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CHAPTER V
URBAN DETERIORATION
AND BLIGHT IN SHIRAZ
CITY
168
CHAPTER V
URBAN DETERIORATION AND BLIGHT IN SHIRAZ CITY
5.1 Definition of Slum and Blighted Area
The term ‘slum’ is usually understood as ‘a court alley or street of dirty
and crowded houses’. A report on the Socio-Economic Survey of Slums of Old
Delhi states that ‘the term slum should be applied to those parts of the city
which may be unfit for human habilitation because the structures therein are
old, dilapidated, grossly congested and out of repairs or because it is impossible
to preserve sanitation for want of sanitary facilities including ventilation,
drainage and water supply; or because the sites by themselves are unhealthy’.
According to a report on the slums of Baroda, the term slum ‘applies to all
those dwellings that do not even provide the basic minimum facilities for
human subsistence; the very lack of basic infrastructural facilities, high infant
mortality, utter negligence of personal health and hygiene, all these together
characterize what may be termed as slums’. The same word ‘slum’ denotes a
Chicago mansion now used as a rooming house in the USA; or a cardboard
carton sheltering a human being in Lima, Peru; the new huts built of scrap
materials collected by people who are migrating to the cities of Asia or South
America, and in general include, in different parts of the word, cabins, huts,
dens, dugouts, sheds, stalls and other such evidence of poverty. In different
parts of India, the slums are known as Cherries, Bastis, Jhuggis, Zopad Pattis
and so on in different languages.
The term “blight” is usually applied to an area of large size. It is almost
never applied to a single building or structure. The term does not refer to any
single characteristic or a condition or even to any one set of conditions or
characteristics that is regularly found in the same combination. Rather, it
covers a wide range of conditions and characteristics which may be found in
various combinations. It is generally agreed that the two basic characteristics of
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a blighted area are (a) substandard and (b) either stagnation or deterioration.
Although the term ‘blight’ and ‘blighted areas’ have become widely used, there
are no commonly accepted standards by which their existence can be
statistically measured. Nevertheless, the concept of urban renewal assumes that
there are minimum standards and requirements for buildings and living
conditions and that there is a public responsibility to maintain these standards
by preventing or arresting blighting influences and by rehabilitating or
rebuilding areas which reach a certain level of substandard (Webster, 1958).
A.S. Ansari (2000) has studied unhealthy residential houses without
open spaces and amenities with overcrowded population. There are some
reasons for the formation of slums such as rapid industrialization, improper
land use pattern, migration, lack of zoning, vertical expansion of businesses,
industry and inadequate infrastructural facilities. It is obvious that every
country faces decline during its development processes because each city is a
living organism and has a life cycle of birth, growth and decline. However,
cities are the centres of civilization and culture: they are a place of tension and
strain, as well. Further, Ansari has defined urban decline as a process that
appears in three progressively worsening forms: (a) deterioration, (b) various
degrees of decay; and (c) formation of slums. The term ‘blight’ can be applied
to the first two stages of decline. So, blight is a degree of decline.
5.2 Differences between Blight and Slum
Though slums and blight seem to be identical, they differ in subtle
respects. Blights occur in residential, commercial and industrial districts (K.
Narayan Reddy, 1996). It includes a large number of slums (Vermont Urban
Renewal Statute, 2007). It is commonly agreed that the two basic
characteristics of blighted area are: substandard and stagnation or deterioration.
Blighted areas are always in a state of deterioration (Ratno N. Rao, 1990). They
are not stand still; they spread from neighborhood to neighborhood (K.
Narayan Reddy, 1996). Slums are just residential blighted areas with poor
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amenities (Ratno N. Rao, 1990). An area of a city which is characterized by
substandard housing, squalor and lack of security of is a slum. It is the worst
form of residential blighted area, the worst form of human habitations, and it
may include formal and informal settlements (K. Narayan Reddy, 1996). Slum
housing varies from shacks to permanent and well-maintained structures,
including authorized or unauthorized buildings. So, the differences between
blight and slum areas are the following:
1. Blighted areas are a larger and more comprehensive a term in respect
of size of area and also in their definition. Blighted areas include
slums; and so blight refers to a large area, in size in comparison with
the slums.
2. Blighted area includes residential and non-residential land uses but
slums include just residential areas.
3. Blights are not as much deteriorated as slums. Slums are the worst
forms and the worst grade of blights.
4. Blights as a phenomenon is not static; it spreads from house to
house, but slums are the last step of deterioration process, the worst
form and also static.
So, the ‘blighted areas’ of the city of Shiraz are considered in this study;
they consist of residential and non-residential areas, including some levels of
deterioration. The study has not focused on slums, which are the worst forms
and grades of urban decline. The blighted areas of the Central area of Shiraz
city are considered as the first two stages of decline of an urban area, which
have not reached the stage of slums as yet, but they spread day by day.
5.3 General Reasons for Creation of Blighted Areas in Iran
Rapid urbanization is bringing in its wake the urbanization of poverty as
well as pressure on urban land and resources. In this context, the conservation
and renewal of historical areas, often (but not exclusively) found in the Central
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core of the cities and towns, assume great significance. Unchecked, and
sometimes unplanned economic development, combined with incoherent
policies, a fragmented institutional framework, lack of political will, and
limited capacities of implementing organizations, often result in the neglect and
destruction of the historical districts within the cities.
This has been seen both in the developed and the developing world. For
urban planners and policy makers, historical districts embody one of the most
crucial planning dilemmas - the need for growth and development versus the
imperative of conservation. In addition, the stream of rural-to-urban migration
has been because of imbalances in infrastructural facilities and services,
employment opportunities and levels of income between urban units and the
countryside. Policy makers and urban planners should be aware of the factors
which cause deterioration, mostly in the heart of the cities. There should be
access to accurate urban data and urban forms to decide, more efficiently.
Developing countries such as Iran face the brunt of blighted areas
recently due to early stages of economic development. Development causes
new phenomena such as urbanization, migration and dualism. The large scale
migration from the countryside towards the cities is because of the
industrialization of the peasant economies. All the migrant labour force could
not however be absorbed in the modern sector (industrial sector) because of
two reasons: first, the low rate of industrialization and second its increasing
capitalistic nature. So, the surplus labor try to find informal ways to earn
money and livelihoods in the new processes created within the urban economic
system which is a subsistence segment (informal sector). The capital part of the
urban economy is in a contradiction with the informal sector (often, the
subsistence sector) and also there is the dualistic tendency in the overall
economic structure. When development takes place, informal sectors occur: the
direct transfer of modern institutions and techniques of production is instant;
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the informal sector has become associated with the urban poverty, blights,
under-employment and unemployment.
During the last two decades Iran’s population has increased from 49.4
million in 1986 to 70.4 million in 2006. Urbanization has also grown very
rapidly during this time period: the urban population increased from 47 per cent
to 68.4 per cent, from 1986 to 2006. An unruly and unregulated urban sprawl
has been the physical manifestation of the run-away population growth.
Population movements in the historical cores and the abandonment of major
parts of the city centers, the formation and growth of informal settlements at
the peripheries of the capital cities and the creation of poor areas around
villages which merged into the newly expanded city created a number of social,
physical and economic problems and also disparities. This has also resulted in
the neglect and destruction of historical districts within the cities. Urban blight
is not just a cause but it is also caused by the socio-economic changes and
improper management as well.
According to the last published statistics by the Ministry of Housing and
Urban Development, there are more than 14,000 ha of deteriorated areas
among the 10 metropolises in Iran. Based on the 2005 rates for renewal of the
14,000 ha, we need as much as US $ 140 billion: the federal Government has
accepted 12 per cent out of the total expenses and municipalities 17 per cent
whereas the people shared 26 per cent with the rest (45 per cent) received from
bank loans and grants. Therefore, participation of the private and public sectors
is important for investment and for execution in regard to the Government
regulation and monitoring.
In a rapidly urbanizing world, towns and cities are dynamic and ever-
changing, often at the expense of their historical areas. In cities experiencing
rapid economic development, historical districts are often demolished due to
increasing pressure on, and rising value of, urban land (Lee, GKL, & Chan,
EHW. 2006). Alternatively, the remaining zones of neglect and disrepair, with
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chaotic construction and extension that give little thought to their historical and
cultural significance, alienated from the economic development and physical
transformation that goes on around them.
At the same time, historical districts often serve as the main symbols of
a city, and can be a major draw for tourists. Urban planners and policy-makers
around the world face the familiar dilemmas of conservation versus
development, and modernization of the social-economic functions of the
districts versus preservation of traditional economy, culture and lifestyle. A
historical district is an area within a city which can be considered significant
due to the presence of tangible and intangible heritage elements, or due to a
unique mix of characteristics relating to the built form, social-economic profile,
cultural elements, and the functions it performs within the city. Historical
districts often illustrate the history of the city - how, why and where it
developed, whilst highlighting the natural and cultural resources (Assari, A., &
Assari, E. 2012). In Iran, these usually constitute the oldest parts of the cities
and are easily identifiable, thanks to their typical characteristics like the
traditional houses, streetscapes, water systems, living communities and their
associated traditional livelihoods and social practices. A historical district
cannot and should not be defined simply on the basis of the age of its
constituent structures, or even typology of built form, administrative
boundaries, or the presence of heritage buildings, sites or monuments. In the
Indian context, the following conceptualization provides useful insight: Many
historical cities do not contain individual buildings of exemplary merit, but as a
precinct, they represent a way of life and living which is an intangible
characteristic of the urban heritage (Sinha, A., & Sharma, Y. 2009).
5.4 Factors for Identifying Blighted Areas in Iran and Shiraz City
Tehran’s Comprehensive / Master Urban Development Plan (2005)
states that the decayed areas are the regions which are vulnerable for disasters,
especially earthquakes. But based on High Council for Urban Planning and
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Architectural (HCUPA) of Iran definition, the blighted areas (urban blocks) are
urban blocks that have at least 50 per cent of their plots with the three
following characteristics:
1. Lack of stability;
2. Problems with accessibility; and
3. Tiny plots.
Unstable block: At least 50 per cent of its buildings would not be resistant and
that is mainly because of unsuitable construction materials or there are no
technical observations made after building as to their nature.
Inaccessible block: The urban block with at least 50 per cent of its roadways
are less than 6 meters in width.
Tiny block: At least 50 per cent of this block consists of plots with an area of
200 m2 and less.
The other secondary factors to indicate distressed areas are the
following:
1. Age of construction;
2. Construction materials;
3. Construction permission;
4. Plot deed (certificate);
5. Price of plot;
6. Infrastructure per capita; and
7. Percent of tenants;
8. Population density;
9. Number of households in one residential unit;
10. Sex ratio;
11. Patronage loading; and
12. Illiteracy.
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Table 5.1: Blighted Areas of Metropolitan Cities in Iran 2006
Metropolises of Iran
City Population
Total area of city
(hectare)
Area of blighted
area (hectare)
Percent of blighted
area
Tehran 7,797,520 62,100.0 3,268.0 5.26
Mashhad 2,427,316 28,293.8 2,258.7 7.98
Isfahan 1,602,110 17,067.1 2,157.0 12.6
Tabriz 1,378,935 23,745.0 2,500.0 10.53
Shiraz 1,227,331 15,599.5 1,691 10.84
Source: Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (Iran),(2013)
Tehran is the capital of Iran and 14,792 ha of Tehran is unstable; but if
we look for all the three blighted indicators (instability, tiny plots and problems
of accessibility), then the distressed areas amount to only 3,268 ha (Table 5.1).
Therefore, this 3,268 ha area is a confirmed extent by the Architectural and
Urban Development Council as a blighted area. In the other words, this area
has critical conditions among the urban Tehran. Besides Tehran, Shiraz city has
1,691 ha blighted area that approved by the High Council for Urban Planning
and Architectural (HCUPA) of Iran. In other words 1691 hectare of Shiraz city
has all three mentioned blighted factors together in one place, Shiraz city has
the most critical situation after Isfahan city, after that, Tabriz, Mashhad, Tehran
have the most percent of blighted area compared to the total area of its city.
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Table 5.2: Area of Deterioration based on 3 factors in Shiraz city 2006
Factors
Area (hectare)1 Percent
Tiny Block 2,003.9 10.76
Inaccessible Block 2,448.3 13.15
Unstable Block 3,645.4 19.57
Total area of Shiraz city 18,622.79 100.0
Shahro Khaneh Consulting Engineering Company, 2007
1. This is the area of each region with each specific factor. Each area may
have one, two or three of the factors in one and the same place. So the
sum of them would not be arithmetically 18,622.79 ha and either the
total percentage would not be equal to 100.
Table 5.2 shows deteriorated area in Shiraz city in 2006. As per this
table each blighted factor is considered separately. The area of urban blocks
which have at least 50 percent tiny blocks and inaccessible blocks are 2,003.9
hectare and 2,448.3 hectare in order that they constitute 10.76 per cent and
13.15 per cent of the total area of Shiraz city, respectively. The areas of urban
blocks which have more than 50 per cent of unstable constructions are 3,645.4
hectare that constitutes 19.57 per cent of the total area of Shiraz city. In fact,
unstable blocks in Shiraz city are with the most signs of deterioration. At least
50 per cent of 3,645.4 hectare include buildings that are not resistant and that is
mainly because of unsuitable construction materials or there are no technical
observations made after the building was constructed as to their nature and
strength.
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Table 5.3: Proportion of each Blighted factors to Total Area of
Deterioration in Shiraz city 2006
No. Characteristics/factors Area Percent to total
blighted area
1 Inaccessible Block 2,448.3 59.43
2 Tiny Block 2,003.9 48.65
3 Unstable Block 3,645.4 88.5
Total area of deterioration
(including at least one factor out of three
factors)
4,119.21 100.0
Shahro Khane Consulting Engineers, 2007
1. The total blighted area is not algebraically the sum of each factor and
the total area has been estimated using GIS map.
Table 5.3 reveals the area of urban blocks based on each blighted factor,
separately. The table shows the total deteriorated area of Shiraz city is 4,119.2
hectare and it includes at least one of the blighted factors. The area of urban
blocks which have at least 50 per cent inaccessible, tiny and unstable blocks
constitute, respectively, 59.43 per cent, 48.65 per cent and 88.5 per cent of the
total area of deterioration in Shiraz city in 2006. Obviously, unstable blocks in
Shiraz city are ones with highest area among the other blight factors.
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Table 5.4: Proportion of Deteriorated Areas and Blighted areas to Total
Area of Shiraz City 2006
Part Area Percent
Deteriorated area
(including at least one factor) 4,119.2 22.19
Blighted area
(including all three factors together) 1,691.2 9.08
Central Area
(as a blighted area) 375.82 2.02
Total Area of Shiraz City1 18,622.79 100.0
Shahro Khane Consulting Engineers, 2007
1. Total area of Shiraz city is not the sum of deteriorated, blighted and the Central areas,
algebraically.
Table 5.4 shows the proportion of deteriorated area, total blighted
area and the Central area (as a blighted area) out of Shiraz city area.
Deteriorated area consists of each urban block that at least 50 per cent of
that includes at least one blighted factor out of the three factors and it is
4,119.2 hectare that constitutes 26.4 per cent of the total area of Shiraz city.
On the other hand, blighted area is an urban block which consists of all
three factors, all together in the same place, and it is 1,691.2 hectare that
constitute 10,8 per cent of the total area of Shiraz city. The Central area of
Shiraz city is 375.82 hectare that totally is identified as a blighted area by
Development and Renewal Organization of Shiraz city, and it constitutes
2.02 per cent of Shiraz city. It means the Central area is an urban block that
more than 50 per cent of its texture includes inaccessible, unstable and tiny
blocks.
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Map 5.1: Distribution of Deteriorated Areas of Shiraz City
Source: Shahro Khane Consulting Engineers, 2007
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Table 5.5: Distribution of Deteriorated Areas of Shiraz 2006
Parts Area(ha) Percent
Historical area 375.82 9.8
Middle area 1,768.3 42.9
Peripheral area 1,975.08 47.2
Total 4,119.2 100.0
Source: Shahro Khane Consulting Engineers, 2007
Table 5.5 shows the distribution of deteriorated areas of Shiraz city in
2006. Total area of deterioration is 4,119.2 hectare. It means 4119.2 hectare of
Shiraz city has at least one of the blighted factors, tiny plots, unstable or
inaccessible blocks. As per the above table, the deteriorated areas are scattered
through Shiraz city and are categorized as the three parts: historical area or
historical centre; that is, the first phase of formation of Shiraz city. The total
area of this part is 375.82 hectare and is identified as a blighted area and
constitutes 9.8 per cent of the total deteriorated area. Middle area or second
phase of transformation of Shiraz city has 1,768.3 hectare of deteriorated area
and it constitutes 42.9 per cent of the total deterioration and finally peripheral
area, that is, the newest developed areas of Shiraz city and obviously it includes
suburbs which are the best habitat for slums and blights. AS much as 1,975.08
hectare of the deteriorated areas is located in the peripheral part that constitutes
47.2 per cent of the total area of Shiraz city and it is the most deteriorated
density among the other parts.
Map 5.1 shows the distribution of deteriorated areas of Shiraz city, and
as per the figure the Central area of Shiraz city is totally deteriorated. Besides
deteriorated areas, the Central area has been approved as a blighted area by the
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Architectural and Urban Development Council of Iran, because all the three
blighted factors gather together in this one area.
5.5 Factors of Urban Decline in Central Area of Shiraz City
Of the total geographical area of Shiraz city (18,622.79 ha), the Central
area of Shiraz city is 375.82 ha and it is deteriorated. The deteriorated Central
area is located in the historical and cultural texture and so the places are full of
historical monuments. Shiraz thus has its own urban heritage and cultural
identity but its historical, economic and cultural identity has for sometime been
under threat with blight. The health of the Central area can be tested on the
basis of the quality of civic life and status of urban property. The quality of
civic life has declined due to high density of population, pressure on urban land
resources, increasing prices of residential and non-residential land uses and at
the same time the inadequacy of community services, their poor maintenance
and expansion of Shiraz city toward the gardens with better climate in the city.
The northwest of Shiraz and the appearance of new and competitive
commercial centres in the newly developed areas of the city have led to the
migration of affluent people to the suburbs, migration of the rural people to the
inner city areas, and loss of urban gravity arising out of the shift of socio-
economic, political and administrative functions. Other causes may be the
decline in the basic services like the water supply, drainage, health care and
other community services, and increasing population density, poverty and
illiteracy. The decay of urban property has become clearly visible with the
obsolescence of buildings either due to misuse, non-use or disuse, neglect of
local monuments due to a lack of a sense of history and their improper
preservation. All these have led also to urban decline. Factors like the age of
buildings, functions of the city, financial soundness of the civic body, traffic
and transportation have determined the general health of the Central area of
Shiraz city. The neglect of these factors has contributed to urban decay. These
are the general socio-economic factors which cause the decline of the Central
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area with slight differentiations depending upon the physical location and
nature of Shiraz city.
Shiraz has indeed developed haphazardly over the years, especially from
1966 until now, and the older areas having been literally out of reach: narrow
lanes zigzagging along, following unplanned building lines, high construction
density, high rate of occupancy, almost total absence of open spaces and
services, mixed land uses, and the buildings have been falling apart. Added to
all of these ugly symptoms have been the depressing economic factors such as
the unemployment, inflation, low per capita income, inability to pay rent for
housing or for services provided and used by the residents and finally the
political unwillingness fortified by the administrative incompetence to deal
with the complex problems.
The inner city, often called the old city, downtown and city core,
presents the most dramatic, social and economic problems. They are centers of
historical importance and quite often people attach sentimental values to the
inner city. They are described as “the heart, the brain and the soul of the entire
urban organism”. Because of historical, socio-economic and legal problems,
the inner city presents a picture of decline and generation. As one scholar has
put it, ‘it is a microcosm of deprivation, economic decline and social
disintegration’. It is characterized as a symbol and summation of the dark side
of the whole society. They are mostly chaotic and unplanned. They present
sharp class divisions and economic inequalities. The Central area of Shiraz is
an example of a declining inner city presenting contrasting scenarios requiring
renewal and regeneration.
Renewal of our cities is the penalty for neglect. Irresponsible civic
management with negligent urban house-keeping allows obsolescence to
spread; it causes sickness, crime, delinquency, traffic deaths and injury. We not
only need to defend our standard of living, we are in need to achieve it. The
necessity for government to give its assistance has been clear and it is evident
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that private enterprise, unaided, is not able to provide an adequate supply of
satisfactory housing to meet the wide variations in the income levels of all the
people.
Historically, urban renewal of old or inner-city areas of Shiraz city was
addressed through urban revitalization initiatives, which focused mainly on
housing repair, reconstruction and extension or rehabilitation of infrastructure.
However, the ever-increasing population numbers and densities, pressures of
the market and the growing demand for land uses other than residential,
complex local governance arrangements, and still-limited capacities of local
authorities, have made the revitalization of historic districts an increasingly
complex undertaking. Some of the key challenges in this process are discussed
briefly below.
The ever increasing population of Shiraz city and densities, pressure of
the market and growing demand for land uses other than residential, complex
local governance arrangements, and still limited capacities of local authorities
in the historical center of Shiraz city in addition to geographical situation and
sudden expansion of the city toward the gardens around have made the out-
migration of local people from the Central area to its peripheries and the rural
and urban migration of vulnerable people into the historical area. These factors
have also led to deterioration.
5.5.1 Poverty and Deterioration of Living Environment
Urban poverty is a far more complex phenomenon than the rural
poverty; many aspects and dynamics of deprivation experienced in the city
have not been investigated as yet. Many of the urban poor end up living in the
historical center as these areas are the focal point of several economic
activities, especially of those in the informal sector, which represent the main
survival strategies of many unskilled individuals working as casual, daily wage
laborers, taxi drivers and construction or domestic workers. Many of these
184
people are rural migrants who move to the Iranian metropolises to work
seasonally, thus making these areas melting pots of very diverse groups of
people. Such diversity, however, coupled with poor living conditions, may also
exacerbate tensions and violence within various groups, creating an
environment where social upheavals are likely to happen.
The combination of unplanned urbanization and the lack of resources
and political will to maintain and conserve historical landscapes in cities have
resulted in a deteriorating physical environment in many city centers in Iran.
Historical districts across the world are taking steps to prevent a process
of gentrification, defined as “the evolution of an area towards a more bourgeois
social milieu” (Dastidar, S. 2007), and ghettoization, the concentration of
socially and economically marginalized groups of a particular class,
community or race. In Shiraz, ghettoization is clearly evident in the increasing
concentrations of the poor in historic districts, with their unbearable densities,
lack of open space, poor living conditions, disintegrating built heritage and
difficulties in securing land for public use or housing. Unfortunately, there is
no comprehensive analysis of poverty levels in historical areas of the Iranian
cities, and also employment and income levels of these areas. The inner reality
is that the people are trapped in an appalling housing situation from which they
do not have the economic capacity to escape
5.5.2 Urban Planning, Land Tenure, Ownership and Tenancy
The ineffectiveness of planning across all sizes and classes of Iranian
towns and cities is no secret. Urban planning in Shiraz has traditionally taken
the form of Master Plans, usually developed and implemented by specially
constituted development authorities which are outside the purview of the local
administration and hence not directly accountable to the local population.
These plans pay limited attention to social and economic development aspects,
financial resources mobilization for implementation as well as stakeholder
185
involvement. Economic planning or local economic development strategies are
rarely incorporated into the spatial planning exercise, with the result that the
plans are unrealistic and impossible to implement.
What emerges is largely a bundle of half-baked ideas incorporated into a
incorporated land use plan that planners insist should be implemented in its
entirety, at all costs (Ansari, A.S. 2000).
The implementation of urban plans is further hampered by the fact that
water and sewerage systems and power and telecommunication services, roads
and public transport, and housing and slums are controlled by other parastatal-
bodies or line departments of the Central and the Provincial Governments.
Local governments are responsible only for solid waste management,
maintenance of public spaces, and some basic repair and maintenance of other
services such as roads, street lighting and drainage systems.
Planning (and plan implementation) for historical districts, in particular,
is also adversely affected by the complexity of land tenure in these areas. As
owners move out of the inner city and other historical areas, as seen for
example in Shiraz, their properties are rented out either as a unit or subdivided
into a number of units, sometimes extended and modified to accommodate
more and more tenants. Often, courtyards are used as warehouses, while
verandahs and rooms are transformed into light-industry machine shops and
printing presses. Many historical districts are dotted with decaying buildings
and ill-maintained properties as Rent Control laws do not permit owners to
increase rents commensurate with the market rates. Owners of old buildings
have no incentive to maintain their properties if they are able to derive
adequate value from them. Tenants have no interest in maintaining the property
and thus contribute to its deterioration and decay. Public agencies get little
response from either the tenants or the absentee landlords while devising plans
for urban renewal, conservation or redevelopment of the area. Sometimes, the
properties are subdivided due to inheritance issues, but the ownership is not
186
clear. Once again, the occupants are often unwilling to invest in the
redevelopment of the entire property when they have been handed only a part
of it.
5.5.3 Weak Urban Governance
Of course, the poor are hit not only by middle class activism, but also
the interests of private developers. As pressure on urban land rises, and
historical cores of the cities become increasingly precious commodities,
conservationists and local governments enforce more and more planning and
legislative measures to protect them, while the developers and entrepreneurs
attempt to derive maximum economic benefits from what they see as prime
urban land. However, in their zeal to beautify and modernize cities, planners
and policy makers often end up playing into the hands of developers, their
efforts towards urban renewal or economic redevelopment in historical districts
end up demolishing the settlements and destroying the livelihoods of the poor.
There have been many cases of forced evictions of the poor in Iranian
cities, city beautification and clean-up drives regularly target pavement stalls,
street hawkers and other informal services and shops that are an integral part of
all Iranian cities, especially their historical cores. Thus, the people who earn
their livelihoods from informal markets and live in the informal settlements of
the historical core endure an uncertain existence, living with the perpetual fear
of loss of shelter and livelihood.
Factors such as demographic, socio-economic, administrative, physical
and political such as growth of population, high density, inadequate
transportation, insufficient water supply, outdated sewerage system, inadequate
power supply, squatting of Afghan and very poor people on private houses,
lack of medical, health and educational facilities, decline in economy and
employment, inadequate housing, neglect of historical monuments,
incompatible land uses, urban poverty, political factors, and inadequate
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recreational facilities. Apart from the above, factors like moving away of
affluent people from the old city, improper attention by the government and
elected officials and the negligence of the civic body are also equally
responsible for the decline of the central area. These factors are discussed in the
questionnaire in some detail.
Most initiatives relating to urban renewal or conservation of historical
areas in Shiraz city has thus far had a very narrow orientation, focusing either
on repair and reconstruction of old housing areas or on the application of
modern zoning practices and removal of non-conforming uses or the
preservation of monuments, World Heritage Sites or other selected structures
of tourist interest. Furthermore, the past initiatives have had a clear physical
emphasis rather than a broader socio-economic approach. for example, a wide
range of interventions, ranging from restoration and protection of historical
buildings (both public and private), model street facades, solid waste
management and environmental regeneration have led to an improved quality
of the living environments across the historical quarters. In Shiraz, on the other,
the heritage organization should focus more attention on intangible as well as
tangible heritage.
5.6 Bala Kaf District
The Central area of Shiraz city includes eleven districts, of which Bala
Kaf district is one of them and located in the south west of the central area, this
region is the most populated among the other districts: the number of
population in 1996 was 18,322 persons. The population growth rate between
1986 and 1996 was -1.54 per cent and the population density were 164 persons
per hectare which were in the fourth rank among the whole eleven districts
which has the highest population density.
The purpose of this section is to document the socio-economic attributes
of the residents of Bala Kaf district in the old city including their views on the
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aspects like decline of the Central area, in civic services like the water supply,
drainage, roads, street lighting, pavements; sanitation including community
latrines, conservancy services, housing, community facilities, impact of
renewal programs, community participation, and of course all with their
suggestions.
5.6.1 Decline of Bala Kaf District
The causative factors for the degeneration of the quality of life in the
Central area of Shiraz city were manifold: demographic, socio-economic, civic
and administrative, namely (Table 5.6):
A) Excess population;
B) inadequate civic amenities (poor maintenance of roads, inadequate
sanitation, water supply, electricity, gas, security and safety, hygiene
and health facilities, sports and green spaces, education);
C) Out-migration of affluent people from the Central area to other parts
of Shiraz city;
D) Imbalance in the distribution of urban amenities and civic services
throughout Shiraz city and the Central area;
E) Heavy traffic;
F) Shifting of government and other offices to the other parts of city;
G) Neglect of historical monuments;
H) Insufficient new and affordable housing (which is deemed affordable
to those with a median and low household income residents);
I) General decline in the level of income of the residents;
J) Inadequate attention of urban planners to the experiences and lessons
from previous schemes; and
K) Lack of proper renewal approach (selection of a correct and suitable
scheme) for each specific region.
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Table 5.6: Factors Causing Decline in the Bala Kaf District
Factors A B C D E F G H I J K
Number of respondents who point each factor as priority from the list
65 292 184 184 104 58 115 273 280 107 203
Percent 17 76 48 48 27 15 30 71 73 28 53
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2012.
Figure 5.2
Table 5.6 shows the respondents, the priorities among the factors
causing decline in the Bala Kaf district in the Central area of Shiraz city, The
respondents were asked to indicate as to which of the above or any other was
the most important factor, in order of priority, for the fast pace of urban decay
in the Central area of Shiraz city. While all the causative factors of urban decay
analyzed above were approved by the respondents in varying percentages, 76
per cent of the respondents considered inadequate civic amenities like the poor
maintenance of roads, inadequate sanitation, water supply, electricity, gas,
security and safety, hygiene and health facilities, sports and green spaces,
education as the most important factor, in order of priority, for the decline of
the Central area. Next to inadequate civic amenities, it was the factor of general
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decline in the level of income of the residents (73 per cent of respondents)
which was causing decline in the old city.
The other factors were the insufficient new affordable housing which
was deemed affordable to those with a median and low household income (71
per cent), lack of proper renewal approach (selection of a correct and suitable
scheme) for each specific region (53 per cent), imbalance in the distribution of
urban amenities and civic services through Shiraz city and Central area (as per
the opinion of 48 per cent), which was causing decline in the old city. These
were followed by out-migration of affluent people from the Central area to the
other parts of Shiraz city (48 per cent of the respondents), neglect of historical
monuments (30 per cent), inadequate attention of urban planners to the
experiences and lessons from previous schemes (28 per cent), heavy traffic (27
per cent), excess of population (17 per cent), shifting government and other
offices to the new city (15 per cent).
Thus, according to Table 5.8, the three dominant factors responsible for
the decline of the central area were: (1) Inadequate civic amenities (poor
maintenance of roads, inadequate sanitation, water supply, electricity, gas,
security and safety, hygiene and health facilities, sports and green spaces,
education); (2) General decline in the level of income of the residents; and (3)
Insufficient new affordable housing (which was deemed not affordable to those
with a median and low household income residents).
5.6.2 Living Conditions
The respondents were further asked to express their opinion on the
prevailing living conditions in the Bala Kaf district in central area of Shiraz
city. There were a few general comments about the living conditions in the old
city. Thus, this question gained importance in the extraction of the opinions of
the old city residents. Table 4.9 indicates the residents’ opinions about the
living conditions in the old city.
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Table 5.7: Living Conditions, Most Important Factor in Order of Priority in the Central Area (Bala Kaf district)
Living condition
Law and management
problems
Central of unsafely, insecurity and unrest
Environment is unhygienic
Traffic and road problems
Total Respondents
Number of respondents
219 307 319 261 384
Percent 57 80 83 68 100
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2012.
Figure 5.3
Table 5.7 above indicates that 83 per cent of the respondents opined that
as per the existing conditions, the environment of the Bala Kaf district had
become unhygienic. It included inadequate civic services, especially poor
maintenance of roads and inadequate sanitation, problems regarding storm
water drainage that was open, and drains filled with garbage and waste not
connecting to underground urban sewerage system. Similarly 80 per cent of the
respondents commented that Bala Kaf district had become the centre of
insecurity, unrest and unsafety. This might be the indication of the frequent
occurrence of deterioration in the Central area. Communal groups, addicted
persons, prostitutes, thieves and criminals had chosen the old city as the
platform to create disturbances for their own benefits, businesses, livelihoods
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and services. Everything was being disturbed by the anti-social elements and
68 per cent of the respondents indicated that the Central area of Shiraz city had
heavy traffic and problems with the roads such as inadequate street lighting, no
bulbs on the poles and the conditions of the roads were awful since most of
them were so narrow, full of pot holes and bad road surfacing. As much as 57
per cent of the respondents reacted about the law and management problems
like the legal problems about joint ownerships, strict and inflexibility of laws of
the Cultural Heritage Organization and inadequate attention of the urban
authorities to the main problems of the residents. On the whole, the Bala Kaf
residents were not happy about the living conditions and the quality of life
existing in the district. Some old and native residents of the district had started
selling their houses and shifting either to the suburbs or to other parts of Shiraz
city. There was a general complaint on the especially unhygienic urban
environment and unsafe living spaces.
5.6.3 Conservancy of Services
Table 5.8 shows the status of conservancy services in the Bala Kaf
district in the Central area of Shiraz city.
Table 5.8: Status of Conservancy of Services
Status of Conservancy Services Remarks Percent
Are there public dustbins in your
locality?
No 100
What problems your localities face
because of delay in clearance of
wastes in the roads?
Bad smell
Mmosquito/dog menace
Fighting among residents
Dirty Roads and water
stagnation
40
93
30
68
How frequently are the home
wastes collected by municipality
from various houses?
Daily 100
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2012.
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Figure 5.4
Table 5.8 gives a clear picture about the conservancy services available
in the Bla Kaf district. All the 384 respondents, 100 percent of them, stated that
public dustbins were not provided in their neighborhood whereas 93 per cent of
respondents stated that the area was turning into a breeding ground for
mosquitoes, scorpions, snakes and dogs. According to 68 per cent of the
respondents, people were throwing garbage on roads, dumping it in nearby
storm water drain or on the corner of the street and delay in the clearance of
public waste were leading to water stagnation in the area. According to 40 per
cent of the respondents, the delay in the clearance of wastes on the roads was
creating bad smell, especially during the rainy seasons and somehow fighting
among the residents since their district was filled with garbage and polluted.
194
5.6.4 Problems with Roads
Table 5.9: Problems with Roads
Problem With Roads Remarks Percent
Type of Surface Road Asphalt 100
Condition of the
Existing Roads?
a. too narrow and long 68
b. full of pot holes 55
c. manholes not covered 34
d. bad surfacing 73
Do the Existing Roads
Bear the Present
Traffic Load?
a. Yes 65
b. No 35
Problems of the
Existing Roads
a. accidents because of
narrow roads
17
b. no proper maintenance 30
c. pot holes 25
d. heavy traffic 28
How Is the Pollution
Amount of Roads?
a. High 92
b. Average 8
c. Low 0
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2012.
195
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Generally, the roads in the Central area reflect the characteristics of the
area. All of the respondents expressed that the roads were of asphalt, but too
narrow and long according to 68 per cent of the respondents; 73 per cent of
them defined the roads in their localities as bad surfaced, while 55 per cent said
they were full of pot holes and some of them stated that manholes were not
covered at all, while most residents commented on the heavy traffic (65 per
cent). Thus, everyone had defined the status of the roads in and around their
196
localities as very unsatisfactory. But almost all the respondents agreed that the
existing roads cannot bear the present traffic loads, problems such as accidents
occur frequently because of narrow roads, and the roads are not maintained
properly and during the rainy days, water stagnates everywhere. As much as 92
per cent of the respondents expressed that the level of air and noise pollution
was severely high. Thus, there were lots of problems pertaining to roads in the
old city. The Cultural Heritage Organization of Shiraz city has the strict and
inflexible laws about the formation works or widening of any road in the whole
district of the Central area; and there are still a number of lanes which need
immediate attention. The officials are citing financial constraints as the only
reason due to which they could not take up the roads works.
5.6.5 Public Participation
How far did the communities participate or were asked to participate in
the renewal programs and how did they cooperate with the authorities was
another important factor of the present survey. To know all about these aspects,
some questions were posed to the respondents. Their responses are shown in
Table 5.10.
197
Table 5.10: Community Participation
Opinion Yes (percent)
No (percent)
No response (percent)
Were you consulted while
formulating renewal policies? - 47 53
Was your cooperation sought at
any time? - 86 14
Was implementation of
programs delayed because of
non-cooperation?
7 68 25
Have you ever represented to
municipality or other relevant
organizations for the needs of
your area?
8 69 23
Are you willing or eager to
participate? 22 30 48
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2012.
It can be inferred from Table 5.10 that the local people were not
consulted at any time while formulating the renewal programs. These were the
answers given by 47 per cent of them while the remaining 53 per cent were not
aware of these things. Similarly, their cooperation was not sought in
implementation as well. A few of them (7 per cent) expressed that
implementation of the programs were delayed because of non-cooperation, in
works like creating a new road, road widening or construction of shops. As
much as 68 per cent of the respondents believed that there was not any
relationship between the two; however, 25 percent of the respondents were not
aware of the subject. Out of the total respondents, only 8 percent informed that
they represented to the “municipality of the Central area of Shiraz city” several
times on such things as connections to the urban sewerage system or some
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proposed for execution of some programs, while according to the majority (69
per cent of the respondents) the response was negative and 23 per cent did not
have any idea about this matter. Also 22 per cent of the respondents answered
that they were ready to participate and 30 per cent were reluctant to participate
and 48 per cent were indifferent to any kind of cooperation and participation.
Thus there was no specific defined pattern of public participation in the current
situation in the Central area. Sometimes, there were just one kind of public
participation in the district, that is, voluntary participation; they gave some
suggestions on housing programs, preservation of monuments or heritage
houses or financial help for house repairs by the government or municipality.
The most important reason in the district which people were reluctant to
participate were low income residents, also they did not trust municipalities as
project leader, because they were not sure about the achievable or realizable
project outcomes in the given time and finally there was no advertisement or
public knowledge about the importance of participation in the field of making
decision or supervision. People did not feel that they were effective and their
urban management did not have any knowledge about the residents’ ideas or
their social statuses and needs.
5.6.6 Street Lighting
To know the availability, adequacy and problems pertaining to street
lighting in the old city, the respondents are asked a few questions. Table
5.11explains the opinion of the respondents on the above aspects.
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Table 5.11: Street Lighting
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2012.
No doubt, street lighting covered the entire Central area, including the
Bala Kaf district. But there are some problems in the availability of street
lighting in some places or narrow passages / roads about (56 per cent of
respondents are unsatisfied with the availability), in terms of availability of
number of street lights, 62 per cent of the respondents expressed the adequacy
but in terms of lighting 90 per cent of the respondents expressed inadequacy.
So the inadequacy of street lighting in this strict is more in terms of lighting not
necessarily in the number of poles: it however causes problems for the
residents such as difficulty in approaching lanes and by-lanes of the locality
and also the fear of anti-social elements. And 80 per cent of respondents
Street Lighting Remarks percent
Availability of Street Lighting in the Locality?
a) Yes 54
b) No 46
Is It Adequate in Terms of Number??
a) Yes 62
b) No 38
Is it Adequate in Terms of Lighting?
a) Yes 10
b) No 90
Problems of Inadequacy?
a) Difficulty in Approaching the Locality
53
b) Anti-Social Problems 47
Problems Regarding Overall Street Lighting
a) No Bulbs On the Poles 80
b) Low Voltage 0
c) Lights Are Not Switched On Regularly
8
d) Regular Power Cut 0
General Maintenance of Street lighting
a) Satisfactory 0
b) Poor 100
How Is the Lamp Light of Passing Roads?
Weak 100
200
believed ‘no bulbs on the poles’ is the most important problem in overall street
lighting; then 8 per cent of them opine that the ‘irregular switching-on of the
lights’ is the second important problem. All of the respondents have answered
that the general maintenance of street lighting has been poor since they have
observed that, on the by-lanes, electric poles were seen without bulbs and they
have not been replaced when necessary.
5.6.7 Community Facilities
The following Table 5.12 shows the availability of community facilities
in the Bala Kaf district in Shiraz city.
Table 5.12: Social Infrastructure
Facilities Very satisfied
Satisfied Unsatisfied No response
Total
Education
Kindergarten 30 30 4 30 100
Elementary School 60 15 - 1 100
Secondary school 38 52 - 10 100
High school 38 50 - 12 100
College 36 50 2 12 100
Health
facilities
Dispensary - 40 60 - 100
Clinic - 72 28 - 100
Private hospitals - - 96 4 100
Government hospital - 20 80 0 100
Other
facilities
Play grounds - 4 92 4 100
Markets 4 36 54 6 100
Post offices - 74 16 10 100
Banks - 82 10 8 100
Cinemas halls - - 96 4 100
Parks - 1 96 4 100
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2012.
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Table 5.12 indicates that, in Bala Kaf district, kindergarten, elementary,
secondary and high schools, colleges, clinics, post offices and banks are all
available in the neighborhood. Similarly, other community facilities such as the
dispensary, private hospitals, government hospitals, playgrounds, markets,
cinema halls and parks are not available, as per the information given by the
respondents. A number of government hospitals, play grounds and markets
have come up in the other districts of the Central area, but the adequacy of
these land uses for residents of Bala Kaf district is not satisfactory. Also land
use patterns of the Central area from 1992 to 2010 reveals the above. The
Central area has faced the diminishing of lands under land uses such as the
public and semi-public, public utility (urban physical infrastructure), especially
such as the health facilities, parks, cinema halls and open grounds. This is
certainly a show of the decline of the Central area. Inadequate health and other
facilities were shown by the below figures as well.
Health facilities in Bala Kaf District in Percent, 2012
Figure 5.7
202
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
203
Other Facilities in Bla Kaf District in Percent, 2012
Figure 5.10
Figure 5.11
204
Figure 5.12
Figure 5.13
205
Table 5.13: Other Urban Facilities
Other Urban Facilities Remarks Percent
How long a person takes to reach
to his work?
a) up to 15 min 10
b) between 15 to 30 min 24
c) 30 min to 1 hour 40
d) more than 1 hour 8
e) no response 18
Do you have a vehicle?
a) Yes 42
b) No 54
c) No Response 4
If you have a vehicle, what type
is this?
a) Auto 18
b) Cycle 32
c) Others 50
What kind of vehicle do you use
to get to your work place or your
school?
a) own vehicle 48
b) bus 24
c) Taxi 6
d) Walking 2
e) Others 2
Have you taken loan?
a) Yes 20
b) No 80
What is the reason for taking
loan?
a) The home appliances 4
b) Housing 32
c) Others 64
If you need loan from
government for what kind of
below needs you need?
a) Repair in the house 8
b) Addition of rooms to the house 0
c) New house 10
d) Others 82
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2012.
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Table 5.13 shows the status of other facilities in the Bala Kaf district, for
most residents spend 30 minutes to 1 hour to get to their work place. With
regard to this matter, most of the employed persons of the Central area are
labourers and they are working at the factories in the suburbs of Shiraz city or
are elementary workers who work at the Central area. Most of them do not
have their own vehicles and most also have bicycles which shows their low
economic status. Most of the respondents have expressed that they have not
taken any loan; it could be an understatement since most of them have not
replied to this question. They may feel it is a very private question that true
answer could not have any benefits for them.
5.6.8 Drainage
With a view to knowing the availability of drainage and its related
problems in the Bala Kaf district of the Central area, the respondents have been
asked a few questions. Table 5.16 indicates their response.
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Table 5.14: Availability and Problems of Drainage
Availability and Problems of
Drainage
Remarks Percent
Storm water drainage system? a) Open drainage 24
b) Without drainage 76
Type of underground drainage
or sewerage system?
Wall 100
Reasons for not connecting to
underground drainage?
Distance of underground
drainage
100
Problems regarding storm
water drainage?
a) Bad smell 48
b) Not cleared regularly 8
c) drains are filled with
garbage and waste
36
d) no response 8
System of sanitation? Septic tank 100
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2012.
Figure 5.14
208
Figure 5.15
Table 5.14 presents an overview of the drainage in the Bala Kaf district.
As is evident in the area, all respondents have informed about the non-
availability of closed storm water drainage system, 24 per cent even open
drainage and the remaining 76 per cent have expressed that there is no storm
water drainage at all. The sewer is in fact flowing on the streets, which are
causing health hazards, bad smell and pollution. As many as 48 per cent of
respondents have complained that no regular clearing of drains, which causes
bad smell and 36 per cent have complained that drains are filled with garbage
and waste material. The whole area of the district, according to every one of the
respondents, is not covered with underground drainage or urban sewerage
system; all houses have septic tanks; and it is because the underground water
level is very high in the region.
And the Central area of Shiraz city is located in the middle of the urban
underground storm water drains from the northwest to the southwest of Shiraz
city. The high level of underground water in the Central area leads to septic
tanks missing their functions and they in fact become impractical or
overloaded: this leads to many hardships and unhygienic conditions for the
inhabitants. Further, because of the narrow roads, the vehicles cannot get to the
209
houses for collecting the septic sludges. So, the septic tanks cause pollution of
the underground water and the environment and accordingly the connections of
the houses in the Central area to the urban sewerage system are very costly for
the Shiraz Sewerage Bureau. One solution is to prevent the entry of storm
water from other parts of Shiraz city to the Central area and not let the storm
water flow into the septic tanks by providing a separate storm water system for
them. This would certainly lead to a decrease of the underground water level in
the Central area. As a consequence of neglect and inaction, the old septic tanks
have become obsolete and, in many localities, they are overloaded. The
existing treatment process is also most outdated. Lack of urban sewerage or
drainage system is thus a major problem which the entire old city is facing
today.
5.6.9 Housing
To assess the standard of housing, types of houses, economic
affordability of the housing, certain questions have been included in the
questionnaire. The responses of the respondents are shown in Table 5.15.
210
Table 5.15: Housing Conditions
Housing Conditions Remarks Percent
Type of house a) single 87
b) courtyard 13
Nature of house
ownership
a) Own 42
b) Rented 54
c) Illegal construction 4
Years of construction a) Less than 10 years 4
b) More than 10 years 94
c) No response 2
Building quality a) Good 4
b) Fair 8
c) Bad 84
d) Fit for demolish 4
If building quality is bad
or fit for demolish, the
reason for not taking up
repairs?
a) Tenant 48
b) Financial inability 42
c) Joint property and others 10
Is there any shortage of
housing in the central
area?
a) Yes 31
b) No 42
c) No idea 27
Source: Questionnaire Survey 2012
211
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.17
212
Figure 5.18
With regard to the type of housing, of the 384 persons interviewed, 87
per cent have shown that their houses are single type and 13 per cent courtyard
type and most other houses are rented. According to 94 per cent of the
respondents, their houses were constructed more than 10 years ago and only 4
per cent of them live in housing of less than 10 years: this means that nearer to
whole housing stock in the Bala Kaf area are in deterioration. The next answer
reveals the building quality of the housing in the area: only 12 per cent of the
houses are good and fair, and the remaining 88 per cent are bad and fit for
demolition only. So, most of the respondents have stated that their houses need
immediate repair or they will be in a dilapidated condition. The respondents
whose houses need immediate repairs are asked to state the reason for not
taking up repairs. Nearly half the respondents (48 per cent) have expressed that
they are not the owners of the houses, so they do not want to show interest in
carrying out repairs. Also, apart from the above reason, nearer to two-fifths of
the respondents (42 per cent) have indicated their financial inabilities as the
reason for not taking up the repairs immediately. In addition to them, 10 per
cent have stated that their houses are a joint property, and others individuals are
not coming forward to initiate the repairs. On the other hand, some legal and
management problems about the joint property can be the cause as well. In the
213
Bala Kaf district, there is no housing shortage in terms of quantity, according to
42 per cent of the respondents, but the housing shortage can be seen in terms of
quality.
It has been observed that most of the houses are small, dilapidated and
in unsatisfactory conditions and so they need immediate repair or
reconstruction. There is no open space to develop or construct new housing for
the poor in this district. The alternative is to renovate the existing housing stock
or accumulation of the old, small and declined houses and replace new
apartments. In this way, the remaining lands from the demolition of many old
houses can be used for some needed and necessary land uses which in this area
are in deficiency such as the park, play grounds, sports complexes, parking lots,
cinema halls, health facilities and markets.
5.7 Hypotheses Testing
As mentioned in the methodology chapter, the second statistical method
used in analysing the questionnaire data is the perceptive analysis through
Pearson Chi-Square test (χ2), likelihood ratio, linear-by-linear association,
using the SPSS.
1. Based on the perceptive analysis, ‘number in migrants’ is supposed to
be an independent factor (criterion) and ‘deterioration’ is assumed as a
dependent factor. On the other hand, based on the case processing
summary, the value of χ2 between the two mentioned criteria is
191.354 at p < 0.05, so it could be true which say according to Pearson
Chi-Square test (χ2), there is a direct relation between “deterioration”
and “number of migrants”.
2. Value of χ2 between “years of settlement” and “deterioration” is
170.219 at p < 0.05, so it could be true which say according to Pearson
Chi-Square test (χ2) there is a direct relation between “years of
settlement” and “deterioration”.
214
3. Value of χ2 between “number of rented houses” and “deterioration” is
102.381 at p < 0.05, so it could be true which say according to Pearson
Chi-Square test (χ2) there is a direct relation between “number of
rented houses” and “deterioration”.
4. Value of χ2 between “number of dilapidated houses” and
“deterioration” is 6.481 at p < 0.05, so it could be true which say
according to Pearson Chi-Square test (χ2) there is a direct relation
between “number of dilapidated houses” and “deterioration”.
5. Value of χ2 between “financial inability to connect to drainage” and
“deterioration” is 18.056 at p< 0.05, so it could be true which say
according to Pearson Chi-Square test (χ2) there is a direct relation
between “financial inability to connect to drainage” and
“deterioration”.
6. Value of χ2 between “deterioration” and “migration of affluent people
from historical centre” is 15.753 at p < 0.05, so it is true that according
to Pearson Chi-Square test (χ 2), there is a direct relation between
“deterioration” and “migratiom of affluent people from historical
centre”.
“Migration of the affluent people from the historical centre” is one of
the important causes for historical decline; however on the other hand
deterioration causes more out-migration too. However I indicate in the
“literature and also in the decline factors in historical centre of Shiraz city” as
the following sentences:
The ever increasing population of Shiraz city and densities, pressure of
the market and growing demand for land uses other than residential, complex
local governance arrangements, and still limited capacities of local authorities
in the historical center of Shiraz city in addition to geographical situation and
sudden expansion of the city toward the gardens around have made the out-
215
migration of local people from the Central area to its peripheries and the rural
and urban migration of vulnerable people into the historical area. These factors
have also led to deterioration.
Six relations between six criteria and deterioration have been considered
for analysis and it has turned out that these 6 factors (“number of migrants,
years of settlement, number of for rented houses, number of dilapidated houses,
financial inability to connect to drainage, migration of affluent people from
historical centre”) have direct relation with deterioration.
By the acceptance of all the above direct relations, the following
hypothesis below could be proved: Centripetal and centrifugal forces of
the city are the two causes that have created blighted areas in the
central areas of Shiraz city.
1. Based on the perceptive analysis in this study, “open storm water
drainage system” is an independent factor (criterion) and
“deterioration” is a dependent factor; on the other hand, based on case
processing summary, the value of χ2 between the two criteria is
501.863 at p<0.05, so it is true that, according to Pearson Chi-Square
test (χ2), there is a direct relation between “deterioration” and “open
storm water drainage system”.
2. Value of χ2 between “not cleared regularly” and “deterioration” is
211.760 at p< 0.05, so it is true that, according to Pearson Chi-Square
test (χ2), there is a direct relation between “not cleared regularly” and
“deterioration”.
3. Value of χ2 between “condition of the roads” and “deterioration” is
222.417 at p< 0.05, so it is true that, according to Pearson Chi-Square
test (χ2), there is a direct relation between “conditions of the roads”
and “deterioration”. This may be explained away by the fact, ‘no good
roads, no or reduced income from tourists’ and as a result conditions
216
of the roads may be said to result infurther deterioration of the area as
well.
4. Value of χ2 between “satisfied with education facilities” and
“deterioration” is 359.832 at p< 0.05, so it is true that there is a direct
relation between “satisfied with educational facilities” and
“deterioration”. There is perhaps no option but to be satisfied with the
educational facilities because deterioration has ushered in
deterioration in educational institutions as well.
5. Value of χ 2 between “satisfied with health facilities” and
“deterioration” is 0.91 and p=0.4, so it could be true which say
according to Pearson Chi-Square test (χ 2) there is not a direct relation
between “satisfied with health facilities” and “deterioration”. A
similar argument as given to the educational institutions holds good
for this hypothesis as well.
6. Value of χ 2 between “satisfied with post, bank, cinemas” and
“deterioration” is 0.81 and p=0.85, so it could be true which say
according to Pearson Chi-Square test (χ 2) there is not a direct relation
between “satisfied with post, bank, cinemas” and “deterioration”. The
same argument holds true for this as well.
Six relations between six criteria and deterioration have been
considered; out of these 6 factors these 2 factors (open storm water drainage
system and not clearing it regularly) have direct relations with deterioration.
By the acceptance of the direct relations, the following hypothesis can
be considered as proven: The Development Authority of the city has
been concentrating greatly on the development of other parts of the
city than in the central areas of Shiraz city.
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Based on the perceptive analysis in this study “participation in
formulating renewal policies”, is an independent factor (criterion) and
“deterioration” is a dependent factor; on the other hand, based on the case
processing summary, the value of χ2 between the two criteria is 0.63 at p =
0.15, so it is true that, according to Pearson Chi-Square test (χ2), there is no
direct relation between “deterioration” and “participation in formulating
renewal policies”.
1. Value of χ 2 between “cooperation at any time” and “deterioration” is
0.88 at p = 0.9, so it is true that, according to Pearson Chi-Square test
(χ2), there is no direct relation between “cooperation at any time” and
“deterioration”.
2. Value of χ2 between “program delayed” and “deterioration” is 70.929
and p < 0.05, so it is true that there is a direct relation between
“program delayed” and “deterioration”.
3. Value of χ 2 between “not represented to municipality” and
“deterioration” is 14.032 at p< 0.05, and this means that there is a
direct relation between “not represented to municipality” and
“deterioration”.
4. Value of χ2 between “non-reaction about participation” and
“deterioration” is 0.88 and p = 0.9 and this is to say that there is no
direct relation between “non-reaction about participation” and
“deterioration”.
5. Value of χ2 between “shifting government and other offices to the
new city” and “deterioration” is 82.432 and p < 0.05, and this is to
mean that there is a direct relation between “shifting government and
other offices to the new city” and “deterioration”.
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6. Value of χ2 between “neglect of historical monuments” and
“deterioration” is 172.224 at p<0.05 which means that there is a direct
relation between “neglect of historical monuments” and
“deterioration”.
7. Value of χ2 between “insufficient affordable housing” and
“deterioration” is 409.043 and p<0.05, so it could be true which say
according to Pearson Chi-Square test (χ 2) there is a direct relation
between “insufficient affordable housing” and “deterioration”.
8. Value of χ2 between “inadequate civic services” and “deterioration” is
198.177 and p < 0.05, so it could be true which say according to
Pearson Chi-Square test (χ 2) there is not a direct relation between
“inadequate civic services” and “deterioration”.
The hypotheses above may be explained away also by the fact that
follows: “shifting government and other offices to the new city”, “insufficient
affordable housing” and “inadequate civic services” (Hypotheses 5, 7 and 8)
have direct and logic relation with deterioration, because all of these actions are
due to misuse, non-use or disuse, neglect of local monuments due to a lack of a
sense of history and their improper preservation, improper attention by the
government and elected officials and the negligence of the civic body (they
shifted their offices and their most important housing projects and civic
services to the other parts of city) so all of these are also equally responsible for
the decline of the central area.
Nine relations between nine criteria and deterioration have been
considered only to accept 2 factors (program delayed, neglect of historical
monuments) have direct relation with deterioration.
By accepting the above, the following hypothesis is considered
verified: The Central area has further been deteriorated due to
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neglect of managerial responsibilities and delay in the
implementation of programs in the Central area of Shiraz city.
1. Value of χ2 between “lack of attention to the previous plan
experiences” and “deterioration” is 313.925 at p < 0.05, and thus there
is a direct relation between “lack of attention to the previous plan
experiences” and “deterioration”.
2. Value of χ2 between “lack of knowledge to select proper approach”
and “deterioration” is 43.084 at p < 0.005to mean that there is a direct
relation between “lack of knowledge to select proper approach” and
“deterioration”.
Two relations between two criteria and deterioration have been
considered; the two factors (lack of attention to the previous plan experiences,
lack of knowledge to select proper approach) have proven direct relations with
deterioration.
By accepting the above direct relations, and also the three factors that have
already been considered (program delayed, not representing to municipality
and migration of affluent people) the following hypothesis is considered
verified: The existing Master Plan for Shiraz City does not have right
approach for either the urban renewal or the renewal of the blighted areas in
the Central area of Shiraz city.
Based on the perceptual analysis, the factors (such as the number of
migrants, open storm water drainage system, cooperation at any time, lack of
attention to the previous plan experiences) have been treated as independent
(criteria) and ‘deterioration’ as a dependent factor. By the acceptance of all the
above direct relations, some of the following research questions could be
answered as shown below:
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1. Does the Development Authority of the city have been concentrating
greatly on the development of other parts of the city than in the central
areas of Shiraz city? yes
2. Are Centripetal and centrifugal forces of the city, the two causes that
have created blighted areas in the central areas of Shiraz city? Yes.
3. Improper management of infrastructural facilities is one of the causes of
urban decline in the central area of Shiraz city? Yes.
4. Would the current urban renewal initiatives in central area, solve the
decline problems? No.
Also the positive and direct relationships between some of the criteria and
deterioration could be proved as both the causes and consequences of blight in
the Central area of Shiraz city.
5.8 Conclusion
Though slums and blight seem to be identical, they differ in subtle
respects. The differences between blight and slum areas are the following:
• Blighted areas are a larger and more comprehensive a term in respect of
size of area and also in their definition. Blighted areas include slums;
and so blight refers to a large area, in size in comparison with the slums.
Blighted area includes residential and non-residential land uses but
slums include just residential areas. Besides, blights are not as much
deteriorated as slums.
• Slums are on the other the worst forms and the worst grade of blight.
• Blights as a phenomenon is not static; it spreads from house to house,
but slums are the last step of deterioration process, the worst form and
also static.
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So, the ‘blighted areas’ of the city of Shiraz have been considered in this
study as they have consisted of residential and non-residential areas, including
some levels of deterioration. The blighted areas of the Central area of Shiraz
city have been considered as the first two stages of decline of an urban area,
which have not reached the stage of slums as yet, but they spread day by day.
Tehran’s Comprehensive / Master Urban Development Plan (2005) has
stated that the decayed areas are the regions which are vulnerable for disasters,
especially earthquakes. But based on the Architectural and Urban Development
Council definition, the blighted areas (urban blocks) are urban blocks that have
at least 50 per cent of their plots with the three following characteristics:
1. Lack of stability;
2. Problems with accessibility; and
3. Tiny plots.
Shiraz city has 1,691 ha blighted area that approved by the Architectural
and Urban Development Council of Iran. In other words 1691 hectare of Shiraz
city has all three mentioned blighted factors together in one place. However,
the total deteriorated area of Shiraz city has been 4,119.2 hectare and it
includes at least one of the blighted factors. Among the metropolitan cities,
Shiraz city after Isfahan city has the most share of the blighted area compared
to the total area of its city, after Shiraz city, Tabriz, Mashhad and Tehran city
have the most critical situation. Unstable blocks in Shiraz city are the signs of
deterioration among the other factors such as tiny blocks and inaccessible
blocks. The Central area of Shiraz city is 375.82 hectare, which has been totally
identified as a blighted area by Development and Renewal Organization of
Shiraz city, and it has constituted 2.02 per cent of Shiraz city. It means the
Central area is an urban block with more than 50 per cent of its texture has
included inaccessible, unstable and tiny blocks. The Central area of Shiraz city
includes eleven districts, of which Bala Kaf district is one of them and located
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in the south west of the central area; this region has been the most populated
among the other districts.
The causative factors for the degeneration of the quality of life in the
Central area of Shiraz city were manifold; the three dominant factors
responsible for the decline of the central area were: (1) Inadequate civic
amenities (poor maintenance of roads, inadequate sanitation, water supply,
electricity, gas, security and safety, hygiene and health facilities, sports and
green spaces, education); (2) General decline in the level of income of the
residents; and (3) Insufficient new affordable housing (which was deemed not
affordable to those with a median and low household income residents). On the
whole, the Bala Kaf residents were not happy about the living conditions and
the quality of life existing in the district. Some old and native residents of the
district had started selling their houses and shifting either to the suburbs or to
other parts of Shiraz city. There has been a general complaint on the especially
unhygienic urban environment and unsafe living spaces. Almost all the
respondents agreed that the existing roads cannot bear the present traffic loads,
problems such as accidents occur frequently because of narrow roads, and the
roads are not maintained properly and during the rainy days, water stagnates
everywhere. Thus, there has not been any specific defined pattern of public
participation in the current situation in the Central area. The most important
reason in the district is that the people have been reluctant to participate,
especially low income residents, also they have not trusted the municipalities as
project leaders, because they have not been sure about the achievable or
realizable project outcomes in the given time and finally there has not been any
advertisement or public knowledge about the importance of participation in the
field of making decision or supervision.
All of the respondents have answered that the general maintenance of
street lighting has been poor since they have observed that, on the by-lanes,
electric poles have been seen without bulbs and they have not been replaced
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when necessary. The Bala Kaf district has faced the diminishing of lands under
land uses such as the public and semi-public, public utility (urban physical
infrastructure), especially such as the health facilities, parks, cinema halls and
open grounds. The whole area of the district, according to every one of the
respondents, has not been covered with underground drainage or urban
sewerage system; all houses have septic tanks; and it is because the
underground water level has been very high in the region. It has been observed
that most of the houses are small, dilapidated and in unsatisfactory conditions
and so they need immediate repair or reconstruction. There is no open space to
develop or construct new housing for the poor in this district. The alternative is
to renovate the existing housing stock or accumulation of the old, small and
declined houses and replace new apartments.
The present study has proved the following hypotheses:
• Centripetal and centrifugal forces of the city are the two causes that have
created blighted areas in the Central area of Shiraz city.
• The Development Authority of the city has been concentrating greatly
on the development of other parts of the city than in the Central area of
Shiraz city.
• The Central area has further been deteriorated due to neglect of
managerial responsibilities and delay in the implementation of programs
in the Central area of Shiraz city.
• The existing Master Plan for Shiraz City does not have the right
approach for either the urban renewal or the renewal of the blighted
areas in the Central area of Shiraz city.
