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CREATING CONFIDENCE AMONGST COMPLEXITY:
THE ‘LIVED EXPERIENCE’ OF CLIENT-SIDE PROJECT MANAGERS IN THE AUSTRALIAN
CONSTRUCTION SECTOR.
A Thesis submitted by
Gregory Usher, MBA, PGradDipMgt, ADCEng (Civil), MAIPM, CPPE
For the award of
Doctor of Philosophy
2018
A b s t r a c t | i
Abstract The client-side project manager is a professional who manages projects within complex and
dynamic environments while ensuring their client’s interests are protected and maintained.
This thesis explores the ‘lived experience’ of client-side project managers who deliver
projects in the Australian Construction sector. In this sector, client-side project managers are
regularly confronted with challenges such as poorly defined project scope, disparate and
conflicting stakeholder expectations, and countless opportunities for carefully planned and
rigorously monitored projects to encounter unforeseen events that can ultimately result in the
project being regarded as a failure.
Little is known about the ‘lived-experience’ of a client-side project manager, and even less
about how they deal with these challenges to effectively manage their project work. Client-
side project management has traditionally been considered a form of production management.
However, in many ways, this perception appears at odds with the ‘lived-experience’ of client-
side project management practitioners. Through this thesis, I argue that this perception is
hindering the development of the body of theory for the profession by limiting discussions
within unjustified constraints and restricting the development of tools that could help client-
side project managers perform crucial elements of their role.
This thesis comprises a collection of publications that investigates the ‘lived experience’ of
client-side project managers. How they think; how they manage ambiguity, conflicting
expectations, and poorly defined problems; and ultimately how they create value in the
project delivery process.
During the course of my candidature; I have published thirteen papers. Seven of these papers
(one theoretical and six empirical) have been included in this thesis. All of the empirical
papers adopted qualitative research methodologies, the most predominant of these is
Grounded Theory. This particular methodology aligned well with the emerging nature of the
research included in this thesis. The themes of the thesis move from a broad recognition and
understanding of a divide that exists between the theory and practice of client-side project
management, through to a detailed analysis of how a cohort of practitioners adopt the role of
System Specialists to deliver their projects, and thereby create value through managing a
complex network of actors.
A b s t r a c t | ii
Through this thesis I will argue that the ‘lived experience’ of client-side project management
is not supported by the traditionally accepted theoretical foundations of Transformational
Production Management, and I call for a broader theoretical basis for the profession. I argue
that client-side project managers operate beyond the role of project Implementers and instead
play a critical role in managing a complex value network. This network is created to deliver
the strategic, technical, financial and human goals which clients are expecting from their
projects. As I will demonstrate through this thesis, achieving these outcomes requires client-
side project managers to think more strategically, holistically and creatively about their
projects than the current theoretical foundations of their profession supports.
This thesis will demonstrate that client-side project managers must balance both the success
and satisfaction paradigms of their projects, manage Drift-Changes and attempt to create
Project Management Yinyang. To achieve this they utilize Design Thinking Mentalities,
Thinking Styles, Practices and Tools, and act as System Specialist who create network
Constructs and Controls to create value.
This thesis outlines multiple opportunities for project management researchers to pursue.
These include, but are not limited to, new project management practices such as Funnelling
and Optioneering, the role of Design Thinking in the practice of client-side project
management and how client-side project managers create value by acting as System
Specialists. In addition this thesis provides insight in to new skills, competencies and tools
which practitioners can adopt if they wish to become more proficient in their craft.
In summary, this thesis demonstrates that the ‘lived experience’ of the client-side project
manager is not the ordered, rational and well planned experience that the traditional
theoretical foundations of the profession would have us believe. Instead it is dynamic and
complex, as well as exciting and challenging. Client-side project management demands a
high level of technical expertise combined with highly developed social skills and creativity.
It requires optimistic professionals who are capable of balancing paradoxes, navigating
through ambiguity, relentlessly pressing forward in the face of uncertainty and who have the
intellectual capacity to manage a complex value network using an action-as-planning
approach. Finally, in the midst of all this, they must foster the belief among all the
stakeholders that the Functionality and Representation of value required by the project is
A b s t r a c t | iii
achievable. Consequently, the client-side project manager creates confidence among
complexity.
G l o s s a r y | iv
Glossary of Terms
Client-side project management
A form of project management in which the practitioner’s role is to protect their client’s interests by ensuring the project delivers the required Functionality and Representation of value expected by the sponsoring organisation.
Client-side construction project manager
A client-side project management practitioner who delivers construction projects.
Client Satisfaction The state achieved by fulfilling the subjectively
assessed expectations of stakeholders. (See also ‘Representation of value’).
Confidence Locks Hold points within a Knowledge Funnel that must be
released by the client-side project management practitioner if the project is to proceed.
Convergence The state that exists when elements of a duality or
plurality achieve a tight structural coupling.
Design Thinking A team based, human-centred cognitive process that utilizes a combination of analytical thinking and intuition to develop creative solutions to complex, or poorly defined problems.
Drift Changes A specific change typology that delivers project outcomes that were not requested or originally anticipated by the project stakeholders.
Duality (Plurality) The existence of two (or more) components within a
construct that create tension. In this thesis dualities and pluralities are further categorised as either dilemmas, dialectics, or paradoxes.
Functionality One of two aspects of value (see also Representation of Value) which must be present for the creation of value in a network. Functionality is the minimum core purpose that the users wish to put the offering to.
G l o s s a r y | v
Funnelling The practice of guiding multiple project pathways or fragmented stakeholder expectations, towards a state of uniformity.
Knowledge Funnel A concept developed in Design Thinking literature to explain the process of progressing from a poorly defined problem to clearly defined solution.
Nested Project Management Knowledge Funnel
An adaptation of the Knowledge Funnel used to explain a value creation process utilized by client-side project managers when they adopt the role of Systems Specialists.
Network Construct A unique hypothetical framework developed from
the specific constraints, restraints and parameters dictated by the environment, the requirements and the competencies of the available network actors. A Network Construct provides network actors with a definition of what is to be achieved and the acceptable means for attaining that objective.
Network Controls A combination of Strategic, Implementation and
Fine-Tuning processes created to ensure networks achieve both Functionality and the Representation of value.
Optioneering The practice of presenting specifically selected
options to stakeholders in order to manage paradoxes.
Project Success The state obtained when objectively assessable
project metrics are achieved within agreed constraints.
Project Management Yinyang
A state that exists when project success is tightly coupled to client satisfaction.
Representation of Value One of two aspects of value (see also Functionality)
which must be present for the creation of value in a network. It refers to everything other than Functionality that network actors expect to achieve from their involvement in the value creation
G l o s s a r y | vi
experience. This not only includes the personal benefits which they will derive from using the product, but also the emotional satisfaction they want to experience by participating in the process.
Structural coupling The strength of the relationship that exists between
two elements of a system. A tight coupling represents a strong relationship. A loose coupling represents a weak relationship.
System Specialist A visionary and facilitator who formulates and
guides the development of the Network Construct and Controls so they deliver the required Functionality and Representation of Value.
Traditional Project Management theory
Project management theory derived from Transformational Production Management. This theory conceptualises the role of project management predominantly in terms of planning and control.
.
C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f T h e s i s | vii
Certification of Thesis This thesis is entirely the work of Gregory Stewart Usher except where otherwise
acknowledged. The work is original and has not been submitted for any other award.
Student and supervisor’s signatures of endorsement are held at USQ.
Associate Professor Jon Whitty
Principal Supervisor
Dr Subrata Chakraborty
Associate Supervisor
S t a t e m e n t o f C o - a u t h o r s h i p | viii
Statement of Co-authorship Table X-1-1: Details of Co-authorship
Article Citation Percentage of
Authorship
Confirmation of Co-
author
Usher, G., Whitty S. J., (2014).”Towards a
new theory of project management: Could
client-side, construction, project management
be a form of strategic management?” In: Qi,
A., (ed), Theory meets Practice in Project
Management, Proceedings of the 2nd Research
Conference of the International Project
Management Association, 2014. Tianjin,
China. Nankai University, pp126-137.
Usher, G.
80%
Whitty, S Jonathan
20%
Dr S. Jonathan Whitty
Usher, G. & Whitty, S. J. (2017). "Identifying
and managing Drift-changes". International
Journal of Project Management, Vol. 35
No.4, pp 586-603.
Usher, G.
80%
Whitty, S Jonathan
20%
Dr S. Jonathan Whitty
Usher, G. & Whitty, S. J. (2017). "Project
Management Yinyang: Coupling project
success and client satisfaction". Project
Management Research and Practice, Vol. 33
No.5, Jan-Jun 2017.
Usher, G.
80%
Whitty, S Jonathan
20%
Dr S. Jonathan Whitty
Usher, G. & Whitty, S. J. (2017). "The final
state convergence model". International
Journal of Managing Projects in Business,
Vol. 10 No.4, pp 770-795.
Usher, G.
80%
Whitty, S Jonathan
20%
Dr S. Jonathan Whitty
Usher, G. & Whitty, S. J. (2017). “Embracing
Paradox: Utilizing Design Thinking in Project
Management”. In Innovate, Influence and
Implement. Proceedings of the Australian
Institute of Project Management National
Usher, G.
90%
Whitty, S Jonathan
10%
Dr S. Jonathan Whitty
S t a t e m e n t o f C o - a u t h o r s h i p | ix
Conference. 22nd – 24th October 2017.
Melbourne.
“Managing Project Management Paradoxes
through Design Thinking”
In Press by Project Management Research
and Practice
Usher, G.
90%
Whitty, S Jonathan
10%
Dr S. Jonathan Whitty
“The client-side project manager – a
practitioner of Design Thinking.”
Currently under review by Project
Management Research and Practice
Usher, G.
90%
Whitty, S Jonathan
10%
Dr S. Jonathan Whitty
“Creating value through client-side project
management.”
Currently under review by the International
Journal of Managing Projects in Business
Usher, G.
90%
Whitty, S Jonathan
10%
Dr S. Jonathan Whitty
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s | x
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges the support of:
1) Associate Professor Jon Whitty for his Supervision of my candidacy.
2) The Australian Government Research Training Scheme in the completion of this
thesis.
D e d i c a t i o n | xi
Dedicated to
My wife and family
A d d i t i o n a l W o r k s n o t f o r m i n g p a r t o f t h e s i s | xii
Additional publications not forming part of this
thesis The following works were completed during the period of my candidacy and are of relevance
to this thesis. However, these works do not form part of the examinable thesis.
Table X-1-2: Additional publications not forming part of this research
Citation
Usher, G (2013). “Inviting Project Management into the Boardroom”. Vol II.
http://pmworldjournal.net/article/inviting-project-management-boardroom/
Usher, G (2013). “Bring PM to the Centre”. Project Manager, Vol June-July, pp 10-13
Usher, G (2013). “Achieving Strategic Integrity”. Project Manager, Vol December –
January, pp 28-32.
Usher, G (2014). “Enhancing Strategic Integrity through Project Management”. Vol III.
http://pmworldjournal.net/article/enhancing-strategic-integrity-project-management/
Usher, G. “Hail Caesar, The Stoics Guide to Project Management”.
Currently under review by Project Manager
http://pmworldjournal.net/article/inviting-project-management-boardroom/http://pmworldjournal.net/article/enhancing-strategic-integrity-project-management/
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s | xiii
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................................... I
GLOSSARY OF TERMS .................................................................................................................................. IV
CERTIFICATION OF THESIS .......................................................................................................................... VII
STATEMENT OF CO-AUTHORSHIP .............................................................................................................. VIII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ X
ADDITIONAL PUBLICATIONS NOT FORMING PART OF THIS THESIS .............................................................. XII
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................. XIII
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... XXIII
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................................... XXV
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 THESIS STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1.2.1 Section 1: The Theory/Praxis Divide ................................................................................................ 1
1.2.2 Section 2: Modelling the ‘lived experience’ ..................................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Section 3: ‘Project creation’ to ‘value creation’ .............................................................................. 3
1.3 RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SCHOLARLY COMMUNITY ................................................................................ 4
1.4 SYNOPSIS ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.4.1 Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 1
1.4.2 Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 1
1.4.3 Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................................ 2
1.4.4 Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1.4.5 Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................................ 4
1.4.6 Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1.4.7 Chapter 7 ........................................................................................................................................ 6
1.4.8 Chapter 8 ........................................................................................................................................ 7
1.4.9 Chapter 9 ........................................................................................................................................ 7
1.4.10 Chapter 10 .......................................................................................................................................... 8
1.4.11 Chapter 11 .......................................................................................................................................... 9
1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 9
1.5.1 Research Aims ............................................................................................................................... 10
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s | xiv
1.5.2 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................................. 10 1.5.2.1 Philosophical Positioning .................................................................................................................... 11 1.5.2.2 Research Methodology selection ........................................................................................................ 16
1.5.3 Research Methods ........................................................................................................................ 18
1.5.3.1 Theoretical sensitization .................................................................................................................... 18 1.5.3.2 Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................................................ 22 1.5.3.3 The ‘progenitor data’ .......................................................................................................................... 25 1.5.3.4 Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................................................ 28 1.5.3.5 Chapter 5 ............................................................................................................................................ 30 1.5.3.5 Chapter 6 ............................................................................................................................................ 32 1.5.3.5 Chapter 7 ............................................................................................................................................ 35 1.5.3.5 Chapter 8 ............................................................................................................................................ 36 1.5.3.5 Chapter 9 ............................................................................................................................................ 37
2 BACKGROUND AND CONTIGUOUS LITERATURE ................................................................................. 39
2.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................................ 39
2.1.1 Why I needed to undertake this research. .......................................................................................... 39
2.1.2 The client-side project manager ......................................................................................................... 40
2.1.3 The Construct ................................................................................................................................ 41
2.1.4 The Controls ....................................................................................................................................... 42
2.2 CONTIGUOUS LITERATURE ................................................................................................................................ 43
2.2.1 Client-side Project Management .................................................................................................. 43
2.2.2 Rethinking Project Management .................................................................................................. 45
2.2.3 Dualities, Pluralities and Functional Systems ................................................................................ 47
2.2.4 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 48
3 RETHINKING PROJECT MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................... 50
3.1 STRUCTURE MAP ........................................................................................................................................ 50
3.2 PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................... 50
3.3 KEY THEMES OF THIS CHAPTER RELEVANT TO THIS THESIS ..................................................................................... 51
3.4 CITATION DETAILS ........................................................................................................................................ 51
3.5 ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. 52
3.6 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 52
3.7 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................ 53
3.7.1 What is theory and why do we need it? ........................................................................................ 53
3.7.2 Is the underlying theory of Project Management fundamentally flawed? ................................... 54
3.8 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................................... 56
3.8.1 Production Management Theory .................................................................................................. 56
3.8.1.1 Taylorism - Scientific Management ..................................................................................................... 56 3.8.1.2 Shewhart - Statistical Quality Control ................................................................................................. 57
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s | xv
3.8.1.3 Fordism - Mass production and mass consumption ........................................................................... 58 3.8.1.4 Transformational View of Production Management .......................................................................... 58
3.8.2 Proposed alternate Construction project management theories .................................................. 60 3.8.2.1 Value-Flow-Transformation (VFT) Theory .................................................................................................... 60 3.8.2.2 Complexity Theories ........................................................................................................................... 61 3.8.2.3 Actuality Theory .................................................................................................................................. 62
3.8.3 Strategic Management ................................................................................................................. 63
3.8.3.1 Strategic Management as an alternative body of theory. .................................................................. 63 3.8.3.2 Strategic Management schools of thought. ........................................................................................ 65 3.8.3.3 Design (Deliberate) School .................................................................................................................. 65
3.8.4 Emergent School ........................................................................................................................... 66
3.9 RESEARCH GAPS .......................................................................................................................................... 67
3.10 RESEARCH QUESTION .............................................................................................................................. 68
3.11 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................................... 68
3.11.1 Approach to Research .............................................................................................................. 68
3.11.2 How do we test theories? ......................................................................................................... 68
3.11.3 Comparative Analyses .............................................................................................................. 69 3.11.3.1 Thematic Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 69 3.11.3.2 Comparison against observed phenomena ........................................................................................ 70 3.11.3.3 Interpretation ..................................................................................................................................... 70
3.12 ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................................................. 71
3.12.1 Thematic Analysis – Production Management ................................................................................. 71
3.12.2 Thematic Analysis – Design School of Strategic Management ................................................ 72
3.12.3 Thematic Analysis – Emergent School of Strategic Management ............................................ 73
3.12.4 Analysis against observed phenomena .................................................................................... 74
3.13 FINDINGS .............................................................................................................................................. 76
3.13.1 The delivery process [Construction] ......................................................................................... 76
3.13.2 The perceived value of the project ........................................................................................... 77
3.13.3 Client satisfaction with the delivered project. .......................................................................... 79
3.14 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................... 79
4 IDENTIFYING AND MANAGING DRIFT-CHANGES ................................................................................ 83
4.1 STRUCTURE MAP ........................................................................................................................................ 83
4.2 PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................... 83
4.3 KEY POINTS OF THIS CHAPTER RELEVANT TO THIS THESIS ...................................................................................... 84
4.4 CITATION AND CO-AUTHOR DETAILS ................................................................................................................ 84
4.5 ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. 84
4.6 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 85
4.7 BACKGROUND AND CONTIGUOUS LITERATURE ................................................................................................... 86
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s | xvi
4.7.1 What are Drift-changes ...................................................................................................................... 86
4.7.2 Corrective Actions............................................................................................................................... 89
4.7.3 Success and Satisfaction ............................................................................................................... 90
4.7.4 Project Trajectories and modes .......................................................................................................... 92
4.8 RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................................................................................... 93
4.9 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................... 94
4.9.1 Grounded Theory ................................................................................................................................ 94
4.9.2 Research Methodology ................................................................................................................. 95
4.10 RESEARCH FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................... 97
4.10.1 Expectation .............................................................................................................................. 97 4.10.1.1 Initial Plan .................................................................................................................................................. 97 4.10.1.2 Initial Expectation ...................................................................................................................................... 98
4.10.2 Deviation ................................................................................................................................ 100
4.10.3 External Influences ................................................................................................................. 101
4.10.4 Interpretation ......................................................................................................................... 102
4.10.5 Corrective Actions .................................................................................................................. 103 4.10.5.1 Fine-Tuning .............................................................................................................................................. 103 4.10.5.2 Revision .................................................................................................................................................... 105 4.10.5.3 Re-openings ............................................................................................................................................. 108
4.10.6 Satisfaction ............................................................................................................................ 111 4.10.6.1 Acceptance ....................................................................................................................................... 111 4.10.6.2 New Expectations............................................................................................................................. 112
4.11 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................................... 113
4.11.1 Identifying Drift-changes ........................................................................................................ 113
4.11.2 Managing Drift-changes ........................................................................................................ 114 4.11.2.1 Shifting project modes ............................................................................................................................. 114 4.11.2.2 Revisions .......................................................................................................................................... 115 4.11.2.3 Re-opening ....................................................................................................................................... 115 4.11.2.4 Drift changes, Project Success and Stakeholder Satisfaction ........................................................... 116
4.12 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 121
4.12.1 Limitations and Challenges .................................................................................................... 121
4.12.2 Implications for research and practice ................................................................................... 122
5 PROJECT MANAGEMENT YINYANG: COUPLING PROJECT SUCCESS AND CLIENT SATISFACTION. .........124
5.1 STRUCTURE MAP ...................................................................................................................................... 124
5.2 PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................. 124
5.3 KEY POINTS OF THIS CHAPTER RELEVANT TO THIS THESIS .................................................................................... 125
5.4 CITATION AND CO-AUTHOR DETAILS .............................................................................................................. 125
5.5 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ 125
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s | xvii
5.6 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 126
5.7 BACKGROUND AND CONTIGUOUS LITERATURE ................................................................................................. 128
5.7.1 Yinyang ....................................................................................................................................... 128
5.7.2 Paradox theory, systemic discourses and structural coupling .......................................................... 130
5.7.3 Success (Yang) .................................................................................................................................. 132
5.7.4 Satisfaction (Yin) .............................................................................................................................. 134
5.7.5 Project Management Yinyang .......................................................................................................... 136
5.8 RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................................................................................. 138
5.9 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 138
5.9.1 Grounded Theory Overview .............................................................................................................. 138
5.9.2 Overview of GT application to this research .................................................................................... 139
5.9.3 Detailed research methodology ....................................................................................................... 140
5.10 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................ 143
5.10.1 Case study 1 [CS1] .......................................................................................................................... 143
5.10.2 Analysis of Case Study 1 ................................................................................................................ 145
5.10.2.1. Duality ..................................................................................................................................................... 145 5.10.2.2 Focus ........................................................................................................................................................ 146
5.10.3 Case study 2 [CS2] .......................................................................................................................... 146
5.10.4 Analysis of Case Study 2 ................................................................................................................. 148 5.10.4.1 Duality ...................................................................................................................................................... 148 5.10.4.2 Multiple expectations of project outcomes ............................................................................................. 148
5.10.5 Phase 2: Interviews ........................................................................................................................ 149 5.10.5.1 Duality ...................................................................................................................................................... 149 5.10.5.2 Success .................................................................................................................................................... 149 5.10.5.3 Satisfaction ............................................................................................................................................... 150
5.10.6 Focus .............................................................................................................................................. 151 5.10.6.1 Multiple pathways ................................................................................................................................... 151 5.10.6.2 Multiple expectations .............................................................................................................................. 151 5.10.6.3 Funnelling ................................................................................................................................................. 152
5.11 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................................... 153
5.11.1 Theme 1: Duality ............................................................................................................................ 153
5.11.2 Theme 2: Focus ............................................................................................................................... 154
5.11.3 Convergence and project management yinyang ............................................................................ 156
5.12 LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES ............................................................................................................... 158
5.12.1 Sample Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 158
5.12.2 Data Collection Limitations ............................................................................................................ 159
5.12.3 Generalisability .............................................................................................................................. 159
5.13 IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND PRACTICE .............................................................................................. 159
5.13.1 For researchers ............................................................................................................................... 159
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s | xviii
5.13.2 For practitioners ............................................................................................................................. 160
5.14 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................... 160
6 THE FINAL STATE CONVERGENCE MODEL. ........................................................................................162
6.1 STRUCTURE MAP ...................................................................................................................................... 162
6.2 PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................. 162
6.3 KEY POINTS OF THIS CHAPTER RELEVANT TO THIS THESIS .................................................................................... 163
6.4 CITATION AND CO-AUTHOR DETAILS .............................................................................................................. 163
6.5 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ 164
6.6 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 165
6.7 RESEARCH PROBLEM .................................................................................................................................. 166
6.7.1 Theory about practice ...................................................................................................................... 167
6.7.2 Theory for practice ........................................................................................................................... 168
6.8 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................................. 169
6.8.1 Rationale for Theory Selection .................................................................................................... 169
6.8.2 Transformational Production Management ............................................................................... 170
6.8.2.1 A model of Transformational Production Management ................................................................... 171
6.8.3 Strategic Management theory .................................................................................................... 172 6.8.3.1 Deliberate (Design) School ................................................................................................................ 173 6.8.3.2 Emergent School ............................................................................................................................... 173 6.8.3.3 Deliberate and Emergent models .................................................................................................... 174
6.8.4 Complexity Theories ......................................................................................................................... 174
6.9 RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................................................................................. 177
6.10 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................... 178
6.10.1 Overview of grounded theory as applied to this study ........................................................... 179
6.10.2 Grounded Theory methods of analysis ................................................................................... 180
6.11 MODEL DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................................................... 181
6.11.1 Version 1 of the Model ................................................................................................................... 181
6.11.2 Testing Version 1 of the Model ...................................................................................................... 183
6.11.3 Case Study 1 ................................................................................................................................... 184
6.11.4 Case Study 2 ................................................................................................................................... 186
6.11.5 Findings from the testing of Version 1 of the model ...................................................................... 187
6.11.6 Testing Version 2 of the Model ...................................................................................................... 191
6.11.7 Findings from the testing of Version 2 of the model ...................................................................... 195
6.12 DISCUSSIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 195
6.12.1 Final State Convergence Model ...................................................................................................... 195
6.12.2 Limitations and Challenges ............................................................................................................ 197
6.12.3 Implications for research and practice ........................................................................................... 198 6.12.3.1. For Academics ......................................................................................................................................... 198
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s | xix
6.12.3.2. For Practitioners ...................................................................................................................................... 199
6.13 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................... 199
7 MANAGING PARADOXES THROUGH DESIGN THINKING. ...................................................................201
7.1 STRUCTURE MAP ...................................................................................................................................... 201
7.2 PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................. 201
7.3 KEY POINTS OF THIS CHAPTER RELEVANT TO THIS THESIS .................................................................................... 202
7.4 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ 202
7.5 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 204
7.6 BACKGROUND AND CONTIGUOUS LITERATURE ................................................................................................. 204
7.6.1 Dualities, Dilemmas, Dialectics and Paradoxes .......................................................................... 205
7.6.2 Managing Paradoxes .................................................................................................................. 207
7.6.3 Design Thinking ........................................................................................................................... 209
7.6.4 Project Management Paradoxes ................................................................................................ 211 7.6.4.1 The predictable/unpredictable paradox .................................................................................................... 211 7.6.4.2 The control/freedom paradox .................................................................................................................... 212
7.7 RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................................................................................. 213
7.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................... 213
7.9 RESEARCH FINDINGS .................................................................................................................................. 218
7.9.1 Existence of paradoxes ............................................................................................................... 218
7.9.2 Design Thinking ........................................................................................................................... 220 7.9.2.1 Structural vs. Structuring ........................................................................................................................... 220 7.9.2.2 Multiple pathways to required outcome .......................................................................................... 222 7.9.2.3 Knowledge funnel ............................................................................................................................. 224 7.9.2.4 Action as planning ............................................................................................................................. 225 7.9.2.5 Optioneering ..................................................................................................................................... 226
7.10 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................................... 227
7.10.1 Design Thinking ...................................................................................................................... 227
7.10.2 Optioneering .......................................................................................................................... 229
7.11 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................................. 230
7.11.1 Data Collection Limitations ............................................................................................................ 231
7.11.2 Sample Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 231
7.11.3 Generalisability .............................................................................................................................. 231
7.11.4 Implications for research and practice ........................................................................................... 232
8 THE CLIENT-SIDE PROJECT MANAGER: A PRACTITIONER OF DESIGN THINKING. .................................234
8.1 STRUCTURE MAP ...................................................................................................................................... 234
8.2 PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................. 234
8.3 KEY POINTS OF THIS CHAPTER RELEVANT TO THIS THESIS ........................................................................................ 235
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s | xx
8.4 ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................... 235
8.5 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 236
8.6 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................................. 237
8.6.1 Client-side Project Management ...................................................................................................... 237
8.6.2 Design Thinking ................................................................................................................................ 239 8.6.2.1 Mentalities ................................................................................................................................................. 240 8.6.2.2 Thinking Styles ........................................................................................................................................... 241 8.6.2.3 Practices ..................................................................................................................................................... 242 8.6.2.4 Tools ........................................................................................................................................................... 243
8.7 RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................................................................................. 244
8.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................... 244
8.8.1 Research design ......................................................................................................................... 245
8.9 RESULTS ............................................................................................................................................. 246
8.9.1 Design Thinking Mentalities ....................................................................................................... 246 8.9.1.1. Experimental and Explorative ........................................................................................................... 246 8.9.1.2. Ambiguity Tolerant ........................................................................................................................... 247 8.9.1.3 Optimistic .......................................................................................................................................... 248 8.9.1.4 Future-Oriented ................................................................................................................................ 249
8.9.2 Thinking Styles ............................................................................................................................ 250 8.9.2.1 Abductive Reasoning......................................................................................................................... 250 8.9.2.2 Reflective Reframing ......................................................................................................................... 251 8.9.2.3 Holistic View ..................................................................................................................................... 251 8.9.2.4 Integrative Thinking .......................................................................................................................... 252
8.9.3 Practices ...................................................................................................................................... 253 8.9.3.1 Human-Centred Approach ................................................................................................................ 253 8.9.3.2 Thinking-by-doing ............................................................................................................................. 254 8.9.3.3 Visualisation ...................................................................................................................................... 255 8.9.3.4 Combining divergent and convergent approaches ........................................................................... 255 8.9.3.5 Collaborative work style ................................................................................................................... 256
8.9.4 Tools ............................................................................................................................................ 257
8.10 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................................... 259
8.10.1 Design Thinking in Project Management ............................................................................... 260 8.10.1.1 Design Thinking Mentalities .............................................................................................................. 260 8.10.1.2 Design Thinking Thinking Styles ........................................................................................................ 261 8.10.1.3 Design Thinking Practices .................................................................................................................. 261 8.10.1.4 Design Thinking Tools ....................................................................................................................... 262
8.10.2 Client-side Project Management ............................................................................................ 263
8.11 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 263
8.11.1 Limitations of this research .................................................................................................... 264
8.11.2 Implications for research and practice ................................................................................... 264
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s | xxi 9 CREATING VALUE THROUGH CLIENT-SIDE PROJECT MANAGEMENT ..................................................266
9.1 STRUCTURE MAP ...................................................................................................................................... 266
9.2 PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................. 266
9.3 KEY POINTS OF THIS CHAPTER RELEVANT TO THIS THESIS .................................................................................... 267
9.4 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ 267
9.5 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 269
9.6 BACKGROUND AND CONTIGUOUS LITERATURE ................................................................................................ 271
9.6.1 Client-side project management ...................................................................................................... 272
9.6.2 From ‘project creation’ to ‘value creation’.................................................................................. 273
9.6.3 Value Networks ................................................................................................................................ 274
9.6.4 Network Construct ........................................................................................................................... 275 9.6.4.1 Structural Dimension ................................................................................................................................. 275 9.6.4.2 Relational Dimension ................................................................................................................................. 276 9.6.4.3 Cognitive Dimension .................................................................................................................................. 277
9.6.5 Network Controls ........................................................................................................................ 277
9.6.6 Systems Specialists ...................................................................................................................... 279
9.7 Knowledge Funnels .............................................................................................................................. 280
9.8 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................... 281
9.9 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................... 282
9.9.1 Data collection and analysis ............................................................................................................. 283
9.10 FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................................ 285
9.10.1 Network Construct ................................................................................................................. 285 9.10.1.1 Structural Dimension ........................................................................................................................ 285 9.10.1.2 Relational Dimension ........................................................................................................................ 286 9.10.1.3 Cognitive Dimension ......................................................................................................................... 286
9.10.2 Network Controls ................................................................................................................... 288 9.10.2.1 Strategic Controls .............................................................................................................................. 288 9.10.2.2 Implementation Controls .................................................................................................................. 288 9.10.2.3 Fine Tuning ........................................................................................................................................ 289
9.10.3 System Specialist .................................................................................................................... 290
9.10.4 Knowledge Funnel .......................................................................................................................... 291
9.10.5 The discovery of ‘Confidence Locks’ in the Knowledge Funnel ............................................... 292
9.11 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................................... 293
9.11.1 The client-side project manager as a System Specialist. ........................................................ 293
9.11.2 Nested Project Management Knowledge Funnels and Confidence Locks. ............................. 294 9.11.2.1 The Nested Knowledge Funnel and the System Specialist ................................................................ 296
9.12 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 300
9.12.1 Limitations of this research .................................................................................................... 302
9.12.2 Implications for research and practice ................................................................................... 302
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s | xxii
9.12.2.1. Project Management Research ............................................................................................................... 302 9.12.2.2. Project Management Practice ................................................................................................................. 303
10 DISCUSSION .....................................................................................................................................304
10.1 CHALLENGING SOME OF THE DOMINANT IDEAS OF TRADITIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT THEORY. ...................... 304
10.2 EXPOSING SOME OF THE DUALITIES AND PLURALITIES THAT EXIST WITHIN CLIENT-SIDE PROJECT MANAGEMENT. ....... 305
10.3 CLIENT-SIDE PROJECT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND TOOLS ......................................................................... 307
10.4 FROM ‘PROJECT-CREATION’ TO ‘VALUE-CREATION’ ...................................................................................... 308
11 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................................309
11.1 SUMMARY OF THESIS CONTRIBUTIONS ...................................................................................................... 309
11.2 IMPLICATIONS OF THE CONTRIBUTIONS ............................................................................................................ 309
11.2.1 Implications for project management researchers ........................................................................ 309
11.2.2 Implications for project management practitioners ...................................................................... 311
11.3 LIMITATIONS OF THIS THESIS .......................................................................................................................... 312
11.4 FUTURE RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES ......................................................................................................... 312
11.5 FINAL REMARKS ................................................................................................................................... 313
REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................................315
L i s t o f F i g u r e s | xxiii
List of Figures
Figure 1-1: Chapters grouped into the Thesis Structure Map. ................................................... 4
Figure 1-2: The Impact of Philosophical Positioning on Research ......................................... 11
Figure 1-3: Philosophical Position (Ontology and Epistemology) of this Thesis ................... 15
Figure 1-4: Thesis Research Methodology .............................................................................. 21
Figure 3-1: Thesis structure map (Chapter 3) .......................................................................... 50
Figure 3-2: Transformational Production Management system .............................................. 59
Figure 3-3: Customer dissatisfaction in client-side Construction project management
explained by the strategic management body of theory ........................................................... 82
Figure 4-1: Thesis structure map (Chapter 4) .......................................................................... 83
Figure 4-2: Plan-changes, Goal-changes and Drift-changes .................................................... 89
Figure 4-3: Drift change: Initial Plan and Initial Expectation ............................................... 100
Figure 4-4: Drift change: Fine-tuning .................................................................................... 105
Figure 4-5: Drift-changes: Revisions ..................................................................................... 108
Figure 4-6: Drift-change: Re-opening ................................................................................... 111
Figure 4-7: Identifying a Drift-change ................................................................................... 114
Figure 4-8: Drift-change: Expectation Management in a Revision ....................................... 118
Figure 4-9: Expectation management in a Re-opening .......................................................... 118
Figure 4-10: Why stakeholder expectation management is only necessary for a Drift-change,
and how this is achieved. ....................................................................................................... 120
Figure 5-1: Thesis structure map (Chapter 5) ........................................................................ 124
Figure 5-2: Taijitu (yinyang symbol) .................................................................................... 129
Figure 5-3: Overview of the Project Management yinyang GT methodology ...................... 140
Figure 5-4: Yinyang framework ............................................................................................ 154
Figure 5-5: Multiple pathways and expectations within the yinyang framework ................. 155
Figure 5-6: Funnelling in the yinyang framework ................................................................. 156
Figure 5-7: Yinyang framework: Convergence ..................................................................... 158
Figure 6-1: Thesis structure map (Chapter 6) ........................................................................ 162
Figure 6-2: Transformational production management model .............................................. 172
Figure 6-3 - Deliberate vs Emergent Strategies ..................................................................... 174
Figure 6-4: A simple network diagram .................................................................................. 177
Figure 6-5: Research methodology ........................................................................................ 180
L i s t o f F i g u r e s | xxiv
Figure 6-6: Conceptual Model (v1) ....................................................................................... 183
Figure 6-7: Case Study 1 applied to Model (v1) .................................................................... 188
Figure 6-8: Case Study 2 applied to Model (v1) .................................................................... 188
Figure 6-9: Conceptual Model (v2), the 'Final State Convergence Model' ........................... 191
Figure 7-1: Thesis structure map (Chapter 7) ........................................................................ 201
Figure 7-2: The Design Thinking Knowledge Funnel ........................................................... 210
Figure 8-1: Thesis structure map (Chapter 8) ........................................................................ 234
Figure 9-1: Thesis structure map (Chapter 9) ........................................................................ 266
Figure 9-2: Usher and Whitty (2017a) Knowledge Funnel aligned with the network
literature. ................................................................................................................................ 283
Figure 9-3: Nested Project Management Knowledge Funnel ................................................ 292
Figure 9-4: Confidence Locks in the Project Management Knowledge Funnel .................... 295
Figure 9-5: The criteria for releasing Confidence Locks ....................................................... 296
Figure 9-6: Nested Project Management Knowledge Funnel (Macro-level Visioning Phase)
................................................................................................................................................ 297
Figure 9-7: Nested Project Management Knowledge Funnel (Macro-level Agenda-Framing
Phase) ..................................................................................................................................... 299
Figure 9-8: Nested Project Management Knowledge Funnel (Macro-level Implementation
Phase) ..................................................................................................................................... 300
L i s t o f T a b l e s | xxv
List of Tables Table X-1-1: Details of Co-authorship .................................................................................. viii
Table X-1-2: Additional publications not forming part of this research ................................. xii
Table 1-1: Scholarly contribution by Thesis section ................................................................. 4
Table 1-2: Summary of Thesis Research ................................................................................. 22
Table 3-1: Key themes of Chapter 3 relevant to this thesis ..................................................... 51
Table 3-2: Citation details of original publication ................................................................... 51
Table 3-3: Foundational Theories and Transformational View of Production Management .. 59
Table 3-4: Meta-level comparison of common production management assumptions ........... 72
Table 3-5: Meta-level comparison of common Design school strategic management
assumptions .............................................................................................................................. 73
Table 3-6: Meta level comparison of common Emergent school strategic management
assumptions .............................................................................................................................. 73
Table 3-7: - Comparison of observed phenomena against production and strategic
management theories ............................................................................................................... 75
Table 4-1: Key themes of Chapter 4 relevant to this thesis. .................................................... 84
Table 4-2: Citation details of original publication. .................................................................. 84
Table 4-3: Research participant's current projects ................................................................... 96
Table 4-4: Drift changes themes and properties ...................................................................... 97
Table 4-5: Identifying and managing Drift-Changes ............................................................. 120
Table 5-1: Key themes of Chapter 5 relevant to this thesis. .................................................. 125
Table 5-2: Citation details of original publication ................................................................. 125
Table 5-3: Project Management Yinyang .............................................................................. 137
Table 5-4: Categories identified through the case study analysis .......................................... 141
Table 5-5 Project management yinyang: Categories and data collection method ................. 142
Table 5-6: Project management yinyang: Themes and Properties ......................................... 143
Table 6-1: Key themes of Chapter 6 relevant to this thesis. .................................................. 163
Table 6-2: Citation details of original publication ................................................................. 163
Table 6-3 - Themes and definitions ....................................................................................... 184
Table 6-4: Summary of Research Findings ........................................................................... 197
Table 7-1: Key themes of Chapter 7 relevant to this thesis. .................................................. 202
Table 7-2: Research participant's current projects extracted from Usher and Whitty (2017c)
................................................................................................................................................ 215
L i s t o f T a b l e s | xxvi
Table 7-3: Concepts and Themes ........................................................................................... 217
Table 8-1: Key themes of Chapter 8 relevant to this thesis. .................................................. 235
Table 8-2: Design Thinking Practices and Tools ................................................................... 244
Table 8-3: Tools research participants used during the Construction process ....................... 258
Table 8-4: Design Thinking Tools vs. Client-Side Construction Project Management Tools
................................................................................................................................................ 259
Table 8-5: The contribution of this study to client-side project management literature ........ 263
Table 9-1:Key themes of Chapter 9 relevant to this thesis .................................................... 267
Table 9-2: Network Controls necessary for value networks to be effective. ......................... 279
I n t r o d u c t i o n | 1
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The discipline of project management is changing. These changes are not slow, evolutionary
graduations that allow researchers, academics and practitioners time to study and prepare for
the future. These are rapid changes that have the potential to impact everything from the
theoretical foundations that underpin the discipline’s systems, process, tools and practices, to
the way the discipline is perceived by organisations across the globe (Thomas et al., 2002,
Koskela and Howell, 2002b, Ingason and Jónasson, 2009, Usher, 2013, Cicmil et al., 2017).
Newly identified project typologies such as Complex, Mega and Wicked projects (Giezen,
2012, Giezen et al., 2015, Oehmen et al., 2015, McCall and Burge, 2016) are creating new
types of challenges that require new ways of viewing the discipline. Despite the changing
landscape of project management, modern-day practitioners continue to approach their
projects using systems, processes, practices and tools developed at the beginning of the 20th
century. These systems, processes, practices and tools were developed to assist factory
managers increase production and efficiency (Taylor, 1911); are based on a positivistic
epistemology (Cicmil et al., 2006, Thomas and Mengel, 2008, Bredillet, 2004) and operate in
‘hard paradigms’ with reductionist techniques and scientifically quantifiable metrics (Aritua
et al., 2009, Stretton, 2014).
Many project management researchers are now suggesting that there is a divide developing
between the practice of project management we needed in the past and the practice of project
management we will require in the future. They claim that the discipline of project
management has reached the limits of its traditional theoretical foundations and must expand
its base of knowledge if it is to meet the challenges of the new millennium (Cooke-Davies et
al., 2007, Morris, 2007).
This growing realization that the discipline of project management must adapt if it is to meet
these new challenges was the subject of the Rethinking Project Management Network
research project (Winter et al., 2006). Commissioned in 2006 by the UK’s Engineering and
I n t r o d u c t i o n | 2
Physical Sciences Research Council, this collaborative two-year study resulted in a proposed
agenda for the new areas of research that would be necessary for the continuing development
of the discipline (Winter et al., 2006).
Central to this proposed agenda was the need for new ways of conceptualizing project
management theory and practice. The Rethinking Project Management Network specifically
highlighted the importance of understanding the practice of project management in different
social constructs. Or to state this another way, through the ‘lived experience’ of project
management (Winter et al., 2006, Cicmil et al., 2006). This call for a nuanced understanding
of project management has resulted in a range of novel project management research projects.
These include adopting alternative philosophical, ontological and epistemological
perspectives for investigating the practice of project management, as well as the use of new
research paradigms and lenses (Cicmil et al., 2017, Cicmil et al., 2006, Cooke-Davies et al.,
2007, Whitty, 2011, Whitty, 2010, Van der Hoorn, 2017, Smyth and Morris, 2007).
Despite being over a decade since the Rethinking Project Management Network’s proposed
agenda was first published and the plethora of research conducted as a result, the agenda for
Rethinking Project Management still contains considerable opportunities for new research
and the continuing advancement of the discipline (Saynisch, 2010, Svejvig and Andersen,
2015). The Rethinking Project Management Network’s proposed research agenda outlined
five directions, grouped into three themes. These themes are Theory about Practice; Theory
for Practice; and Theory in Practice. These themes are pertinent to the development of this
thesis and will be discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters.
This thesis responds to the Rethinking Project Management Network’s call for a new
understanding of the ‘lived experience’ of project management by engaging with a cohort of
client-side project managers who deliver projects in the Australian Construction Sector.
In researching this thesis I found:
(a) The practice of client-side project management is not sufficiently supported by its
traditional theoretical foundation of Transformational Production Management;
I n t r o d u c t i o n | 3
(b) Client-side project managers need to be aware of, and manage, the project success and
client satisfaction duality that exists within their projects;
(c) Client-side project managers operate in both deliberate and emergent environments
simultaneously. This creates a paradox in which detailed planning activities are
necessary but are, at the same time, of very limited use;
(d) The projects undertaken by client-side project managers behave as bounded, complex
adaptive systems. These systems create multiple pathways for reaching the final
project outcomes, and multiple expectations within the project stakeholder group, and
causes projects to develop non-linear and non-sequential trajectories which must be
simultaneously encouraged and controlled by the client-side project manager;
(e) Client-side project managers utilize Design Thinking Mentalities, Thinking Styles,
Practices and Tools to manage ambiguity, paradoxes and unexpected events within
their projects; and
(f) Client-side project managers act as System Specialists, and manage highly complex
value networks to ensure their projects achieve the required Functionality and
Representation of Value. They achieve this by creating and managing the network
Constructs and Controls1 necessary create value through their projects.
1.2 Thesis structure
The research presented in this thesis can be broadly divided into three sections, these are:
1 The terms ‘Network Construct’ and ‘Network Controls’ provided in the glossary were established in the final
data analysis process (i.e. research for Chapter 9). However, many of the articles included as chapters in this
thesis had already been published. In order to allow the reader to understand the relationship between these
terms in the early publications and the later ones (while still maintaining the integrity of the published articles) I
highlight that the use of capitalized ‘Construct’ and ‘Controls’ throughout this thesis refers to the terms
‘Network Construct’ and ‘Network Controls’ as defined in the glossary.
I n t r o d u