UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANIES AND CRIME PREVENTION IN NIGER

STATE

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA,

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF SCIENCE

DEGREE (M.Sc) IN SOCIOLOGY.

(CRIMINOLOGY AND PENOLOGY)

BY

HASSAN, IBRAHIM MUHAMMAD

PG/M.Sc/07/42782

SUPERVISOR: PROF. V.I. OKEKE

AUGUST, 2011

2

CERTIFICATION

Hassan, Ibrahim Muhammad, a postgraduate student in the Department of

Sociology/Anthropology and with Reg. No PG/M.Sc./07/42782 has satisfactorily completed the

requirement for course and research work for the degree of Master of Science in Sociology (criminology

and penology).

The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for

another diploma or degree of this or any other University.

___________________ ____________________

Prof. V.I. Okeke (Head of Department)

(Supervisor)

_____________________________

External Supervisor.

3

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my late Mum (Hajiya Hajara Muhammad Hassan) who passed on

during my class work in this great Institution of higher learning (University of Nigeria, Nsukka) on 22nd

June, 2008. And the lonely ninety (90) days interregnum that existed between her and my first son

(Ahmed Marzoog Ibrahim) and also my newly born daughter named after Mum, Hajara Asswabariyyah.

Ibrahim.

4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillah! The completion of this work is made possible with the invaluable contributions of

the following people.

Farmost among the list are my supervisor Prof. V. I. Okeke whose encouragement, willingness

motherliness and readiness to read through the work and offer useful suggestion helped to improve the

quality of this work and its eventual completion.

I was also greatly encouraged by my Lecturers; Prof. D.S. Obikeze, Prof. E.U.M. Igbo for their

pieces of academic advice at all times. My gratitude also goes to Dr. C.U. Ugwoeke, Dr. Nwokeoma, all of

Department of sociology/Anthropology University of Nigeria Nsukka and Dr. Salahu Lawal of I.B.B.U.

University Lapai for their suggestions and comments which were quite helpful towards making this work

standardized.

Others to whom I owe a lot of gratitude are Abdullah Muhammad Hassan of Federal University

of Technology, Minna; my father, for his patience in bearing with my absence especially at old age and

the entire family of Muhammadu Hassan, for their moral and psychological encouragement.

Finally, to my family, I am ever grateful for their support and encouragement and for the pains

they went through because of schooling.

Cheers

Hassan Ibrahim. Muhammad.

5

ABSTRACT

This study is focused on the private security companies and crime prevention in Niger State. The study

identified methods of providing security needs of Nigerlites during the traditional era and through this,

factors that necessitate the establishment of PSCs in Nigeria. This study also evaluate the effectiveness of

PSCs in their security functions, it also highlight major constraints of the PSCs in carrying out their

functions and project strategies for overcoming their constraints for efficient service delivery especially

as it affects PSCs and the police. The hypotheses were tested using chi-square (x2). Hypothesis I revealed

that the presence of guards/PSCs has reduced crime in the society which further corroborates hypothesis

II that both the guards and subscribers feel satisfied with the services provided by these companies. And

Hypothesis III which revealed that trained guards are more effective than those not trained emphasized

the need for adequate training of PSCs/guards for the purpose of securing the society.

6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certification … … … … … … … … … i

Dedication … … … … … … … … … ii

Acknowledgement … … … … … … … … … iii

Abstract … … … … … … … … … iv

Table of Contents … … … … … … … … … v

Acronyms … … … … … … … … … x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study … … … … … … … 1

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem … … … … … … 5

1.3 Research Questions … … … … … … … 8

1.4 Objectives of the study … … … … … … … 8

1.5 Significance of the Study … … … … … … … 9

1.6 Operationalisation of concepts … … … … … … 9

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Review of Empirical Studies … … … … … … 11

2.1.1 The Establishment and Growth of the Private Security Sector in Africa (Nigeria) 14

2.1.2 Evaluation of the Effectiveness of PSCs … … … … … 16

2.1.3 Major Constraints of the PSCs … … … … … … 17

2.2 Theoretical Literature … … … … … … … 18

2.3 Review of Relevant Theories … … … … … … … 20

2.4 Theoretical Framework … … … … … … 23

2.5 Hypotheses of the Study … … … … … … 24

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design … … … … … … … 25

3.2 Area of the Study … … … … … … … 25

3.3 Population and Scope of the Study … … … … … … 26

7

3.4 Sample Size … … … … … … … 27

3.5 Sampling Method … … … … … … … … 28

3.6 Instruments for Data Collection … … … … … … 29

3.7 Administration of Instrument … … … … … … … 30

3.8 Method of data analysis … … … … … … … 30

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Data Presentation and Analyses … … … … … … 31

4.2 Questionnaires for Guards … … … … … … 31

4.2.1 Age Range of Respondents …. … … … … … 31

4.2.2 Educational Qualification of Respondents … … … … … 32

4.2.3 Marital Status of Respondents … … … … … … 32

4.2.4 Sex of Guards … … … … … … … … 33

4.2.5 Companies Involved in the study and frequency of Representation … … 33

4.2.6 Local Government Areas of Service … … … … … … 34

4.2.7 Guards Working Duration … … … … … … 34

4.2.8 Number of Guards Posting … … … … … … … 35

4.2.9 Training and Retraining of Guards … … … … … … 35

4.2.10 Relationship of Guards to their Boss (host) … … … … … 36

4.2.11 Do you think the Presence of Guards has Reduce Criminal Activities

in Nigeria State … … … … … … … … 36

4.2.12 Reason for the growth in number of PSCs … … … … 37

4.2.13 Do guards meet their personal basic needs on the job … … … 37

4.2.14 Unable to meet basic needs on the job … … … … … 38

4.2.15 Other jobs assign to guards … … … … … … … 38

4.2.16 Types of errand guards undertake … … … … … … 38

4.2.17(a) Directors/supervisors visitation to duty posts … … … … 39

4.2.17(b) Things directors/supervisor check … … … … … 39

4.2.18 Problems of Guards … … … … … … … 40

8

4.2.19 Guards and criminal encounter … … … … … … 40

4.2.20 Response of guards to criminal activity … … … … … 41

4.2.21 Guards reasons for establishing PSCs … … … … … 41

4.2.22 Methods of providing security during the traditional era in Niger State … 42

4.2.23 Guards opinion on level of subscribers’ satisfaction … … … 43

4.2.24 Relationship between PSCs and Nigeria police … … … … 43

4.2.25 Do guards prosecute cases in court … … … … … 44

4.2.26 Level of satisfaction with the PSCs services … … … … 44

4.2.27 Suggestion for overcoming problems of the companies … … … 45

4.3 Questionnaire for supervisors/beneficiaries … … … … … 45

4.3.1 Age range of beneficiaries … … … … … … … 45

4.3.2 Educational background of subscribers/beneficiaries … … … 46

4.3.3 Marital Status of Respondents … … … … … … 46

4.3.4 Occupation of beneficiaries … … … … … … 46

4.3.5 Religious Affiliation of Respondents … … … … … 47

4.3.6 Local Government Areas of Respondents … … … … … 47

4.3.7 Area/Streets of Sampled Residents … … … … … 48

4.3.8 PSCs Engaged … … … … … … … … 49

4.3.9 Types of Residence … … … … … … … 49

4.3.10 Duration of engagement … … … … … … … 50

4.3.11 Increase/growth in number of PSCs will lead to reduction in crime activities 50

4.3.12 Reasons for reduction of criminal activities … … … … 50

4.3.13 Level of satisfaction with services of PSCs by subscribers … … … 51

4.3.14 Reasons for PSCs establishment … … … … … … 51

4.3.15 Means of obtaining security before emergence of PSCs … … … 52

4.3.16 Other duties assigned to guards … … … … … … 52

4.3.17 Other benefits derived from PSCs by their host communities … … 53

4.3.18 Would you consider your security guards as well trained … … … 53

9

4.3.19 Major problems of guards/PSCs … … … … … … 54

4.3.20 Possible suggestions to improve service delivery of the PSCs in Niger State 54

4.3.21 Do you feel more secured with guards … … … … … 55

4.3.22 Reasons why they feel more secured with guards … … … … 55

4.4.0 Test of Hypotheses … … … … … … … 56

4.4.1 Hypothesis one … … … … … … … 56

4.4.2 Hypothesis two … … … … … … … … 57

4.4.3 Hypothesis three … … … … … … … … 58

4.5.0 In-depth interview schedule for directors/supervisors … … … 59

4.5.1 Qualitative analysis of the in-depth interview … … … … 59

4.5.2 Status of registration of the ten (10) companies … … … … 59

4.5.3 Period of operation in the state … … … … … … 60

4.5.4 Personnel capacity of the companies … … … … … 60

4.5.5 Does your company have a training school … … … … 60

4.5.6 Running refreshers courses on security tips for the personnel … … 61

4.5.7 Sills impacted during workshops and seminars … … … … 61

4.5.8 Cars/motorcycles for patrols … … … … … … 61

4.5.9 Duration for promotion of staff … … … … … … 61

4.5.10 Duration on duty for the guards … … … … … … 62

4.5.11 Factors responsible for the increase in PSCs … … … … 62

4.5.12 The ways in which security needs of the people were provided

during the traditional era in Niger State … … … … … 62

4.5.13 Factors Necessitating the Establishment of PSCs … … … … 63

4.5.14 Achievement of your PSCs … … … … … … 63

4.5.15 Major constraints of the PSCs … … … … … … 64

4.5.16 Relationship of PSCs with Nigeria police … … … … … 64

4.5.17 Prosecution of cases in court … … … … … … 64

4.5.18 Suggestions for overcoming the constraints … … … … 64

10

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE STUDIES

5.1 Summary … … … … … … … … 66

5.2 Recommendation … … … … … … … 67

5.3 Suggestions for future studies … … … … … … 68

References … … … … … … … … … 69

Appendix 1 … … … … … … … … … 73

Appendix 2 … … … … … … … …. … 76

Appendix 3 … … … … … … … … … 78

Appendix 4 … … … … … … … … … 79

Appendix 5 … … … … … … … … … 80

Appendix 6 … … … … … … … … … 81

Appendix 7 … … … … … … … … … 82

Appendix 8 … … … … … … … … … 83

11

ACRONYMS

CIA: Criminal Intelligence Agency

EIU: Economic Intelligence Unit

FCE: Federal College of Education

GRA: Government Reservation Area

HND: Higher National Diploma

IBBUL: Ibrahim Badamasi Babagida University Lapai

LGAs: Local Government Areas

NA: Native Authority

NCE: Nigeria Certificate of Education

ND: National Diploma

NSCDC: Nigeria Security and Civil Defense Corps

PGCs: Private Guard Companies

PMFs: Private Military Forces

PSC: Private Security Company

PSCS: Private Security Companies

PSG: Private Security Guard

SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences

SSCE: Senior Secondary Certificate Examination

12

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Human history has always been punctuated with societal concern for security at both the

individual and collective levels. This has particularly been the case because security affects

people’s livelihood. The privatization of security has now become a global phenomenon (Hyden,

1995). This is the result of a number of factors including general human insecurity, the

globalization phenomenon, the privatization of public enterprises, the professionalization of

armed and police forces, drive for profit maximization, liberalization of the arms trade, general

unending African conflict and the crashing of the twin towers and the pentagon on the 11th of

September, 2001 in United States (Holmqvist, 2005). In the contemporary world, the

privatization of security has spread throughout the world to an unprecedented level that it is no

longer possible to ignore, let alone comprehend (Howe, 1998).

The many types of modern private security outfits available today may be traced to Allan

Pinkerton, who founded Pinkerton’s security services in 1850 with the motto “we never sleep”

(Schmalleger, 1995). It was also the largest of the private firms headquartered in New York. The

Pinkerton Service had a logo which was an open eye, to signify constant vigilance on its office

doors. The term “private eye” is thought to have developed from the use of this logo. In another

development, Schmalleger (1995) affirmed that Henry Wells and William Fargo built their

popularly known Wells Fargo company in 1852 and supplied detective and protective services

(private guard and investigator) to areas of West of Missouri.

Thus, much has changed since the early days of private security firms (private policing).

Today, services are provided for hospitals, manufacturing plants, communication industries,

13

retirement homes, hotels, casinos, exclusive communities and clubs. Others are nuclear storage

facilities and reactors, and many other types of businesses such as information security that aid

the protection of personnel.

Following a history of private guards and security practice in Nigeria which could be

traced to royalty, religion, social class or pedigree; the practice of private security gradually

attracted a deserved attention when it became commercialized and obviously conflicted with the

social contract idea which states that only the state is capable of arrest and punishment (Kuna,

1999). Thus, it became imperative that the practice had to be regulated within the confines of

duty, definition and laws. For instance, security in the traditional Nigerian society squarely lay

with the immediate and extended families; hence any member of the family that violates any of

the norms was in danger of being ostracized by the group until reparations and necessary

purification and cleansing rituals were undertaken by the family (Igbo, 2007).

Thus, changes have taken place from the traditional Nigerian societies to the present as a

result of ‘modernisation’. These changes occasioned the encroachment of western institutions on

moral standards of the society which has implications for general life and security particularly on

Nigerians. Other factors include urbanization, formal education and capitalist economic system.

As a result a range of crimes emanated quite different from what was known in the traditional

society, which may require more sophisticated security approach. Some of these crimes include

murder, theft, assault, and suicide, pick pocketing, drug abuse, counterfeiting, fraud, forgery,

smuggling, unlawful possession of dangerous weapons, prostitution, white- collar crime,

advanced fee fraud (419) corruption, rape, and a host of others which are all prevalent in modern

Nigeria(Ebbe, 1981 cited in Igbo, 2007).

14

Thus, Ochefu and Idrees (2002), posited that, the Nupes and Gwagyis who are predominant

groups in Niger state with migrant Hausas’ prevent crimes through proper socialization of the

young ones i.e application of communal approach to socialization, instilling of the fear of pain in

punishment…later, other prevention measures include the organization of the Dogarai (local

police), the Ninety (90) days cleansing fast as reparation; Others include the use of scarecrows,

charms and fetish materials and the use of Ndakogboya or Kuti (Masquerade) popularly known

among the Nupes.

Also, according to Igbo (2007), the end of the civil war witnessed not only the return of

old criminals to the street; but also the ‘graduation’ of new and more sophisticated ones’. This

singular assertion indicates that the current state of security network in the country may be under

serious threat as crime waves continue to rise unabated.

The most recent of the threats to security in Nigeria is the emergence of kidnapping and

terrorism which have been enhanced by the widespread use of firearms by criminals. This indeed

facilitated the modus operandi of these criminals, thereby enhancing complete change in criminal

activities as cases of aircraft hijacking and assassinations of prominent Nigerians and bomb

explosions in various corners of the country became rampant.

In addition to earlier mentioned criminal activities, today law and order also pose serious

security challenges in the country. According to Sunday Ehindaro, the former Inspector General

of Police, “perhaps the most potent threat to national security of any country is crime”

(Dambazau, 2007: 152). This statement is also in line with the report of the Economic

Intelligence Unit (EIU) in a survey called “RISKWIRE” which concluded that,

Nigeria is an insecure environment for commercial operations. Security risk arises at three levels. The first comes from rising violent crime (from) simple armed robbery (to) carjacking and violent attacks….Second, companies can be subjected to direct attack or

15

blackmail…facilities can be vandalized and staff kidnapped. Third, incidences of inter-communal violence have risen… Nigeria’s ill equipped police force … has been ineffective in stemming the crime wave. (Dambazau, 2007: 53).

Therefore, the ineffectiveness of the Nigeria police and the concern of Nigerians for

security led to the emergence of guards and private security companies in the country to augment

the activities of the security agencies and work in line with the laid down rules and regulations.

Just like the vigilante, private security companies are also an informal arrangement to keep with

the pace of rising crime rate in Nigeria.

However, as is the case in all countries, the citizens of Nigeria are highly concerned

about their security and this concern has been expressed through the growth of Private Security

Companies (PSCs). The last decade has seen a proliferation of PSCs in a country of about 140

million people (Census, 2006). The presence of these companies is conspicuous in the premises

of both private and public sector organizations. This is in spite of the fact that in both urban and

rural areas, security matters are largely in the hands of private actors than in those of the state.

Thus, the function of private security companies was handled by the Nigeria immigration service

in the Federal Ministry of Interior. Until 1st September, 2005 when the then Minister of Internal

Affairs handed over all documents of private guard companies to the Nigeria Security and Civil

Defense Corps (NSCDC, 2009).

There are two principal landmarks in the regulation of PSCs in Nigeria. The first is the

enactment and approval for creation of PSCs on 15th December 1986. This law was cited as Act

No 43 and consolidated under the laws of the Federation of Nigeria 1990 in chapter 367. The

second is the handover from the Nigeria immigration service to Nigeria civil defense corps cited

currently as chapter 30 in Private Guard Companies (PGC) Act (Laws of the Federation of

Nigeria, 2004). This law is specifically enacted for the “regulation and licensing of private guard

16

companies which must be wholly owned by Nigerians and other matters-ancillary thereto”

(PGCs Act, Cap367, 1990).

Finally, the perception of ineffective policing and rising crime gave impetus to the

emergence of a plethora of non-state policing groups (Olaniyi, 2005). The state has shared its

security responsibility with a variety of non-political organizations including vigilante groups,

religious vigilante, ethnic militias and private security guards.

Based on the above and most especially considering its growing importance, the activities

of the PSCs necessarily became a subject of study. This has led the researcher to the choice of

private security companies and crime prevention in Nigeria with Niger state as a case study.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Law, order and security were maintained in the pre-colonial societies through thorough

socialization of members of the society using peer group, age grade and religious institutions

(Ogunbameru and Rotimi, 2006). Thus, violators of societal norms, customs, and traditions of

various communal groups faced serious sanctions which ranged from ostracizing, payment of

reparation and purification and consequently the performing of cleansing rituals (Igbo, 2007).

For instance in Niger state, criminals pay for their crimes through serving various punishment

such as digging of dungeons, working in the Emir’s farm, quarrying, and in cases which involve

witchcraft and murder, banishment or ninety (90) days cleansing fast was observed as reparation

(Idrees and Ochefu, 2002). The occurrence of these crimes was often at a lower rate because

these sanctions also helped in inducing fear into the people on the negative consequences of

committing crime in the society.

These roles changed during the colonial era following the introduction of formal social

control. The Native Authority (NA) police assumed the role of maintaining law, order and

17

security, while the citizens simply became on-lookers because community security was seen as

the responsibility of the government. At this point, insecurity also started growing due to the

nature of native administration. This is because Nationalist activities were seen and conceived of

as an attack on the colonialists (Kuna, 1999). Therefore, the brutality of the NA police became

instrumental to the growth of the nationalist movement at this time in the society.

During the post-colonial era, especially after the civil war in Nigeria, the activities of

criminals grew almost out of hand as a result of the proliferation of firearms which were found in

all nooks and crannies of the country. This hastened the growth of crime on the one hand, and

also brought about the need to further secure the urban communities where robbery and the

nefarious acts of criminals were frequent. Therefore, urban areas like Lagos, Ibadan, Enugu, and

Kano started having neighborhood guards due to the inefficiency of the police (Dambazau, 2007;

Igbo, 2007)

In describing insecurity in Nigerian urban cities, Osahon (1996 in Dogon-yaro, 1996)

stated that:

Actually we are under severe siege already as a people. Fear now rules our daily lives. Ugly, harrowing fear of the known and unknown. When we go out in the mornings, we are not sure we will return home safely and with our cars and other property including even the shoes on our feet or the ear-ring in our ears. If we are lucky to arrive to find our homes unraided in our absence, we sleep with one eye open expecting the worst any moment of the night. In other words, we do not sleep any more… in our ability to perform daily activities (Dogon-yaro, 1996:224).

This situation also existed in other growing cities in Niger state such as Minna,

Kontagora, Bida, Suleja, and a few other towns. The public response to perpetual fear and

insecurity was to take laws into its own hands. In July 1987, butchers, traders, and unemployed

persons in Minna vented their wrath over police harassment, intimidation, and extortion in a six-

18

hour rampage against police and soldiers that was quelled by military units (The library of

Congress Country Studies and CIA Factbook, 1991).

Again, in May, 2009, two lecturers from School of Nursing Bida were bathed with acid in

their staff quarters by students suspected to have been withdrawn by the institution for having

failed in all their first semester examinations. It was noted that the staff quarters lacked security

guards unlike the school premises and the culprits were not apprehended (Sunday Trust, May 17,

2009). However, in July, 2009, Newline news paper reported that, the family of one Mr. James

Omeize, the proprietor of Brighter International School in Minna was kidnapped in Minna and

the kidnapper demanded 20 million naira for his release in far away Benin City in Edo state.

Other insecurity instances abound in the state as many cases are not even reported to the

police or captured by any vigilant watch dog. The Nigeria police has always came under severe

criticism; being accused of falling victims to every negative unfavourable character, devoid of

any measure commensurate to their oath of office. In other words, this weakened capacity of the

Nigeria Police to fight crime (i.e shortage of staff, obsolete equipment, corruption, defective

training programmes, police discretion etc) has led to increase in other policing agencies across

the country over the years. It is due to the importance attached to security of lives and property

that both the professional and non-professional security outfits came into existence in these

urban centres.

After about two decades of the flourishing of private security industry in Niger State, it

appears PSCs have not received much scholarly attention in terms of the services they provide.

One wonders if the seeming increase in the number of private security companies in Niger state

is caused by the desire for improved security or other ulterior motives. It is in the light of the

19

above problems, that this research work is aimed at examining the private security companies in

Niger state.

1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions are formulated to guide the study:-

I. How were the security needs of the people in Niger state provided during the traditional

era?

II. What factors necessitated the establishment of PSCs?

III. How effective are these PSCs in their security functions?

IV. What are their major constraints in carrying out these functions?

V. What are the strategies for overcoming these constraints in order to make them more

efficient?

VI. What is the relationship between PSCs and the Police?

1.4 Research Objectives

The general objective of this research is to determine how effective private security

companies are in crime prevention in Niger state.

The following are the specific objectives of the research;

I. To find out how security needs of people in Niger state were provided during the

traditional era.

II. To determine the factors that necessitated the establishment of PSCs

III. To assess the effectiveness of these PSCs in their security functions

IV. To examine the major constraints of the PSCs in carrying out their functions.

V. To identify the strategies for overcoming their constraints for efficient service delivery.

VI. To examine the relationship between PSCs and the Police

20

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study has both theoretical and practical significance.

(a) Theoretical significance: this study will contribute to existing literature on PSCs/PSGs

especially in the area of crime prevention in Nigeria. The study will also provide the

baseline information on typologies of crime prevention in Niger state and stimulate

research in the field by other researchers and academicians. Moreover, the study will

provide reference document to other scholars who want to engage in studies of PSCs and

crime prevention.

(b) Practical significance: the findings of this study will enhance the understanding of

policy makers on strategies and dynamics of crime prevention companies. This will lead

to a design of programmes that will enhance crime prevention and improve security of

lives and property in Niger state. This study is also significant for the fact that the

findings will assist in extending and deepening the understanding of policy makers to

improve crime prevention through the PSCs. This will reveal, if any, the challenges of

working with wide range of Private Security Companies and provide suggestions on

how the challenges identified can be overcome.

1.6 Operationalisation of Concepts

The following terms are used in this research and are defined based on their usage in this context.

Beneficiaries: Refers to individuals, private and public enterprises, ministries, agencies,

directorates etc who subscribes to the services of the PSCs.

Crime: Refers to wrongdoing that threatens the security or well-being of society and usually

considered an act (evil) punishable by law.

21

Crime Prevention: It refers to a pattern of attitudes and behaviours directed both at reducing the

threat of crime and enhancing the sense of safety and security to positively influence the quality

of life…and to develop environments where crime cannot flourish

Formal Security Sector: Refers to police and the army which the constitution of a country

formally recognizes for the defense, peace, total security and integrity of the country.

National Security: Refers to safeguarding the interest of the citizenry and providing the type of

atmosphere that is free of threats that could inhibit the pursuit of the good of all. It is about the

processes and measures required to preserve law and order.

Private Security: Refers to those self-employed individuals and privately funded business

entities and organizations providing security –related services to specific clientele for a fee, for

the individual or entity that retains or employs them, for themselves, in order to protect their

persons, private property or interests from various hazards.

Private Policing: This refers to the performance of policing functions by individuals or agencies

other than those directly owned and controlled by the state.

Security: This means protection from physical or direct violence, and freedom from fear; a sense

of safety and relative wellbeing in political, legal, socio-economic and cultural terms, it is also, a

measure of protection from structural violence and security of lives and properties as enshrined

in the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

22

CHAPTER TWO

Review of Related Literature

2.1. Review of Empirical Studies

In a survey by Macucci (1988), titled ‘Typology of private policing operational styles’ in

the United States of America, respondents totaling 1,665 were of the view that the policing styles

of private security companies were changed as a result of several factors among which 821

(49.3%) ticked, rising crime rates, 603 (36.2%) went for, increasing fear of crime, 109 (6.5%)

responded to, shrinking police budgets and 132 (7.9%) declared for, growing of support for more

positive criminal justice measures and these factors have also enhanced the growth of private

security sector around the world today.

In another study conducted by Lee (1971), Scott and Macpherson (1971) and Liles and

Mc Clintock (1972), the aforesaid authors challenged the taken for granted assumptions of the

contemporary policing as exclusively state policing and argued that private policing was an

important contemporary phenomenon that needed to be recognized and understood. These wide

ranging studies not only described the extent, scope and nature of private policing and its

relations to the public police but developed an influential policy stance that directly challenged

the earlier conception of corporation police as “Private armies”. The study revealed a favour for

PSCs to formal policing by 1,923 (87.4%) of the total sample to 277 (12.6%).

The transformation of private policing from a threat to an asset was accomplished by

conceptualizing private police as junior partners in the business of policing, who were working

to assist their senior partners, the public police in keeping the peace (Shearing and Stenning

1981). They argued further by correlating the growth of private security with “Shift in property

relationship” and called it “new corporate federalism” which shifted proactive resources from

23

public to private sector. In validating the above stand, the study used Likert Scale to sample

2,091 respondents. The study strongly concluded that public areas be protected by public Police

and private areas by Private security companies as strongly agree respondents recorded 803

(34.4%), agreed, 924 (44.1%), disagree, 264 (12.6%) and strongly disagree 100 (4.7%).

The emergence of private policing was not a cause for alarm since it did not threaten the

state’s claims to monopoly over the definition of peace. This position was validated by recourse

to the earlier acceptance of the notion of legitimate self help (Beeker, 1974). This position was

supported by Kakalik and Willdhorn (1972) that the industry did not pose a challenge to the state

and that the major functions of private guards according to the sample of 318 among formal

police and private guards: 167 (52.5%) agreed that the functions of PSCs are to prevent, detect,

and report criminal acts on private property, 76 (23.8%) to provide security against loss from

fire, or equipment failure, 32 (10.0%) to control access to private property, and 43 (13.5%) to

enforce rules and regulations of private employers.

Chaiken and Chaiken (1987) opined that in assisting public police managers to decide

which policing functions can be privatized, they reject the claim that there are some tasks which

belong in principle to the public police and cannot be privatized. They reject for example, the

argument that function requiring the legal status of “Peace officer” cannot be privatized instead

they insist that division of labour must be determined on pragmatic ground. They further stated

that, tasks that required a multiplicity of skills should remain with the public police because the

training equips them for such tasks and those that do not require a combination of skills can and

should be transferred.

With the alarming growth in the private security sector around the world, developed

countries such as United Kingdom, USA etc. are beginning to cut down the population of the

24

state police force and delegating responsibility to private security sector in order to enhance and

promote internal revenue generation for the state and qualitative crime prevention (Marc, 1981).

In a seminar series in Swaziland by Simelane (2007), he concluded that, while PSCS have

been an answer to the security needs of the citizens and investors, their growth and development

have certain implications for the state. The state has abdicated its responsibility of providing

security to its citizens. The inefficiency of its institution entrusted with the task of providing

security has forced it to shift responsibility to the private sector. In so doing, it has allowed itself

to be undercut and sovereignty to be limited.

The argument that private security emerged because of the failure of the state to provide

protection for its citizens as Wairagu, Kamenju and Singo (2004) had argued, was not the case in

the crashing of Twin Towers and the Pentagon in United State on September, 11th 2001 but this

factor also fueled the growth of private security companies as Singer (2008) concluded.

In his study entitled ‘local communities and crime prevention’ Dogon-yaro (1996)

enunciated that the magnitude of the gross deficiency of the Nigeria police commands faced in

terms of manpower shortage, obsolete fighting equipments for crime prevention and control ,

lack of incentive, and the diminishing moral fabric of the society, to which the force belong . He

conceived that the police force alone can not prevent crime in society effectively except with the

effort of members of communities and agencies such as the vigilantes and PSCs in collaboration

with police force. The findings of the study indicated that between 1990 and 1995, 78% of

communities studied in Nigeria had one form or another of community based crime prevention,

as against only 22% of the inhabitants of the communities subscribing for formal

policing…PSCs comes to the rescue.

25

2.1.1 The Establishment and Growth of the Private Security Sector in Africa (Nigeria)

PSCs first emerged in African as a result of general human insecurity. Indeed threats

have always imperiled the continent and rendered it insecure, by tribal conflicts, border conflicts,

disputes over mineral resources, terrorism, genocide, wars, foreign domination, apartheid etc

Kuna (2004). The general insecurity that results from failed or weak states (where the state is

unable or fails dismally to provide security to the people and enterprise) has led to the growth of

private security sector.

Cold war also intensified human insecurity. Singer (2003), and Gumedze (2007) argue

that the end of the cold war created security gap that the private market rushed in to fill. This no

doubt led to the proliferation of private security outfits by individuals and corporate bodies. In

addition, Globalization engendered private security companies in Africa than in any other

continent. As Udombana (2004) argued, capital, power and the need for profit maximization

(that characterized the notion of globalization) equally brought about the unprecedented growth

within the private security sector. In line with the above argument, Singer (2004) opined that

Private Military Forces (PMFs) operate globally in more than fifty countries and have been the

central force in a number of conflicts, playing a role in winning wars for example in Angola,

Ethiopia, Sierra Leone, among others.

On the other hand, private security emerged because of the failure of the state to provide

protection for its citizens. In some instances, the states institutions may be too weak to provide

security for its citizen. Therefore, private security sector in the form of PSCs intervene to fill the

gap. Wairagu, Kamenju and Singo (2004) posit that private security is focused on client

protection and loss prevention.

26

Another factor responsible for the establishment and growth of PSCs is that the private

sector is organized along the capitalist mode of production which stipulates that any one who

engages the services of the private security must be willing to pay for them to ensure profit

maximization. Similarly, according Zedner (2006), vast security companies seek to exploit

market opportunities, expand their turnover and maximize returns to their shareholders.

The downsizing of the armed forces after the cold war contributed significantly to the

growth of private security sector. Schreier and Caparini (2005), stated that since the end of cold

war, more than 7 million service men have been thrown into the employment market with little

to peddle but their fighting and military skill. After any conflict or war situation, there is

normally a sudden influx of cash associated with peacekeeping force and other external funded

operations. The private security sector seizes the opportunity to compete for considerable share.

They added that, armed forces that were downsized from national armies possess not merely

ordinary fighting and military skills but professional fighting and military skills. Corporate

business principles dictate that their professional skills must meet the demands of the client who

is willing to pay for professional and quality services.

Another important point raised by Schreier and Caparini (2005) is that of trade

liberalization. They noted that the international arms trade has been opened up to an increasing

number of buyers and sellers which has not only permitted a larger number and broader variety

of actors to access weaponry, but also provided more and easier ways for PSCs to profit from

conflict through their involvement in the arms trade, thus, facilitating arms proliferation.

Furthermore, insecurity of aid workers plays a major role in the growth of PSCs. The greater the

number of conflicts in Africa, the greater the need for aid workers, the greater the involvement of

27

aid workers in humanitarian situations and the greater the need for private security companies to

ensure the security of humanitarian personnel and their property.

To crown it all, the crashing of the Twin Towers and the Pentagon in the United States on

September 11th, 2001 as earlier stated, not only changed the world but also fuelled the growth of

private security sector in general. Singer (2003) maintained that, it also created the need to

establish undercover agents outside the formal authorities and only private security sector is

contracted to carry out these operations

In summary therefore, the forces that led to the emergence and growth of PSCs in Africa

and Nigeria in particular are multifaceted as enunciated by various postulates. They all agreed that

not only general home insecurity raised and aided the establishment and growth of PSCs but also

the presence of Personnel to be recruited into these companies.

2.1.2 Evaluation of the Effectiveness of PSCs

It is now obvious that private security guards are everywhere both in public and private

sectors. The big challenge however, is to determine the effectiveness and efficiency of these

PSCs in discharging their primary duties to their clients. According to Singer (2003) private

security companies have played important roles in detecting crime at different levels. He argued

that the effectiveness of the PSCs could be seen in the roles they play as undercover agents

outside the formal authorities especially among industrialized countries. The PSCs have assisted

in reporting and suppressing cult activities in some of the tertiary institutions across the country’s

universities. The involvements of these PSCs have in no small measures helped in curbing the

menace of cultism in Nigerian campuses. Dambazau (2006) argues that the presence of a security

man is effective to the extent that it is capable of retarding criminal activities. Therefore, a secure

or guarded target may not always be a victim of crime (Igbo, 2007).

28

Furthermore, PSCs have also contributed their quota in repelling student unrest by

reporting to appropriate authorities before such riots get out of hand. Macucci (1998) argues that

hints about suspects and illegal gatherings of people and wanderers are reported before nefarious

activities are hatched. He stressed that PSCs services are available in urban cities and major town

for the protection of lives and properties. They also serve as witness when criminals are arrested

and arraigned before the court of law for prosecution.

2.1.3 Major Constraints of the PSCs

One of the major constraints of the PSCs as seen by Musah (2002) is illiteracy. He

stressed that illiterate guards may lack the ability to express themselves in the general language

of instruction of such community. For instance in Nigeria, guards should communicate

effectively in English so that they will be able to carry out their work effectively. He also

stressed further that lack of mobility could also hinder effective performance of the PSCs. In

most cases in Nigeria, PSCs lack vehicles and motorcycles to be used for combating crime.

The section 17 of the Private Guard companies Act which prohibits guards from

possessing firearms and ammunition is a serious hindrance to effective performance of the

guards. This is because they may not be able to repel serious criminal acts where exchange of

fire is involved. In most crime situations, criminals are always fully armed with sophisticated

weapons; therefore the police/guards in such situations become prey and have to run for their

lives (Dambazau, 1997).

Lack of refresher courses, workshop, and seminars, trainings to update the knowledge of

the guards on security tips could also affect their performance. In a typology of private policing

operational styles, Macucci (1998) opined that guards were very unhappy with the lack of crime

29

control in-service training. As a result, the most influential members in the group pressured

security administrators to implement additional police training.

Wages are seen as motivating factor in a working situation; therefore, for effective and

efficient delivery of service the wages must be encouraging. The guards are paid stipend by their

employers and therefore, they are not motivated to carry out their work efficiently. Similarly,

most of the PSCs do not promote their personnel’s accordingly. Macucci (1998) enunciated that

some of the factors restricting such promotion include: the flat status hierarchy, lack of

unionization, and a policy that has favoured hiring into the security administration retired Police

officers from outside the occupational structure. According to Musah (2002), some of the guards

perform other functions like watering of flowers, going on errands, etc which actually distract

them from the primary assignment of guarding.

2.2 Theoretical Literature Review

Behaviour becomes a crime when the state enacts a sanction against it. Crime prevention

involves the disruption of mechanisms which cause criminal events. Maguire, Morgan and

Reiner (1997) opined that criminologists that have devised several ways of preventing crime in

the society rest on three principles. Thus:

i. Since crime consists of diverse behavior, we should not look for universality in

techniques of prevention.

ii. Because an action is a crime, this does not mean that the best way to control it is through

the police and the courts. The behavior itself must be understood, to determine where

change could best be brought about.

iii. The scope of the criminal law is morally problematic. A society in which more crime is

prevented is not necessarily a more pleasant society. The burdens and restrictions

30

imposed on people to prevent crime must be balanced against the harm caused by the

crime prevented.

It is pertinent to note that theories of crime causation are also theories of crime

prevention. (Maguire et al., 1997). Therefore two broad perspectives on crime prevention can be

distinguished; (a) concentrate on structure, and (b) psyche or circumstance.

The structural approach: Here, crime prevention takes the debate straight into politics

(Maguire et al, 1997). Crime prevention is defensible as a free-standing discipline only when

minimum standards of social justice are perceived to apply. That is, the enabling environment

for citizens must be feasible, because, for example, it does not make sense for one to move to

stop shop theft when the alternative for the thief is to starve or be undernourished. But again,

to insist on a totally fair society before crime prevention is deployed is to leave people

unnecessarily vulnerable to harm and loss.

The Psyche or Circumstance Approach: Maguire et al, (1997) stated that this approach has

been classified by Brantingham and Faust (1976) into primary prevention, secondary prevention

and tertiary prevention.

Primary prevention reduces crime opportunities without reference to criminals or

potential criminals. Secondary prevention seeks to change people, typically those at high risk of

embarking upon a criminal career, before they do so while tertiary prevention is focused upon

the truncation of the criminal career in length, seriousness of frequency of offending. It deals

with the “treatment” of known offenders.

Thus, in reassessing these models, private security companies could be located in primary

prevention which is considered as everybody’s business. Odeniyi (2005) observed that appalling

social and security facilities compounded this situation (insecurity). Therefore, through

31

communal efforts, especially landlords and the tenants Association, alternative arrangements

were made to provide security through other sources such as vigilantes, ethnic militias, and

private security guards, companies, etc.

Dambazau (2007) posited that crime prevention methods have developed out of different

traditions across the world and at different era. For instance, the Virginia Crime Prevention

Association advanced the idea that, the punitive prevention attempts by law enforcement to

forestall crime through the threat of apprehension and punishment is manifested by the

enactment of tougher laws, longer sentence, and preventive patrol. The fear of getting caught has

a deterrent effect, especially among the population that has the tendency to be law abiding.

The corrective type is buttressed by the structural approach to crime prevention too.

According to Dambazau (2007) a basic premise of corrective crime prevention is that criminal

behaviour is caused by various social conditions such as poor housing, poverty, lack of

education, family problems and drug or alcohol addiction. Those who subscribe to this approach

believe that crime can be avoided if the conditions under which crime is thought to flourish in

alleviated.

On the other hand, the organized type involves the need for law enforcement agencies,

other government agencies and the community to initiate an organized process for reducing or

removing the opportunity for crime through data collection and analysis, the accurate

identification of problems by a number of factors, development of crime control objectives and

strategies, and implementation of the strategies.

2.3. Review of Relevant Theories

Theories of crime causation are also theories of crime prevention and as enunciated by

Maguire et al. (1997) primary crime prevention is underpinned by theories of the crime event.

32

Four theories of central interest here are: (1) the routine activities theory of Cohen and Felson

(1979), (2) rational choice position of Cornish and Clarke (1986) and (3) the Ecological theory of

Haralambos, Holborn and Heald. Therefore, because the causes of crime are rooted in the

details of life; control is also focused upon everyday life, rather than diverted in to a separate

system of blame and punishment.

Routine activity theory

This theory began as an explanation of predatory crime but was extended to cover other

crime types. It holds that three elements must converge in time and space for a crime to occur

thus:

a. A motivated offender

b. A suitable victim

c. The absence of a capable guardian.

Felson (1993) cited in Maguire et al (1997) noted that routine activity dispersed people

away from their families and household and as such offenders will find targets lacking capable

guardians. He added that economic changes encourage people to leave their homes for offices

and business centres which lack serious securities and therefore become prey to offenders. In this

theory, provision of security could be a deterrent to an offender because of the fear of arrest and

punishment. Therefore, criminals easily strike in communities lacking capable guardian. He

added that, the decline of conventional community weakens the informal social controls which

supply capable guardianship.

Jones (2000) opined that this theory is weak because of it inability to explain what motivates

people to commit crime and for conceiving every other person that may be jobless as a potential

33

criminal and for recognizing petty crimes and ignoring assassinations, armed robbery and other

heinous crimes such as murder as crime.

Rational choice theory

This theory begins with an assumption that offenders seek to benefit themselves by their

criminal behaviors. This entails making decisions and choices, however rudimentary their

rationality might be, being constrained by limits of time, ability and the availability of relevant

information (Maguire et al, 1997). Clarke and Cornish (1985) cited in Maguire et al (1997)

formulated the initial ideals of someone becoming involved in crime and with the decision to

commit a particular crime in a particular context. In the light of this, the search for time and

relevant information is to determine whether their target is secured or not before attack.

Therefore, a secure or guarded target may not always be a victim of crime; and perhaps this

singular reason may have led to the proliferation of PSCs in Niger State as the case may be. In

summary therefore, crime prevention and security are intertwined in such a way that the

weakness of one, predisposes the other.

The theory also failed to account for sociological, psychological and psychiatric factors

in the criminal at the time of committing crime and also the structure of the society in which the

criminal has lived.

Ecological theory

The ecological theory originally refers to a branch of biology interested in the special

relation of organisms to their environment. It stressed on the habits of living organisms and in

their physical environment. With the growth in crime, social scientists turned their attention to

the impact of physical and geographical factors on social life and deviant behavior.

34

In their study of Chicago, Haralambos, Holborn and Heald (2004) posited that the

subculture theories explain deviance in terms of the subculture of a social group. They were of

the view that certain group develops norms and values which are to some extent different from

those held by the large members of the society mostly through their interaction in slum and

ghetto areas of the city. In addition, subculture theories argued that deviance is the direct

consequence of the conformity of members of Social groups to their rules of behavior which

often contradicted the norms of the larger society. And it is the conformity to values and norms

which often bring members of such groups into conflict with law enforcement agents such as

PSGs and the police etc. Ugwuoke (2010) has cited the activities of members of the banned

campus cults in Nigeria as a good example of the conflict that often exists between the norms of

subculture group and that of the larger society.

This theory has been criticized for conceiving criminals in society to be only members of

the subculture groups and the poor who resides in slums and the poverty stricken individuals.

The theory fail to take into account individual differences, neglect variations in opportunity,

neglect of passionate and impulse crime and for it ambiguity.

2.4. Theoretical Framework

Two theories were adopted as the theoretical framework. These theories, despite their

deficiencies explain the role of PSCs in crime prevention more than other theories. Therefore,

Routine Activity Theory basically establishes that for a crime to take place three elements must

be present. These elements are; a motivated offender, a suitable victim and the absence of a

capable guardian. Felson (1993) established that routine activity and economic changes increase

suitable targets especially for property crime. The use of routine activity theory is considered

useful on the account that a motivated offender may be constrained by the fact that suitable

35

targets are not available at all or available but guarded by a capable security guard or security

apparatus (such as heavy padlocks, police dogs etc).

The second theory is the rational choice theory which began with an assumption that

criminals are intelligent people hence; they subject their victims to a rational/logical thinking

process in order to maximize profits. Location and relevant information about the victim are also

thought of in order to brandish their nefarious ambition.

The use of rational choice theory in this study is considered useful in the sense that, the

presence of a capable guard will cost the criminal more than when a capable guard is not part of

his calculations and may find it even more difficult if such context is close to either military or

police barracks.

2.5 Research Hypotheses

i. There is a positive relationship between the growth of PSCs and reduction of crime in

Niger State.

ii. Those who employ the services of PSCs tend to feel more secured than those who do not.

iii. Guards who have undergone training and retraining are likely to be more effective in crime

prevention than those who did not.

36

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

The research adopted survey design which focuses on large populations. The special

interest in survey lies in the breath of coverage and representativeness of the population under

study. Obikeze (1990) and Berbie (1997) opined that survey implies using a selected sample

from a fraction to analyze a large population such as PSCs, guards and individual beneficiaries

which constitute the sociological unit of analysis in this study.

3.2 Area of the Study

Niger State is a state in the middle belt of Nigeria and It was created on 3rd February,

1976 when the then North-western state was divided into Niger state and Sokoto state. The

State’s capital is Minna and other major cities are Bida, Kontagora, Suleja, Mokwa, and New-

Bussa. The State is named after the River Niger. It has two of Nigeria’s major hydroelectric

power stations (the Kainji Dam and the Shiroro Dam). Also situated there, is the Kainji National

park, the largest national park in Nigeria and it contains Kainji lake. (Niger State Diary, 2009).

According to the Diary, the State has a population of 3,950,249 which ranked 18 of the total

population of the country.

Niger State is presently divided into twenty five local government areas namely: Agaie,

Agwara, Bida, Borgu, Bosso, Chanchaga, Edati, Gbako, Gurara, Katcha, Kontagora, Lapai,

Lavun, Magama, Mariga, Mashegu, Mokwa, Munya, Paikoro, Rafi, Rijau, Shiroro, Suleja, Tafa,

and Wushishi. The major socio-economic activities of Niger State people include agriculture,

wood-carving, calabash-carving and decoration, weaving, such as traditional cloth weaving,

raffia and straw weaving and embroidery. Others are glass, brass, and stone-beads, tanning and

37

dyeing, etc. This study will be carried out in Niger State using only Six Local Government Areas

(L.G.A.) as representative sample of the State namely: Bosso LGA, Chanchaga LGA, Bida LGA,

Suleja LGA, Kontagora LGA, and Lapai LGA.

The choice of Niger State is due to proximity in the sense that, the researcher lives in the

State, this make easy for movement during data collection exercise since the researcher is

familiar with the area of the study. The idea of using the Six LGAs becomes appropriate since

the researcher felt that the PSCs are still few; and aside from the State Capital and a few LGAs,

the presence of the PSCs can only be felt in Government Institutions like Hospitals, LGAs

Headquarters, Banks, Hotels and LGAs Chairmen’s residences. To bring out the fact, it is only in

the six (6) LGAs that PSCs are concentrated because they are the most developed ones. And

accessibility of the respondents will be much easier in other to give much representativeness for

generalization.

3.3 Population and Scope of the Study

The population of this study comprises all adults of eighteen (18) years and above, male

and female who fall into the following categories:

i. Director/Supervisor,

ii. Beneficiary,

iii. Guards, and

iv. Other members of the communities

The Directorship of PSCs is attached to those PSCs with headquarters in Niger State

while Supervisorship is attached to those PSCs with headquarters outside Niger State, but with

branches in the state. The beneficiaries are those clients who subscribe to the services of PSCs.

On the other hand, the Guards are the personnel available for employment and end up as security

38

men/guards. And the other members of the community are people those who lived and see these

companies operate in their various communities.

There are Twenty five Local Government Areas in Niger State, and fifty percent of the

PSCs that have their presence at the local Government areas will be chosen based on the

assumption that whatever view is obtained from the sampled population can be inferred to the

entire population. Using the statistics made available to the researcher by the Niger State Civil

Defense Corp Office (NSCDC, 2010) as sampling frame, a figure of 20,087 constitutes the

population of the Guards in the 20 PSCs with presence in Niger State.

There are also 20 directors/supervisors heading these companies. The beneficiaries who

are categorized into the following: Individuals, Private and Public enterprise, Ministries,

Agencies, and Directorates. These beneficiaries are considered as confidential therefore their

population can not be disclosed on security grounds. However, they lead the researcher through

the expected sample beneficiaries of PSCs when the researcher conducted the survey.

Furthermore, personnel in-charge of security posting in corporate beneficiaries such as

Ministries, Agencies, and Enterprises, etc were sampled because of their direct contact with the

guards and the companies.

The focus of this study includes an examination of the relationship between the PSCs and

crime reduction, in addition to revealing the roles of these companies in terms of their efficiency

in maintaining security, law and order in Niger state.

3.4 Sample Size

The total number of the PSCs in Niger State is currently 20, with a total population of the

guards in the 20 companies put at 20,087. However, the population of the 10 PSCs to be studied

is 11,370. Using Salant and Dillman (1994), a 50/50 split at 3% sampling error was used to select

39

a sample of 660 respondents for the study. (See Table in the Appendix iii) Fifty percent of the

PSCs formed the sample for the study. Fifty percent represents 10PSCs. Salant and Dillman

(1994) argued that, when a population is unidentifiable such as is the case in the population of

the beneficiaries then 50/50 split becomes the best option. The researcher considers this sample

size large enough for the study, taking into consideration the statistical package to use. The

sample is also considered appropriate for management by the researcher due to time and

financial constraints.

3.5 Sampling Method

The research adopted three methods of sampling to select respondents for the study. These

include stratified sampling method, simple random sampling, and purposive sampling method.

The stratified random sampling method was used to select the location and respondents for the

study. The researcher was guided by officials of the Nigeria Security and Civil Defense Corps

(NSCDC) Office in Minna to identify category ‘A’ PSCs and the location, the wards,

enumeration areas, streets and houses to be used; through this method 20 beneficiaries were

selected from 10 PSCs each totaling 200. 150 other members of the benefitting communities

were drawn randomly for questionnaire administration totaling 350. While purposive sampling

method was used to select 300 guards. Each of the 10 PSCs will identify at least 30 houses or

establishments who patronize them where Questionnaires were administered.

The researcher used the simple random sampling to select the sample for study. The cards

shuffling method was used to select the PSCs to be included in the study (Asika, 2006). Names

of PSCs were written on cards, and then shuffled the cards and taking the top card each time the

cards are shuffled continuously until 10 PSCs were drawn. For the purpose of easy

40

administration of questionnaires, the PSCs that formed the study population are arranged in

alphabetical order.

Table 3.5.1 Sample PSCs

S/N NAMES CATEGORY/POPULATION

01 Archile Security services A 1,016

02 Bolay Security Services A 1,371

03 Bolobolo Security Services A 1,212

04 C.O.E. Security service A 810

05 Gaskiya security service A 1,725

06 Kalabo security service A 650

07 Kings guards A 1,071

08 Kuta guards A 1,512

09 Mayfare agencies A 578

10 Profile Security A 1,425

Source: NSCDC Minna 2010 Total Population: 11,370

3.6 Instruments for Data Collection

The data for this research were collected from primary sources. Primary sources

involved going to the field to obtain data from the respondents. The researcher designed two sets

of questionnaires for the respondents, (beneficiaries and guards) in order to obtain responses to

research questions formulated. The questionnaires were carefully designed with both close ended

and a few open ended questions to seek the opinion of the respondents on the services provided.

The questionnaire contains two Sections, A and B. Section A contained information on

personal data while section B was designed to elicit information covering the objectives,

capacity, effectiveness, activities and constraints of the PSCs as well as services/facilities

provided by them in their communities. In-depth interviews were conducted on the

Directors/Supervisors of the ten PSCs in some six Local Government Areas in Niger State. The

Directors/Supervisors gave convenient time for the conduct of the interview in order to avoid

41

excuses and emergency calls. The sources of secondary data relied on PSCs News Bulletins,

Journals, Periodicals, Magazines, Textbooks and other internet extractions.

3.7 Administration of Instruments

Three research assistants were engaged. These research assistants and the researcher

covered the Six Local Government Areas of Niger State. The research assistants were drawn

from the Faculty of the Social Sciences, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai.

(IBBUL). In addition, one-day training on questionnaire administration was organized for the

research assistants by the researcher. The researcher supervised the entire data collection

exercise.

Pre-testing of instruments leads the researchers to agree on common terms to be used

while in the field as the questionnaire was self administered. In addition, the researchers meet the

respondents in the places of their primary assignments where the questionnaires were distributed

to those selected for the study between the hours of 8am to 12 noon and 4pm to 6pm daily. For

instance, the researchers began with the guards of Archile Security Service, then its beneficiaries.

After having gone through all the PSCs, the interviews for the Directors/Supervisors were

conducted. All the research assistants including the researcher took part in the data

administration process. At the end of each day, both the researcher and his assistants reviewed

the day’s activities with the aim of correcting necessary mistakes ahead of the following day.

3.8 Methods of Data Analysis

The researcher applied Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) such as frequency

distribution and percentages (%) for the analysis of quantitative data. The hypotheses of the

study was tested using the chi square (X2) statistical analysis to find out the relationship between

the dependent and independent variables, qualitative data from In-depth interviews were

analyzed using descriptive techniques based strictly on what respondents said during the data

collection process.

42

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSES

4.1. Data Presentation and Analyses

This chapter presents and analyses the data collected for the study. Six hundred and Sixty

(660) questionnaires were administered to respondents in the six (6) local government areas,

namely Bida, Bosso, Chanchaga, Kontagora, Lapai and Suleja Local Government areas. These

Local Government Area’s constituted the representative samples of Niger state. After all possible

efforts by the researcher, the three (3) researcher assistants, NSCDC official and an officer from

each of the PSCs, we were able to retrieve all the six hundred and sixty questionnaires

representing 100 percent.

Therefore, the analysis is based on six hundred and sixty (660) questionnaires. The analysis

is divided into sections thus; Questionnaires for guards, Questionnaires for beneficiaries and

other members of the communities, testing of hypothesis and qualitative analysis from interviews

of directors and supervisors of private security companies.

4.2 Questionnaires for Guards

4.2.0 Section A: Bio-Data Information

4.2.1 Age Range of Respondents

Table 1

Age Range Frequency Percentage % 18-25 93 31 26-33 131 43.6 26-41 52 17.3 42 and above 24 8 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaires data 2011

43

Table 1 indicates that the age ranges of 26-33 and 18-25 have the highest percentages of 43.6%

and 31% respectively. The age range of 34-41 has 17.3% and only 8% for 42 years and above.

This table also shows the number of youth employed by these companies as guards. In other

words, security companies can not be run by aged people.

4.2.2 Educational Qualification of Respondents

Table 2

Educational Qualification Frequency Percentage % 1st school leaving Cert. 157 52.3 SSCE 128 42.7 Dip/NCE/HND 15 5 B.Sc/BED - - Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaires data 2011

Table 2 shows the educational qualifications of guards in the ten (10) private security companies.

This also shows that 157 and 128 respondents representing 52.3% and 42.7% respectively have

only primary school and secondary school education, while those with ND/NCE/ HND were just

15 representing 5%. There were no graduates serving as guards in all the duty posts visited

4.2.3 Marital Status of Respondents

Table 3

Marital Status Frequency Percentage % Single 125 41.8 Married 116 38.6 Divorced 59 19.6 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaires data 2011

Table 3 shows that 125 respondents representing 41.7% of the sampled were singles, 88

respondents representing 29.3% were married. Those divorced constitute 17% while, 12%

represents the widow/ widowers. The ratio of single guards could also be related to those with

44

primary school leaving certificates and senior secondary school certification that have the larger

percentage of all guards sampled.

4.2.4 Sex of guards Table 4

Source: Questionnaire data 2011 Table 4 indicates sex status of guards in the 10 PSCs. This table shows that 81 guards

represented by 27% were females (which constitute both singles and widows). While, the male

were 219 respondents represented with 73% of the guards.

Section B

4.2.5 Companies Involved in the study and frequency of Representation

Table 5

Companies Frequency Percentage % Achile Security Services 30 10 Bolay Security Services 30 10 Bolobolo Security Services

30 10

COE Security Services 30 10 Gaskiya Security Services 30 10 Kalabo Security System 30 10 Kings guards 30 10 Kuta guards 30 10 Maryfare Agencies 30 10 Profile Security 30 10 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

In this table 5, the companies were given equal ratio of representation, so that each will be

adequately represented with equal slots especially in terms of the responses that are company

based.

Sex Frequency Percentage% Female 81 27 Male 219 73 Total 300 100%

45

4.2.6 Local Government Areas of Service

Table 6

LGA’S Frequency Percentage % Bida 45 15 Bosso 50 16.7 Chanchaga 50 16.7 Kontagora 45 15 Lapai 45 15 Suleja 65 21.6 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaires data 2011

Table 6 shows that Suleja LGA which is a satelite town to the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja)

has the highest number of representation of 21.6% for the fact that eight (8) out of the ten (10)

companies under study have their presence in Suleja and perhaps, for the fact that crime rate is

likely to be higher than in any other LGA in Niger State. Bosso and Chanchaga LGAs which are

located in the state capital have 16.7% representation each. Bida, Kontagora and Lapai LGAs are

represented with about 15% each which translates to 50 respondents each.

4.2.7 Guards Working Duration

Table 7

Working Duration Frequency Percentage % 6 hourly 90 30 9 hourly - - 12 hourly 180 60 24 hourly 30 10 Total 300 100% Source: Questionnaires data 2011

Table 7 indicates that 30% of the PSCs operates shift of its guards on 6 hourly bases while 60%

also shifts its guards on 12 hourly bases and only 10% of guards operate shift on 24 hourly bases.

These operating hours are enshrined in the PGC ACT 17 of 1990

46

4.2.8 Number of Guards Posting

Table 8

Number of guards Frequency Percentage % One (1) 90 30 Two (2) 60 20 Three (3) 30 10 Four (4) and above 120 40 Total 300 100% Source: Questionnaires data 2011

Table 8 shows that most of the companies are more likely to post four (4) guards and above to a

particular place at a particular point in time, especially places like Ministries, Banks, Markets,

Hotels, and during Ceremonies were their services are often required. This is represented by 40%

followed by companies that post only one guard (30%). Those who post two guards are only20%

while only 30 companies post three guards to point and they are represent 10%. Most of the

companies posting individual to certain points are usually personal residences and casinos etc.

4.2.9 Training and Retraining of Guards

Table 9

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 9 indicates the ratio of guards that have undergone training and retraining on security tips

since they were employed. 245 respondents represented by 70% were of the opinion that they

had been once trained either at point of entry into the security job or shortly after then. Some of

them were of the view that they received their training at Lagos before reposted to Niger State.

While 105 respondents represented by 30% responded NO to the question which indicates that

they have not undergone any form of training.

Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 210 70 No 90 30 Total 300 100%

47

9b. The 70% respondents held the view that they were trained in physical fitness, methods of

pursuing a criminal, Taekwondo skills, use of electronic Baton, surveillance. etc.

4.2.10 Relationship of Guards to their Boss (host)

Table 10

Responses Frequency Percentage % Very Cordial 51 17 Cordial 103 34.3 Fairly Cordial 96 32.9 Not Cordial 50 16.7 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 10 indicates that 51 and 103 respondents represented by17% and 34.3% respectively have

smooth and cordial relationship with the landlords of where they provide security, while 32.9%

and 16.7% indicate fairly cordial and not cordial relationship with their host respectively. Most

of those with very cordial relationship were of the opinion that their hosts provided three (3)

square meals for them while on duty.

4.2.11 Do you think the Presence of Guards has Reduce Criminal Activities in Niger State?

Table 11

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 11 shows whether presence of guards has reduce criminal activities or not in Niger state. A

total of 246 guards’ respondent represented by 82% confirmed that the presence of guards is

capable of reducing criminal activity, while only 18% said that the presence of guards has not

impacted on criminal activities in Niger state. This table confirms the assertion of Dambazau

Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 246 82 No 54 18 Total 300 100%

48

(2006) who argued that the presence of a security man is effective to the extent that it is capable

of retarding criminal activities.

4.2.12 Give reason for the growth in number of PSCs

Table 12

Reasons Frequency Percentage% Societal demand 72 24 Company owners are making money

84 28

Police incapable of policing crime

103 34.3

To create job opportunity 41 13.4 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 12 shows that a higher proportion of the respondents were of the view that the police are

insufficient in number to police crime in the society and the figure are 34.3%. This singular

factor has led to continues growth of the PSCs in Niger State. Again, 28% attributed it to the

nature of capitalism which permits company owners to enrich them through their services

while24% indicated a strong societal demand for security. Those who perceived it as a job

creation opportunity were only 13.7% of the total respondents.

4.2.13 Do guards meet their personal basic needs on the job

Table 13

Source: Questionnaire data 2011 The data on table 13 clearly show that 71.3% of the guards are not meeting their personal basic

needs on this security job. The implication is that, guards may not be motivated to discharge their

responsibilities effectively, while only 28.7% claimed to meet their basic needs on the job.

Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 86 28.7 No 214 71.3 Total 300 100%

49

4.2.14 Why some of the guards are unable to meet their needs on the job

Table 14

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 14 explains the 71.3% who are unable to meet their basic needs on table 12. This table

indicates that 84.6% are unable to meet their needs due poor wages/salaries, while 33

respondents represented by 15.4% do not like the job at all, but had other alternatives therefore

meeting their basic needs may never be on this job even with improved welfare packages.

4.2.15 Does your boss assign other jobs to you?

Table 15

Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 102 34 No 198 66 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 15 above shows 34% of the respondents go on errand for their bosses or other members of

the household, while, 66% of are not sent on errands. The implication for security is that

criminals may target when guards have gone on errand to attack a target.

4.2.16 Types of Errand guards undertake

Table16

Types Frequency Percentage Sanitation 22 21.6 Go to market 34 33.3 Go to vendor 46 45.1 Total 102 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Reasons Frequency Percentage% Poor wages/salary 181 84.6 Do not like the job 33 15.4 Total 214 100%

50

Table 16 shows types of errands Guards undertake order than providing security. 21.6% of them

undertake sanitation and, 33.3% undertake errands to the market, and guards who go to the

vendors for newspapers are represented with 45.1%.

4.2.17 How often do Directors / Supervisors visit Duty Posts?

Table 17(a)

Duration/Time Frequency Percentage% Weekly 30 10 Monthly 270 90 Quarterly - - Yearly - - Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 17(a) shows that 90% of the respondents agreed that Directors/Supervisors visit monthly

except for 10% who held the view that the supervisor/ Director insist on weekly visit. The 90%

of the respondents were of the opinion that the supervisor/ Directors visit when monthly salary

/wages are due.

4.2.17 Things Directors/ Supervisors Check /do on Visits to Guards’ Post

Table 17(b)

Things they check/do Frequency Percentage% Visitors’ Books 20 6.7 Appearance 15 5 Surrounding - - Listen to Complains 33 11 Pay Salaries 232 77.3 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 17(b) shows that about 77% of guards agreed that Directors / supervisors only visit to pay

salary/wages, 11% were of the view that they listen to complains while checking of visitors

books and checking appearances had 6.7% and 5% respectively

51

4.2.18 Problems of Guards

Table 18

Types of problems Frequency Percentage% Poor salary - - Lack of training - - Lack of promotion - - Long working duration - - Lack of equipment - - All of the above 300 100% Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

It can be observed from Table 18 above, that all the guards (100%) indicated that they were

faced by all the problems listed above. This is in line with the view of Maccuci (1998) that the

flat rate promotion and poor working conditions of guards are capable of affecting their

productivity.

4.2.19 Guards were Asked if they had ever Encountered Criminal Activities During or

Since Employment

Table 19

Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 81 27 No 219 73 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 19 shows that only 81 respondents (27%) indicate that they had witnessed or encountered

criminals since they were employed, while majority of them (73%) said they had not

encountered any. One is tempted to assume that the presence of guards may actually be scaring

criminals away.

52

4.2.20 Response of Guards to Criminal Activity

Table 20

Response Frequency Percentage% Report to nearest police station

21 25.9

Report to your landlord - - Escaping for dear life 6 7.4 Blowing whistle and going after the criminal

54 66.7

Total 81 100% Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 20 revealed that 21 respondents (25.9%) indicate that they report crime activities to the

police station nearest to them, while 6 respondents (7-4%) said they will run for their dear lives

because according to them the criminals are always armed. Those who will blow their Whistle

and pursue the criminals were 66.7% of the respondents.

4.2.21 Guards Reasons for Establishing PSCs

Table 21

Reasons Frequency Percentage% To make money 102 34 To provide security 110 36.7 To provide employment - - Population of police is small

88 29.3

Total 300 100% Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 21 above shows that guards held different views for the establishment of the PSCs. Thus,

34% were of the opinion that they were established for company owners make to money. A

higher proportion of 36.7% (110) agreed that they were established for security purposes, while

29.3% were of the view that PSCs were established because the number of police force is too

small to provide adequate security for the people. Kuna (2004), and Gomedze (2007) adduced

other reasons that impacted on security and the establishment of PSCs in Africa and Nigeria their

53

reasons included general human insecurity, the globalization phenomenon, the privatization of

private enterprises, professionalization of armed and police forces, general unending African

conflict and the crashing of the Twin Towers and the Pentagon on the 11th September 2001 in the

United States.

4.2.22 Methods of Providing Security During the Traditional Era in Niger State.

Table 22

Methods of providing security Frequency Percentage% Through voluntary services by the youths (Banga) 47 15.7 Through the Dogarai local police 25 8.3 Placement of charms, scarecrows and fetish materials. 97 32.3 The use of Ndakogboya/ Kuti (Masquerade) to detect criminals

47 15.7

Instilling fear of pain in punishment 84 2 28 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 22 above indicates that during the traditional era in Niger State, the predominant Nupes’

and Gbagyis’ prevent crime through placement of charms, fetish materials and scarecrows, and

this indicated by 97 respondents (32.3%). This is followed by instilling fear of pain of

punishment which account for 28% while the use of Ndakogboya/kuti (Masquerade) to detect

crime and voluntary services by the youth inform of vigilante each account for 15.7%. The least

used method was the dogarai (local police) which accounted for only 8.3%. This finding on the

use of charms, fetish materials and scarecrows, fear of punishment and the use of masquerades

are in line with those of Ochefu and Idrees (2002) in their earlier study among the Nupe, Gwagyi

and migrant Hausa people.

54

4.2.23 Guards Opinion on Level of Subscribers’ Satisfaction

Table 23

Responses Frequency Percentage% Highly Satisfied 71 23.7 Satisfied 61 53.6 Unsatisfied 68 22.7 Highly unsatisfied - - Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 23 above shows the opinion of guards on level of satisfaction of subscribers/beneficiaries.

71% respondents represented by 22.7% assumed that their host(s) were highly satisfied with

services they provide, 53.6% of the guards also agreed that their benefactors were satisfied while

only 68 respondents represented by 22.7% agreed boss might not be satisfied with their services

because, some of the subscribers have change their subscribers twice or thrice. one of the guards

said the landlord confessed to him that their company was the third to be consulted for services

at his residence; while one landlord complained that his children usually stay with security guard

and the security guard smokes cigarette and for other several other factors lead to unsatisfactory

service by the PSCs.

4.2.24 Relationship between PSCs and the Nigeria Police

Table 24

Responses Frequency Percentage% Very cordial 43 14.3 Cordial 52 17.3 Fairly cordial 185 61.7 Not cordial 20 6.7 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 24 shows 14.3% and 17.3% as representing very cordial and cordial relationship

respectively between PSCs and the police. The 61.7% respondents were of the view that the

55

guards of PSCs and the police have fairly cordial relationship and about 6.7% believed the

relationship is not cordial. This finding (93.3%) of some what cordial relationship concord to the

earlier postulate of Chearing and Steaning (1981) who were of the view that the relationship of

PSCs and the formal police officers is always cordial for the fact that private guards are seen as

junior partners in the business of policing and who are working to assist their senior partners.

4.2.25 Do Guards Prosecute Cases in Court?

Table 25

Responses Frequency Percentage Yes - - No 300 100 Total 300 100

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 25 shows that none of the guards (100%) has ever expressed that they prosecuted any court

case before. They argued that, usually such cases were transferred to either the police or lawyers.

This finding is contrary to the findings of Maccuci (1998) who posited that guards also served as

witnesses or prosecute criminal cases in courts.

4.2.26 Do you think your Boss is satisfied with your Services?

Table 26

Responses Frequency Percentage% Yes 232 77.3 No 68 22.7 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 26 reveals that 232 of guards’ respondent represented by 77.3% were of the opinion that

their Bosses are satisfied with the services of PSCs and only 22.7% responded negatively. Some

of those who responded negatively said their Bosses sometimes complain of their lateness to

duty and sleeping while on duty.

56

4.2.27 Suggestion on Overcoming Problems of the Companies

Table 27

Responses Frequency Percentage% Increase of Salary 190 63.3 Training and Retraining 38 12.7 Change of Uniforms - - Need to introduce the use of Batons

72 24

Total 300 100% Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 27 shows that 63.3% of the respondents believe that increase in guards’ wages/salary will

reposition the PSCs for improved services while 12.7% and 24 % represent training and

retraining of guards and introduction of the use of Batons by the guards respectively.

4.3 Questionnaire for Beneficiaries and other Members of the Community

4.3.0 Section A: - Bio-data Information

4.3.1. Age range of Beneficiaries.

Table 28

Age Range Frequency Percentage% 18-25 26 7.4 26-33 47 13.4 34-41 116 33.2 42 and above 161 46 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 28 shows age range of beneficiaries, the age range of 18-25 years were represented by

7.4%, those of 26-33 were 13.4% while 26-41 and 42 years and above were 33.2% and 46%

respectively.

57

4.3.2 Educational Background of Subscribers/Beneficiaries

Table 29

Education Qualification Frequency Percentage% Primary Certificate 20 5.7 SSCE 55 15.7 Diploma/NCE/HND 104 29.8 Graduates above 171 48.8 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 29 shows educational qualification of beneficiaries. First degree graduates and above were

represented by (48.8%), followed by ND/NCE/HND holders represented by 29.8% while SSCE

and Primary School Cert. holders were 15.7% and 5.7& respectively.

4.3.3. Marital Status of Respondents

Table 30

Marital status Frequency Percentage% Single 62 17.7 Married 251 71.7 Divorced 37 10.6 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 30 reveals that 251 represented by 71.7% of the respondents were married, those who were

still singles is represented by 17.7% and 37 respondents (10.6%) were divorced.

4.3.4. Occupation of Beneficiaries.

Table 31

Occupation Frequency Percentage% Civil Services 48 13.7 Business / women 127 36.3 Banks 31 8.9 Private operators 116 33.1 Retirees 18 5.1 Farmers 10 2.9 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

58

Table 31 shows occupation of beneficiaries, respondents from the Civil Service include

(Ministries, Parastatals, and Agencies etc) represented with 48 respondents equivalents to 13.7%

of the total sample, the businessmen and women were 127 respondents with 36.3%. Banks that

subscribed to the PSCs services constitutes 8.9%, the private operators (i.e. owners of private

companies and small scale businesses) were represented by 33.1%, while retired civil servants

were represented by 5.1% and some farmers who also subscribes to the PSCs services were

represented by 2.9%.

4.3.5 Religious Affiliation of Respondents

Table 32

Religion Frequency Percentage% Islam 224 64 Christianity 84 24 Traditionalism 42 12 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 32 shows religious affiliation of respondents. Those represented by Christian faith were

24% of the respondent, Islamic faith represented with 64% and the traditionalists represented

12% of the total sample.

Section B

4.3.6 Local Government Areas of Respondents

Table 33 LGA Frequency Percentage% Bida 54 15.4 Bosso 60 172 Chanchaga 60 17.2 Kontagora 54 15.4 Lapai 54 15.4 Suleja 68 19.4 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

59

Table 33 indicates that Suleja Local Government Area has the highest sample of 68 respondents

represented by 19.4% this is due to fact that it is a satelite town to the federal capital territory.

Bosso and Chanchaga Local Governments which are situated in the state capital both have

17.2% each while Bida, Kontagora and Lapai Local Government Areas had 54 .4% respondents.

4.3.7 Areas/Streets of Sampled Residents

Table: 34

LGS’S Areas Frequency Percentage% Bida -G.R.A

-Banwuya -Esso

18 18 54` 18

13.4

Bosso -Bosso - F-layout -Maitumbi and Shango areas

20 20 60 20

17.2

Chanchaga -Tunga -Tunga Lowcost -Shango

20 20 60 20

17.2

Kontagora -Mamman -Kontagora Rd FCE. Staff Qurt and Yauri Rd -Sudan Rd

18 18 54 18

13.4

Lapai -Daudu maza road -Jantabo road - IBB Univ. Qtrs. & Kobo road

18 18 54 18

13.4

Suleja -Kantoma Bridge area -Hassan Dallatu Rd -Kwamba

22 22 68 24

19.4

Total 350 100% Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 34 shows the distribution of questionnaires by the researcher and his assistant’s per-LGA

and areas/streets in which research sample was generated. In Bida Local Government Areas 54

respondents representing 15.4% where sample from the GRA, Banyuwa and Esso areas.

Kontagora and Lapai have the same ratio of 13.4% representations. The areas visited were

Manman Kontagora road, FCE Staff Quarters, Yauri road and Sarkin sudan road, and Daudu

maza road, Jantabo road, IBB Univeristy and Kobo road were visited, while for Suleja which has

60

the highest of 68 respondents of 19.4% was conducted in Kantoma bridge area, Hassan Dallatu

road, Anguwan London and Kwamba respectively.

4.3.8. PSCs Engaged

Table 35

PSCs Frequency Percentage% Achile Security. Service 35 10 Bolay Security Service 35 10 Bolobolo Security Service 35 10 COE Security Service 35 10 Gaskiya Security Service 35 10 Kalabo Security. Service 35 10 King’s Guards 35 10 Kuta Guards 35 10 Mayfare Agencies 35 10 Profile Security 35 10 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 35 shows representation of PSCs as engaged by subscribers. Each company has a sample

of 35 respondents representing 10% multiply by the ten PSCs equal to 100%.

4.3.9 Types of Residence

Table 36

Types of Residence Frequency Percentage% Bungalow 132 37.7 Private/public places 158 45.1 Ministries 12 3.5 Directorates/Agencies 48 13.7 Total 350 100%

Source; Questionnaire data 2011

Table 36 shows 132 respondents representing 37.7% of the sampled population lived in

Bungalows, 158 respondents representing 45.1% lived in private/public places of six LGAs.

Ministries and Directorates/Agencies were represented by 3.5% and 13.7% respectively.

61

4.3.10 Duration of engagement

Table 37

Duration of engagement Frequency Percentage % 6 hourly 105 30 9 hourly - - 12 hourly 210 60 24 hourly 35 10 Total 350 100% Source: Questionnaires data 2011

Table 37 indicates that 30% of the PSCs operate shift of its guards on 6 hourly bases, while 60%

also shifts its guards on 12 hourly bases and only 10% of guards operate shift on 24 hourly bases.

These operating hours are enshrined in the PGC ACT 17 of 1990.

4.3.11 Increase/Growth in Number of PSCs will lead to Reduction in Crime Activities

Table 38

Responses Frequency Percentage% Yes 213 60.1 No 137 39.1 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 38 reveals that 60.1% of subscribers agreed that the growth of PSCs has led to reduction in

criminal activities in their host communities, while 39.1% disagreed because according to them

some forms of petty crimes are still common in some communities.

4.3.12 Reasons for Reduction of Criminal Activities

Table 39

Reasons Frequency Percentage% Presence of Guards 154 51.3 Guards Patrol Teams - - Police patrol team 68 22.7 Vigilante/ Neighborhood Guards 70 23.3 Presence of Dogs 8 2.7 Total 300 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

62

Table 39 revealed reasons that led to reduction of criminal activities in the society by

subscribers. Those who agreed that the presence of private security guards is capable of reducing

crime rate have the highest representation of 134 respondent’s equivalent to 51.3% of the

sampled population. Other factors that have enhanced Crime reduction are Police Patrol Teams,

Vigilante/Neighborhood guards and the presence of Dogs are represented as follows 22.7%

23.3% and 2.7 respectively, while the PSCs patrol team were not known to the host

communities.

4.3.13 Level of Satisfaction with the Services of PSCs by Subscribers.

Table 40 Response Frequency Percentage % Highly satisfied 49 14 Satisfied 262 74.9 Unsatisfied 39 11.1 Highly unsatisfied - - Total 350 100%

Source Questionnaire data 2011

Table 40 indicates level of satisfaction of the PSCs subscribers in Niger State. 49 respondents

represented by 14% and 262 respondents represented by 74.9% were highly satisfied and

satisfied with the services of PSCs respectively, while only 39 respondents represented by 11.1%

were partially satisfied. No subscriber ticked ‘not satisfied’.

4.3.14 Reasons for PSCs Establishment

Table 41

Reasons Frequency Percentage % To make money 37 10.6 To provide security 187 53.4 To provide job opportunity 35 10 Population of police inadequate 91 26 Total 350 100 %

Source Questionnaire data 2011

63

Table 41 reveals respondents reasons for the establishment of PSCs. 53.4% of the total

respondents uphold the opinion that PSCs were established to provide security. 26% adduced its’

establishment to inadequate police personnel’s 10.6% and 10% indicated its establishment to

money making by the proprietors’ and to create job opportunity to the unemployed respectively.

4.3.15 Means of obtaining Security before the Emergence of PSCs

Table 42

Means Frequency Percentage% Vigilante/ Neighborhood guards 71 20.3 Through Dogarai (Local police) 12 3.4 Through charms scarecrow and fetish materials 179 51.2 Instilling fear of pain in punishment 88 25.1 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 42 indicates that 20.3% of the respondents got security services through vigilante or

neighborhood guards, 3.4% through local police (Dogarai) provided by Chief and Emirs, 51.2%

established that they got security during the traditional era through charms, scarecrows and fetish

materials, while 25.1% perceived security as an element of prevention therefore they considered

instilling fear of pain in punishment as a great measure towards providing security for their

communities.

4.3.16 Other Duties Assigned to Guards

Table 43

Duties Frequency Percentage % Sanitation 6 1.7 Go to Market 8 2.3 Go to Vendor 41 11.7 Assigned no duty Total

295 84.3

350 100% Source: Questionnaire data 2011

64

Table 43 shows other duties assign to guards by subscribers other than providing security. 1.7%

of the subscribers order the guards to sometimes sweep the compound and cut down

surroundings grasses (sanitation), 2.3% send the guards to the Market and11.7% send them to the

Vendors to purchase newspapers for them, while 84.3% of subscribers do not assign to them any

other duties other then providing security.

4.3.17. Other Benefits derived from PSCs by their Host Communities

Table 44 Community benefits Frequency Percentage%

Help in controlling crowd 188 53.7 Help in controlling traffic 60 17.1 Settling minor disputes 31 8.9 Assist on sanitation days 71 20.3 Total 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 44 indicates other benefits communities derived from the activities of the guards. 53.7% of

guards often assist in ceremonies especially in controlling crowds, 17.1% also assist in

controlling traffic, while 8.9% and 20.3% indicates settling of minor disputes in their host

communities and also assist in sanitation days respectively.

4.3.18 Would you Consider your Security Guards as well Trained?

Table 45

Responses Frequency Percentage% Yes 186 53.1 No 164 46.9 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 45 indicates that 53.1% of the total subscribers of PSCs services held the view that their

security guards are well trained while 46.9% of the subscribers do not see guards as people who

have undergone any form training or retraining.

65

4.3.19 Major Problems of Guards/PSCs

Table 46

Problems Frequency Percentage % Lateness 48 13.7 Guards are unarmed 129 36.9 Illiterate guards 42 36.9 Lack of training 33 12 Poor salary /wages 98 28 Total 350 100 %

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 46 reveals major problems of guards and PSCs face in accordance with perception of the

respondents. 13.7% of subscribers see lateness to duty post as a problem, 12% of the total

respondents indicated illiteracy as problem facing guards and PSCs, while 9.4% lack of any form

of training as a security guard,. 28% perceived the salary and wages of PSCs as poor and

therefore indicates poor motivation of the guards, 36.9%.of subscribers attributed the inability of

guards to be armed as their major problem. This agreed with the position of Musah (2002) who

observed that, lack of providing arms and ammunition could lead to inefficiency in security

performance of security guards.

4.3.20 Possible Suggestions to Improve Service Delivery of the PSCs in Niger State

Table 47

Suggestions Frequency Percentage% Guards to be allow to carry Baton

120 34.2

Guards be made literate 51 14.6 Guards be trained and retrained

31 14.6

Guards need to be well paid and motivated

98 28

Lateness be discouraged 30 8.6 Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

66

Table 47 reveals that 34.2% of respondents will desire guards to carry at least a baton. 14.6%

each for guards to be made literate and for guards to be train and retraining on security tips, 28%

desires improvement in guards’ wages/salary to motivate them and only 8.6% of the

beneficiaries suggested that companies need to improve on lateness to duty by guards.

4.3.21 Do you Feel more Secured with Guards

Table 48

Responses Frequency Percentage% Yes 350 100 No - - Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 48 shows that all the subscribers totaling (100%) expressed that they feel more secured

with the presence of security guards.

4.3.22 Reasons why they Feel more Secured with Guards

Table 49

Reasons Frequency Percentage%

They are hard working 108 30.9 A feeling of somebody watching over one’s life and property

142 40.5

They are dedicated 83 23.7 They can prevent fire outbreak

17 4.9

Total 350 100%

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

Table 49 reveals reasons why subscribers feel more secured with guards. 30.9% of subscribers

feel more secured because they feel security guards from these PSCs are hard working, 142

represented by 40.5% held the view that a mare feeling of somebody is watching over one’s life

and property make then feel more secured than when there were no PSCs’ guards. 23.7% and

67

4.9% feel more secured because the guards are dedicated and can prevent fire outbreak

respectively.

4.4.0 TESTOF HYPOTHESES

4.4.1 Hypothesis One: There is a positive relationship between the presence of PSCs and

reduction of crime in Niger state.

To carry out this test, item 11 on the questionnaire for guards and 11 on questionnaire for

beneficiaries are used where responses on ‘whether the presence of PSCs has reduced crime in

the community’ is cross tabulated with the category of respondents (i.e guards and subscribers)

reveals;

Table 50

Presence of PSCs has reduced crime in the society

Respondents

Percentage%

Guards Subscribers

Yes 246 (82%) 213 (60.9%) 459 (71%)

No 54 (18%) 137 (39.1%) 191 (29%)

Total 300 (100%) 350 (100%) 650(100%)

X2 =34.800; df =1; P < 0.0001; Asymp.sig. (2 sided)= 0.002

Source : Questionnaire data 2011

X2 calculated =34.800

P-value < 0.001

Conclusion:

It can be observed that in table 50 above, out of the 650 respondents administered

questionnaires, 300 and 350 were guards and subscribers respectively. Out of the

300guards,246(82%) agreed that the presence of PSCs has reduced crime in the society, while an

68

equally high percentage of subscribers 60.1% which is 213 out of 350 agreed with the statement.

A total of 459 (71%) out of 650 agreed with this statement. The table shows that a greater

percentage of both the guards and the subscribers share the opinion that the presence of PSCs has

reduced crime in Niger state. The chi-square value of 34.800 also confirms the fact that the

hypothesis of a significant relationship between the presence/growth of PSCs and the current

crime wave in the state. The result on table 49 corroborate the earlier finding on table 11 and 37

which shows statistical significance on the relationship between the presence of guards and

reduction in crime. The findings on table 49 are in line with the view of Dambazau (2006) who

said that the presence of a security man is effective to the extent that it is capable of retarding

criminal activities. Therefore, a secured or guarded target may not always be a victim of crime

(Igbo; 2007).

4.2.2 Hypothesis Two: Those who employ the services of PSCs tend to feel more secured than

those who do not.

To test this hypothesis item 23 of guards’ questionnaire and 13 of beneficiaries questionnaire are

used, which states that whether the beneficiaries/subscribers are satisfied with the services and

feel more secured with the PSCs or not. A cross-tabulation between the guards and subscribers

reveals:

Table 51

Level of satisfaction of subscribers

Respondents Percentage% Guards Subscribers

Satisfied 232 (77.3%) 311 (93.9%) 543 (84%) Unsatisfied 68 (22.7%) 39 (11.1%) 107 (16%) Total 300 (100%) 350 (100%) 650(100%)

X2 =15.600; df =1; P < 0.0001; Asymp.sig. (2 sided)= 0.002

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

X2 calculated =15.600

69

P-value < 0.001

Conclusion:

Table 51 above shows out of the 650 respondents, 300 and 350 were guards and subscribers

respectively. Of the 300 guards, 232 (77.3%) were satisfied with the services provided by the

PSCs thereby feeling more secured than those who did not subscribe. A much higher respondents

among subscribers 311 (93.9%) also agreed that they were satisfied with the services represented

satisfaction of both guards assumption of their bosses and the subscribers themselves is

supported by the X2 value of 15.600 which also supported the hypothesis that there is strong

statistical relationship between those who employed and those who do not as revealed by the

opinion of the guards and the subscribers in the study.

4.4.3 Hypothesis Three: Guards who have undergone training and retraining on security tips

are more effective in crime prevention than those who did not.

This table is tested by cross-tabulating items 9 (guards’ questionnaire) and 18 (beneficiaries

questionnaire) are used where responses on whether guards have undergone any training or

retraining since they were employed by the companies.

Table 52

Training and retraining of

guards since employed

Respondents Percentage%

Guards Subscribers

Yes 210 (70%) 186 (53.1%) 396 (61%)

No 90 (30%) 164 (46.9%) 254 (39%)

Total 300 (100%) 350 (100%) 650(100%)

X2 =19.282; df =1; P < 0.0001; Asymp.sig. (2 sided)= 0.002

Source: Questionnaire data 2011

X2 calculated =19.282

P-value < 0.001

70

Conclusion:

Data on table 52 above shows that a total of 396 (61%) agreed that they have had one form of

training or another since employed, while 254 (39%) had not received any form of training since

employed. The chi-square value of 19.282 shows a significant relationship on the effectiveness

between those trained and those who were not trained. Effective crime prevention training is

capable of affecting the performance of guards on duty. The above table concurred with the

initial assumption that guards who have undergone training and retraining on security tips are

more effective in crime prevention than those who did not.

4.5.0. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR DIRECTORS/SUPERVISORS

4.51. Qualitative Analysis of the in-Depth Interview

This section of data analysis relates to in-depth interviews. As the third instrument in this study,

the aim was to obtain more information from Directors/Supervisors of PSCs in Niger State. The

interview were conducted with ten (10) Directors/ Supervisors of PSCs therefore, the data from

interviews are analyzed together as follows.

4.5.2. Status of Registration of the ten (10) Companies

At the time of conducting this In-depth Interview, the ten (10) companies in this study were fully

registered with NSCDC for the year 2009/2010. This is also confirmed by NSCDC data given

during the preliminary studies of the companies registered.

71

4.5.3 Period of Operation in the State.

The companies in operation identified their operational years in the following table.

Table 53

Companies Years of Establishment Achile Security Service 2002 (8yrs) Bolay Security Service 2003 (7yrs) Bolobolo Security Service 2003 (7yrs) C OE Security Service 1992 (18yrs) Gaskiya Security Service 2003 (7yrs) Kalabo Security System 2006 (4yrs) Kings Guards 2009 (2yrs) Kuta Guards 2000 (10yrs) Mayface Agencies 2004 (6yrs) Profile Security 1995 (14yrs) Source Questionnaire data 2011

Thus, the explosive growth of these PSCs began in the new millennium since the year 2000,

before than they were not rampant. The above Table shows that only COE security service and

Profile security were in operation since 1992 and 1995 respectively. Others that were in

existence since 1997 are Technocrime and Hankuri securities which did not make the study

sample.

4.5.4. Personnel Capacity of the Companies

The ten companies under study had capacity of more than five hundred men (500). This implies

that they have enough manpower to provide wide range of services relating to security in the

state, this also has impact on annual registration fee paid by these companies to NSCDC. This

information is also in line with NSCDC record provided for preliminary review on this study.

4.5.5 Does your Company have a Training School?

Based on the ten (10) PSCs under study, only profile security has a training school in Minna and

Kontagora in Niger State. Others such as Achile security service, kings guards, and Mayfare

agencies have their training school in Lagos while Gaskiya security has training in Kaduna, Kuta

72

guards have their training school at Ilorin in Kwara State. As for COE security service their

personnel’s are trained by the commandant of the 12th military cantonment Minna.

However, the remaining companies such as Boley Security and Mayfare agencies are yet to have

the training school for their personnel’s training.

4.5.6. Running Refreshers Courses on Security Tips for the Personnel.

The Directors/Supervisors responded in differently, it is only profile security that runs refreshers

courses quarterly for its personnel’s. Others run partial retraining course except for Boley

securities, Mayfare agencies and Kalabo security company service who retrain her personnel’s

through military cantonment in Minna Niger State.

4.5.7. Skills Impacted During Workshops and Seminars

The directors/supervisors of the ten companies were unanimous on physical training like

Taekwondo skills, running skills, fighting skills while other has to do with identifying suspects

of crime and intelligence test are also run for the personnel’s. They are also taught how to use

electronic baton, gadgets and monitoring /surveillance camera in community.

4.5.8. Cars /Motorcycles for Patrols

The ten Directors/Supervisors all agreed that they have cars, motorcycles use in running day to

day activities of the company but not provided for patrol. Because the NSCDC still insisted that

patrol is still part of the schedule of Nigerian police force and not to be delegated or privatized to

any company for now.

4.5.9 Duration for Promotion of Staff

The directors/supervisors of the ten (10) companies agreed that their personnel’s are promoted

after every three (3) years, but it must be noted that they may never be promoted to the position

of the directors/supervisors, because these positions are exclusively for retired military or police

73

officers due to previous training and experience in service. Which validate the argument of

Macucci (2002) that PSCs have flat hierarchy for promotion which may never the take any staff

to Directors/Supervisorship of any PSCs.

4.5.10 Duration on Duty for the Guards

According to the directors/supervisor of the PSCs; only one (1) company runs 24 hours shift.

And three (3) companies runs 6 hours shift, while the remaining six (6) companies runs 12 hours

shift for their personnel’s. This is also in line with Act No 43 consolidated 1990 chapter 367 of

Private Guards Companies in Nigeria.

4.5.11 Factors Responsible for the Increase in PSCs

All the ten (10) directors/supervisors were unanimous on the fact the police officers may not be

stationary on every citizens home as guards either because of their number or because it is not

part of their statutory responsibility. Other factors mentioned include societal demand for crime

prevention and above, all, creation of jobs for teaming youths to engage their energy instead of

becoming a problem to their own society. According Spitzer, (1987) jobless youth which are

likely to become social dynamite could be contained, refined and turn into defense line for the

state as resources. These factors are in line with information provided on 4.2.10 and 4.3.12.

4.5.12. The ways in which Security needs of the People were Provided in Niger State during

the Traditional Era.

The ten (10) directors/supervisors concord on the quality of socialization, the cultural norms and

values of groups and collective communal socialization has almost eliminated deviance in the

society. Thus, people still fear their gods (such as Ndakogboya or Kuti (Masquerades), especially

for those who believe in it, they agreed that it is capable of identifying a guilty person in any

crime situation. Others opined that the use charms, fetish materials and scarecrows to scare away

74

criminals were another measure. The role of the Dogarai (Local Police) in the Emir Palace is also

considered very significant in preventing crime as the Dogarai and instill the fear of pain in

punishment to young ones could serve as a deterrence. This position has further confirmed data

on table 4.2.21 and 4.3.15 on traditional method of crime prevention in Niger State.

4.5.13 Factors Necessitating the Establishment of PSCs

On the establishment of guards companies, the ten (10) directors/supervisors were unanimous on

rising crime profile in the country to a level where everybody is affected and the police alone can

not keep homes safe in our absence. Also the patterns of property theft in the country call for

serious attention of all citizens as PSCs provide job opportunity to our teaming youth and

unending societal demand for security of lives and property due to small number of the Nigerian

Police Force.

4.5.14 Achievement of your PSCs

The directors/supervisors opined that these companies have achieved a lot especially in the

following areas:

(i) Detection of crime in the society

(ii) Help in controlling crowd and traffic.

(iii) Settling minor disputes

(iv) Government also employs us to play the role of undercover agent.

(v) Brought a stop cult to activities and suppressing student riots in some Nigerian

university through surveillance.

(vi) Assist on Sanitation Days etc.

75

4.5.15 Major Constraints of the PSCs

The directors/supervisors posited that the following are the major constraints of the PSCs.

(i) The section 17 of PGC Act which prohibits guards from possessing firearms and

ammunition.

(ii) Poor training and retraining of guards.

(iii) Poor Staff salary/wages.

(iv) Inability of the PSCs to get a permit for patrol.

(v) And poor state of materials and equipments made available for effective service

delivery such as batons, lack of stationeries etc.

4.5.16 Relationship of PSCs with Nigeria Police

They all agreed to have smooth and cordial relationship with the police. Hence, their service is

considered not in conflict with that of the police force. Except for cases of arrest which they turn

to the police for further investigation.

4.5.17 Prosecuting of Cases in Court

None of the companies’ guards had ever prosecuted any court case.

4.5.18 Suggestions for Overcoming the Constraints

Their suggestions were as follows:

- Company owners should provide adequate working materials and equipment for

effective service delivery.

(i) Training and retraining be encourage and carried out timely to enhance the success

of the PGCs.

(ii) Staff welfare, salary/wages is improved upon.

76

(iii) Government to pass a bill to permit them to PSCs to undertake patrol in some

communities as pilot test, especially where the Police Officer do not visit often.

(iv) They will also want government to revisit the section 17 of PGC Act which

prohibits guards from possessing firearms and ammunitions.

77

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE STUDIES

5.1 Summary

Chapter one began with the background of the study which explains societal concern for

security at both the individual and collective levels and tracing the origin of many types of

modern private security outfits through Pinkerton’s security services to the introduction of

private security guards/companies and the current challenges in Nigeria. Statement of the

problem, Research questions, Research objectives, Significance of the Study and the

Ooperationalisation of concepts were clearly stated.

In the chapter two of the study, empirical studies were reviewed indicating the relevance

and importance of PSCs in the society. Factors responsible for the establishment and growth of

PSCs in Africa and Nigeria were evaluated through it effectiveness and major challenges in

Nigeria. Theoretical literature was reviewed through the structural and psyche or circumstances

approaches and relevant theories were reviewed, in addition to the Statement of Hypothesis.

Chapter three explains the research design, area of the study, population and scope of the

study, sample size, sampling method, instrument for data collection, administration of instrument

and method of data analysis through SPSS and chi square (X2) used in testing hypothesis.

Chapter four is divided into four segments namely: questionnaire for Guards,

Questionnaire for Subscribers/Beneficiaries, Test of hypothesis and Indepth interview analysis.

The analysis reveals that the presence or growth of PSCs have a significant relationship to crime

wave in the State, that satisfaction of those who employed the services PSCs and those who do

not and also that guards who are trained are more effective than those who have not undergone

any training or relating employed.

78

Chapter five summarizes the entire work, and proffering recommendations to the findings

of this study and suggestions were also advanced for future studies.

5.2 Recommendations

From the findings (from questionnaires and interviews with guards, beneficiaries and other

members of the community and directors/supervisors of PSCs). That there is a positive

relationship between the growth of PSCs and reduction of crime in Niger State; also those who

employed the services of PSCs tend feel more scared than those who do not and that guards that

have undergone training and retaining on security lips are likely to move effective than those

who did not. It is recommended therefore that;

Working during among guards companies be unified and standardized as required by

PGC ACT section 17 which stipulates minimum of 6 hours and maximum of 12 hours.

The need for Federal Government to recruit and equip Nigerian Police Force in order to

improve the security of lives and property or to permit guards to use arms and

ammunitions in combating crimes in the society

There is also the need for Directors/Supervisor to enlighten their clients on sending

guards to perform other activities order the security job assign to them.

The Directors/Supervisors need to improve on their supervisory roles as table 13 and 14

has showed in other to improve the quality of security provided to clients and also to

promote the welfare of guards.

Perhaps, because of competing priorities both the guards and other members of the

community have misunderstood reasoned for establishing the PSCs. Therefore, the need

to spell clearly reasons for establishing the PSCs by emphasizing on it objectives has

become very essential

79

There is need for clear demarcation of functions between the formal police and the PSCs

as showed on table 20 and 21 and to promote education on the role of both the formal

police and the PSCs toward improve security service to the citizenry.

Improve wages/salary was also suggested as one of the panaceas to the problems of both

the guards and PSCs

The PSCs are beneficial to society in many ways. Therefore, government should support

these companies to strive by creating an enabling environment for them.

There is need for companies yet to be fully registered with NSCDC to do so timely to

avoid operating illegally and proscription

PSCs must establish training schools if they must remain in competition in global world

of security because more and more companies are coming up and are seeking relevance

in the security world.

There is the need to abolish the flat hierarchy of promotion in the PSCs and allowed

guards to reach the climax of their career either as Supervisors/Directors.

5.3 Suggestions for Future Studies

It is suggested that more companies be studied especially those identified “not registered”

in order to create a balanced view of both registered and non-registered PSCs. Another

dimension critical to mention is to examine the typologies of crime prevention and how these

companies implement their own style of policing crime in the society in-order to ascertain a

more effective crime prevention method suitable for Nigeria Society. It will also be interested to

find out how these PSCS recruit their staff and how bad eggs are avoided in the recruitment

processes. Finally a larger sample size in a study of this nature is also capable of revealing new

challenges in the evolution of PSCs in Niger State and Nigeria as a whole.

80

References

Asika, N. (2006). Research methodology in the behavioral sciences, Abuja: Longman Nigeria Plc.

Becker, H.S. (1965). Outsider. Studies in the Sociology of deviance. New York: Free Press.

Beeckers, Theodore M (1974) “The place of private police in society: An area of Research in social sciences” Social Problems 21:438-53.

Bowden, Tom (1978). Beyond the Limit of the Law. Harmondsworth Penguin.

Braun Micheal and Devid J. Lee (1971) “Private Police forces: Legal powers and limitation “University of Chicago law Review 38:335-82

Chaiken, M. and Chaiken J. (1987) Public Policing – Privately Provided. National Institute of justice issues and practices. Washington D.C US Government Presenting Press.

Cohen, S. (1985). Visions of Social Control. Cambrigde: Polite Press.

Dambazau A.B., Jumare, M. M. & Yakubu A. M. (Eds.), (1996). Crime Prevention and Control in Nigeria. Kaduna: Baraka Press.

Dambazau, A. B. (2007). Criminology and criminal justice. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.

Denscombe, M. (2003). The good research guide. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Fixler, P. E. and Robert W. P. (1988). “Can Police Service be Privatized” Annals. 498:108-18.

Galanter M. (1981) “Justice in many Rooms: Courts. Private ordering and indigenous law” Journal of Legal Pluralism 191-47.

Greenberg, D. (1981)ed). Crime and Capitalism Calfonia; Mayfield.

Gumedze, J. (2007). The private security sector in Africa: the 21st century’s major cause for concern? Occasional paper 131, December 2007. Retrieved April, 17, 2009, from http//www.issafrica.org.

Haralambos, M., Holborn M. and Heald R. (2004) Sociology, London, Herpercollins publishers Ltd.

Holrnqvist, C, (2005). Private security companies: The case for regulation. Stockholm international peace research institute (SIPRI) policy paper No. 9. Retrieved April, 17, 2009, from http//www.issafrica.org.

81

Howe, H. M. (1998). The privatization of international affairs: Global order and the privatization of security. Fletcher forum of world affairs. 22. (Fall). Retrieved April, 17, 2009, from http//www.issafrica.org.

Hyden, G. (1995). livelihood and security in Africa, Contending perspectives in the new Global order. Africa Studies. Quarterly 1, 155. Retrieved Feb. 3, 2009, from http//www.issafrica.org.

Idrees A. A. & Ochefu Y. A.(2002). Studies in the history of central Nigeria area. Vol.1. Lagos: CSS limited.

Igbo, E. U. M. (2007). Introduction to Criminology. Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press Ltd.

Johnston, L. (1992). The Rebirth of Private Policing. London:Routledge

Kuna M. J. (1999). Research Plan. The Nation, State and violence, Exclusion and Nation Building in Northern Nigeria. Unpublished Research Plan.

Kuna M.J. (2004). Arms and daggers in the heart of Africa: The political economy of war and conflict in contemporary Africa. A paper presented at the University Seminar series organized by the central seminar coordinating committee, Usman Danfodiyo University Sokoto, congregational hall, January 22, 2004.

Leighton, B. (1991). Visions of community policing: Rhetoric and Reality in Canada. Canadian Journal of Criminology 33(3-4):485-522.

Loader, I. (2000). Plural Policing and Democratic governance. Social and legal studies. 9,3:323-345.

Maccuci A. (1998). A Typology of Private Policing Operational styles. Journal of Criminal Justice. 26. (1) 41-51.

Maguire M., Morgan R. & Reiner R. (1997). The Oxford hand book of Criminology (2nd Edition). New York: Oxford University Press.

Netler, G. (1974). Explaining Crime Zusa; progress book.

Newsline, (2009). Minna kidnapped victims traced to Benin, Edo state. No 192, July, vol.2 22, 2009

Niger State Government Diary (2009:3).

Obikeze D.S. (1990). Methods of data analysis in the social and behavioural sciences. Enugu; Auto-Century Publishing Company Limited.

Ogunbameru K.A. & Rotimi W. R. (2006) Man and his social environment: A text book of sociology. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.

82

Ogunbameru, O. A. (2003). Research methods in social sciences. Hommersaak: D-Net Communications, E-Book Press.

Oguonu, C.N & Anugwom, E. E. (2006). Research methods in social sciences. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.

Olaniyi R. (2005) Community vigilantes in metropolitan Kano 1985-2005. Ibadan; French Institute of Research in Africa (IFRA).

Osuala, E. C. (2001). Introduction to research methodology. Nsukka: Africans-FEB Publishers Limited.

Private Security Companies Net Part IV. Cap 365 1990: law of the Federation 1990. Author. Publishing.

Salant, P. & Dillman D. A. (1994). How to conduct your own survey. New York: John Wiley.

Schamalleger, F. (1995). Criminal justice today: An introductory text for the 21st century. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Schreier F. & Caparini M. (2005). Privatizing security. law, practice and governance of private military and security companies general center for the democratic control of Aimed forces. (DCAF) occasional paper No. 6. Retrieved Feb. 3, 2009, from http//www.issafrica.org.

Scott, Thomas M. and Marly McPherson(1979)”The Development of the Private Sector of the Criminal Justice System” Law and Society review 6:267-88

Shearing Clifford and Philip G. Stenning (1981) “Modern Private Security” it growth and implications” in Crime and justice : An Annual Review of research vol.3 edited by Micheal Tonnry and Morval Morris. Chicago University or Chicago Press.

Shearing, C. and Farnell, M. (1977). Private Security: An examination of Canadian Statistics 1961-1971. Toronto: University of Toronto.

Shearing, C., and Stenning, P. (1983). Modern private security: Its growth and implications. In Crime and justice: An annual review of research, Tony M. & Morris, N. (eds.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Shearing, D.C. (1992). The relation between public and private policing. In Tony, M. & Morris, N. (Eds) Modern policing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Simelane, Hamilton Sipho (2007). The State Security Dilemma and the Development of the private security sectors in Swaziland “The journal of institute for security studies 139:1-10

Singer P.W. (2003). Corporate warriors: the rise of the privatized military industry. London: Cornell University Press.

83

Singer P.W. (2004). War, Profit and the Vacuum of Law. Privatized Military Firms and International Law. Columba: Journal of Transnational Law 42(2).

Spitzer, S. (1987). “Security and Control in Capitalist Societies the fetishism of security and the secret thereof” in Transcarceration: Essay in the Sociology of Social Control. Edited by Johh Lowman, Robert J. Menzies and T. S. Palys. Aldershot:Gower.

Sunday Trust (2009). Lecturer bathed with acid in Bida. Vol. 3 No. 38 May 17th.

The library of congress country studies; CIA World factbook (1991). Nigeria incidence and trend in crime. Author. Retrieved April, 27, 2010 from www.crime rate in Nigeria.org.

Udombana N.J. (2004) ‘Back to basics; the ACP-EU cotonou Trade Agreement and challenges for African Union’. Texas: international Law Journal 40:107.

Ugwoke, C.U. (2010) Criminology; Explaining Crime in the Nigerian Context Nsukka: Great AP Express publishers Ltd

Vold, G.B. (1970). Theoretical Criminology: Oxford; University Press.

Wairagu F. Kamenju J. & Singo M. (2004). private security in Africa. Nairobi: Oakland media services.

Walfgang, M. et al. (1970)eds). The Sociology of Crime and delinquency New York: Wiley.

Wiles P. and Fredrick H. M. (1972) The Security Industry in the United Kingdom Cambridge: University Institute of Criminology.

Wright, A. (2002). Policing: A introduction to concepts and practice. Cullompton: Willan

Zedner, L. (2006). ‘Policing before and after police: The historical Antecedents of contemporary crime control’. British journal of Criminology 46 (2006); 78.

84

Appendix 1

Questionnaire for Guards

Department of Sociology/Anthropology

University of Nigeria Nsukka.

Letter of introduction

Dear Sir/Madam

The researcher is a postgraduate student of the above named institution. He is currently

conducting a research work on private security companies and crime prevention. The research is

part of the requirement for the award of M.sc. degree in criminology in the above University.

You have been chosen as one of the respondents in this study and kindly required to give

your honest responses to the questions. The information you provide will be treated with strict

confidentiality. Kindly respond to the following questions by expressing your own views by

ticking the boxes representing your opinions

Thanks for your co-operation

Yours faithfully

Hassan, Ibrahim M.

Section A

1. Age: (a) 18 – 20 ( ) (b) 21 – 30 ( ) (c) 31 – 40 ( ) (d) 41 and above ( )

2. Educational Qualification: (a) Primary certificate ( ) (b) SSCE ( ) (c)

Diploma/NCE/HND ( ) (d) Graduate and above ( )

3. Marital status: (a) Single ( ) (b) married ( ) (c) Divorced ( )

4. Sex of respondents: (a) Female ( ) (b) Male ( )

5. Your Employer: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Section B

6. Local Government Area of Service: ----------------------------------------------------------------

7. Working duration per-day :( a) 6hrs ( ) (b) 9hrs ( ) (c) 12hrs ( ) (d) 18hrs ( )

85

8. How many of you are posted to a point at a time? (a) 1 ( ) (b) 2 ( ) (c) 3 ( )

(d) 4 and above ( )

9. Any training/Retraining since employed? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

(b) If yes mention please----------------------------------------------------------------------

10. What is your relationship with your boss like? (a) Cordial ( ) (b) very cordial ( ) (c)

Not cordial ( )

11. Do you think the presence of PSCs has reduced crime in Niger state?

(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

12. What do you think is the reason for the increase in the number of PSCs?

(a) Societal demand ( ). (b) Company owners are making money ( ). (c) Police is

incapable of policing crime ( ). (d) To create job opportunity ( ). Others specify:---

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

13. Do you meet your personal basic needs on this job? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

14. If “No”, why are you unable to meet your needs in this job?

…………………………….………………………………………………………………

15. Does your boss assign other jobs to you? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

16. If yes, what type of other jobs do you do? (a) Errands ( ) (b) Gardening ( )

(c) Sanitation ( ) (d) All of the above ( ) (e) others (specify)……………………

17. How often do you see your supervisors at your duty post? (a) Weekly ( )

(b) monthly ( ) (c) Quarterly ( ) (d) Yearly ( )

(b). What do they check?-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

18. What problems do you face in your work? (a) Poor Salary ( ) (b) Lack of training ( )

(c) Lack of promotion ( ) (d) Long working duration ( ) (e) Lack of equipment ( )

(f) All of the above ( )

19. Have you encountered any criminal activities since you were employed?

(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

20. If “Yes”, what did you do? (a) Arrest the criminal ( ) (b)Report to the nearest police

station ( ) (c) Report to your landlord ( ) (d)Escaping for your dear life ( )

(e) Others (specify)……………………………………………………………….........

86

21. Why do you think the PSCs are established? (Please tick as appropriate)

(a)To make Money ( ) (b).To provide security ( ) (c). To provide employment ( )

(d). Others specify------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

22. How were the security needs of the people in Niger State provided during the traditional

era? (A). through voluntary services by youth ( ) (b). Through the ‘Dogarai’ local

police ( ) (c). Placement of charms on property ( ) (d). Others specify---------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

23. Do you think your boss is satisfied with your services? (a) Highly satisfied ( ).

(b) Satisfied ( ) (c) Unsatisfied ( ). (d) Highly unsatisfied ( ).

24. How would you describe your relationship with the Nigeria Police? (a). Cordial ( )

(b). Very Cordial ( ). (c). Not Cordial ( ) (d). Others (specify) ----------------------

25. Do you prosecute cases in court? (a) Yes ( ) (b). No ( )

26. Suggest ways for overcoming the problems of with your company

(a)……………………………………………..

(b)……………………………………………

(c)…………………………………………….

(d)…………………………………………....

87

Appendix 2

Questionnaire for supervisors/Beneficiaries

Department of Sociology/Anthropology University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Letter of introduction

Dear Sir/Madam

The researcher is a postgraduate student of the above named department. He is currently

conducting a research work on private security companies and crime prevention. The research is

part of the requirement for the award of M.sc. degree in criminology in the above University.

You have been chosen as one of the respondents in this study and kindly required to give

your honest responses to the questions. The information you provide will be treated with strict

confidentiality. Kindly respond to the following questions by expressing your own views by

ticking the boxes representing your opinions

Thanks for your co-operation

Yours faithfully

Hassan, Ibrahim M.

Section A

1. Age: (a) 18 – 20 ( ) (b) 21 – 30 ( ) (c) 31 – 40 ( ) (d) 41-50 ( )

(e) 51 -60 ( ) (f) 61 and above ( )

2. Educational Qualification: (a) Primary certificate ( ) (b) SSCE ( )

(c) Diploma/NCE/HND ( ) (d) Graduate and above ( )

3. Marital status: (a) Single ( ) (b) married ( ) (c) Divorced ( ) (d)

Widow/Widower ( )

4. Occupation: (a) Civil servant ( ) (b) Businessman/woman ( ) (c) Banker ( ) (d)

Others specify------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Your Religion: (a) Christianity ( ) (b) Islam ( ) (c) Traditionalist ( ) (d) Others

specify---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Section B

6. What is your Local Government of area? ______________________________________

7. Name of Area of residence: _____________________________________________

8. Name of PSC you engaged: _____________________________________________

88

9. Identify type of residence: (a) Bungalow ( ) (b) Private/Public places ( )

(c) Ministries, Directorates and Agencies ( )

10. What is the duration of engagement? : (a) 6hrs ( ) (b) 9hrs ( ) (c) 12hrs ( )

(d) 18hrs and above ( ) (e) others specify ( )

11. Do you think that the presence of these PSCs has reduced criminal activities in your

community? Yes ( ). (b) No ( )

12. Please tick your reason: (a) Presence of guards ( ). (b) Guards patrol teams ( )

(c) Police patrol team ( ). (d) Vigilante/neigbourhood guards ( ).

(e) Presence of Dogs ( ) (f) Others specify:------------------------------------------------

13. How satisfied are you with PSCs services? (a) Highly satisfied ( ). (b) Satisfied ( )

(c) Unsatisfied ( ). (d) Highly satisfied ( ).

14. Why do you think the PSCs were established? (a) To make money ( ) (b) To provide

security ( ). (c) To provide job opportunity ( ) (d) Others

specify________________________________________________________________

15. How did you get security before the emergence of these companies?

(a)Vigilante/neigbourhood guards ( ) (b) through ‘Dogarai’ Local Police ( )

(c) through charms or other fetish materials ( )

(d) other specify __________________________________________________

16. List other duties assigned to the guards: (a)______________________________

(b)__________________________________ (c) _______________________________

17. List other benefits you have derived from the PSCs in your community

(a)----------------------(b)---------------------(c)----------------------------(d)-----------------------

18. Would you consider your security guards as well trained? (a) Yes ( ). (b) No ( )

19. What would you consider to be the major problems of the guards and PSCs? (a) Lateness

to duty ( ) (b) Unarmed guards ( ) (c) Illiterate guards ( )

(d) Others specify: __________________________________________________

20. Suggest possible ways of improving services delivery for PSCs.

(a) _____________________(b) ______________________(c) ____________________

21. Do you feel you are more secure with guards? (a). Yes ( ) (b). No ( )

22. Give reasons for your answer …………………………………………………

89

Appendix 3

In-Depth Interview Schedule for Directors/Supervisors

1. What is the status of your company’s registration? (a) Fully Registered ( ) (b)

Partially Registered ( ) (c) Not Registered ( )

2. How long has the company been in operation in Niger State?

3. What is the personnel capacity of this company? (a) Less than 500 ( ) (b) above 500 ( )

4. Does this company have a training school? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

5. How often does your company run refresher courses on security tips for the personnel?

(a) Often ( ) (b) Quarterly ( ) (c) Twice a year ( ) (d) Once annually ( )

(e) Never at all ( )

6. What skills are impacted during these workshops? ----------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7. How many cars/motorcycles does your company use for patrol? …………………..

8. Promotion of staff takes place (a) After 1 year ( ) (b) 2 years ( ) (c) 3 years ( )

(d) 4 years and above ( ).

9. What is the duty duration of the guards? (a) 6hrs ( ) (b) 9hrs ( ) (c) 12hrs ( )

(d) 18hrs ( )

10. What do you think has led to the increase in PSCs?

11. How were the security needs of the people in Niger state provided during the traditional

era?

12. What factors do you think necessitated the establishment of PSCs?

13. In what ways do you think your company has been able to effectively provide the

security functions?

14. What are your major constraints in carrying out these functions?

15. How would you describe your relationship with Nigeria Police?

16. Does your security company prosecute cases in the court of law?

17. What strategies do you suggest for overcoming these constraints in order to make your

company more efficient?

Note: The interviewer should summaries key issues rise during the discussion and thank

the interviewee.

90

91

APPENDIX V: HYPOTHESIS I

Chi-square test

The two-sided P value is < 0.0001, considered extremely significant.

The row/column association is statistically significant.

Calculation details:

Chi-square statistic (no Yates correction) = 34.800

Degrees of freedom = 1

Relative Risk

Relative risk = 1.896

95% Confidence Interval: 1.489 to 2.413

(using the approximation of katz.)

Difference between the two proportions

Top row (YES):

Fraction in the left column: 0.5359

95% Confidence Internal of that fraction: 0.4894 to 0.5817

Bottom row (No):

Fraction in the left column: 0.2827

95% Confidence Interval of that fraction: 0.2201 to 0.3524

Difference:

Difference between the fractions: 0.2532

Standard error of the difference: 0.04293

95% Confidence Interval of difference: 0.1691 to 0.3374

Data analyzed

GUARDS SUBSCRIBERS Total

YES 246 213 459

(38%) (33%) (71%)

NO 54 137 191

(8%) (21%) (29%)

Total 300 350 650

(46%) (54%) (100%)

APPENDIX VI: HYPOTHESIS II

Chi-square test

The two-sided P value is < 0.0001, considered extremely significant.

The row/column association is statistically significant.

Calculation details:

Chi-square statistic (no Yates correction) = 15.600

Degrees of freedom = 1

Relative Risk

Relative risk = 0.6723

95% Confidence Interval: 0.5652 to 0.7996

(using the approximation of katz.)

92

Difference between the two proportions

Top row (SATISFIED):

Fraction in the left column: 0.4273

95% Confidence Internal of that fraction: 0.3858 to 0.4700

Bottom row (UNSATISFIED):

Fraction in the left column: 0.6355

95% Confidence Interval of that fraction: 0.5372 to 0.7268

Difference:

Difference between the fractions: 0.2083

Standard error of the difference: 0.05273

95% Confidence Interval of difference: 0.1049 to 0.3116

Data analyzed

GUARDS SUBSCRIBERS Total

SATISFIED 232 311 543

(36%) (48%) (84%)

UNSATISFIED 68 39 107

(10%) (6%) (16%)

Total 300 350 650

(46%) (54%) (100%)

APPENDIX VII: HYPOTHESIS III

Chi-square test

The two-sided P value is < 0.0001, considered extremely significant.

The row/column association is statistically significant.

Calculation details:

Chi-square statistic (no Yates correction) = 19.282

Degrees of freedom = 1

Relative Risk

Relative risk = 1.497

95% Confidence Interval: 1.237 to 1.810

(using the approximation of katz.)

Difference between the two proportions

Top row (YES):

Fraction in the left column: 0.5303

95% Confidence Internal of that fraction: 0.4804 to 0.5811

Bottom row (No):

Fraction in the left column: 0.3543

95% Confidence Interval of that fraction: 0.2954 to 0.4163

Difference:

Difference between the fractions: 0.1760

Standard error of the difference: 0.04007

95% Confidence Interval of difference: 0.09741 to 0.2545

93

Data analyzed

GUARDS SUBSCRIBERS Total

YES 210 186 396

(32%) (29%) (61%)

NO 90 164 254

(14%) (25%) (39%)

Total 300 350 650

(46%) (54%) (100%)