UPSC HPSC BPSC UPPSC JPSC MPSC Geography Environment 2018/9/18 · 16. Blackbuck poaching case: Salman Khan gets five years in jail, fined Rs 10,000; all you need to know 17. Gujarat,

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Table of Contents Geography 1. Cyclonic Storm OCKHI over south Kerala coast and neighborhood 2. All about Mount 3. 3. A Concise study/guide about the unusual storm (Ockhi) 4. Re-curving of cyclones 5. All you need to know about urban heat island effect 6. Analysis of the cyclone Ockhi 7. Jakarta sinking fast? Here is why the Indonesian capital will soon be under water 8. 2017 Was One of the Hottest Years on Record 9. Total Eclipse of Moon to take place on January 31 10. How storms and lightning in North India killed over a hundred in just a day 11. NWIC setup as a single window source of updated data on water resources 12. Mumbai, where a development plan for the future is stirring debate 13. Zojila tunnel to bring Srinagar, Kargil and Leh closer 14. Why have monsoons been fierce so far? 15. Why the longest day occurs on 21st June 16. Rain check: June nearly normal 17. Centurys Longest Total Lunar Eclipse on July 27-28 18. Meghalayan: How a North East cave rock formation now defines our Age Environment 1. High Ash content 2. Measures to Stop /Prevent Underground Fire in Coal Mines 3. Changes in Cryosphere affecting Global Climate

4. World Wetlands Day 5. All-India Tiger Estimation 2018 to be Hi-Tech, More Accurate and Precise 6. India State of Forest Report 2017 Released 7. India records marginal increase in forest cover 8. Why India doesnt lose forest cover 9. Whats the mystery bug stalking the Winter Olympics in Korea? 10. India is Global Host for World Environment Day 2018 11. Whats hobbling the global effort to save the tiger? 12. Why are forests of Tamil Nadu burning? 13. Plastics in drinking water 14. BS VI fuel to be available at Delhi petrol pumps from tomorrow 15. The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is growing rapidly 16. Blackbuck poaching case: Salman Khan gets five years in jail, fined Rs 10,000; all you need to know 17. Gujarat, where there is a concern over disappearing lions 18. Environment Ministry notifies Plastic Waste Management (amendment) rules

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19. Centre proposes relaxation of coastal regulation zone norms 20. What the new Coastal Regulation Zone draft says, how it differs from the earlier version 21. WHO highlights the air pollution crisis in urban India? 22. The lowdown on falling water reserves 23. Why the Taj is losing its colour? 24. India Calls for Judicious Use of Resources at 4th Brics Ministerial Meeting in Durban 25. How to handle heatstrokes 26. Green Good Deeds Movement 27. How heat footprint has grown 28. Clean Air India Initiative launched 29. Need for water management reforms 30. Sterlite Copper told to shut shop in T.N. 31. Life in plastic: on waste management framework 32. High uranium in Indian aquifers: where, why

33. Cabinet approves proposal for enactment of Dam Safety Bill, 2018 34. State of India's water crisis 35. Using seven rivers, three interlinking projects to build a national water grid 36. Country's first river interlinking project caught in U.P.-M.P. tussle 37. Plastic ban comes into force in Maharashtra from today 38. Tiger shifted from Kanha to Odisha 39. Enforcing a plastic ban in Maharashtra 40. After copper plant, why Tamil Nadus latest protest is over a highway 41. Trees vs development in Delhi 42. Tainted by uranium: On groundwater contamination 43. Plastic waste management rules summary 44. Is biodiversity treaty a hurdle to conservation research? 45. The cost of climate change in India 46. Who is T. Vijay Kumar, and what is he doing to promote natural farming in Andhra Pradesh? 47. On the formaldehyde contamination of fish

Geography 1. Cyclonic Storm OCKHI over south Kerala coast and neighborhood

Latest observations and satellite imageries indicate that the cyclonic storm OCKHI over Comorin area moved west-northwestwards with a speed of 20 kmph over south Kerala




coast and neighbourhood, (Kanyakumari, Thiruvananthapuram &Minicoy)

The system is very likely to move west-northwestwards towards Lakshadweep Islands and intensify further into a severe cyclonic storm. About Ockhi: The name Ockhi was given by Bangladesh which in Bengali means eye . What are tropical cyclones? A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain. How tropical cyclones are named? The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) started the tropical cyclone naming system in 2000. Tropical cyclones are named to provide ease of communication between forecasters and the general public regarding forecasts, watches, and warnings. 64 names. One name from each country is picked in an order to name the cyclones. The previous storm Mora that caused severe —flooding across Northeast India in May was named by Thailand. Mora is the name of one of the healing stones and also means star of the sea. The next cyclone will be named Sagar a name given by India. (Adapted from PIB) 2. All about Mount Agung volcano eruption in Bali, Indonesia What happened? The eruption of Mount Agung volcano at Bali in Indonesia forced authorities to close the airport for a few days on November 28, 2017, stranding thousands of travellers. According to sources, NASA monitoring satellite had indicated a significant amount of magma near the surface. Climate scientists are studying the eruption for clues to a possible short-cut to curb global warming by injecting sun-dimming chemicals high above the earth. About Mount Agung: Mount Agung or Gunung Agung is a active volcano in Bali. This strato volcano is the highest point on the island. It dominates the surrounding area influencing the climate. The clouds come from the west and Agung takes their water so that the west is lush and green and the east dry and barren.

What was its impact when it (Agung Volcano) last erupted?

When the Agung volcano had last erupted in 1963, it had spewed an estimated 8 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide into the stratosphere, enough to trim world temperatures for months. What is the impact in recent occurring?




Smoke and lava spouting from Agung, is estimated to be about 10,000 tonnes of sulphur dioxide, and not reaching as high as the stratosphere; villagers watching a river overflowing with water mixed with volcanic ash and students heading to school. What is a volcano? A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. What is Strato volcano? Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and other ejecta in alternate layers, the stratathat gives rise to the name. Stratovolcanoes are also known as composite volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Strato/composite volcanoes are made of cinders, ash, and lava. Cinders and ash pile on top of each other, lava flows on top of the ash, where it cools and hardens, and then the process repeats. Classic examples include Mount Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy. Why did it occur? Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging, and most are found underwater. For example, a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. What are the possible impacts of Volcano eruptions? 1. Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. One such hazard is that volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft, in particular those with jet engines where ash particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape, disrupting themoperation of the turbine. 2. Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the sun and cool the Earth's lower atmosphere (or troposphere); however, they also absorb heat radiated from the Earth, thereby warming the upper atmosphere (or stratosphere). (Adapted from The Hindu)

3. A Concise study/guide about the unusual storm (Ockhi)

About Ockhi: Ockhi is an active tropical cyclone currently threatening and impacting India, and is the most intense to traverse the Arabian Sea since Cyclone Megh in 2015. The name Ockhi was given by Bangladesh which in Bengali means eye . So, what is special about Ockhi?




Mostly, the area in which it developed. Cyclones are known to originate in both the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea sides of the northern Indian Ocean; there is much— more frequency on the Bay of Bengal side though, especially of the stronger cyclones in fact, the Bay of Bengal side witnesses four times more cyclones than the Arabian Sea side on average. But Ockhi originated near the south-western coast of Sri Lanka, and travelled very near the southern-most tip of the Indian mainland, along the coasts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, towards the Lakshadweep islands, where it was at its most powerful. It weakened considerably after that and continued— further, taking a north-easterly turn towards the Maharashtra and Gujarat coastlines cyclones in this area are not a common phenomenon. Why does the Bay of Bengal have more cyclones than the Arabian Sea? Meteorologists say the relatively colder waters of the Arabian Sea are not conducive to the formation and intensification of cyclones. Additionally, the eastern coast of India receives cyclones that form not just in the Bay of Bengal, mostly around the Andaman Sea near the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but also those travelling from the Pacific Ocean, where the frequency of typhoons , as these are called there, is quite high. Most of these cyclones weaken considerably after encountering a big landmass. Therefore, these do not travel to the Arabian Sea side. The western coast of India thus witnesses only those cyclones that originate locally or the ones, like Ockhi, that travel from the Indian Ocean near Sri Lanka. How powerful was Ockhi? Ockhi was described as a very severe cyclonic storm , the third strongest category according to the definitions used by the India Meteorological Department (IMD). Cyclones are categorised by the maximum wind speed they generate. At its most powerful, Ockhi had wind speeds between 155 and 165 km per hour, touching the upper border for very severe cyclonic storm . Cyclones with wind speeds between 165 and 220 km per hour are classified as extremely severe cyclonic storm . Those with even higher wind speeds are called super-cyclones . The most famous instance of a super-cyclone was the one that hit the coast of Odisha in October 1999. It was the strongest-ever cyclone recorded in that area, with wind speeds touching 260 km per hour. It was also the most devastating cyclone to have hit India. The 2013 Phailin cyclone very nearly got categorised as a super-cyclone. It had maximum wind speeds of around 220 km per hour. Cyclone forecasts by the IMD in the recent past have been made five to six days in advance, thereby minimizing the damage caused. Was the IMD late in issuing a warning for Ockhi? How early the forecast is depends on how far we are from the place where the cyclone is emerging. Many of the big cyclones in recent years, like Phailin in 2013, Hudhud in 2014 or Vardah in 2016, developed near the Andaman Sea. From there, it took those cyclones about five to six days to hit the Andhra Pradesh or Odisha coasts. These forecasts can be made only after an emerging depression is detected to have the properties of a cyclonic storm. This was true in the case of Ockhi as well. But the origin of Ockhi was much closer home. The cyclone formation was detected during the morning of Wednesday, November 29. An alert was issued around noon. But many areas in Tamil Nadu and on the Kerala coast started feeling the impact from Thursday itself.




A day later, the Lakshadweep islands bore the brunt of the cyclone. Because it developed nearby, the lead time for the forecast was much less than in other recent cyclone cases. (Adapted from The Indian Express) 4. Re-curving of cyclones What is it? First, it helps to get a sense of how cyclones move. The ones that typically strike the Indian neighbourhood in the northern hemisphere rotate anticlockwise. Their normal behavior is to derive strength from the moisture in waters such as the Bay of Bengal, move west, incline in a northerly direction and peter out into the sea or land, depending on their origin. This is how you would explain a regular cyclone, say like Mora, which formed over the Bay of Bengal on May 26. It rapidly strengthened on May 28. It kept north, almost parallel to the Myanmar coast and then made landfall in Bangladesh and blew over Nagaland. In a recurving cyclone, the cyclone gets a sort of second wind when it is on the wane. Like the googly in cricket, it s deflected right or eastwards. This is due to air currents in the local atmosphere that push cold air from the poles towards the equator and interfere with cyclone formation. That s what make them re-curving. In the southern hemisphere, the cyclones spin clockwise and therefore also re-curve in the opposite direction. How do they come about? During the monsoon months, cyclones in the Western Pacific move westwards towards India and aid the associated rain-bearing systems over the country. However, in the years of a re-curve, they do not give as much of a push to the rain as they do in the good monsoon years and that is why monsoon rain this August was a dampener. Rain that month was 13% short of what is usual and meteorologists say it was almost certainly because of an active hurricane season in the Pacific that consisted of a few re-curving cyclones. However, these are back in the news due to Cyclone Ockhi. The whirlwind that arose in the Bay of Bengal and revved up over Sri Lanka was expected to pass over Lakshadweep and then ease into the Arabian Sea, far away from India s west coast. However, the cyclone ended up sharply swerving into parts of Maharashtra and Gujarat. It did not blow in very strongly because there it had not gained as much moisture from the Arabian Sea like it had over the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean boundary. And though it wreaked havoc in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, even a weakened Ockhi destroyed several beaches in Goa when it curved back to the land. Why does it matter? Long-term data suggest that while there has been an increase in the number of tropical cyclones in India s neighbourhood there is no clear trend in re-curving ones. In general, cyclone activity in India peaks around November, by which time, the summer monsoon has already passed. Rarely do re-curving cyclones pose a mortal threat to Indian coasts and Cyclone Ockhi raised hackles because it had already left a certain amount of damage and threatened Gujarat and Maharashtra. It was also among the rare curving cyclones with a presence over the Arabian Sea. What lies ahead?




As climate change is projected to increase the frequency of extreme events, scientists have warned that tropical cyclones are likely to get more intense, and this could mean more scrutiny of re-curving ones. A challenge— with re-curving cyclones is—that it is hard for weather models to pick them early on as was the case with Ockhi and so they pose unique challenges in terms of hazard preparedness and disaster management. (Adapted from The Hindu)

5. All you need to know about urban heat island effect

What is an Urban Heat Island? An urban heat island (UHI) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities. This effect is known as Urban Heat Island effect. UHI is different from a Heat Island (HI), which may even include an unpopulated area. What are the reasons for the formation of UHIs? 1. Heavy vehicular and industrial pollution in urban areas. 2. Discharge of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in substantial amounts, which trap the outgoing infrared radiations. 3. Tall buildings and other infrastructure which obstruct the flow of wind, consequently obstructing the transfer of heat. 4. Lack of vegetation which can act as both heat and carbon sink. 5. Majority of urban surfaces are composed of metal, glass, concrete or asphalt. These materials have high heat retaining capacity during the day and emit this heat out during the night. 6. The inability of water to penetrate the above materials, makes the urban landscape behave as a desert landscape. Effects of UHIs:

1. UHIs have the potential to directly affect the health of urban residents. UHIs witness prolonged heat waves which result in higher fatalities due to heat stroke, exhaustion, heat cramps, etc. 2. UHIs have varied effects on biodiversity. The variations in temperatures adversely affect local species but may promote the invasion of alien species. The raised temperature may elevate the temperature of local water bodies causing the marine animals to undergo thermal stress and shock. The increased temperatures provide fertile breeding ground for insects, which bring a host of diseases along with them. 3. UHIs create a spike in energy consumption due to constant use of refrigerators and air conditioners. 4. UHIs can alter local weather conditions like wind, humidity, rainfall, etc. Mitigation Strategies 1. The effects of UHIs can be diluted to some extent by employing techniques to maintain a large albedo. Larger the albedo of an object, more is its power to reflect radiations. The buildings and other dark surfaces (asphalt) could be painted with a light colour or with a high reflectivity coating.




2. Green roofs (roofs with plants and vegetation) on top of buildings help lower down the temperatures and compensate to some extent, for the loss of vegetation. Besides green roof, Roof sprinkling is another evaporative cooling technique. 3. Increasing area under natural vegetation and reclaiming waste lands to develop green belts may also help moderate the effects of UHIs. 4. Green parking lots, which use vegetation and materials other than asphalt. Study conducted on the urban heat island effect: To explain how this happens, a team of researchers studied the warming of Bhubaneswar, a tier-2 city, due to rapid urbanization compared to non-urban areas that surround it. Findings of the study: Rapid urbanization combined with changes in land use pattern between 2000 and 2014 led to about 1.8°C warming of Bhubaneswar compared with surrounding non-urban areas (called the urban heat island effect), the researchers say. The team found that increase in urbanization has been rapid at 83% in the last 15 years. This has led to about 89% decrease in dense vegetation, about 2% decrease in water bodies and nearly 83% decrease in crop fields during the same period. Decrease in crop areas could either be due to urbanization or fields remaining fallow. These changes have led to increase in the urban heat island effect. The central part of the city has not witnessed much change in land cover, while the adjoining areas have witnessed major changes due to expansion of the city, leading to the warming of the city. Past picture of the city: Bhubaneswar was once well covered by three forests. The 1999 Odisha super cyclone destroyed many trees, and many trees have been cut for road expansion. Today, only a very small percentage of forest cover is remaining. Conclusion: All the losses mentioned negatively impact the thermal and radiative properties of the surface and make cities hotter than surrounding non-urban areas. With heavily built-up areas and concrete structures, most cities in India and in the world are warmer than surrounding non-urban areas due to the urban heat island effect. For instance, Delhi is 4- 12°C warmer due to the urban heat island effect. 6. Analysis of the cyclone Ockhi In which regions did the Ockhi hit? The cyclonic storm struck the southern tip of the subcontinent and Lakshadweep, to which Kerala is still coming to terms with the destruction left behind by it. What was the incapacity observed during the hit? The State government initially struggled to deal with the human tragedy as hundreds of fishermen from five coastal villages in Thiruvananthapuram were reported missing at sea. The death toll so far is 65. The storm, the likes of which the southwest coast of India has not seen for decades, exposed the chinks in Kerala s disaster preparedness.




Political discrepancy: 1. Almost a month after the storm, there has been no let-up in the blame game between the India Meteorology Department (IMD) and the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) about why people were not told of the impending danger. While the State government and the SDMA assert that the IMD failed to issue a cyclone alert on time, thus jeopardising the lives of hundreds of fishermen, the Central agency maintains that the State ignored its warning of a deep depression that was threatening to intensify into a cyclone. 2.There is also a raging dispute over the number of missing fishermen, between the Fisheries and Revenue Departments on the one hand. About IMD: The India Meteorological Department (IMD), also referred to as the Met Department, is an agency of the Ministry of Earth Sciences of the Government of India. It is the principal agency responsible for meteorological observations, weather forecasting and seismology. IMD is headquartered in Delhi and operates hundreds of observation stations across India and Antarctica. IMD is also one of the six Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres of the World Meteorological Organization. It has the responsibility for forecasting, naming and distribution of warnings for tropical cyclones in the Northern Indian Ocean region, including the Malacca Straits, the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf. About SDMA (State Disaster Management Authority): All State Governments are mandated under Section 14 of the act to establish a State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA). The SDMA consists of the Chief Minister of the State, who is the Chairperson, and no more than eight members appointed by the Chief Minister. State Executive Committee is responsible (Section 22) for drawing up the state disaster management plan, and implementing the National Plan. The SDMA is mandated under section 28 to ensure that all the departments of the State prepare disaster management plans as prescribed by the National and State Authorities Account of loss in terms of lives lost in it: Search teams have recovered 65 bodies offshore and 80 fishermen are still missing at sea. Over 150 traumatised families are still struggling to come to terms with the loss of their breadwinners. What are the steps taken to deal with such situations in future? 1. A major revamp of the SDMA is on the cards, with more experts expected to be brought on board. 2. The government has also initiated efforts to deploy satellite communication facilities for the safety of fishers at sea. Consequential effect of the incompetence projected by the administration: The coastal communities are not willing to settle for anything short of exemplary punishment for those guilty of lapses in alerting them to the cyclone.




They harbour a deep mistrust in the government s capacity to spend the relief funds without diversion or wastage. What teachings did Ockhi bring along with it? Cyclone Ockhi has underlined the need for meteorologists to come up with better forecasting systems, especially in light of projections about the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events along the western coast due to the warming of the Arabian Sea. It forced to re-assess the vulnerabilities and develop appropriate mitigation strategies in view of the challenges posed by climate change. Experts Viewpoint: The experts point out that the best prediction model is useless unless the government deploys an efficient dissemination system to warn vulnerable communities in time. (Adapted from The Hindu) 7. Jakarta sinking fast? Here is why the Indonesian capital will soon be under water Present condition of Jakarta The Java sea that was at a good distance from human habitats in the city of Jakarta has slowly crept closer. And it will not be long before the Indonesian capital goes underwater! The city of Jakarta is sinking and that too at a fast pace. According to a report by the New York Times, the city of Jakarta is sinking faster than any other big city on the planet. All this is happening so surreally fast that rivers sometimes flow upstream, even ordinary rains regularly swamp neighbourhoods and the buildings are slowly disappear underground as if they are being swallowed by the earth. Who is to blame? Climate Change: It is because of climate change that the Java Sea is rising and the weather of Jakarta is becoming extreme. Recently, a storm briefly turned Jakarta s streets into rivers and brought this vast area of nearly 30 million residents to a virtual halt. Illegal wells: The water of the Java— sea is slowly getting closer to the human habitat in the city also because Jakartans are digging illegal wells, drip by drip draining the underground aquifers on which the city rests like deflating a giant cushion underneath it. Possible consequences The report stated that about 40 percent of Jakarta now lies below sea level. According to Hydrologists, Jakarta only has a decade to halt its sinking. If they are not able to do so then, northern Jakarta, with its millions of residents, will end up underwater, along with much of the nation s economy. They added that it will eventually bar wholesale change and an infrastructural revolution because of which, Jakarta won t be able to build walls high enough to hold back the rivers, canals and the rising Java Sea. But in case, the city is able to stop the sinking, it will still have to cope with all the mounting threats from climate change. But how did the situation of the city get this bad?




Well, the local sultans took over the city from the Hindu kingdom of Sunda back in 1527. They named it Jayakarta, Javanese for the victorious city. After them came the Dutch colonists, a century later and they established a base here for their East India territories. Imagining a tropical Amsterdam, they laid out streets and canals to try to cope with water pouring in from the south, out of the forests and mountains, where rain falls nearly 300 days out of the year. Thirteen rivers feed into the city. After independence in 1945, the city began to sprawl. Today, it is virtually impossible to walk around freely. The most urgent problems are in North Jakarta. Some of the world s most polluted canals and rivers weave a spider s web through the area. It is where the city is sinking fastest. It is because of the decades of reckless growth and negligent leadership that happened in the past that is causing mayhem. (Adapted from Financial Express)

8. 2017 Was One of the Hottest Years on Record

The world in 2017 saw some of the highest average surface temperatures ever recorded. What does scientists say? Scientists at NASA ranked last year as the second-warmest year since reliable recordkeeping began in 1880, trailing only 2016. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which uses a different analytical method, ranked it third, behind 2016 and 2015. Why are scientists concerned? What made the numbers unexpected was that last year had no El Niño, a shift in tropical Pacific weather patterns that is usually linked to record-setting heat and that contributed to record highs the previous two years. In fact, last year should have benefited from a weak version of the opposite phenomenon, La Niña, which is generally associated with lower atmospheric temperatures. What is the long – term trend? By both the NASA and NOAA analyses, 17 of the 18 warmest years since modern recordkeeping began have occurred since 2001. Overall, fueled by emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, temperatures have increased more than 1 degree Celsius (1.8 degrees Fahrenheit) since the late 19th century. In order to avoid the worst consequences of climate change, scientists say global temperatures must not increase more than 2 degrees Celsius. The recent US response to climate change The warming trend comes at a time that President Donald Trump is dialing back many climate-related regulations and policies. Last year he announced that the United States would withdraw from the 2015 Paris climate accord and repeal the Clean Power Plan, an Obama-era measure designed to reduce emissions from power plants.




Details of climate change related evidence Temperatures in the Arctic, which is warming about twice as fast as other parts of the planet, soared again during parts of 2017, and the region continued to lose sea ice and permafrost. Scientists found the fingerprints of warming in many other weather events as well, including a June heat wave that led to wildfires in southern Europe and extreme heat in Australias summer. In other cases the links to climate change were not as conclusive, but a series of catastrophes last year – including widespread hurricane damage from Texas to the Caribbean and lethal wildfires in California – seemed to indicate that such disasters were becoming much more common. Researchers had expected that 2017 would end a string of three consecutive years with record temperatures. That string was exacerbated by a strong El Niño that began in 2015 ended in the second half of 2016. (Though 2015 was not technically an El Niño year.) Why El Nino Years are warm? Normally, trade winds around the tropical Pacific blow from east to west, moving warmer water away from the South American coast and piling it up around Asia and Australia. In an El Niño those trade winds weaken or even reverse, allowing the typically colder parts of the ocean to warm. This extra heat at the oceans surface releases energy into the atmosphere increasing global temperatures. This is why, ordinarily, El Niño years tend to be the warmest years on record. In a La Niña year, the oceanic pendulum tends to swing the other way, with the east-towest trade winds becoming unusually strong, strengthening the process by which cold waters emerge from the ocean. That leads to cooler than normal ocean temperatures and, as a result, cooler atmospheric temperatures. The world is now experiencing a weak La Niña in year 2017.

9. Total Eclipse of Moon to take place on January 31

A total eclipse of the moon will occur on January 31, 2018. This is the first eclipse of the year, with a rare coincidence of a blue moon and a super full moon. The full moon on that day happens to be the second full moon of the calendar month of January, termed as a blue moon. Further, the moon will be at perigee on January 30, as such the full moon will occur when the moon is near the closest to earth in its orbit. Hence, this full moon will be a little bigger and brighter than the regular full moon, popularly referred to as a super moon. The eclipse will be visible in the region covering North America except the eastern part, western South America, Asia including India, Australia, the Middle East, northern Scandinavia, eastern Europe and eastern Africa. The next eclipse of the Moon will occur on July 27-28, 2018, which will be a total lunar eclipse and will be visible in India. Lunar eclipse Lunar eclipse: It occurs when the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon. As a result, sunlight is blocked by the Earth from reaching the Moon. A lunar eclipse takes place during the Full Moon phase. A Full Moon is when we can see the entire lit portion of the Moon. The Full Moon phase occurs when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun, called opposition.




10. How storms and lightning in North India killed over a hundred in just a day Big duststorms and lightning are not unusual at this time. Why do they occur, why did so many die? Over 100 people were killed in duststorms, thunderstorms, and lightning at many places in northern, central and eastern India on Wednesday. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) said lightning and thunderstorm killed 62 people in Uttar Pradesh and 32 in Rajasthan; the UP government issued a districtwise break-up of deaths that added up to 70. Expected, unexpected These casualty figures seem abnormally high for weather events on a single day. However, there was nothing unusual in the occurrence of the weather events themselves. Rainstorms, duststorms, and even tornadoes are expected at this time of the year, and the Meteorological Department routinely issues alerts and warnings. The weather events of Wednesday, too, had been predicted, and warnings were issued. How the storms built up Rainstorms and dust storms arise from similar meteorological conditions. They are almost always preceded — and caused — by a spell of intense heat. Thunderstorms or hail occur when the atmosphere has moisture; when it doesnt, dust storms take place. Many parts of India witness a build-up of surface heat during this time of the year. The places that were hit by the storms had seen heat-wave like conditions last week.

Dr Mrutunjay Mohapatra of India Meteorological Department said such events take place due to a local instability arising out of a deviation from the normal temperature difference between the upper and lower atmosphere. In this case, for example, moist easterly winds from the Bay of Bengal reached up to Himachal Pradesh, which was also receiving dry winds from the north-westerly direction. The two systems destabilized the equilibrium temperature difference between the upper and lower layers of atmosphere, leading to conducive conditions for a thunderstorm. The final trigger, however, is the development of a largescale air-circulation system. In this particular case, the trigger came from the circulation system that developed over Rajasthan a couple of days ago. Why so many deaths, then? It does seem odd. However, a large number of deaths over a few days have been reported earlier. In June 2016, more than 300 people were reported killed by lightning over three days. Lightning is the biggest killer in India among natural calamities. In 2014 and 2015, it killed 2,582 and 2,641, show National Crime Records Bureau data. What was unusual about Wednesdays events was that they occurred over a large geographical area within a very short time. Dr Sunil Pawar of the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, explained that severe thunderstorm clouds can sometimes arrange themselves within a few hours in long squall lines of 150-250 km length.




What use the predictions? In most cases, storms do not kill by themselves. Even lightning rarely strikes people directly. But they trigger incidents that result in deaths. Walls or homes collapse, and people are electrocuted after power lines snap, or after they are caught in fields filled with water. People in the poorest, most densely populated areas are the most vulnerable. Also, meteorological predictions are for broad geographical areas and timeframes. The events themselves are, however, very localised, both in time and space. It is not yet possible to predict a thunderstorm or lightning at a precise location — say a village or a part of a city. The exact times these events will hit, too, cannot be predicted. Alerts and warnings are in the nature of a general advisory, telling the people to expect these events, and to take precautions. (Adapted from The Indian Express) 11. NWIC setup as a single window source of updated data on water resources National Water Informatics Centre (NWIC) Consequent upon approval of the Cabinet, National Water Informatics Centre (NWIC) has recently been created by Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation at New Delhi vide notification dated 28th March 2018. NWIC would be a repository of nation-wide water resources data and would work as a Subordinate Office under the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation. The centre would be headed by a Joint Secretary level officer. Need for NWIC The management of water resources is a highly complex and tedious task that involves expertise of multidisciplinary domains and depend on historical and real time reliable data and information. For this, the first requirement is to develop, maintain and update regularly a comprehensive Water Resources Information System (WRIS) in public domain for awareness and involvement of all concerned for effective integrated water resources management. This is also prerequisite for scientific assessment, monitoring, modelling and Decision Support System (DSS) and Integrated water resource Management. In this back drop NWIC is expected to provide a Single Window source of updated data on water resources & allied themes; and provides value added products and services to all stake holders for its management and sustainable development. To empower, inform and enrich every citizen with upto date and reliable water data (other than classified data) and information through web-based India Water Resources Information System (India-WRIS) on a GIS platform in Public Domain; and to develop value added products and services for all aspects of integrated water resources management serving the nation through research, capacity building, linkages, outreach and better governance in water resources sector. Besides the centre will also collaborate with leading research institutes nationally as well as internationally to provide technical support to other central and state organizations dealing with water, emergency response for hydrological extremes. (Adapted from PIB)




12. Mumbai, where a development plan for the future is stirring debate

The Maharashtra government has approved a new development plan for Mumbai, which will serve as the blueprint for the development of the countrys economic capital till 2034. What is it? According to Section 21 of the Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act, 1966, every planning authority has to carry out a survey, prepare a land use map and prepare a draft development plan for the area within its jurisdiction and submit it to the State government for sanction. Mumbais last development plan was published in 1991 and a new plan for the next 20 years was to be published by 2014, but its first draft was released by the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) only in February 2015. The government scrapped it in April 2015, citing complaints of errors. A revised plan was submitted in May 2016. After it was vetted, Chief Minister Devendra Fadnavis signed off on the new plan on April 24, 2018. Why is freeing up land an issue? The proposals to unlock hitherto-untouchable land parcels have run into criticism from its drafting days. Buffer zones of mangroves, mudflats and creeks were designated as No Development Zones in the 1991 plan, but the authorities have earmarked 2,100 hectares of such land for affordable housing. The logic: these zones were not supposed to be locked away forever. Another 330 hectares of saltpan lands will be diverted from the Mumbai Port Trusts reserves. The Aarey Colony remains a green zone, but 300 acres has been set aside for a Metro Rail car shed, a second zoo and the rehabilitation of tribals. Besides, 14.96 sq. km. of virgin land (mangroves) has been included as Natural Areas, which will be left untouched. Is it achievable? The BMC has set aside Rs. 2,000 crore in its annual budget for the implementation of the plan this year. The government has hiked Floor Space Index (FSI) for Mumbai. The FSI is the ratio of construction allowed on a plot to the size of the plot. The FSI for the island city has been increased from 2 to 3, while that for the suburbs has been kept at 2.5. The State has announced 15% free FSI for redevelopment of private buildings and raised the FSI for commercial development to 5 from the existing 2.5 to spur economic activity. Citizens now have the choice to design their houses as long as they do not disturb the structural elements or plumbing systems. What will be difficult? The BMC believes the plan makes provision for 8 million jobs and 1 million affordable homes, but experts are not sure. Land acquisition will be the biggest hurdle: the BMC will need Rs. 14 lakh crore to implement the plan, with land costs included. Since it does not want to shell out such huge sums, it is betting on a policy that is dependent on private players to acquire any reserved land, clear it of encroachment, develop and hand it over to the BMC in lieu of construction rights and incentives. But the process is known to take very long.




Will it ease civic woes? Despite Mumbais huge population, the total area under housing is just about 22% and the citys planners want to make that 50%. The area reserved per capita for open spaces, educational institutions and offices will increase, but is still woefully short of international norms. In order to add to the existing open spaces, a 300-acre garden will be developed on reclaimed land at Cuffe Parade on the lines of New Yorks Central Park. Another such garden will be developed by the Mumbai Port Trust at Sewree. Whats in store? The 1991 plan saw only around 20% implementation. This time, to improve the implementation rate, the BMC has conceived four 5-year plans with amounts to be set aside in every budget. In fact, the plan will act as the guiding document for making budgetary provisions and an implementation cell will be tasked with tracking progress. (Adapted from The Hindu)

13. Zojila tunnel to bring Srinagar, Kargil and Leh closer

Prime Minister launches work on Zojila tunnel project Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Zojila tunnel project, which will provide allweather connectivity to Srinagar, Kargil and Leh. At 14.15 km, it will be the countrys longest road tunnel. The tunnel will cut down the time taken to cross the Zojila pass from the three hours 30 minutes to 15 minutes. Asias longest bidirectional tunnel will be built at a cost of Rs. 6,809 crore. The work is expected to be completed in five years. The pass is situated at an altitude of 11,578 ft on the Srinagar-Kargil-Leh National Highway and remains closed during winter because of heavy snowfall, cutting off the Ladakh region from Kashmir. (Adapted from the Hindu) 14. Why have monsoons been fierce so far? What is the status? In the fortnight since the start of the monsoon, India has recorded nearly 55 mm of rain, or 16% more than whats usual for this time of the year. The bulk of it has been over south and central India, with the northeastern States so far registering a 24% deficit. After an early onset and quick advance, the monsoon has stalled and will remain so for at least a week, say meteorologists. However, several parts of northeastern India are expected to receive substantial rain, according to the latest weather outlook from the India Meteorological Department (IMD). Because the southern branch of the monsoon has stalled, it is causing heavy rain in Goa, coastal Karnataka and Kerala. The latter has seen 44 cm, nearly 49% more than what it gets in the first fortnight of June. This has led to widespread havoc. Has lightning activity been high?




Lightning, according to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), is the leading cause of accidental deaths in India attributable to the forces of nature. The NCRBs most updated report, from 2015, says that of the 10,510 accidental deaths attributable to natural causes, 25.1% were due to lightning, 18.2% due to heat/sun stroke and 10.9% due to exposure to cold. Therefore, in any given year lightning is a serious killer. This year, however, May — which is not a monsoon month — saw nearly 300 deaths due to lightning in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. Because of unusual convective activity, Andhra Pradesh in April recorded nearly 36,000 lightning strikes in a single day. Typically that is what the State suffers in an entire pre-monsoon month. Therefore, even pre-monsoon rain can contribute to massive cloud buildups and trigger widespread lightning strikes. Despite all that lightning, no more than 10 deaths were reported. Thus, there is no one-to-one link between the strength of the monsoon in one year and lightning deaths. Given that 2,000-2,500 deaths occurring due to lightning annually is normal,(going by the NCRB figures that go back to 2005), and there is a delay in how quickly lightning death records are made publicly available, it is yet early to understand if this year has seen an unusual spike. Can lightning forecasts be improved? Lightning and thunderstorms are an extremely local phenomenon with impact spreading no more than a few kilometres. Also they tend to occur rather suddenly and are therefore beyond the range of the weather radars. It is possible for the meteorological department to warn of the likelihood of thunderstorms and lightning over a district or a city about a day in advance but street-level or area-wise accuracy remains a stretch. While the build-up of clouds is known to be a factor, much more improved weather modelling is required to give accurate warnings about an impending strike in, say, a small town or village. The best way around this is precaution. State- and district-level disaster management agencies routinely issue advisories asking people to refrain from using mobile phones or handling electrical equipment plugged to sockets. That lightning strikes disproportionately affect the poor is also a fact noted by experts. So poorly built houses, staying out in the open during thunderstorms, being in places that arent properly electrically insulated, and the mere fact of working in open fields substantially increase the risk of death from lightning. Whats in store? The IMD said in May that India would get 97% of the 89 cm it gets during the monsoon months. Rainfall is expected to be normal in July at 101% of the historical average and 94% in August. However, this does not quite capture the extreme variability of the monsoon. Like most years, some parts of the country are going to see dangerous floods and some regions a crippling drought. Though the monsoon has stalled for a while, experts have said that because there is no threat from major climate factors — like an El Nino — there are no large-scale deficiencies expected. So far, the monsoon has advanced into parts of Odisha and the Gangetic West Bengal, parts of northwest Bay of Bengal, all of Arunachal Pradesh and most parts of Assam, Meghalaya and Sikkim. (Adapted from The Hindu) 15. Why the longest day occurs on 21st June




June 21 was summer solstice, the longest day of the year — as compared to the night — in the northern hemisphere. Winter solstice occurs on December 21 or 22, when the night hours are the longest. But why are the hours of daylight not the same every day? The explanation lies in Earths tilt. The planets axis of rotation is tilted at an angle of 23.5°C. This tilt — combined with factors such as Earths spin and orbit — leads to variations in the duration of sunlight on any location on different days of the year. The tilt is also responsible for the different seasons. Day & night Day occurs on the side facing the Sun, and changes to night as Earth continues to spin on its axis. On the Equator, day and night are equal. The closer one moves towards the poles, the more extreme the variation. During summer in either hemisphere, that pole is tilted towards the sun and the polar region receives 24 hours of daylight for months. During winter, the region is in total darkness for months. Key latitudes A latitude is a measure of a locations distance from the Equator. Earths tilt helps define some familiar imaginary lines, which are also key to determining when a solstice occurs. At latitudes of 23.5° (matching the tilt) are the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, north and south of the Equator. At 66.5° (or 90° minus 23.5°) are the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, north and south. It is at latitudes higher than 66.5° (in either direction) that days of constant darkness or light occur.

Solstice On each Tropic, the sun is directly overhead at noon once a year. When this happens on the Tropic of Cancer, it is summer solstice in the northern hemisphere. When on the Tropic of Capricorn, it is winter solstice. On the Equator, the sun is directly overhead on two days. These are the spring equinox in March and the autumn equinox in August. Across Earth, day and night are of equal length on these two dates. On the Equator, day and night are equal every day. (Adapted from The Indian Express)

16. Rain check: June nearly normal

Good rainfall in most parts of the country in the last week of June ensured that the first month of the monsoon season ended with near-normal rains. But not before an extended dry phase of almost two weeks that saw a complete halt in the progress of the monsoon. Until June 27, the country had a more-than-10% deficiency in rainfall, and the monsoon had barely reached central India. Thanks to the formation of a low-pressure area over the north Bay of Bengal in the last few days of June, there were widespread rains. The monsoon quickly progressed its northward journey, and covered the entire country in a matter of two days, at least 15 days ahead of schedule.




Depressions absent Scientists say the defining characteristic of monsoon behaviour in June was the lack of development of adequate depressions or low-pressure areas over the Bay of Bengal region. Only one such depression was formed in the entire month when at least two to three, sometimes four, are expected. Low-pressure areas over the Bay of Bengal, near the Bengal and Odisha coasts, help in pulling the monsoon winds through to most of north and northwest India. The first seasonal rains in Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, most parts of Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Rajasthan, Punjab and upwards happen due to this activity, when the rain-bearing winds coming the Bay of Bengal are driven inside due to prevailing low pressure. Especially, during the northward advance of the monsoon, the formation of low-pressure areas is very important. In June, we saw only one such event taking place. Till that happened, around June 27, most of eastern, central and northern India was starved of rains. Lack of depressions was the most standout feature of the monsoon in June,said Govindasamy Bala of the Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences at the Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru. Mruytunjay Mohapatra of India Meteorological Department agreed. We had just one lowpressure event. This is less than what is expected in June and was chiefly responsible for the break that the monsoon went into,he said. After good rains for a few days, the monsoon seems to have gone into another break. Bala said current forecasts show that another depression was not developing till July 6 or 7. So, the next spell of good rainfalls, especially in northern plains, in the states of Bihar, Jharkhand or Uttar Pradesh, will not happen before that time, he said. These breaks, or dry phases, are not uncommon. The monsoon oscillates every few weeks between wet and dry phases, sometimes referred to as active and inactive phases. As J Srinivasan of the Divecha Centre for Climate Change at the Indian Institute of Science said, in a good monsoon year there are more wet phases than dry phases, while in a drought year it is the dry phases that dominate. Madden Julian Oscillation The dry phase seen in June is also being attributed to what is known as Madden Julian Oscillation, or MJO, an air-ocean interaction that happens along the equator. MJO is an eastward-moving disturbance of clouds, wind and pressure, that travels around the globe at a speed of 4 to 8 metres per second, for between 30 and 60 days on an average. Sometimes, one revolution around the planet can even take 90 days. As it moves, strong MJO activity often splits the planet into two parts, one in which the MJO is in the active phase and results in enhanced rainfall, and the other in which it suppresses rainfall. In 2015, the MJO activity in June was favourable for the Indian landmass and resulted in an unusually high rainfall. This year, the opposite happened. This year the lower rainfall in India during June 15 to June 22 was associated with an MJO, Srinivasan said. The accurate forecast of the Indian monsoon rainfall beyond a few days depends critically upon the ability of the (climate) model to correctly simulate the phase of the MJO. The models have improved a lot during the past decade and we can expect more improvements in the future. Mohapatra of IMD said even the absence of low-pressure areas over Bay of Bengal could be attributed to MJO activity. Formation of depressions is related to MJO activity. About 60% of the




depressions formed in the northern Bay of Bengal during this time are influenced by the MJO,he said. Mohapatra said the June rainfall had been very good for sowing of crops, though. Sowing requires optimum amount of rainfall. Excess rains can spoil the sowing season. The rainfall we got in June was good for agriculture,he said. Water in stock By June 28, the 91 large reservoirs of the country had stored 29.668 billion cubic metres, or 18% of capacity. This, however, remains slightly less than what is expected during this time of the year — about 94% of the average of the last 10 years. Good rains over the last few days would have led to a further increase in storage levels. (Adapted from The Indian Express) 17. Centurys Longest Total Lunar Eclipse on July 27-28 What will be duration of lunar eclipse? A total lunar eclipse will occur on July 27-28, 2018 with a totality duration of 1 hour 43 minutes. The duration makes it the longest total lunar eclipse of this century (2001 AD to 2100 AD). The partial eclipse of the Moon will begin at 23h 54m IST on July 27. The Moon will be gradually covered by the Earths shadow and the totality phase will begin at 1h 00m IST on July 28. The total eclipse will last upto 2h 43m IST on 28 July. Then the Moon will start to gradually come out of Earths shadow and partial eclipse will end at 3h 49m IST on July 28. Such long duration of total lunar eclipses had earlier occurred on July 16, 2000 for totality duration of 1 hour 46 minutes and another one on June 15, 2011 for totality duration of 1 hour 40 minutes.

How does the eclipse occur? Lunar eclipse: It occurs when the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon. As a result, sunlight is blocked by the Earth from reaching the Moon. A lunar eclipse takes place during the Full Moon phase. Position

Position of Planet Mars On July 27, the red planet Mars, will also be at opposition, meaning that the Sun and Mars will lie opposite to each other, keeping the Earth in the middle. This will result in Mars coming close to the Earth, causing it to appear brighter than normal and it will be seen from evening to dawn towards the end of July. The planet Mars comes at opposition at an average interval of 2 years and 2 months when the planet comes close to the Earth and becomes brighter. Mars opposition that had occurred in August 2003 brought the two planets closest distance in approximately 60,000 years. The closest approach of Mars on July 31, 2018 will bring the two planets closest and the planet Mars to be seen brightest since 2003. (Adapted from PIB)




18. Meghalayan: How a North East cave rock formation now defines our Age From late June, the world has officially been in the Meghalayan Stage (or Age) of the Holocene Epoch — the present interglacial period that we live in. The Holocene started around 11,700 years ago. The Meghalayan Age, which is the most recent subdivision of the Holocene Epoch, began about 4,200 years ago, at a time when agricultural societies around the world experienced a very abrupt, critical and significant drought and cooling. Last month, this Age was officially ratified as the most recent unit of the Geologic Time Scale. Why Meghalayan? The three subdivisions of the Holocene Epoch — the Greenlandian, Northgrippian and Meghalayan Ages — are marked out by sediments accumulated on sea floors, lake bottoms, glacial ice and in calcite layers in stalactites and stalagmites across the world. Clues to the Greenlandian and Northgrippian Stages were available at specific levels in Greenlands ice cores — snow turns into ice, and preserves a record of the climate each year. But this method did not work as well for the younger (newer) part of the Holocene as it did for the older (early) part. This is where India — and Meghalaya — came into the picture. The Meghalayan Stage has been defined at a specific level in a stalagmite in the Mawmluh caves — Indias longest and deepest — in Cherrapunji, Meghalaya. Professor Ashish Sinha of the Department of Earth Sciences at California State University took a sample of the stalagmite back to his lab, and through uranium-thorium dating, ascertained the record of the climate over the last few thousand years. Both the ice cores and the stalagmite are now defined as international geostandards, and have been placed in protected archives that are accessible for further study.

Why must geological time be divided? Division provides a means of communication about time periods, Philip Gibbard, professor at the Scott Polar Research Institute at the University of Cambridge told The Indian Express.

We are living in an interglacial, warm period within the ice ages; there have been many of these within the last two million years. The last interglacial period was 120,000 years ago. It is difficult to divide this present interglacial period using fossils, so we have to use some other means of dividing time. The best way we found is by looking at the way climate has changed throughout this period, said Prof Gibbard, who is also secretary-general of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), the largest and oldest constituent scientific body in the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). This is exactly what Prof Sinha had done, Prof Gibbard said. He identified that around 4,200-4,300 years ago, there was a significant weakening of the monsoon which then had a significant effect on the amount of precipitation and on human settlements and their food security. Further geological research marked this as a significant event. What is special about the Mawmluh caves stalagmite? The event under examination was represented in the mid and low latitudes, and the record had to be complete, and also had to have what geologists describe as a higher resolution. The group which looked into this looked all around the world for potential sites, (and the)




Indian site was the best record, Prof Gibbard said. Geological sequences is like a tape recorder, (in) some instances we have a cassette recording, and in some instances we have a studio recording. This is what is high resolution. We needed the best quality recording we could get to really pinpoint where the change occurred, and to identify that particular change point,he said. The Meghalayan Age is unique among the many intervals of the Geologic Time Scale in that its beginning coincides with a cultural event produced by a global climatic event, Dr Stanley Finney, professor of geological sciences at California State University, Long Beach, and secretary general of the IUGS, said in a statement. IUGS is an international scientific union in which geologists of 121 countries cooperate in the field of geology. The first scholarly paper on the Meghalayan Age came about six years ago, Prof Gibbard said. The proposal was discussed and critiqued, and it then went through voting at the Subcommission on Quarternary Stratigraphy (SQS) and the ICS, before being finally accepted by the IUGS, the body that formally ratifies and selects the boundaries. IUGS tweeted the latest International Chronostratigraphic Chart/Geologic Time Scale with the new Holocene subdivisions, including Meghalayan, on July 13. READING THE CHART The columns in the chart represent, from left, Eon, Era, System/Period, Series/Epoch, and Stage/Age. Eons are divided into Eras, Eras into Periods, Periods into Epochs, and Epochs into Ages. We are currently in the Holocene Epoch, Meghalayan Age. On the far right is the measure of numerical age of each subdivision of geologic time, in mega-annum, or million years (Ma). The Meghalayan Age extends up to .0042 Ma (or 4,200 years) ago, and comes ahead of the Northgrippian and Greenlandian Ages. Thereafter, Holocene ends and Pleistocene begins. The Cenozoic Era, of which the Neogene and Quarternary Periods are part, has not been shown in full, nor has the Phanerozoic Eon, which is subdivided into the Cenozoic and Mesozoic Eras. The full International Chronostratigraphic Chart extends all the way to the beginning of the Pre-Cambrian Eon, approximately 4.6 billion years ago. The colouring of the chart follows the Commission for the Geological Map of the World (CGMW) (Adapted from The Indian Express)

Environment High Ash content Ash content in Indian coal Ash content of coal produced in the country is generally 25 to 45 % whereas average ash content of imported coal varies from 10 to 20 %. Indian Coal has comparatively higher ash content than imported coal. MOEFCC directive




As per Ministry of Environment and Forest & Climate Change (MOEF&CC) stipulation, coal based thermal power plant (situated beyond 500 km from the pit-head) be supplied with, and shall use, raw or blended or beneficiated coal with ash content not exceeding thirtyfour percent, on quarterly average basis. Coal Companies are supplying coal to their customers maintaining ash percentage below 34% on quarterly average basis as per the aforesaid MOEF&CC stipulation. Steps by Coal India Limited to reduce ash content Coal India Limited has taken following steps to adopt international standards in Coal Mining: 1.Deployment of surface miners (during 2016-17 around 46% of total production achieved using surface miner) for selective mining; 2.Replacement of manual method of underground mining by mechanized and semimechanized mining method. Position of imported coal As per the current import policy, coal is kept under Open General License (OGL) and consumers are free to import coal from the source of their choice as per their contractual prices on payment of applicable duty. In view of the buoyant production and adequate availability of domestic coal, it has been an endeavor to reduce the import of coal by power plants and to substitute it with domestic coal supply. In this regard, Coal India Limited (CIL) has taken the following steps for promotion of substituting imported coal with indigenous coal: 1.Rationalization of sources by part of coal supply coming from sources of higher grade coal. 2.Offering coal from various sources including higher grades through various types of eauction schemes including special forward e-auction for power sector. However, the gap between demand and supply of coal cannot be bridged completely as there is insufficient domestic availability of coking coal and power plants designed on imported coal will continue to import coal for their production. (Adapted from PIB) 2. Measures to Stop /Prevent Underground Fire in Coal Mines The following measures are normally taken to stop /prevent underground fire in coal mines: 1.Ensuring proper ventilation. 2.Adoption of panel system working. 3.Provision of gas detecting apparatus. 4.Sealing off of worked out / depillared panels. 5.Extraction of highly susceptible or thick coal seams in conjunction with sand stowing. 6.Monitoring ambient mine environment conditions by sampling and analysis on regular basis. 7.Stone dusting. 8.Removal of spalled fallen coal regularly from workings, which are not sealed-off. 9.Regular inspection of old workings. The main reason of fire in underground coal mines is spontaneous combustion of coal which is the process of self-heating of coal when exposed to air. If the rate of dissipation of heat is relatively slow as compared to the progress of heat by oxidation, there is a gradual build-up of heat and coal bed temperature reaches to the ignition point of coal thereby causing fire. Such fire can be prevented by nitrogen flushing in fire affected areas and use of quick setting materials for construction of isolation stopping.




(Adapted from PIB) 3. Changes in Cryosphere affecting Global Climate What is Cyrosphere?

According to the 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the cryosphere, comprising snow, river and lake ice, sea ice, glaciers, ice shelves and ice sheets, and frozen ground, plays a major role in the Earths climate system through its impact on the surface energy budget, the water cycle, primary productivity, surface gas exchange and sea level and is a fundamental control on the physical, biological and social environment over a large part of the Earths surface. Cryosphere is a natural integrator of climate variability and provides one of the most visible signatures of climate change. Observations show that there has been a continued net loss of ice from the cryosphere, although there are significant differences in the rate of loss between cryospheric components and regions. GOI response The Government has launched the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in June 2008 to achieve its goals and to deal with the issues related to climate change. NAPCC comprises eight missions in specific areas of solar energy, enhanced energy efficiency, sustainable habitat, water, sustaining Himalayan ecosystems, Green India, sustainable agriculture and strategic knowledge for climate change. The National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) under NAPCC encompasses conservation measures for sustaining and safeguarding the Himalayan ecosystems through establishment of monitoring network, promotion of community based management, human resource development, and strengthening regional cooperation. Major initiatives include establishment of a Centre for Himalayan Glaciology at the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun. (Adapted from PIB) 4. World Wetlands Day World Wetlands Day Every year, February 2 is celebrated as World Wetlands Day, to mark the date of adoption of Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. The Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. The Convention was adopted in 1971 at the Iranian City of Ramsar. India is a party to the Convention since 1982, and committed to the Ramsar approach of wise use of wetlands. Nodal ministry for Wetlands in India The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, as the nodal Ministry for wetlands conservation has been supporting the State Governments/ Union Territories, in design and implementation of Management Action Plans for conservation and management of wetlands including Ramsar sites. Financial and technical assistance has been provided to State Governments




for implementation of Management Action Plans for over 140 wetlands. Wetlands in India account for 4.7% of the total geographical area. What are the Wetlands? Wetlands are areas, intermediate or transitional, between water bodies and terrestrial habitats. Wetlands include lake littoral (marginal areas between the highest and lowest level of lakes), floodplains and other marshy or swampy areas, where water gets stagnated. Stagnation of water may be due to poor drainage, impervious soil or due to man-made factors such as accumulation of water in rice fields. Importance of Wetlands -Wetlands have ecological, scientific, economic and aesthetic significance. -Wetlands have ecological importance, because wetlands are habitat to various species of flora and fauna. -Wetlands have scientific importance, because research on biodiversity can be undertaken in these regions. -Wetlands have economic importance, because tourism and other revenue-generating recreational activities can be undertaken in these regions. -Wetlands have aesthetic importance, because rich flora and fauna add beauty to these regions. Functions of wetlands are as follows: -Wetlands trap nutrients and sediments from running water. -As wetlands trap nutrients and sediments, they help in water purification. -Wetlands are transitional areas between terrestrial and water bodies. Thus, these bodies reduce impact of flood on terrestrial areas. -Wetlands even facilitate maintenance of stream flow in some areas by contributing water to dry streams. -As wetlands are marshy regions, they assist in recharge of underground water. -Wetlands minimise the impact of river on land and thus reduce soil erosion. -Wetlands act as an obstruction to running water and thus reduce the flow of running water.

5. All-India Tiger Estimation 2018 to be Hi-Tech, More Accurate and Precise M-STrIPES The All-India Tiger Estimation, 2018 exercise promises not just to be hi-tech, but will also be far more accurate and precise than ever before. Officers from National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and scientists from Wildlife Institute of India explained how the current assessment uses Android phone-based application and desktop version of M-STrIPES (Monitoring System for Tigers-Intensive Protection and Ecological Status) for collecting, archiving and analyzing data. How does it work?




The phone application automatically records the track log of surveys and line transects, as well as authenticates the recorded data on signs and animal sightings with geo-tagged photographs. With increased camera trap density and the use of android technology, estimates arrived at are likely to be more robust – both in terms of accuracy and precision. What is special about tiger census This becomes evident from the fact that compared to the exercise conducted in the year 2006, when 9, 700 cameras were put up, the 2018 Estimation will use nearly 15, 000 cameras. It was also pointed out that it is not possible to count the photograph of every tiger in the camera trap. The Tiger Estimation exercise is the worlds largest wildlife survey effort in terms of coverage, intensity of sampling and quantum of camera trapping. About Tiger census India conducts the All India Tiger Estimation every four years. Three cycles of the estimation have already been completed in 2006, 2010 and 2014. These estimates showed estimates of 1, 411, 1, 706 and 2, 226 tigers respectively. The methodology has remained the same in the three cycles in terms of concept, but latest scientific developments in the field of animal abundance estimation have been incorporated and the best available science to evaluate tiger status has been used. Spatially Explicit Capture Recapture (SECR) For the national status assessment 2014, Spatially Explicit Capture Recapture (SECR) in a joint distribution approach, with ecologically relevant covariates was used. This approach makes use of two samples – the first sample is collected by the forest staff of 18 tiger states and is constituted by structured protocols that are easy and economical to generate information on the presence of tigers and relative abundance, along with information on prey, co-predators, habitat and human impact. The second sample is carried out by trained wildlife biologists who collect information using camera traps on tiger, leopard and prey abundance. Individual tigers and leopards are identified using a customized software that uses the stripe and spot patterns (similar to human fingerprints) to identify individuals. In 2014, over 70% of the estimated tiger population was through camera trapping, where 1686 photographs of individual tigers had been obtained. The remaining 30% of tigers were from areas that had tigers, but had not been camera trapped and were estimated by using robust statistical models, where ecological covariates of prey, habitat and human impact were used. Tiger conservation efforts The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 was amended in the year 2006. Since then, the Government has taken several initiatives in the field of tiger conservation. Tiger conservation was given statutory backing. The newly-created NTCA was mandated to carry out estimation of population of tiger and its natural prey species and assess status of their habitat. The Tiger Task Force realized that a major lacuna in tiger conservation was the absence of a credible, scientific national monitoring protocol that will inform policy-makers and wildlife managers on –




a.Spatial extent and the size of tiger population in India; b.Welfare factors in these and neighbouring habitat (prey status, human pressure, other wildlife species, status and habitat conditions); c.Trends in the population and area occupied over time. Following discussions and consultations with international experts, it was decided that the Wildlife Institute of India will be mandated with the task of developing and implementing the status assessment every four years under the direction of NTCA and in collaboration with State Forest Departments, civil society and NGOs. 6. India State of Forest Report 2017 Released Increase in trend of forest and tree cover Union Minister for Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Dr. Harsh Vardhan has said that India has shown an increasing trend in the forest and tree cover, in comparison to the global trend of decreasing forest cover during the last decade.

Salient features of the report

1.India ranks among the top ten countries of the world in terms of forest area, despite the fact that none of the other 9 countries has a population density of more than 150 persons per sq km, compared to India, which has a population density of 382 persons per sq km. 2.India is ranked 10th in the world, with 24.4% of land area under forest and tree cover, even though it accounts for 2.4 % of the world surface area and sustains the needs of 17 % of human and 18 % livestock population, the Minister said. He averred that despite such tremendous population and pressures of livestock on our forests, India has been able to preserve and expand its forest wealth. 3.Dr. Harsh Vardhan added that as per the latest FAO report, India is placed 8th in the list of Top Ten nations reporting the greatest annual net gain in forest area. 4.Dr. Harsh Vardhan stated that the latest assessment shows that there is an increase of 8, 021 sq km (about 80.20 million hectare) in the total forest and tree cover of the country, compared to the previous assessment in 2015. He added that the increase in the forest cover has been observed as 6,778 sq km and that of tree cover as 1, 243 sq km. 5.The total forest and tree cover is 24.39 per cent of the geographical area of the country, the Minister pointed out. He also underlined the encouraging sign that much of the increase in the forest cover has been observed in Very Dense Forest (VDF), as VDF absorbs maximum carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The increase in forest cover in VDF is followed by increase in open forest, the Minister said. 6. As per the ISFR 2017, the total mangrove cover stands at 4,921 sq km and has shown an increase of 181 sq km. All the 12 mangrove states have shown a positive change in the mangrove cover, as compared to the last assessment. 7.The extent of bamboo-bearing area in the country has been estimated at 15.69 million ha. In comparison to the last assessment done in 2011, there has been an increase of 1.73 million ha in bamboo area. The Government has recently enacted a Bill in the Parliament for taking out bamboo from the tree category, where it is grown outside forest areas.




This will encourage people to grow bamboo on private lands, which will be helpful in increasing the livelihood opportunities for farmers and also enhance the green cover and carbon stock of the country. State wise break up 1. Giving the State-wise break-up, Dr. Harsh Vardhan said that three states – Andhra Pradesh (2141 sq km), followed by Karnataka (1101 sq km) and Kerala (1043 sq km) have shown the maximum increase in forest cover. 2.Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover of 77,414 sq km in the country in terms of area, followed by Arunachal Pradesh with 66,964 sq km and Chhattisgarh (55,547 sq km). 3.In terms of percentage of forest cover with respect to the total geographical area, Lakshadweep with (90.33 per cent) has the highest forest cover, followed by Mizoram (86.27 per cent) and Andaman & Nicobar Island (81.73 per cent), the Minister stated. 4.The present assessment also reveals that 15 states/UTs have above 33 per cent of the geographical area under forest cover. Out of these States and Union Territories, seven States/UTs namely Mizoram, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya and Manipur have more than 75 per cent forest cover, while 8 states – Tripura, Goa, Sikkim, Kerala, Uttarakhand, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Chhattisgarh and Assam have forest cover between 33 per cent to 75 per cent. About 40% per cent of the countrys forest cover is present in 9 large contiguous patches of the size of 10, 000 sq.km, or more. About the report The India State of Forest Report 2017 is 15th such report in the series. The report contains information on forest cover, tree cover, mangrove cover, growing stock inside and outside the forest areas, carbon stock in Indias forests and forest cover in different patch size classes. Special thematic information on forest cover such as hill, tribal districts, and north eastern region has also been given separately in the report. The report for the first time contains information on decadal change in water bodies in forest during 2005-2015, forest fire, production of timber from outside forest, state wise carbon stock in different forest types and density classes. The spatial information given in the report is based on interpretation of LISS-III data from Indian Remote Sensing satellite data (Resourcesat-II) with a spatial resolution of 23.5 meters. In addition extensive ground data collected by field parties at more than 18000 points all over the country and information from other collateral sources are also used to improve the accuracy of the interpreted image. Forest Survey of India (FSI) has been assessing the forest and tree resources of our country on a biennial basis since 1987. The results of the assessment are published in its biennial report titled India State of Forest Report (ISFR). (Adapted from PIB) 7. India records marginal increase in forest cover Marginal rise in forest area India posted a marginal 0.21% rise in the area under forest between 2015 and 2017, according to the biennial India State of Forest Report (SFR) 2017. The document says that India has about




7,08,273 square kilometres of forest, which is 21.53% of the geographic area of the country (32,87,569 sq. km). Getting India to have at least 33% of its area under forest has been a long standing goal of the government since 1988. The 21% mark However various editions of the SFR over the years, have reported the area under forests as hovering around 21%. So the government also includes substantial patches of trees outside areas designated as forests — such as plantations or greenlands — in its assessment. The total tree cover, according to this assessment, was 93,815 square kilometres or a 2% rise from the approximately 92,500 square kilometres estimated in 2015. States with highest forest cover Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala topped the States that posted an increase in forest cover. 15 States and UTs fulfil 33% target Currently, 15 States and union territories have 33% of their geographical area under forests. Decline of forest cover in North East In Indias north-east however, forest cover showed a decrease; 1,71,306 square kilometres, or 65.34%, of the geographical area was under forest and this was a 630 square kilometer decline from the 2015 assessment. Rise in very dense forests The category of very dense forest— defined as a canopy cover over 70% — and an indicator of the quality of a forest, saw a dramatic rise from 85,904 square kilometres to 98,158 square kilometres this year but the category of moderately dense forest (40%- 70%) saw a 7,056 square kilometre-decline from 2015. Indias ranking in the world India is ranked 10th in the world, with 24.4% of land area under forest and tree cover, even though it accounts for 2.4% of the world surface area and sustains the needs of 17% of human and 18% livestock population, he said at a press conference to release the survey results. The forest survey for the first time mapped 633 districts and relied on satellite-mapping. Earlier this year, the government ceased to define bamboo as a tree to promote economic activity among tribals. The survey found that Indias bamboo bearing area rose by 1.73 million hectares (2011) to 15.69 million hectares (2017).

Difference Between Forest Cover and Forest Area

Forest Area: The area recorded as forest in the government records is called Forest Area or Recorded Forest Area. The Recorded Forest Area denotes the legal status of the land. Forest Cover: Any land which is more than one hectare in area and with a canopy density of more than 10%, irrespective of the ownership and legal status, is called Forest Cover.




Types of Forests on the Basis of Protection Reserved Forests - A reserved forest (also called reserve forest) or a protected forest in India is the term used to accord a certain degree of protection to forest. The term was first introduced in Indian Forest Act, 1927. These forests are looked after by the government and no public entry is allowed for the collection

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