selective instruments, chosen to implement the energy plan iscritical for achieving success. Annexe 5 lists the impact of someinstruments against these two factors. In spite of the best effortsroad blocks are bound to occur but many of them are predictable. Toremove these barriers certain instruments prove effective and thesecan be found in Annexe 6.

It is clear therefore that local governments have a lot of potential toaddress local level energy issues which can have enduring impactson the society. They are not only better connected with people; theycan also influence entrepreneurs of their cities to enable fosteringof the most sustainable energy situation. They need not look up tocentral governments all the time for support. This kind of bottoms-up approach would go a long way in proclaiming to the world theirbest intentions and could also serve as a window to attract moreattention from the centre and international donors by setting goodexample of achievement through local efforts.

Local governments have a

lot of potential to

address local level energy

issues which can have

enduring impacts

on the society. They are

not only better connected

with people; they

can also influence

entrepreneurs of their

cities to enable fostering

of the most sustainable

energy situation. They

need not look up to

central governments all

the time for support.

STEP 1: Energy Goals:

u Energy price stabilityu Security of energy

supplyu Affordable andu Accessible energy

for allu Overcoming

intermittence

Environmental Goals:

u Sustainabilityu Greenhouse gas

reductionu Reduced NOx, SOx

emissionsu Waste removalu Reduced suspended

particles

Economic and

Industrial Goals:

u Local and regional economic developmentu Domestic employment and livelihood providingu Poverty reduction Figure 4.3: Sustainable Urban Energy Goals plan and Instruments.

(Source: After Komor and Bazilian, 2005)

⊳

STEP 3: Identifying

Instruments

u Green building codeu Labellingu Knowledgeu Awarenessu Capacity Buildingu Regulations

STEP 2: Local Action Plan:

Demand Pullu Indirect Price Supportu Technical Standards/Certificationsu Waste Managementu Information, Education,and Trainingu Improved Planning Processu Improved Urban Designthrough improved energysystemsu Research, Development,Demonstrationu Capital Supportu IT in Sustainable Urbanu Energy Planning

⊳


88

Preference should be given to IEP over new proposals for powerproduction and purely supply-side solutions. Risks should beidentified and strategies evolved to counter them. Environmental,economical and social impact of strategies should be fully integratedinto the decision making processes.

Now with greater awareness, IEP is slowly being seen as essentialfor better results. Tianjin is one of the four municipalities that haveprovincial level status in China. It is experiencing tremendous growthand plans to develop an extension of the city as an eco city. Theplanning process would be based on 26 key performance indicatorsdealing with environmental, social, economic and regionalcoordination issues. The project will promote the use of clean andrenewable energy with optimized energy structure to achieve a highlyefficient energy supply. An integrated energy plan taking into accountseasonal variation in resource availability and energy demand couldhelp achieve a goal of 20 per cent waste heat recovery and renewableenergy share in the whole energy consumption cycle (ES, 2009).

Key message: The integral approach

The solution lies only in holistic, futuristic planning with least eco-footprint. A portfolio of measures is required to deliver effectivemanagement of urban areas in the long term. Innovative approachescan be developed by evidence-based integrated assessment of urbansystems (Dawson, 2009). To realize its full potential, it must bepursued on a continual basis by a dedicated team of trained experts.Enlightened consensus-building requires art and science from thinkersand doers. It needs decision-makers to think like change-makers. Italso needs instruments to establish equitable communication.

Points to ponder

• Stockholm, Sweden’s capital and its largest city has apopulation of 0.8 million. The city grew inward, throughintegrated urban planning and reuse of developed land. The“Hammarby Model8” used here is a planning approach tointegrate energy, waste, and water/sewage demands toprovide full municipal services while protecting theenvironment (UDC,2009).

• A district heating system in Kryukovo, Russia, supplies almost10 petajoules of heat and is controlled and monitored throughautomated control of substations, remote sensing, and controlbetween substations and the operator working stationresulting in 20–25 per cent energy savings (WEA, 2000).

• The goals of Energy Integrated Urban Planning of Naga City,Philippines include enabling all municipal waste to beprocessed by recycling and by waste-to-energy conversionin case of non-recyclable waste in five years. They alsoinclude enabling of at least 5 per cent biofuels in theconsumption of motor fuels by 2010. Other goals target

8 Hammarby model illustrates how sustainability initiatives have been integrated holistically.


89

energy audit and conservation campaign expanded to allsectors in five years, to reduce system losses below 10 percent and reach national standards in power supply qualityand to have 100 per cent connections to households in 5 years(EIUP, 2009).

4.3 Choosing the Right Tools and InstrumentsChoosing the Right Tools and InstrumentsChoosing the Right Tools and InstrumentsChoosing the Right Tools and InstrumentsChoosing the Right Tools and InstrumentsFor every complex and difficult problem, there is an answer that is

simple, easy, and wrong. - H.L. Mencken

Choice of policy instruments to help frame effective policies is crucialand depends on several parameters such as economic andenvironmental efficiency, stakeholder support and ability toimplement and enforce. It is very important that the chosen toolbalances triple bottom line of balancing people, planet and profit.Policy Instruments can be economic, regulatory, educational,cooperation based and information based, as shown in Table 4.2

(GTZ, 2006).

Table 4.2 Various Instruments that policy makers can adopt for achieving their

policy goals. (Source: GTZ, 2006)

Economic Instruments

Taxation is an instrument that works very well for certain remedies.These taxes work on the polluter-pays principle, which shifts thecosts and responsibilities associated with pollution to the polluter.This has remedial and at times preventive effect on polluters. Butthe ignorant do not get any wiser. For example, local governmentscan collect revenue from environmental liability that can be associatedwith vehicular and industrial pollution.

Environmentaltax

Fees and usercharge suchas congestioncharge

Subsidies

Environmentalfinancing

Green Publicprocurement

Normsand Standards

EnvironmentalLiability

EnvironmentalControl andEnforcement

Education

Training

Voluntaryagreements

Campaigns

Eco labelling

Sustainablereporting

Consumeradvice centre

Informationcentre

Environmentalquality andmonitoring

Economic Regulatory Educationand Research Cooperation Information


90

There are some very interesting ways by which local governmentscan generate revenue for themselves while promoting social andenvironmental well-being. It only seems right to charge the polluter.While policies deter higher consumption, depletion and polluting acts,polluters could be made to pay to fuel better development. For ex-ample, London implemented the first congestion charging scheme;Singapore introduced theirs in the 1970s. Registration fees, taxes,and fiscal disincentives have increased the cost of owning a privatecar in Singapore to an all-time high with revenues collected beingused to improve public transport.

Eco taxes, fees and user charges have an effect both on the environ-ment and revenue collection. Though these achieve long term re-source efficiency they are open to being evaded. A proper reportingsystem and a rule that does not promote corruption would go handin hand with eco-tax frameworks while stakeholder participation isvital for fees and user charges frameworks.

There is need for city administrators to examine options for levyingspecial taxes that deter resource waste. This could be done throughintermediate organisations, too. For example, in France, for everyton of waste dumped, The French Environment and EnergyManagement Agency (ADEME) collected tax which was used to adoptmeasures to reduce waste reduction. The government was not allowed

While policies deter

higher consumption,

depletion and

polluting acts, polluters

could be made to pay to

fuel better development.Plate 14: Congestion Charging at

London makes the polluter pay

Photo credit: http://

www.eurotestmobility.com/

images/photolib/2059_me.jpg

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91

access to such funds collection. ADEME engaged in conversationswith the municipality on one side and waste generators on the otherand used the money to raise awareness on waste reduction andrelated civic measures. Another example is the revolving fund conceptused by the Building Management Resources Centre (BMRC), HongKong. Fees should also take into consideration of appropriatereplenishment of resources that get consumed.

Tariff can be based on cost. At present many cities in India offertariff at almost one-third to half the cost of what utilities spend inbringing energy to homes. This makes RET solutions expensive toadopt with unattractively long pay-back periods. Distortion in tariffdoes not provide a level playing field for renewable energy.

Reward the conscientious

Financing green enterprises through financial organisations canpropel a shift towards cleaner energy systems in any city. It canhowever be accessed only by those who can repay. It works wellwhen environmental standards are also imposed. Monitoring to avoidmisuse when grants are huge is a must. The International ResourcesGroup of the Philippines has enabled innovative financing strategiesthrough Land Bank, Equitable PCI Bank, and Metro bank to helppromote many RE related projects. It discovered that while thePhilippines was rich in local sources for RETs, it did not haveencouraging environmental financing options. Incentives andrevolving funds can be the norm instead of subsidies. Negawatt9

calculations for energy efficiency could lead to reward schemes.

Charging at cost

Raising energy prices to cost-covering levels can also producemiracles if leaders have an effective way of convincing citizens therationale behind the price change. Hungary spent $5–10 million ayear till 1997 on energy efficiency improvements. But in January 1997

9 Negawatt, a term coined by Amory Lovins is the idea of creating incentives to reduce demand for

electricity to ease the load at peak times or alleviate the need to build more generation plants. In

theory, these negawatts can be aggregated and an arbitrage market could be created to trade these.

Distortion in tariff

does not provide a level

playing field for

renewable energy.

13: Ann Arbor Municipal Energy Fund

The Ann Arbor Municipal Energy Fund has provided city facilities with a source of capital for

energy efficiency retrofits. It provides initial capital for new projects and receives 80 per cent of

the projected annual energy savings from each installed project for five years. The plan allows

projects that have a shorter payback to help support projects with a longer payback.

Source: A2G, 2009

Box 14: Multiplying benefits

There are some very innovative and enterprising methods of making revenues. Both of Hong

Kong’s, China’s rail systems—the Mass Transit (MTR) and Kowloon Canton Railways (KCR)—have

used property to help finance capital investment costs. The Railway office buildings in Hong

Kong and Kowloon houses major residential developments with 5,000 apartments, each built

on podium structures over the rail depots, and other buildings along each line. The profits from

the property portfolio have contributed about 15 per cent of the capital cost of their systems

($3.2 billion). (ADB, 2006)


92

when energy prices were hiked to market-based levels, citizens startedinvesting in energy efficiency up to $80 million a year in just 2 yearstime.

The more successful programmes like BELP (BESCOM Efficient LightingProgramme), (TWAS, 2008) a lighting programme floated by BangaloreElectricity Supply Company (BESCOM) in India, give consumers anopportunity to replace energy intensive conventional lamps withenergy efficient Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) in high usageareas such as corridors, kitchens and porticos. BESCOM’s domesticconsumers have two options for purchase:

• Direct sales at discounted prices;• Under instalments (9 equal instalments recovered through BESCOM monthly bills).

In both the cases, the consumers get a 12-month warranty backedup by BESCOM.

Regulatory Instruments

The most common instrument is one of laying down regulations.Sometimes difficult to implement, regulations can yield desired resultif non compliance is easily visible and there is enough deterrence tocomply. In order to prevent huge traffic jams, the Singaporegovernment implemented the Vehicle Quota System (VQS), a dynamicregulation system which allows the government to control the numberof cars on the road. This is reviewed regularly and the quota getschanged every month, based on road conditions and the number ofcars taken off the road in that month.

Benchmarking

Deciding on exact levels of excellence to achieve could be a potentialgrey area while chalking out the energy plan. Benchmarks solve thisproblem to a great extent. Benchmarking involves comparing specificfactors to those found in peers or best practices elsewhere incomparable contexts. Benchmarking programs typically result inincreased attention to energy efficiency. They can reveal why citiesor organisations are performing differently. Data from benchmarkingmay improve performance. Figure 4.4 shows benchmarking standardsfor cement manufacturing in India.

Box 15: Creating jobs that clean up the cities

The City of Heidelberg created jobs through energy efficiency. These jobs were in the areas of

retrofits. A local energy agency for Heidelberg (Kilmaschutz-und Energieberatungs Agnetur fur

Heidelberg) works on supporting individual citizens and businesses involved in projects by

disseminating information and offering consulting work.

Raising energy prices to

cost-covering levels can

also produce miracles if

leaders have an effective

way of convincing

citizens the rationale

behind the price change.


93

Figure 4.4: Specific thermal energy consumption comparisons for cement

manufacturing. (Source: CSE, 2009)

A reputed hotel in Kolkata has reduced its energy consumption by 8per cent over the previous year (in spite of 78 per cent growth inoccupancy). Measures have been adopted to achieve benchmarklevels in areas such as retrofitting of pumps, hot water generationusing condensed steam, replacement of electric heater with solarwater heaters and installation of variable frequency drives for fans.This has reduced CO

2 emissions by 2,800 tonnes per annum.

Education, Informative and Cooperative Tools:

Education, training, capacity building, information centres, consumeradvice services, accompanying social measures and research-basedinnovation, all go towards strengthening the collective awarenessof consumers as well as the leaders of cities. The South Korean capitalSeoul had a “Weekly No Driving Day Program”. Around 635,000 carsin Seoul joined the program, under which drivers were offereddiscounts in tax, parking fees and other incentives if they did notdrive for a day in a week (ITDP, 2009).

Local Governments have a strong role to play in facilitating localenergy funds that can be utilized for energy systems management.Arranging private capital for smaller funds or funding shift from bigprojects to small projects will go a long way in creating awarenessand bringing co operation for sound energy investment.

Technology transfers bring in knowledge from other nations and citieswhich will enhance progress faster. It is generally difficult for a city

Education, training,

capacity building,

information centres,

consumer advice services,

accompanying social

measures and

research-based

innovation, all go

towards strengthening

the collective awareness

of consumers as well as

the leaders of cities.


94

to influence the issue of technology transfers. However through sistercity partnerships, cities could learn from their counterparts e.g. Seouland Beijing: district heating, Seoul: reduction in waste volume andutilisation of landfill gas, Tokyo: development of mass transportationand incentives to low-and ultra-low emission vehicles, Shanghai:control over the registration of new vehicles, Singapore: discouragingof private vehicle ownership

While policies that require large upfront funds may not be verypractical and feasible for many towns and cities in developing Asia,we have seen enough examples of small decentralised projectspromoted by clever policies driven by a set of inspired group ofcitizens, industrialists and leaders. Enterprises have much tocontribute to urban energy sustainability, if market mechanisms getaligned to the production and use of environmentally-sound goodsand services. Green procurement is already being adopted in manycities. City of Schie’dam near Rotterdam, the Netherlandsimplemented IEP with the help of local groups. The City has beencontinuously improving its urban planning in favour of energyconservation. Freiburg, too has brought up many of the RET strategieswith the help of local participation, lessening the revenueexpectations that need to come from the government.

While all these strategies push the envelope of success higher, useof various types of computer software would further improveefficiency and accuracy. There are many types of computer modelsto evaluate energy use and needs within cities (details in annexe 4).Use of CORENET software has enabled the Singapore authority tosanction building plans in a day.

Conceptualising the energy plan need not be a closed in-houseactivity. Ideas could come through collaboration of various kinds.Industrialists could be approached to advice smaller growing cities.Exchange programmes between mutually benefitting cities could beencouraged. Prestigious universities could be made to provide thinktank task forces to ideate, solve and implement solutions in citiesfacing growing pains. There could be an exchange of ideas ofemerging technologies between inventors. Or it could even be asimple exchange between citizen fora. Many are the possibilitiesand all are initiatives that could be kick-started by no less than cityauthorities of growing cities themselves.

Shedding the lacunae

Many developing countries do not have the means or awareness forpredictive or preventive measures. It is not for the want of financialresources. Extended producer responsibility (EPR) transfersresponsibility for a product to the producers till the postconsumerstage of its life-cycle. Waste from electrical and electronic equipmentgets managed without harm to the environment and without cost tothe government.

Enterprises have much to

contribute to urban

energy sustainability, if

market mechanisms get

aligned to the production

and use of

environmentally-sound

goods and services.


95

Another essential step is towards removing malpractices withindepartments. A necessary framework that promotes lowering ofcorruption and illegal profiteering can be formed.

Raising funds with the help of stakeholders

Governments can aim to collect enough funds for advertisementsand awareness building. Odessa, in southern Ukraine, has over 1million people. Its attempt to maintain and upgrade their municipalinfrastructure, prompted it to establish a Municipal Investment Fund,which can access funds from government budgets, international andlocal capital markets and other sources, and finance or guaranteepublic campaigns and private infrastructure projects. If properly linkedto other social programs, energy can create micro and small businessopportunities for the poor (Wasike & Kimenyi, 2001). It is noteverywhere that renewable energy options are possible, but urbaninvestors can invest in renewable energy even if it has to serve ruralhinterland. This investment may ensure that rural folks are gettingenergy, and that may arrest their migration to cities.

Taiwan had an interesting way of getting financed with 0.5 per centfrom sales of petrol and electricity. The money collected was usedfor development, research and training for industry, e.g. cogeneration,heat recovery, and heating.

Early Start with Energy Policies

Another example can be seen at Zurich with its Energy Saving Fund(Figure 4.5). In 1989, the population agreed to an energy saving policy.The policy promoted rational use of electricity and the use of RETs.The fund is financed by annual inserts of 10 per cent of the budget-profit of the utility.Policy Instrument should aim to balance economic efficiency,environmental efficiency, budgetary impact, should be able toimplement and enforce and should get wide stakeholder support(Figure. 4.6)

Figure 4.5: Early Start with Energy Policies

Impressive achievements in energy sustainabilityAnother essential step is

towards removing

malpractices within

departments. A necessary

framework that promotes

lowering of corruption

and illegal profiteering

can be formed.


96

Every citizen here is proud of his

city. A fine example is the case of

Fazlika, a small Indian town, now

known as the “Energy hub of

Punjab” which will go down in

history for many things. Chief

among them tell the tale of

entrepreneurs who promoted CFL

by selling without profit or loss.

There is then the concept of

ECOCABS. Fazilka showcased to the

world a unique public transport

system through the erstwhile cycle

rickshaw. This system was designed

to promote the use of rickshaw as

the mode of public transport system, where the average trip length in the city is less than 3 km.

Call centres were installed across the city to make rickshaws a phone call away. The power of

people and market mechanisms is clearly seen in such examples. (SouthAsia Post, 2008)

Box 16: A welfare association in the city

Figure 4.6 Policy instruments that have the potential to work are

practical with stakeholder support and balance the triple bottom line

Policy

Instrument

Economic

efficiency

Ability to

implement

& enforce

Stakeholder

support

Budgetary

impact

Environmental

effectiveness

⊳

⊳

⊳

⊳

⊳


97

Key message: Closing in on solutions

Framing policies starts with a detailed energy plan that would identifya mix and match of instruments and tools after thorough evaluation.Policy-makers have more responsibility in actualising an energy planthan in just being a mouth piece for a political agenda. They have tosharpen their skills to ask the right questions, put together the rightsets of intelligence, collect the most relevant data, and analyse mostaccurately to come up with innovative solutions. They have to setthe right framework conditions for continued market reforms,consistent regulations, and targeted policies. They should enablereduction of the cost of energy services to end users, and protectimportant public benefits and remove obstacles or provide incentives,as needed, to encourage greater energy efficiency and thedevelopment and diffusion of new sustainable energy technologiesto wider markets.Selecting tools that can generate revenues can have better successrates.

Points to ponder:

• Singapore was the first city in the world to implement anelectronic road toll collection system for purposes ofcongestion pricing based on peak hour usage. What couldcost just S$2 could cost about S$15 during peak hours (EDF,2009).

• Milan has introduced a traffic charge scheme on a trial basis,called Ecopass, and exempts high emission standard vehiclesand some alternate fuel vehicles (GCC, 2009).

• Often access to basic amenities is tied to land tenure,depriving the poor access to energy. Policies should de-linkaccess to basic services with security of land tenure. A policythat has worked is the issuance of temporary I-cards like ‘quasiID’ in Thailand (GNESD, 2009).

• The New Seamless Mobility Services strategy, made the publicbicycle very popular. Other such services include urban lift-sharing vehicles called share-autos that are very popularamongst citizens of small towns like Coimbatore in India. Forlesser cost they get to move around sharing the vehicle tofull occupancy with others for a comfortable ride.

• Stockholm has a strategy to bring in clean vehicles (biogas,ethanol and electric/ electric hybrids) into the market to atleast about 5 per cent of its share. It’s another story that thelevel has crossed 10 per cent of all light vehicle sales inStockholm. The city focused on private companies to garnersupport for building fuel stations and large procurements ofclean vehicles at lower prices.

• Name and shame programmes are popular in the cities ofJapan, enforcing penalty for vehicles that pollute. This couldhave adverse effect on marketing for manufacturers if theydefaulted (BAQ, 2008).

• In Tangshan, the local government plans to pay a subsidy of50 per cent for retrofitting of buildings (RCSD, 2008).

Policy-makers have more

responsibility in

actualising an energy

plan than just being a

mouth piece for a

political agenda.


98

• In Tianjin, energy-efficient building demonstration projectscan receive a subsidy of 50,000 RMB as of July 2007. Twentyprojects benefited from this policy in 2007 (RCSD, 2008).

• Draft Policy adopted by Vijayawada Municipal Corporation(VMC), India aims to reduce overall city conventional energyconsumption by at least 3 per cent from 2008 level by 2014through energy efficiency in all its present and future planning(to achieve overall 20 per cent reduction in conventionalenergy consumption in municipal services and facilities from2008 level by 2014) through (ICLEI, 2009).

4.4 Implementing the Ideas for SustainableImplementing the Ideas for SustainableImplementing the Ideas for SustainableImplementing the Ideas for SustainableImplementing the Ideas for Sustainable

EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergyEnergyIn the long history of humankind those who learned to collaborate

and improvise most effectively have prevailed. – Charles Darwin

Executing ideas

Implementation follows planning and needs an equally rigorousfoolproof methodology to be successful. Often times it is seen thatwhile a lot of effort goes into meticulous planning of policies forcities, it becomes just an aspiration when it comes to implementingpolicies to meet the necessary energy goals. Strong local politicalwill backed by good regulations mixed with other market and publicinstruments is the key for reaching the desired goals.

The 3 Ps

One of the successful models for implementation is oneencompassing Path, Procedure and Partners or the 3Ps process(Figure 4.7). The path would first include a set of activities that lay a

Figure 4.7: The 3 Ps (path, procedure and partners) Process.

The basis for a drafting a sustainable urban energy plan.

PATHa

ActivitiesSensitise

AdviceStimulateFinanceRegulate

PROCEDURE

a

TargetTools

Resource Allocation

a

PARTNERS

a

Implementation and OutreachMonitoring and Evaluation

a

⊳

⊳

GlobalObjective

UrbanEnergy

Sustainability


99

platform for execution and implementation of policies. They wouldinclude covering market requirements through innovative financingtools, stimulating market conditions through accompanying measureslike sensitising and advising, and creating regulations to maintainthe health and relevancy of policies in question.

The path

Planners face the daunting task of getting the public to cooperate tobring about changes in the urban energy scene. Many innovativeaccompanying measures have been used globally to bring in greaterimpact and response for policies. Europe, Singapore, Thailand andsome other countries have set up energy information centres (EICs).These centres showcase entertaining models that would encouragepublic to learn energy efficiency concepts in a fun way. The centreswould also advocate better habits and DIY processes throughbrochures and kits available for the public. Some of them have energyadvisors available on call to advice queries from citizens on howthey can become more energy efficient and/or invest in clean energyalternatives.

The functioning of Energy Service Companies (ESCOs), creation of aspecial fund or revolving fund, initiation of demo programmes,recognition and rewarding of exemplary practices, inviting ofparticipation through voluntary programmes are other suchaccompanying measures.

Plate 15: Ciclovia, Bogota

When cycles rule the roads and cars get side-stepped

Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pattoncito/

2249689660/sizes/o/

Auckland City Council supports the EcoWise energy efficiency advice programme to help residents

save energy, reduce costs and create healthier homes. Energy advisers visit homes to conduct a

free energy audit. The adviser also provides the resident with an energy efficiency plan. Source:

ICLEI 2009 b

Box 17: Auckland EcoWise


100

In a weekly event known as Ciclovia, in Bogota, Columbia, over 150kilometres of city streets turn ‘car-free’ so that local residents cancome out to use the public space; one and a half million people turnup each week (Ecoplan, 2009).

Setting regulations is another activity in defining the path to follow.For example, policies for buildings through codes have been inpractice for long. Energy efficiency requirements in building codesor energy standards for new buildings are among the most importantmeasures for buildings’ fitness of purpose. By reducing buildings’energy consumption, a city can reduce dependence on imported orgrid- based energy and strengthen its strategic position. In the 2000Green Paper setting forth a strategy to secure energy supply, theEuropean Union named energy efficiency as the best way to establishenergy security over the longer term. Energy efficiency requirementsin building codes can ensure that it gets imbibed at the design phaseand can help to realise great savings in new buildings.

There are many such examples of a groundswell of city initiativesthat gateway resource use, with regulation that is easy to implement.Many small towns in India across the sweep of the Indian sub-continent, like Rajkot, Thane, and Nagpur, have enabled quick andeasy Town Plan Sanctions with the simple expedient of making solarcollectors-based water heating a prerequisite for such sanctions.The Gujarat Urban Development Corporation, an autonomousgovernment body in western India, has launched a concertedcampaign in the entire state of Gujarat to manage wet waste withorganised centres across 42 towns and cities that ensures organicwaste is converted to organic fertilisers that are then used to nourishthe city’s green areas (GUDC, 2009).

The procedure

Once the platform has been set for the implementation of policies,procedures follow with definite targets to be reached througheffective tools.

Every City could have a Handbook and embed the following Five

Principles.

• Laying down a sound working principle on Law and Policy,standard and criterion, promoting steps and scientific andtechnological breakthrough

• An inception-to-execution guide that covers the gamut fromproject setting, design and construction of infrastructure, toinspection and monitor

• The creation of diversified guides, regional and sub-regionalplans, mapping of long-term phased plans for sustainableurban development

• Defining key zones of concern for the long term – major andminor areas of challenge, with key result area outlines for allcity stakeholders

• The pull and push factors of industry, tourism, commerce,residential and other sectors of a city.

By reducing buildings’

energy consumption,

a city can reduce

dependence on imported

or grid- based energy and

strengthen its strategic

position.


101

Similar to this procedures and guidelines would need to be set forevery sector in a city.

Resources would need to be allocated next and the most crucialresource would be funding the implementation. Traditional fundingor waiting for loans from the centre could be augmented by fundsand intervention from international donors, too. This would mutuallybenefit the city as well as the donors whose main agenda is anywayto effectively play their part in bringing about sustainability in urbanenergy areas globally. The previous section has also outlined manydifferent ways of bringing in revenues.

The Partners

Once procedures are set they would require highly qualified result-oriented partners. Mobilising partnership should be a participatoryevent to bring experts and implementers together to facilitateexecution smoothly. Effective and influential champions who canmobilise effort and funds on one hand and well recognised expertswith telling experience on the other would form this group. The phaseinvolving partnership would require a lot of consensus garnering fromall other stakeholders, capacity building of staff involved in theexecution, awareness building of stakeholders whose lives will betouched by activities and good planning of resources and activities.

Monitoring, evaluating and applying correction

Often times this is a step that is most crucial and the most forgottentoo. Monitoring and evaluation should feed into a feedback loop fromthe beginning of the cyclic process involving path and procedure tomaintain quality and success of policy implementation. Holisticchecklists, observation and analysis against metrics and indicators,ethnography studies and feedback from end users are some of thetools that would help this phase.

Plate 16: Working in perfect partnership

Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/17258892@N05/2588347668/sizes/o/

Mobilising partnership

should be a participatory

event to bring experts and

implementers together to

facilitate execution

smoothly. Effective and

influential champions

who can mobilise effort

and funds on one hand

and well recognised

experts with telling

experience on the other

would form this group.


102

Preventive processes like the following help to stem small problemsto a large extent:

1. Setting up on-site program coaches: These coaches wouldbe experts in the area handled by them on site and wouldprovide ongoing mentoring and problem-solving assistanceto program delivery staff.

2. Establishing a Help Desk, to provide quick-turnaround phoneassistance and to create a log of problems that may havehappened.

3. Providing booster training to teachers and coaches at periodicintervals.

Key Message: It’s all in the doing

Implementing policies is a scientific, collective teamwork requiringhighly skilled management resources. Success depends on toolsused for implementation, mapping of resources and the kind ofpartners chosen. Annexe 7 lists out some of the successfulprogrammes floated by local leaders.

Monitoring and evaluation for feedback for further reforms is essentialfor continuous health of urban energy sustainability.

Points to ponder:

• In The Hague, formerly long-term unemployed now adviselow-income households in energy savings. The Gouda energyadvice task force (E-Team) was set up in order to achievetwo goals. First, it aimed to reduce energy consumption oflow-income earners through information dissemination andthe implementation of simple but effective energy savingmeasures (e.g. installation of draught excludes and pipinginsulation). Secondly, the programme helped to create newemployment opportunities for a group of long-termunemployed. E-Team is now a permanent organisationworking on a consultative role (UNESCO, 2009).

• The municipality of Viernheim stands as a very good exampleof a successful implementation of policies. It has committeditself to a target of reducing CO

2 emissions by 30 per cent by

2010. The basis for the aims in CO2

reduction is an energyconcept which states in detail the intended policy measures.Some of the measures worth mentioning are: (1) Constructionof new municipal and private buildings with low energyconstruction; (2) Electricity and heating for the town hall isgenerated by a small-scale combined heat and power station;(3) The public utilities subsidise solar plants for the productionof hot water and the conversion to natural gas burningequipment; (4) Environmental targets are considered in allmunicipal planning; The municipality participates ininternational information networks (ICLEI, 2009c).

Implementing policies is

a scientific, collective

teamwork requiring

highly skilled manage-

ment resources.


103

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Annexe 1: Designing the future of transportation in cities

Existing

condition*

Non-motorizedvehicular (bi-cycle) city—lowincome; modestresource base

Bus city—modestincome; modestresource base

Traffic saturatedbus city—theBangkoksyndrome

Transit city—moderate/Highincome

* Barter typologyof cities used

Prospects

and

ambition

Develop into abus city

If goodprospects into atransit cityadopting thesmart growthparadigm

Relativelyaffluent;substantialresources; livingwith congestion

Very goodprospects—continuationof

policies

Future

resource

needs

Modest

Moderate, withprivate sectorinterest

Substantial, withsignificant privatesector investment

Transport agenda

Development of a bus systemTraffic managementParking control, manly in the centre.Road maintenance, completesecondary roadnetwork and new development roadsin fringe areas

Maintain non motorized vehicularfacilities. Bus priorities -> bus ways-> bus road transitParking policy ->road pricingTraffic management andcontrol strengthenedStrategycircular and development roads,secondaryroads, and removal ofbottlenecksProgressive privatesector developmentSmart growth,transit-orienteddevelopmentencouraged

Grade-separated expresswaysMetronetworksRoad investment tocomplete hierarchy(secondarymainly) and to guide future citygrowthTransit-oriented development(retro-fitted)Integration of transportsystems

Preserve and enhance non motoredvehicularand pedestrianfacilitiesSophisticated trafficrestraint and roadmanagement,using technologicaldevelopmentsInvestment in massrapid transit (metro) andpublictransport integrationNew roadinvestment to ensurecongestionremains controlledPrivatesector participation, includingoutsourcing

Sustainability

achievable

high

high

Moderate”living

with congestion”

Sustainable


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Annexe 3: Urban energy sustainability indicatorsType of Indicator

Social- Equity

Economic

Theme

Accessibility

Affordability

Disparity

Overall use

Supply efficiency

Energy Indicator

Share of households (or population)without electricity or commercialenergy or heavily dependent on noncommercial energy, or heavilydependent on non commercialenergy

Share of household income spent onfuel and electricity

Household energy use for eachincome group and correspondingfuel mix

Energy use per capita

Efficiency of energy conversion anddistribution

Components

- Households ( orpopulation withoutelectricity or commercialenergy, or heavilydependent on noncommercial energy-Total number ofhouseholds or population

-Household income spenton fuel and electricity-- Household income (totaland poorest 20% of thepopulation)

- Energy use perhousehold for eachincome group ( quintiles)- Household income foreach income group(quintiles)- Corresponding fuel mixfor each income group

- Energy use ( totalprimary energy supply,total final consumptionand electricity)- Losses in transformationsystems inclusing lossesin electricity generation,transmission anddistribution

Annexe 2: Impact of recycling aluminium(Waste management and energy savings: Benefits by the numbers

Anne Choate, Lauren Pederson, Jeremy Scharfenberg, ICF Consulting, Washington

DC, Henry Ferland, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC)

Estimating the Energy-Related GHG Emission Impacts of Recycling Aluminum

Recycling: 1 ton of aluminum cans = -4.07 Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent (MTCE)/ton

— Energy related emission impact = -3 18 MTCE/ton

— Non-energy related emission impact = -0.9 MTCE/ton

Landfilling: 1 ton of aluminum cans = 0.01 MTCE/ton

— Energy related emission impact = 0.01 MTCE/ton

— Non-energy related emission impact = 0.0 MTCE/ton

GHG Emission Benefits (Energy and Non-Energy): -4.07MTCE/ton=0 01 MTCE/ton= - 4.08 MTCE/ton

Energy-related GHG emission benefits: -3.18 MTCE/ton -001 MTCE/ton = -3 19 MTCE/ton

Percent of GHG emission benefits related to energy consumption = (-3 I9/-4.08) = 78%


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Environmental

Others

Educational

End use

Climate Change

Air Quality

Water

Waste Water

Solid Waste

Street Lighting

Energy Awareness

Commercial energy intensity

Industrial energy intensity

Household energy intensity

Transport energy intensity

GHG emissions from energyproduction ( for the city) and the percapita energy use

Ambient concentration of airpollutants in city

Energy used for bringing water to thecity and pumping (includingpumping at end use level)

Energy used for taking out wastewater from the city and treating it

Transport energy spent on taking outwaste from the city to landfills/incinerators/recycling

Installed capacityLightingintensityEnergy consumedTimingsof automatic switch on and off

Awareness of energy related

problems

- Energy use incommercial sector-Corresponding valueadded

- Energy use in industrialsector and bymanufacturing branch-Corresponding valueadded

- Energy use inhouseholds and by keyend use- Number of households,floor area, persons perhousehold, applianceownership

- No of four wheelers per1000 population-No of two wheelers per1000 population-Number of publictransport (buses ) per1000 population

- GHG emissions fromenergy production anduse- population

- Concentration ofpollutants in air

- Energy bills of WaterUtility for Water services -End use energy forpumping water/ capita orpopulation

- Energy supplied to wastewater utility

- population

- Fuel spent on trucks/lorries for population-Energy spent on creatingand managing landfillsand incinerators

- kW/km of road-Lux/Watt-kW/km per month

- Surveys to check onenergy awareness levelsof people of different agegroups, sectors, income-

levels and class

Source: Modified for a city after IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency)(2005): “Energy Indicators for sustainable

development- guidelines and methodologies’’. Published in Vienna.


122

Annexe 4: Computer models that help with energy planning

ModelModelModelModelModel

NameNameNameNameName

BALANCE

CO2DB

DECPAC/

DECADES

EFOM-ENV

EM

ENERPLAN

ENPEP

ETA-MACRO

GEM-E3ME

GLOBAL

2100,

GREEN.

12RT

HOVA

LEAP

MADE

MARKAL

MARKAL-

MACRO

MARTES

MEDEE

MESAP

OriginOriginOriginOriginOrigin

IAEA, US-DOE1

IIASA2

IAEA3

EU4

World Bank,

GTZ5

UNDTCD6

IAEA, US- DOE

EPRI7

EU

OECD8

PROFU9

SEI- Boston10

IKE11

ITSAP12, IEA

BNL13

PROFU

IEJE14

IER15

Type of ModelType of ModelType of ModelType of ModelType of Model

Energy Supply & Energy System

Model

Energy Information System

Energy Information System


Model

Model of Life Cycle Assessment

of Power Systems

Modular Planning Instrument


Energy- Economic Model



Model for the Analysis of Energy

Conservations Potential



Demand


Model


District Heating Model


Demand


Other InformationOther InformationOther InformationOther InformationOther Information

A model for simulation of energy

supply, belongs to ENPEP family

CO2 database

Database and Technology Chain

Analysis

Energy Flow Optimization Model

Environmental model, a Simulation

model

It couples a macro economic model

with a simulation model of energy

sectors.

Energy and Power Evaluation

Programme

Energy technology Assessment- A

dynamic model which couples the

macroeconomic MACRO with the

aggregated energy system model ETA

Computable General Equilibrium

model for studying economic energy

environment interactions.

Dynamic model based on energy

technology assessment with 5 world

regions

An EXCEL based database model

Long Range Energy Alternative

Planning- a simulation model with

environmental database

Model for Analysis of energy demand,

a module of the ENPEP planning tool

Market Allocation model with a user

support system

Linked models for Energy Economy

Analysis

A Simulation model for District

Heating System

Model for evaluating the energy

demand, a bottom up model

Modular Energy System Analysis and

Planning


123

1. United States Department of Energy2. International Institutes for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria3. International Atomic Energy Agency4. European Union5. Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit mbH, Germany6. United Nations, Department of Technical Cooperation for Development7. Electric Power research Institute, Palo Alto, California, USA8. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France.

MESSAGE

MIDAS

MODEST

NEWAGE

PLANET

POLES

PRIME

SAFIRE

SEESAM

TEESE

TIMES

WASP

IIASA

EU

IKP16

IER

IER

EU

EU

EU

AaI-U17

TERI18

ETSAP19, IEA

IAEA, US- DOE


Model


Model

Energy System Optimization

Model



Model


Model


Technology Assessment Model




Model

Electricity Supply Model

Optimization model for Energy Supply

System

A Modular Simulation Model

Minimization of Capital and Operation

costs of energy supply and demand

side management

Quasi dynamic model with hybrid

representation ( bottom up and top

down) of the technologies of the

industry sector

Long term energy system simulation

Prospective Outlook on Long term

Energy Systems, a simulation model

A Computable Price Driven Partial

Equilibrium model of the energy

system and markets for Europe

Strategic Assessment Framework for

the Implementation of Rational

Energy, a simulation model for heat

and power supply at the local and

regional level for European countries

The sustainable energy systems

analysis model for energy systems

planning at local and regional scale

TERI Energy Economy Simulation and

Evaluation Model

The Integrated MARKAL EFOM system

and optimization model that produces

least cost solutions, it is intended to

replace MARKAL which has its origin

in the late 1970s and no longer meets

modern requirements and

possibilities of up to date software

engineering.

Wen Automatic System Planning, an

optimization model


124

9. Projektinniktad Dorskning och utveckling-PROFU, Goteborg, Swedem10. Stockholm Environmental Institute, Boston11. Institut fur Kernenergetik und Energiesysteme, University of Stuttgart, Germany12. Energy Technology System Analysis Project13. Brrokhaven national laborotary14. Institute Economique et Juridique de l’ Energie, France15. Institut fur Energiewirtschaft und rationelle Energianwendung, University of Stuttgart, Germany16. IKP Energy System Institute of Technology, Linkoping, Sweden17. Aaborg University, Denmark18. The Energy and Resources Institute, India19. Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme, Italy

Annexe 5: Impact of policies on sustainability and cost

PolicyInstrument

Demand Pull

Indirect PriceSupport

TechnicalStandards/Certifications

WasteManagement

Information,Education,and Training

ImprovedPlanningProcess

EnergySustainability

High

Low to Medium

Medium to High

Medium

Low-Medium

High

Cost Effectiveness

High

Low to Medium

High

Medium

Medium to High

High

Special conditions for success, majorstrengths and limitations, co-benefits

Can be effectively used to demonstrate newtechnologies and practices. Mandatoryprograms have higher potential thanvoluntary ones. Factorsfor success: stronglabelling backing and continuousimprovements with new energy efficiencymeasures, short term incentives totransform markets

Successful only when combined with othertools and when there is price elasticity.Rebates or tax reductions however have ahigher rate of success than just tax.

Mandatory programmes are better.Transaction costs can be high. Institutionalstructures needed. Expertise in the fieldwill need to be established and well oiledwith changing scenarios. Periodicalmonitoring and updating for relevance isessential. Should be combined witheducation, awareness building, capacitybuilding etc.

Should be combined with financial or otherperceived incentives with a threat ofregulation.

More applicable amongst common publicthan business homes. Best applied incombination with other measures.

Periodical update of situation,decentralised control, information,communication, education, monitoring,evaluation, feedback mechanism asstimulus for change for better planning,stakeholder participation.


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ImprovedUrban Designthrough

improvedenergysystems

Research,Development,Demonstration

CapitalSupport

IT inSustainableUrban EnergyPlanning

High

High

High

High

High

High

High

Low

Future visioning and planning, valueengineering, use of bioclimatic designprinciples

Technological Innovation promoting healthof planet, society and economic progress,strategy thinking and analysis forexponential progress, experimenting andfailing at low cost, understanding ofstakeholders’ hidden needs,

Positive for low-incomehouseholds, risk offree-riders,may induce pioneeringinvestments.

But depends on effectiveness of software.Updating of software to match changingtrends and requirements is a must.

Annexe 6: Barriers to effectiveness of policiesBarrier category

Economic barriers

Hidden costs/ benefits

Market failures

Cultural/ behaviouralbarriers

Information barriers

Structural/ political

Instrument category recommended

Regulatory- normative/ regulatory-informative Economic instrumentsFiscal instruments

Regulatory-normative Economicinstruments Support action

Regulatory-normative/ regulatory/informative Economic instrumentsFiscal instruments Support,information, voluntary action

Support, information, voluntaryaction

Support, information, voluntaryaction Regulatory/informative

Recommended policy instruments as

remedies

Building codes, energy efficiencyobligations, green procurement, DSMprograms, ESCOs, cooperative procurement,energy efficiency certificates Taxation,public benefit charges, tax exemptions,incentives/rebates/grants

Building codes, ESCOs Public leadershipprograms

Building codes, energy efficiencyobligations, green procurement, DSMprograms, ESCOs, energy efficiencycertificates, Taxation, public benefitcharges, tax exemptions, incentives/rebates/grants, voluntary agreement, publicleadership programs, awareness raising,detailed billing

Voluntary labelling, voluntary agreement,public leadership programs, awarenessraising, detailed billing

Voluntary agreement, public leadershipprograms, awareness raising, detailedbilling Green procurement, DSM programs,mandatory audits

Public leadership programs10


126

Annexe 7: Strategies to pick up from

initiatives around the world:

1. Local Agenda 21:

Local Agenda 21 defines the role of local authorities in its charterand identifies local governments as one of the main partners in itsimplementation. Processes specified for implementation includeplanning, local capacity building, community and inter-sectorinvolvement and information1.

2. The Aalborg Charter:

The charter helped prepare a local action plan. Over 200 localauthorities signed it. They committed to create a sustainable localaction plan. Many activities were initiated towards this, includingpublication of guidance manual for local planning, training courses,help with networking and creation of databases on good practices.

3. International Solar City Initiative:

The International Solar Cities Initiative was created for sustainableaction in urban energy management worldwide. It does this throughpartnership between cities and researchers involved in climateresearch, RET and urban design.

4. International Council for Local Environmental

Initiative:

ICLEI’s mission is to build and serve a worldwide movement of localgovernments to achieve global sustainability through sustainablelocal actions.

5. Kitakyushu Initiative Network:

This was formed between members from 61 cities in 18 countries inthe Asia-Pacific region. Plate 54 elaborates its core characteristics.It holds an important role in fostering the capacity building of localstaff. Many pilot projects are conducted and there is a healthyinterchange of experience and information amongst member cities.The Network outlines eight of its functions as follows:

• Enabling conceptualising and implementing of plans withindicators.

• Periodical monitoring against quantitative indicators.

• Dissemination of information among members.

• Offering a platform for the transfer of technology.

• Networking for financial support.

• Capacity-building of staff.

• Enabling environmental education program through studentexchanges.

• Enabling private enterprises to participate in infrastructuraldevelopment and environmental quality enhancement program.


127

The Kitakyushu Initiative

Spreading the message to 61 cities from 18 countries in Asia Pacific Region

Annexe 8: the Urban Energy Sustainability

Pledge“Personally, I hold that a man, who deliberately and intelligently takes

a pledge and then breaks it, forfeits his manhood”

–Mahatma Gandhi, Father of Nation, India

Plate 4: Sustainable World

for Future Generations:

Photo credit: http://

www.flickr.com/photos/

wwworks/440672445/

sizes/o/

⊳


128

That we need to pay the highest attention to energy-saving in ourcities has no second argument. Going into the future, city managershave the challenge of having to realize energy saving while takinginto stride the need to promote economic reform and land-economicconstruction that is inevitable in the urban Asia.

Urban Asia’s working keystones have to be around the Four SavingProjects, central to all of which is Energy saving: Energy-saving, Land-saving, Water-saving and Material-saving. The last three keystonesagain mean cascading savings on energy for every city.

How do we give each of our cities a readable, visual form? This meansthe ease with which a person can recognize its elements and organizethem into a coherent plan. A ‘readable’ city is one where theneighbourhoods, landmarks and roads are identifiable, and at oncetying up with the big picture of the city.

An orderly set of city plans can act as a reference grid that organizesa citizen’s beliefs and knowledge. In a way it serves as a basis for anindividual’s development as he grows up, or spends the evening oflife, or works. A dynamic and integrated physical framework can playa significant social role, by offering sharp and distinctive images. Itcan offer pleasant memories, can make a person emotionally secureand create harmonious relations with the external world around.

Many seamier districts of cities that witnessed sharp andunorganized growth can transform to centres of sustainable growth.It’s clearly up to the policy-makers and technologists, like you, ofcities to make the change happen.

You hold the key. Take the first step now.

Take it by taking the urban energy sustainability pledge.

…we shall work to make urban energy sustainable...we shall work to ensure energy access to all human beings…we shall not draw on earth’s ‘capital resources’ in doing so…we shall increase quality of life and opportunities for better livelihood through better energy systems…we shall work in solidarity with each other and with city managers and leaders of other nations tomake this a Pan-Asia and global movement…we shall make urban energy a vital axis for ushering change on social, economic and environmentfronts in all urban parts of the world…we shall keep a vigil on all urban centres around the world to ensure we learn from mistakes of thepast and don’t repeat them...we shall give our all to set right the wrong already wrought in many cities of Asia and the world...we shall set exemplary directions in good governance for urban energy and remind ourselves ofthe pitfalls of short-term views…we shall constantly strive to innovate through participation and further propel the movement intogreater heights of achievement…we shall pioneer effective, innovative and progressive policy and regulatory framework…we shall stand as one world, with sustainability as our driving force bringing energy security to all,without hurting the planet

So bless us Nature! Amen.


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Annexe 9: Training Activities

Training activity for Chapter 1:

Session 1: Introduction

Ice breaker sessions and introduction to the course.

Session 2: Cities Hold the Key to Energy Sustainability

Objective:

To make participants realise that cities hold the key to energysustainability

Medium:

Videos and group discussions

Activity:

Video of impact of cities on environment, production of energy, linearliving and the people/systems responsible for the acts would alsobe shown. Videos can be taken from the following links:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNUZD3jgUO4http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HkHZ-arjsCE

A group discussion could be started based on impressions gatheredafter watching the videos. The main topic to be discussed could be:What makes a city so unsustainable? A facilitated group discussionwill help the participants to identify, ‘Who is to blame? Or who couldset it right? Would we be right in blaming people from the past? Canwhat cannot be planned be managed?’

Session 2: Urban Needs and Impact

Objective:

Policy makers play a key role in bringing about urban energysustainability

Medium:

Role playing

Activity:

A role play scenario could be presented to the participants. Thescenario could be on any topic like traffic congestion, building of anew energy utility, or building of affordable homes. The participantscould be asked to participate in a role play activity to discover theroot cause of problems and then propose a verdict on the proposedsolution.

A sample of an outline of such a role play is provided in annexe 9.

Session 3: Tipping Scale


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Objective:

To make participants understand the imbalances in the present urbanenergy scene

Medium:

Puzzle, story-building, analysis and presentation

Activity:

A short presentation of imbalances due to energy production andconsumption will be shown based on information from section 1.3. Itwill have interviews with experts to citizens centring on theirfrustration with such imbalances. Each will speak about imbalancefelt in their lives. For example a slum dweller in any urban city maytalk about the cost of food per plate per day while in the same city awell-to-do hotelier could talk about the amount of waste food theyhave to discard every day or a food processing industrialist couldtalk about the amount of food they discard as waste every month.

After the presentation groups could be formed and each group couldbe given a set of images. A typical set could include images withoutcaptions telling the story of a toothpick used in USA which in realitygot ferried all the way from South East Asian countries. The imageswill not be in sequence. Groups will be asked to build the story bysolving the sequence and present the story to others along with theirown rationale about why such things happen and the impact thesehave on the global energy scene. Facilitator should enableparticipants to feel good about perceptions of participants and toconclude that people with such perceptions should in reality besolving problems better.


Session 1: Energy and Stakeholders

Objective:

To make participants understand the different stakeholders who lookup to them to solve the energy puzzle.

Medium:

Audio files.

Activity:

Audio files circulated amongst groups of participants. These wouldbe in the form of snippets of news being read out, letters from citizens,petitions from industries, complaints from communities all relatingto urban energy crisis, problems and issues faced by stakeholders ofenergy. Each group would be given a specific set of audio files. Onegroup could receive a set of files from related to energy issues withpoor people, another could receive a set related to transport fuelissues due to bad urban planning, and a third could get a set related


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to rising production costs in industries due to intermittent powersupply and so on.

Participants will after listening to the files, make a presentation toothers as representatives for the particular set of stakeholders. Afterall presentations are made, the trainer would then facilitateparticipants to realise that the one set of people who can help allthese stakeholders would be local government in the variouslocations.

Session 2: Energy and Consumption

Objective:

To make participants understand hidden costs and costs due to over-consumption.

Medium:

Video

Activity:

This session would deal with consumption patterns, their impactsand hidden costs of energy associated with such consumptionbehaviour. Participants would be shown a video like the one presentin this link:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gLBE5QAYXp8

This would enlighten participants on wasteful consumption patternsand their impact on environment. The trainer could also draw a fewexamples from the sourcebook and show them in a quickpresentation.

Facilitator will bring out that consumers are also culprits. It is goingto be tough to change them. Policies need to encourage correctconsumption, thinking and usage patterns.

Session 3: Lack of Systemic Approach

Objective:

Damages due to lack of systemic approach.

Medium:

Imaginary visioning

Activity:

Lack of systemic approach would be handled in this session. In spiteof efforts at planning, why do policy-makers often fail? What is thelack in their approach? The activity to be performed would be tochoose ‘the best Mohammad Bin Tughlaq?’ Each group would begiven a card having issues in a particular city related to energymanagement like increasing private vehicle ownership, increasing


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demand for electricity, increasing load shedding, increasing dividebetween the energy used between the rich and the poor and increasein domestic consumption of energy. Along with the case descriptiona set of clue cards that have information of some ideas of solutionspromoted by imaginary city leaders under relevant situation wouldalso be given. The clues would contain both sensible and bizarresolutions. For example, increasing private ownership could have theclues that would as follows:- Build multi-storeyed flyovers- Lay regulations to cut down number of cars plying on the

road at any given time- Introduce heavy emission taxes and increase cost of private

vehicles- Build better public transport systems- Remove parks and fill up lakes to build more roadsParticipants will have to zero down on the most bizarre non-systemicapproach. They will then have to build a case on this approach andeach group would present their cases with imaginary situations andstories with figures, numbers and characters to the others and to apanel of judges. The most non-systemic group will get the prestigioustitle of the ruler from the past.

Session 4: Energy and Urban Governance

Objective:

To make participants aware of solutions they should not opt for tosolve issues related to urban energy.

Medium:

Game of Chance

Activity:

The previous session involved the bloomers leaders could make. Thissession would involve intelligent governance. Each group would begiven a sheet containing issues in urban energy. For each issue therewould be multiple choices as answers below each issue. Each answerwould carry some points. For example, one of the issues could below supply of fuel for electricity in an island country. The choices asanswers could be as follows:

- Import fuel from neighbouring country rich in fuel mining(Marks: -100 points)

- Resort to wind energy. (Marks: 100 points)- Introduce DSM programmes and recover energy through

polygeneration in industries (Marks: 200 points)- Allow citizens to cope by themselves (Marks: -50 points)

The participants would also be given a single dice with numbersfrom 1-6. Any participant can start the game and the rounds can goin a clockwise manner. Each participant would take up to get as achance an answer for the issue on sheet. The participant will haveto roll the dice to decide the fate of the answer luck would choosefor him/her. The points collected corresponding to the answer would


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be added to the group’s collective points. Finally the group that gainsthe most points would be winners.


Session 1: The Metamorphosis into Sustainable Cities

Objective:

To make participants understand closed loop systems and goodpractices within energy consuming sectors.

Medium:

Card activity

Activity:

The trainer could briefly explain about closed loop systems and goodand bad practices in the various sectors using energy. The activityusing cards could follow this. Each group will be given the same setof cards. The cards would form 2 categories. One set of headingcards with the following heading and one set of playing cards. Theheadings would include,

1. Closed loop within individual buildings 2. Closed loop within neighbourhood 3. Closed loop within locality 4. Closed loop within the city 5. Good practices in building sector 6. Bad practices in building sector 7. Good practices in transport sector 8. Bad practices in transport sector 9. Good practices in energy production 10. Bad practices in energy production 11. Good practices in appliance designing 12. Bad practices in appliance designing

The other set of cards would include systems that could go underany of these categories, which can be picked up from chapter 3. Forexample one card could sport the phrase “wet waste”. This wouldfall under the category closed loop within individual buildings.Managing wet waste within buildings that produce them wouldremove the strain on local governments of picking up, segregatingand transporting wet waste of the whole city which almost forms 60per cent of all household waste. There could be at least 2-6 suchcards under each category.

Participants in each group will take turns to form clusters of thesecards under various categories, one at a time, one by one. The chancepasses on to the next participant and the rounds go on till all cardsare used up. Sorting should happen without discussion. Then theparticipants can take around 3-4 rounds to rearrange the cards if


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they see fit again silently again one by one changing what theirpredecessors had placed. After a couple of such rounds, thefacilitator will now instruct the participants that they can discussand again go through the rounds to sort cards. Once everyone issatisfied with the sorting, each team would present the sorting toothers. The facilitator then performs the sorting on board for all tosee, with consensus from groups to arrive at the correct sorting.

Session 2: RET and Emerging Technologies

Objective:

To make participants understand how to use RETs.

Medium:

Analysis and activity

Activity:

Use of RETs and emerging technologies to solve energy problemswill be the focus of this session. Participants will be given a casestudy with issues in a city. They will be given clues to find solutionsto solve sustainability issues in the energy areas using RETs andsome emerging technologies. Details of which RET would have whatimpact and where it can be used would be provided. Each groupwould prepare a one-page poster that summarizes key points fromthe reading material and also provide solutions. Half the number ofgroups should use pictures alone to represent their ideation whilethe other half should only use words. Later, each team makes apresentation using the poster from a different team.

Session 3: Handling Poverty and Fragile Systems

Objective:

To give participants an insight into tackling poverty and issues relatedto island countries.

Medium:

Video and quiz

Activity:

The trainer could present salient features of the topic and also includea video like the one in the following link:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IuVTqlSelDI

A case study could then be presented by the facilitator. A Quizelimination rounds will be conducted in a rapid-fire manner. Thiswould involve questions being fired to participants. They can chooseto pick options from a multiple choice set up. Facilitator would filterright answers from wrong and eliminate players. This will continuetill there is only one winner. If by chance players run out before thequestions, the last round of players will be re-installed.


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Session 4: Understanding Indicators

Objective:

To understand the connection between indicators and energysustainability

Medium:

Hunt to complete activity

Activity:

Participants could be given a set of indicator cards and another setof implicator cards. For example population and transport indicatorswould indicate energy sustainability in fuel use. Population andtransport could be indicator cards while sustainability in fuel usewould be an implicator card. Each participant would have a set ofindicator cards and a set of implicator cards that would not matchhis/her set of indicator cards. They will need to find who has whatcard and match their indicator card with the implicator card. Theperson to finish matching first will receive a good round of applause.


Session 1: Where can you help?

Objective:

To make policy makers understand areas where they can help

Medium:

Analysis, assimilation and presentation

Activity:

Groups would be asked to discuss amongst their team members andcome up with various areas they feel they can influence to bringabout urban energy sustainability. They should also be able to statethe kind of impact their influence could induce. Each team membershould be able to help others come up with better ideas and oncediscussions are over, each group could present their analysis to theothers in the workshop.

The facilitator could fill in gaps and conclude that energysustainability can be enhanced through better local governance.

Session 2: Revenue Bearing Models for City Sustainability

Objective:

To make participants understand appropriate revenue models ofenergy sustainability.

Medium:

Auction activity


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Activity:

What would participants bet on as the most successful solutions torevenue-making? A team of auctioneers will be chosen and the restof the participants would be bidders. For a problem read out by anauctioneer, a set of solutions would be read out. For each set ofsolutions there would be only one correct solution. Participants willmake a choice and bid (in small money) for it. There can be otherbids for other solutions if some other participant thinks that someother solution is right. The bidding can be encouraged by theauctioneer and the highest bidder will have to pay the money and ifhis bidding object coincides with the correct answer, he would begiven twice his money back. Concepts of correct revenue modelswill be brought out in this manner.

Session 3: Integrated Energy Planning

Objective:

This module will enable participants to see the value of integratedenergy planning.

Medium:

Problem solving

Activity:

All groups would be given the same problem to solve. Then groupswould be divided into technicians, social engineers, administratorsand other experts. Each team will be given ‘expert clues’ to theproblem pertaining to their core area of competency which they willneed to discuss and develop into better solutions. Then the secondround begins. During the second round, participants are reorganizedinto mixed teams with each member representing a different groupand asked to synthesize their earlier ideas together. Each new groupwill present their findings to the rest of the group and the facilitatorcould conclude with final touches and with closing statements onimportance of integrated energy planning which would have anywayhappened with integration of so many thoughts during this activity.

Session 4: Closing

De-briefing will be done by the facilitator with a presentation of keyconcepts that need filling in.

The session will then end with a closing activity with the SustainabilityPledge, holding a human-powered LED lamp that gets manufacturedby some deserving SHG.

Annexe 10: A sample script for role play

The City of Sarao, is home to seven million residents. Some twentyyears ago it had around a million. It was a typical retirement townwith a geographical spread that had increased by five times more


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than what it used to be two decade back. People could travel thenfrom one end to the other in less than forty minutes. A relaxed life-style and a comfortable climate prevailed making the city into a centrefor administrative and education headquarters of the region. However,everything changed with the rapid globalization drive of subsequentlocal governments to promote more economic growth. The townchanged into a fast-paced services headquarters for global fortune1000 companies. People migrated from different parts of the countryinto the city rapidly. As residential and commercial building-infrastructure needs increased dramatically, over a million semi-skilled and unskilled labourers moved in and set camp in variousunauthorized places. Slums developed in unabated manner. Beforethe administrators realized, roads and transportation suffered, mostsagging under relentless demand for better services. Some attemptswere made to build flyovers and underpasses. The attempts alwayslacked vision and coordinated efforts from various departments. Inorder to permanently solve the traffic problem, the localadministrators came up with a massive plan to create anunderground subway system with multiple lane roads and mass rapidtransit system in the form Metro railway lines. The citizens werefurious. They organized themselves and brought the city to a standstill. Everyone blamed everyone else. The head of state wanted tonail the problem down. He needed to find the root cause of theproblem. He constituted an inquiry commission headed by a formerjudge to talk to various warring parties and submit a report that wouldcontain a) the root cause of the problem faced by the city, b) thepossible solution for moving forward. The head of the inquirycommission selected three others to form a team.

(At this juncture, the facilitator could invite eight volunteers fromthe participants.)

Players:

One could be the retired judge to head the commission. Threeothers could be commission members.

Four others could be a representative of shopkeepers, the head ofroad department, a representative of services industry and the citycommissioner.

The four member commission to invite each of the four cityrepresentatives to come forward and present their case on twodimensions; a) the root cause of the city’s problems, b) the possiblesolution for the same, whether the subway solution will work or not.

Each representative will vent their feelings and also state the factsas they know them.

1) Representative of shopkeepersa. He could blame the road department for the chaos.

i. He could say that the road department always created


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chaos by planning badly and that all construction activityinvariably disrupted their livelihood.ii. He could elaborate on how many shopkeepers have

lost a great deal due to imbalances in compensationand other issues.

b. He could, as a representative of others, oppose theidea of the subway

i. Since that would disrupt their business during theconstruction phase of the subway.

ii. He could also state that people would stop using mainroads where most of their shops were located.

iii. He could suggest that an alternative of mass rapidsystems from /to their roads could prove more useful.

2) Road Department Heada. He could blame other department:i. Like the public works, electricity and telephone

department and also the lack of funds from thegovernment for the chaos.

ii. He could argue that he could not implement his plansbecause other departments always disrupted roadwork. Drainage often got redone, alternative cablingget laid, roads got dug up for newer fibre opticcommunication cabling and roads could not bewidened sometimes due to unauthorized and illegaloccupancy by commercial vendors/shopkeepers andslum dwellers.

b. Lack of funds from government meant that road workalways got delayed beyond plans. It was up to theurban planning department and not his departmentto think of flyovers and underpasses.

c. He could state the solution for the crisis was to widenthe existing roads quickly, getting uninterrupted fundsfrom the government to do so.

3) Services Industry representative. (This participant would be arepresentative of mostly car owners belonging to richer segment ofcitizens— a pampered lot. They love uninterrupted access to roads.They are business leaders. Forty per cent of the city traffic is due toprivate cars. Due to global centric economic initiatives, every middleand senior level employee has started to own at least two cars inthe city.)

a. He could blame:i. The city commissioners for the crisis.ii. He could say that the association met him several

times and gave a number of petitions repeatedly forkeeping commercial vehicles, motor-cyclists, andcyclists out of roads during peak hours.

iii. He could complain that city leaders never saw therationale and never agreed to the proposals.

iv. The car owners association was willing to restrict theirmovement and even was willing to be taxed higher ifthey used their cars during peak hours.


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v. He argued that the city has enjoyed huge economicbenefit due to the segment that he represented. Theyare the people, he could argue, who contributedsignificantly to the city’s improvement. He could givestatistics showing how people have becomeprosperous and happy.

vi. He could show how many families could getemployment at various levels of the society due tothe growth of services industry.

b. He could advocate a parallel exercise of making fournew roads, comprising of an inner ring road, an outerring road, a North-South-Central link and an East-West-Central link roads. The belief was that thesefour new roads which would cost only half that of thesubway could equally ease traffic.

4) City Commissionera. He could refuse to take the blame on himself.i. He could argue that the industry representatives are

greedy and selfish; that they always wanted to enjoythe roads for themselves; that they refused anyproposal put up by him to restrict peak hour traffic.

ii. He could show several proposals by him to ease trafficcongestion; a massive plan to introduce mass bustransportation which was opposed by taxi andautorickshaw unions, an elevated mass rail systemthat met opposition from environmentalists to namea few.

iii. He could say that his hands are tied. No matter whichway he looked at things, he always met opposition. Inspite of this he showed how the city’s road trafficconditions are only seventh worst in the country.

b. As all attempts have failed, he could say that thesolution at the present moment, according to him,based on advice of experts from developed countries,is to go for the subway plan of his. He showed howthe city traffic is going to grow with 300 private carsbeing added mostly being bought by the servicesindustry every day going forward. He showed that thecity’s system will come to a grinding halt in five yearstime if the subway system is stalled now. The onlyway to go ahead is to accommodate any number ofgrowing vehicular movement.

5) City’s Automobile Registration Authority:a. He could state:i. That there is an unrestricted introduction of vehicles

into the city.ii. That he is unable to control anything as the policies

are made by the city commissioner and the politicalpowers.


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iii. That politicians and commissioners are afraid ofmaking any policy change as they fear loss of powerand vote bank in the cities.

iv. That there was no corruption in his office, while hecannot say the same of other offices.

v. That he was willing to share records of how many oldand unfit vehicles have been forced to retire if hisinterests are taken care of.

b. He could statei. Corruption is the root motivation for the new subway

scheme.ii. Subway will never happen even if it is approved in

principle because of corruption that is prevalent inthe commissioner’s office.

iii. Plenty of public money will be wasted.iv. Subway system must be stopped.v. Automobile Registration Authority must be given

autonomous powers to control registration of newvehicles.

vi. Introduce new vehicle registration license scheme.Allow only 5% increase in new vehicle registration inthe city. His department’s proposal pending with citycommissioner for review/approval for five years.Nothing has been heard.

6) Minister of Road Transport and Urban Infrastructurea) He could state that:i. The government has introduced many new buses.ii. Bus fare has been kept under control to make it

affordable for the masses.iii. Bus transport workers have been paid handsomely.iv. Car pooling lanes have been introduced in major roads

like it has been spotted in a popular South-East Asiancity.

v. Road dividers, flyovers have been erected with themost modern technologies.

vi. Traffic signal has been modernized with digital systemand timers on par with a developed country.

vii. Several thousand kms of road have been relaid andmaintained using latest equipments imported fromdeveloped countries.

viii. A pilot project to enable traffic police has beenempowered with latest technology to catch offenders.

ix. Citizen police movement has been inaugurated.Curriculum for school children includes importanceof infrastructure and urban development.

x. Private roads have been put under experimentationin the outer periphery of the city with stipulated toll.

xi. Many roads have been made into one-ways to restricttraffic in one direction.


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xii. Air-conditioned buses were introduced but no one isusing the same. People still prefer their private cars.

xiii. Parking has been restricted and regulated in manycongested areas.

xiv. Public grievance cell is functioning well. There istransparency in closing the complaints which can betracked through a website.

xv. Government alone cannot achieve success. Peoplemust cooperate. They must come forward andparticipate. They must not violently respond to everychange and restriction. Leaders work only for thewelfare of the people. They need to be trusted.

b) He could state:i. We have tried to emulate every policy from

prosperous countries across the world that pertainsto a city’s infrastructure problems. Nothing seems tosolve the city’s problems.

ii. The only way forward is the subway system. It cancover any amount of traffic growth.

iii. The project report has been prepared by a high levelcommittee headed by the city commissioner and urbanplanning advisors of the government. They havevisited many countries and studied various solutionsto arrive at this solution. There is no other solutionpossible. All details are in the study report.

iv. The report has been extensively debated at thecommissioner’s office, too.

7) Opposition leader in the City Commissioner’s office:

c) He could state that:i. The government imported poor quality buses. About

60 per cent of the buses completely stopped plyingafter two years. It has cost the city a lot of money tomaintain these buses. Spares are not easily availablefor these buses as the company in foreign lands hasfolded up its operations and wants huge amounts tosupply the spares. The remaining buses aremaintained in poor condition. People are not interestedin using these junk buses.

ii. There is corruption amongst bus transportadministrators. Our study reveals that over 50 per centof passengers don’t buy legal tickets to use buses.

iii. Buses do not ply on time. The government has triedto privatize the bus system but the transport unionshave opposed it.

iv. Car pooling lanes will not work in our city. Most peopledo not care. Even non-car pooling vehicles use theselanes.

v. Road dividers and flyovers cannot solve the problem.


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Flyovers have been badly constructed and with a poortraffic flow pattern. Every now and then the trafficdirection gets changed in the flyovers because theyare badly designed. Besides, they are an eye sore.

vi. Half of the traffic signals do not work properly. Trafficpolice is unable to control traffic. They switch off thesesignals and manually control the traffic. Reality is thatno amount of manual system can control peak trafficconditions.

vii. Road contracts are given to people who are close tothe people in power. Corruption is high. Roads arenever laid in good condition.

viii. No one believes in citizen movement to control traffic.It is an eye wash.

ix. Toll in private roads are exorbitantly high. It is againstthe interests of common man.

x. Even if air conditioning buses are introduced no onewill use it if they don’t ply on time. Over 50 per centof the users are car owners in the city. They needgood public parking lots. An average car travels oversixty km a day. It’s a puzzle to wonder why industrypartnership can not promote common parking lots andpublic-private partner buses to ply from these parkinglocations to offices and back.

xi. It is a nightmare to find a parking lot in the city at anytime except at midnight.

xii. Fact remains that in spite of all the claims by theminister and the commissioner the infrastructureproblems of the city has gotten from bad to worseover time. We are at least ten years behind in planning.For instance, when we need eight lane roads, we planfor four lane roads. Planning and implementationhappens without any scientific basis.

xiii. Years of misrule has reduced the city into a ghosttown. There is no joy in living in the city. It has lost itscharm and sheen. No one wants to live in this cityanymore.

d) He could state:i. Subway system is another money-making ploy. It will

not work. It is also not going to solve the problems ofthe city.

ii. We must admit that we do not really know where theproblem starts and where it ends and who isresponsible for what.

iii. City managers’ implementation must be effective.What can guide this?

How the role play should proceed:

The commission will listen patiently. They could ask questions andclarify points. They should not make any representative feel bad at


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any time. They should not find faults in their points. They shouldonly merely seek clarification. They should take notes. They couldask for evidences and further elaboration of the points as necessary.

Only one representative should be allowed to speak at a time. Noother representative should interrupt the proceedings of the hearingat any point of time.

After one round of hearing the commission will ask therepresentatives to perform another round of hearing. At this pointeach representative can further strengthen his or her points withoutdisrupting proceedings. They must be told to conduct themselvesprofessionally. The commission will also listen patiently withoutfinger-pointing or blaming anyone.

How the role play should end:

The commission will ask for a break of five minutes from theparticipants other than the committee members. The four memberteam will now discuss aloud about the matter on hand. They willhave to quickly come to a consensus on a) what is the root cause ofthe city’s problems and b) their verdict on the subway system. Theirverdict should be supported by what they have heard alone. Noassumptions or bias should creep in.

The head of the commission then shall announce their decision andalso explain the logic and rationale behind their decision.

Optional closure:

The judge’s verdict can be put up for voting to the training audience.Each of them will be given a chit paper on whether they agree to thecommission’s report or not (only yes or no vote). The votes will becollected and counted. The results will be announced. Then a few‘yes’ voters and a few ‘no’ voters can be asked to stand up and presentthe logic behind their vote with the training audience.

Annexe 11: Further Reading

1. Natural capitalism: The book provides concrete suggestionsand examples that can bring the message home to leaders, inthe areas of energy, transportation, house construction, materialsdevelopment, design, and more.

2. Policy Instruments for Resource Efficiency: Towardssustainable consumption and production: German TechnicalCooperation (GTZ), the UNEP/Wuppertal Institute CollaboratingCentre on Sustainable Consumption and Production (CSCP) andthe Wuppertal Institute, with support from the German FederalMinistry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), aimsto provide a quick, hands-on overview of selected SCP policyinstruments for boosting resource efficiency. It builds on the recentdiscussions and practical experience with these instruments, both


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from developed and developing countries.3. Urban Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions In Asian

Mega-Cities —Policies For Sustainable Future: This reportintegrates all major outcomes and to provide a holistic overviewof the energy analyses of four cities—Tokyo, Shangai, Seoul andBeijing. It also provides policy trends, barriers and opportunities

4. Integrating carbon management into development strategiesof cities—establishing a network of case studies of urbanisationin the Asia-Pacific: Final report for APN project 2004-07-CMY-Lasco: The report concludes that the urbanization process shouldbe central to efforts at integrating carbon management intoregional development strategies. It also highlights the need formore experimental and radical interventions through fosteringnew urban forms and functions.

5. Trends in Sustainable Building: Arup Associates: A report onintegrated resource management used in the design of ecocity,Dongtan

6. Liveable Cities: The Benefits of Urban EnvironmentalPlanning: A Cities Alliance Study on Good Practices and UsefulTools. The report further discusses how environmentalmanagement can boost the budgets of cities, prove a strongmarketing tool for attracting investors and contribute to publichealth and poverty eradication. The report also underscores howany successful sustainable urban strategy must involve theparticipation and support of local groups, communities andindividual citizens if it is to blossom and flourish. It is packedwith many interesting examples of urban energy sustainability.

7. Energy Efficiency in Buildings in China: The GermanDevelopment Institute (DIE): This report talks about policies,barriers and opportunities in the area of energy efficiency inbuildings sector in China.

8. Diversification and localization of energy systems forsustainable development and energy security: Xianguo Li: Theimportance of diversification of energy systems to avoid pitfallswith single energy systems is brought out in this report.

9. Innovative Urban Transport Concepts: Innovative Experienceswith NICHES draws on lessons for policy directions to take tobring about sustainable mobility within cities.

10. Assessment of policy instruments for reducing greenhousegas emissions from buildings: Summary and Recommendationsby UNEP and CEU: This provides an appraisal of the instrumentsavailable for improving energy efficiency in buildings in order toassist policy-makers in the decision process.

11. Energy Analysis for Sustainable Mega-Cities: AumnadPhdungsilp: The study investigates and evaluates the energymodels most commonly used for analyzing and simulating energyutilization. Its purpose is to provide a user-friendly tool suitablefor decision-makers in developing an energy model for large cities.In addition, a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) processhas been developed to assess whether or not the energy systemsmeet the sustainability criteria.


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12. Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkitfor planners, developers and consultants: This Toolkit was meantto support planners, developers, consultants and other interestedparties with planning policies in London which required renewableenergy in new developments or major refurbishments. It is a goodguide to see how renewable technologies are suitable. It givesan insight into how the cost-benefit analysis of installingrenewables could be conducted apart from giving informationon successful case studies and suggestions on how problemscan be overcome. While the toolkit applies to projects in London,it can help policy makers form other cities also to understandhow a similar one could be developed for their cities.

13. Which Energy? : ISIS: 2006 Institute of Science in SocietyEnergy Report: Mae-Wan Ho, Peter Bunyard, Peter Saunders,Elizabeth Bravo, Rhea Gala: In asking “Which Energy?” theInstitute of Science in Society is challenging us to think radicallyand holistically about which is the right energy system to use,where, how and how much.

14. Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability: World EnergyAssessment: This assessment includes regional dialogues,exchanges among developing countries and between developingand industrialised countries, and consultations with a wide rangeof stakeholders, including the private sector. It discusses howwe can most effectively use energy as a tool for sustainabledevelopment. Its analysis shows that we need to do more topromote energy efficiency and renewables, and to encourageadvanced technologies that offer alternatives for clean and safeenergy supply and use.

15. Energy as an Instrument for Socio-Economic Development:José Goldemberg and Thomas B. Johansson: This paper addressesenergy conservation measures that result in the use of less energyto provide the same energy service, or to achieve more energyservices for the same energy.

16. Consultative Guidelines for Sustainable Urban DevelopmentCo-Operation: Towards Sustainable Urban Development: AStrategic Approach: This presents guidelines for the EuropeanUnion’s Sustainable Urban development co-operation. They giveemphasis to the need for responsive, participatory andtransparent urban governance and effective and efficient urbanmanagement. The Guidelines also provide practical advice topractitioners involved in the process of urban development, withinThird World countries.

17. Cities without Slums: Cities Alliance 2002 annual report: Theexperiences captured in this report demonstrate the value of citiestaking the lead and forging partnerships with civil society, theprivate sector, and the poor urban residents themselves, in orderto eliminate poverty. These partnerships work to challenge thesystematic exclusion of the urban poor, develop new livelihoodopportunities, improve services, and empower poor people tolive as full citizens.

18. Energy and Material Flow through The Urban Ecosystem:


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Ethan H. Decker, Scott Elliott, Felisa A. Smith, Donald R. Blake,and F. Sherwood Rowland: This paper reviews the available dataand models on energy and material flows through the world’s 25largest cities. Throughput is categorized as stored, transformed,or passive for the major flow modes. Relevant models of urbanenergy and material flows, demography, and atmosphericchemistry are discussed.

19. Managing Asian Cities: Chapter 3: The Broad EnvironmentalFootprint of Asian Cities: Discusses the environmental footprintof Asian cities, through a study of emissions from various sectors.A number of successful case studies give good insight intopossible ways of reducing environmental footprint in Asia.

20. Ecological Footprints: A guide fro local authorities: WWF: Thisreport indicates that human ecological pressure on the earth hasincreased by over 50%, exceeding the biosphere’s regenerationrate. It tries to educate local authorities to use ecological footprintas a tool to bring about unsustainable development

21. Urban Energy Transition: From fossil fuels to renewablepower: edited by Peter Droege: This book discusses workingconcepts, technological directions and country-specificorganizational perspectives–aspects that promise to yield a bettersystems-based understanding of policy frameworks and actionagendas. The book features inputs on technology, carbonemissions methods, community engagement strategies andvarious urban renewable energy and efficiency implementationtechniques. The book also focuses on urban aspects of efficiencygains in embodied, supplied and end-use energy.