UNIVERSITY OF MERSİN,2010

UNIVERSITY OF UNIVERSITY OF MERSİN,2010MERSİN,2010

DIDEM YAPICIDIDEM YAPICI

NILISAH AKRAYNILISAH AKRAY

PSYCHOLINGUISTICSPSYCHOLINGUISTICS

It is the relationship between the human It is the relationship between the human mind and language.mind and language.

Psycholinguistics is concerned Psycholinguistics is concerned with how human brain organize with how human brain organize

language in mind:language in mind:

the process the process of of

understandiunderstanding language ng language

systemsystem

the storing the the storing the language in language in human mindhuman mind

examining examining language as language as a product of a product of

human human mindmind

The product is the evidence of the way in which The product is the evidence of the way in which human being organise their thoughts and impose human being organise their thoughts and impose patterns upon their experiences.patterns upon their experiences.

SLA SLA vs.vs. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

SLA;SLA;

It includes It includes sociolinguistics, sociolinguistics, social psychology social psychology and educational and educational psychology.psychology.

It tends to be more It tends to be more eclectic in the eclectic in the methods they methods they employ.employ.

PSYCHOLİNGUİSTİCS;PSYCHOLİNGUİSTİCS;

It based on heavily a It based on heavily a body of theory body of theory provided by cognitive provided by cognitive psychology. psychology.

It uses a limited It uses a limited range of established range of established experimental experimental techniques.techniques.

COMMUNICATION

Traffic lights Hand signals

Facial expressionsBody language

NotesSmilesWings

Intention of communication=conveying a message

LANGUAGE

Voluntary

Symbolic

Systematic

Two different modalities: speech and writing

SPEECH

Its character is vocalisation.Two determining factors to produce

speech-like sounds:1)The shape, size and position of the articulations

2)The ability to breathe and utter sounds at the same time

Types of speech which are less meaningful than others;Expletives

Phatic utterances

In what way do our brains differ from In what way do our brains differ from those of other primates which do not those of other primates which do not

possess language?possess language?

NATIVIST;NATIVIST; Human infant must have

some kind of genetically transmitted language faculty in order to acquire rapidly and successfully as it does.

COGNITIVIST;COGNITIVIST; The differences of the

operation of the brain enable us to evolve language when other species could not.

Where is language located in the brain?

Some commentators suggest thatlanguage must be an independent faculty and not part of our general

powers of thought and reason.

There is a difference between right sideand left side of the brain

in the way of contributing to language.Age also make difference in establishing

the language.e.g. In infancy language ability in the

brain can relocate itself on the right when necessary.

The quick geography of the brain:The quick geography of the brain:

The differences between human beings and the The differences between human beings and the primates:primates:

The cortex is much more extensive. The cortex is much more extensive. Human pre-frontal areas are up to six times bigger than Human pre-frontal areas are up to six times bigger than

the primates.the primates. The brains of other species are divided into two The brains of other species are divided into two

hemispheres. hemispheres. In human beings the motor area is given over to the In human beings the motor area is given over to the

control of mouth, tongue and jaw.control of mouth, tongue and jaw. The human cerebellum is very much larger than in other The human cerebellum is very much larger than in other

species. species. The operation of the larynx is mainly or entirely controlled The operation of the larynx is mainly or entirely controlled

by the lower parts of the brain in other species. by the lower parts of the brain in other species.

Psycholinguistics is concerned with Psycholinguistics is concerned with what we know of words and how they what we know of words and how they

operate:operate:

WordWord is a movable unit of meaning is a movable unit of meaning which cannot be broken into smaller which cannot be broken into smaller free-standing pieces. free-standing pieces.

Lexical itemsLexical items

Psycholinguistics studies of Psycholinguistics studies of vocabulary and how we use it fall vocabulary and how we use it fall into three areas:into three areas:– Lexical entriesLexical entries– Lexical storageLexical storage– Lexical accessLexical access

Content vs. function wordsContent vs. function words

thethe BUNCHBUNCH ofof FLOWERSFLOWERS that hethat he BOUGHTBOUGHT forfor JANEJANE. .

Content words: Content words: listener not only has to find a listener not only has to find a match in the phonological store but also has match in the phonological store but also has to access the meaning of the word.to access the meaning of the word.

Function words:Function words: a listener only needs to a listener only needs to match the word to a phonological sequence match the word to a phonological sequence which is stored in mind. which is stored in mind.

Contents of a lexical entryContents of a lexical entry

What information do we need in order to be able What information do we need in order to be able to recognize and understand an item of to recognize and understand an item of

vocabulary when we encounter in speech and vocabulary when we encounter in speech and writing?writing?

ALL WE NEED IS KNOWING ABOUT ALL WE NEED IS KNOWING ABOUT

FORMFORM AND AND MEANINGMEANING..

FORMFORM

Phonological/Orthographic information:Phonological/Orthographic information:

Phonological orthographicPhonological orthographic

form formform form

/gıv/ give/gıv/ give

MEANINGMEANING

Note:Note: variation in speech and writing text, homonymy. variation in speech and writing text, homonymy. Morphological information:Morphological information:

gave gave

GIVE HAPPY GIVE HAPPY unhappyunhappy

(have) given(have) given

Syntax:Syntax:

Vocabulary and grammar are closely linked.Vocabulary and grammar are closely linked.

Lexical entry needs to contain information on word Lexical entry needs to contain information on word class and on types of syntactic structure.class and on types of syntactic structure.

e.g. e.g. GIVE something to somebody GIVE something to somebody

GIVE somebody somethingGIVE somebody something Range of senses:Range of senses:

Lemma contains range of meanings.Lemma contains range of meanings.

e.g. e.g. I turned the corner.I turned the corner.

Turn over the page.Turn over the page.

The room turned cold.The room turned cold.

MEANINGMEANING

Lexical storage has two Lexical storage has two extremely important issues: extremely important issues:

The area of meaning covered by any given word The area of meaning covered by any given word is heavily influenced by the existence of other is heavily influenced by the existence of other words alongside it. words alongside it.

e.g. happy=content, pleased or delightede.g. happy=content, pleased or delighted

The area of meaning that we associate with a The area of meaning that we associate with a word is heavily dependent upon the way in which word is heavily dependent upon the way in which we categorise the world around us.we categorise the world around us.

e.g. English uses one verb e.g. English uses one verb to be, to be, but but Spanish has two (temporary being vs permanent Spanish has two (temporary being vs permanent being) and Portuguese has three. being) and Portuguese has three.

Lexical storage and lexical Lexical storage and lexical access:access:

Lexical storage:Lexical storage: how words are stored in our minds how words are stored in our minds in relation to each other. in relation to each other.

Lexical access:Lexical access: how we reach a word when we need how we reach a word when we need it. it.

Storage assists access:Storage assists access:Form and Meaning can interact in helping us to Form and Meaning can interact in helping us to

retrieveretrieveto a word that we need and how an infant or a foreign-to a word that we need and how an infant or a foreign-language learner acquires their vocabulary. language learner acquires their vocabulary.

e.g. A listener who hears the word CARROT; e.g. A listener who hears the word CARROT; In form, the initial sounds link in to the whole set of In form, the initial sounds link in to the whole set of

words beginning with /kae/words beginning with /kae/ In meaning, the context might indicate that the In meaning, the context might indicate that the

current topic was vegetables and lead the listener current topic was vegetables and lead the listener to open up the set of vegetables.to open up the set of vegetables.

WEAK AND STRONG LINKSWEAK AND STRONG LINKS

According to connectionist:According to connectionist:

– Fish and Chips strong connection Fish and Chips strong connection because it is because it is used used frequentlyfrequently

– Fish and River weak connection because Fish and River weak connection because it is it is used less used less frequentlyfrequently

Spreading activation:Spreading activation:– DOCTOR patient, hospital, medicineDOCTOR patient, hospital, medicine

Note:Note: spreading activation use priming. spreading activation use priming.

An information processing An information processing approachapproach

The basic idea is that raw data is acted upon stage by The basic idea is that raw data is acted upon stage by stage by mind and is progressively reshaped. stage by mind and is progressively reshaped.

identify the words in the questionidentify the words in the question

organise the words into a syntactic patternorganise the words into a syntactic pattern

turn the question into a proposition (an abstract idea) turn the question into a proposition (an abstract idea)

search your memory for informationsearch your memory for information

retrieve the informationretrieve the information

turn the information into wordsturn the information into words

utter the wordsutter the words

How languageis processedby the user

Perceptionand

pattern recognition

The storage of

data

Processing assubject tolimitations

Levels of representation

Processing asa constructive

operation

Perception and pattern recognition

Sensation: the unanalysed experience of sound Sensation: the unanalysed experience of sound meeting one’s ear or light meeting one’s eye.meeting one’s ear or light meeting one’s eye.

Perception: mental operation involved in Perception: mental operation involved in analysing what signals contains. analysing what signals contains.

The process involves; The process involves;

– Breaking the input into different characteristicsBreaking the input into different characteristics– Matching the whole representation which is based Matching the whole representation which is based

upon previous experiences and is stored upon previous experiences and is stored permanently in long-term memory.permanently in long-term memory.

– Allocating an identity or a category to the Allocating an identity or a category to the sensation. sensation.

SENSORYSTORES

(speech orwriting)

SHORT TERM

MEMORY

LONGTERM

MEMORY

A visual sensoryA visual sensory

stores referred to stores referred to

as as iconic memoryiconic memory..

An auditoryAn auditory

sensory storessensory stores

referred to asreferred to as

echoic memoryechoic memory..

Stores current Stores current

information information andand

holds holds temporarytemporary

information forinformation for

immediateimmediate

purposes. purposes.

It will be It will be

explained inexplained in

another another

slide. slide.

External External

stimulusstimulus

A three-store model of human memoryA three-store model of human memory

ProsessinProsessing as subject to g as subject to limitationlimitation

Working memory is believed to have a very limited Working memory is believed to have a very limited capacity for information. This has important capacity for information. This has important consequences for the way in which we process consequences for the way in which we process language:language:

– Some language tasks( listening and speaking Some language tasks( listening and speaking simultaneously) make impossibly heavy demands on simultaneously) make impossibly heavy demands on Working MemoryWorking Memory

– We need rapidly transform the language we hear and read We need rapidly transform the language we hear and read into pieces of abstract information. This way is easier to into pieces of abstract information. This way is easier to retrain a few pieces of information than many words.retrain a few pieces of information than many words.

– We constantly need to transfer information into Long Term We constantly need to transfer information into Long Term Memory to avoid congestion in Working MemoryMemory to avoid congestion in Working Memory

PROCESSİNG AS A CONSTRUCTİVE PROCESSİNG AS A CONSTRUCTİVE OPERATİONOPERATİON

Speaker/writer encodes a message Speaker/writer encodes a message

listener/reader decodes the listener/reader decodes the messagemessage

THUS:THUS:

Listening/Reading is active in the process.Listening/Reading is active in the process.

Minds of listener or reader are actively engaged in constructing a Minds of listener or reader are actively engaged in constructing a meaning representation on the basis of evidence they receive. meaning representation on the basis of evidence they receive. Then they attach what they have heard or read on their current Then they attach what they have heard or read on their current knowledge. So that receptive skills not just construct the knowledge. So that receptive skills not just construct the meaning but also integrate it into what has already understood.meaning but also integrate it into what has already understood.

Listeners/reader do not simply receive a message, they also may Listeners/reader do not simply receive a message, they also may have remake intention of the writer/speaker.have remake intention of the writer/speaker.

Listener/reader simply selects what they want from a piece of Listener/reader simply selects what they want from a piece of speech and writing.speech and writing.

LEVEL OF REPRESENTATİONLEVEL OF REPRESENTATİON

The process of producing or understanding language The process of producing or understanding language involves taking linguistic information through a series involves taking linguistic information through a series of stages and changing it at each step.of stages and changing it at each step.

– BOTTOM-DOWN PROCESS: Assembling larger units from BOTTOM-DOWN PROCESS: Assembling larger units from smaller ones. smaller ones.

It is a data-driven process: it relies upon evidence that is It is a data-driven process: it relies upon evidence that is physically presents.physically presents.

– TOP-DOWN PROCESS: using higher level of information TOP-DOWN PROCESS: using higher level of information to support lower-level process.to support lower-level process.

It is a knowledge-driven process: it relies upon external It is a knowledge-driven process: it relies upon external information.information.

Writing systemWriting system: : a method of writing such as the a method of writing such as the alphabetalphabetA script: A script: a form of writing (Arabic script, Greek scripta form of writing (Arabic script, Greek script))An orthography: An orthography: the writing convention of a particular the writing convention of a particular languagelanguage

WRİTİNG SYSTEMWRİTİNG SYSTEM

Alphabets syllabaries logographic Alphabets syllabaries logographic systemsystem

It is a symbol for İt is a symbol for It is a symbol for It is a symbol for İt is a symbol for It is a symbol for

each phoneme of the each syllable of the each word of each phoneme of the each syllable of the each word of thethe

language. Language language.language. Language language.

LOGOGRAPHLOGOGRAPHIIC SYSTEM & ALPHABETC SYSTEM & ALPHABETIIC C SYSTEMSYSTEM

Logographic systemLogographic system represent whole words and sometimes represent whole words and sometimes represent semantic relation between words. It also features in its represent semantic relation between words. It also features in its writing system which represent how words are said and thus writing system which represent how words are said and thus makes an association between homophonesmakes an association between homophones..

Alphabetic systemAlphabetic system is based on phonological system.is based on phonological system.

Transparent Orthography Opaque Orthography Transparent Orthography Opaque Orthography

It is a one-to-one It can be example of EnglishIt is a one-to-one It can be example of English

relationship between relationship between

Written forms and sounds Written forms and sounds

Words can be spelt using GPC rules (canteen, hospitality)Words can be spelt using GPC rules (canteen, hospitality) Words can be spelt by analogy with other words (light, rough)Words can be spelt by analogy with other words (light, rough) Words that are unique in their spellingWords that are unique in their spelling

IS ONE SYSTEM EASIS ONE SYSTEM EASIIER?ER?

Logographic systemLogographic system– It makes great It makes great

demands on the demands on the writer’s memory store.writer’s memory store.

– It throws up It throws up ambiguities which the ambiguities which the reader has to resolve reader has to resolve by reference to context.by reference to context.

Phonologically based Phonologically based systemsystem– In Spanish, it relies In Spanish, it relies

upon a set of upon a set of internalised fail-safe internalised fail-safe GPC rules.GPC rules.

– In English, it relies upon In English, it relies upon stored whole-word stored whole-word forms, partly upon GPC forms, partly upon GPC rule and partly upon rule and partly upon analogy. analogy.

DECODING IN READINGDECODING IN READING

There is a lower level processing and higher level There is a lower level processing and higher level processing as in writing.processing as in writing.

– Lower Level Processes: It include decoding ( recognizing Lower Level Processes: It include decoding ( recognizing words in the text) and lexical entries. They are highly words in the text) and lexical entries. They are highly automatic in a skilled reader. This means that they make automatic in a skilled reader. This means that they make few demands upon Working Memory, leaving capacity few demands upon Working Memory, leaving capacity spare for higher level processes such as building overall spare for higher level processes such as building overall meaning.meaning.

– Higher Level Processes: Include applying background Higher Level Processes: Include applying background knowledge to the text, inferring meaning which is not knowledge to the text, inferring meaning which is not explicitly stated in the text, interpreting the writer’s explicitly stated in the text, interpreting the writer’s intention and constructing a global meaning intention and constructing a global meaning representation of the text. They are much more conscious representation of the text. They are much more conscious control if the reader, who is sometimes able to report on control if the reader, who is sometimes able to report on them. them.

Decoding: Decoding: Recognizing written forms by Recognizing written forms by

reference to spoken ones.reference to spoken ones.

a. A Sub-lexical Route The lexical route isa. A Sub-lexical Route The lexical route is

usually the fasterusually the faster

a lexical route a lexical route because it is morebecause it is more

READ automatic;READ automatic;

but we need but we need

sub-lexical route sub-lexical route

/r+i:+d/ when we have /r+i:+d/ when we have toto

a sub-lexical route a sub-lexical route match unfamiliar match unfamiliar

words with theirwords with their

spoken forms. spoken forms.

Decoding: Decoding: Recognizing written forms by Recognizing written forms by reference to spoken ones.reference to spoken ones.

b. Analogy:b. Analogy: Readers/Writers do not simply make use of the Readers/Writers do not simply make use of the GPC rules that link graphemes and phonemes but also rely GPC rules that link graphemes and phonemes but also rely upon between new words and those that we already upon between new words and those that we already know.know.

c. Neighborhood Effect: c. Neighborhood Effect: Phonological criteria play a part Phonological criteria play a part not just when we have to assign pronunciation to unknown not just when we have to assign pronunciation to unknown words but in the processing of known written words. words but in the processing of known written words.

e.g. READ /ri:d/ = Bead, Lead, Pleade.g. READ /ri:d/ = Bead, Lead, Plead

/red/ = Head, Dead, Tread/red/ = Head, Dead, Tread

SOME FURTHER THOUGHTS ON SOME FURTHER THOUGHTS ON THE DUAL-ROUTE MODELTHE DUAL-ROUTE MODEL

Phonology and learning to readPhonology and learning to read– The whole word approach based upon what we have The whole word approach based upon what we have

called the ‘lexical route’called the ‘lexical route’– The phonics approach based upon mastering GPC ruleThe phonics approach based upon mastering GPC rule– An analogy approach, teaching new words by reference An analogy approach, teaching new words by reference

to known words.to known words.

The combination of all three makes learning to read.The combination of all three makes learning to read.

Other languages: they use many approaches but it is Other languages: they use many approaches but it is generally known that lexical route is more rapid than a generally known that lexical route is more rapid than a sub-lexical one.sub-lexical one.

INNER SPEECHINNER SPEECH

In what forms do we try to store sentences in mind?In what forms do we try to store sentences in mind?– We rehearse the sentences in something like a spoken We rehearse the sentences in something like a spoken

form- an ‘inner voice’ in our head.form- an ‘inner voice’ in our head.

WWhy spoken form is more preferable than a visual?hy spoken form is more preferable than a visual? Spoken information in memory is more durable term than Spoken information in memory is more durable term than

visual.visual. If we store words in spoken form, they are less likely to If we store words in spoken form, they are less likely to

interfere with the visual process of decoding words on page.interfere with the visual process of decoding words on page.

THE FEATURES OF INNER SPEECHTHE FEATURES OF INNER SPEECH

Encoding of reading takes place; but that it must be in Encoding of reading takes place; but that it must be in a reduced form.a reduced form.

It might features key words only, or parts of words or It might features key words only, or parts of words or content words without functors.content words without functors.

The reader analyses what the inner voice says, they The reader analyses what the inner voice says, they receive the impression that it encodes in full receive the impression that it encodes in full everything they have read. everything they have read.

It supports comprehension process.It supports comprehension process. It enable us to hold a string of words in memory while It enable us to hold a string of words in memory while

we impose a syntactic pattern upon them. we impose a syntactic pattern upon them.

The linearity issue:The linearity issue: The spoken signal does not consist The spoken signal does not consist of a string of phonemes but written language consists of a string of phonemes but written language consists of a string of letters. of a string of letters.

The non-invariance issue:The non-invariance issue: Because of co-articulation Because of co-articulation effect, researches have studied the cues that are effect, researches have studied the cues that are physically present in the speech stream, but they physically present in the speech stream, but they have failed to find any combination of features that is have failed to find any combination of features that is peculiar to one phoneme alone. peculiar to one phoneme alone.

The normalisation issue:The normalisation issue: Every speaker has a Every speaker has a distinctive voice.distinctive voice.

The accommodation issue:The accommodation issue: A speaker has sometimes A speaker has sometimes a difficult move from one articulatory setting to a difficult move from one articulatory setting to another. The speaker often adopts short cut and another. The speaker often adopts short cut and adjusts the first sound to the second. adjusts the first sound to the second.

The lexical segmentation issue:The lexical segmentation issue: The storage issue:The storage issue:

ISSUES ISSUES IIN LN LIISTENSTENIINGNG::

MOTOR THEORYMOTOR THEORY

This theory was proposed This theory was proposed by Liberman and his by Liberman and his colleagues at the Haskins colleagues at the Haskins Laboratories in the USA.Laboratories in the USA.

This theory suggested This theory suggested

that we are able to that we are able to interpret the sounds we interpret the sounds we hear in connected speech hear in connected speech by relating them to the by relating them to the muscular movements that muscular movements that we make when producing we make when producing them. them.

UNIT OF PERCEPTUAL UNIT OF PERCEPTUAL PROCESSINGPROCESSING

The pre-literate children find the teaching The pre-literate children find the teaching of reading very difficult to break a spoken of reading very difficult to break a spoken word into its component sounds. word into its component sounds.

Like the pre-literate children, there is Like the pre-literate children, there is similar evidence from studies of illiterate similar evidence from studies of illiterate adults. adults.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH

John Laver in his phonetics study suggests that John Laver in his phonetics study suggests that there are three types of speech. They are related there are three types of speech. They are related to the phonological phrase.to the phonological phrase.

– In In continuous fluent speechcontinuous fluent speech, a speaking , a speaking turn of several phonological phrases is turn of several phonological phrases is produced without pauses. produced without pauses.

– In In non-continuous fluent speechnon-continuous fluent speech, a , a speaking turn of several phonological phrases speaking turn of several phonological phrases has pauses between the phrases but they has pauses between the phrases but they coincide with clause boundaries. coincide with clause boundaries.

– In In non-continuous hesitant speechnon-continuous hesitant speech, there , there are hesitation pauses which fall within are hesitation pauses which fall within phonological phrases. phonological phrases.

LONG TERLONG TERM MEMORYM MEMORY

It is intentional and even conscious learning.It is intentional and even conscious learning.

SCHEMA THEORYSCHEMA THEORY

Schema is a set of interrelated features which we Schema is a set of interrelated features which we associate with an entity or concept. associate with an entity or concept.

There are three types of schema in process of There are three types of schema in process of language information:language information:– ‘‘Word knowledge’: including encyclopedic knowledge Word knowledge’: including encyclopedic knowledge

and previous knowledge of speaker or writer. This helps and previous knowledge of speaker or writer. This helps us to construct a us to construct a content schemacontent schema for a text. for a text.

– Knowledge built up from the text so far: a current Knowledge built up from the text so far: a current meaning representation.meaning representation.

– Text schema: Text schema: this can be extended to include; previous this can be extended to include; previous experience of the type of task that listener/reader has to experience of the type of task that listener/reader has to perform.perform.

IN SUMMARYIN SUMMARY

Word knowledge serves to;Word knowledge serves to;– Provide a framework for understandingProvide a framework for understanding– Enable predictions about the text against which the Enable predictions about the text against which the

actual contents are matchedactual contents are matched– Support recallSupport recall

Processing a text involves;Processing a text involves;– Setting up representation of the text so far into which Setting up representation of the text so far into which

new information is constantly integratednew information is constantly integrated– Determining what is/is not important in the textDetermining what is/is not important in the text

Previous experience of a text types helps us toPrevious experience of a text types helps us to– Recognise how information is likely to be distributedRecognise how information is likely to be distributed– Recognise how should engage with the speaker or writerRecognise how should engage with the speaker or writer

A SCHEMA FRAMEWORK & SHARED A SCHEMA FRAMEWORK & SHARED KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE

In In content schema content schema understanding of the text is very understanding of the text is very important for this reason topic about the text has important for this reason topic about the text has important role in understanding of text.important role in understanding of text.

In shared knowledge; scripts enables writers/speakers In shared knowledge; scripts enables writers/speakers to adopt a kind of shorthand.to adopt a kind of shorthand.– We need to make associations between sentences.We need to make associations between sentences.

EXCEPTİONAL CIRCUMSTANCESEXCEPTİONAL CIRCUMSTANCES

DEAFNESSDEAFNESS

Deaf people are regarded as possessing a language in Deaf people are regarded as possessing a language in sign language.sign language.

For them, spoken and written English are effectively a For them, spoken and written English are effectively a late-acquired second language, mediated through late-acquired second language, mediated through Sign.Sign.

It leads to delayed acquisition- infants ,ay reach fifty-It leads to delayed acquisition- infants ,ay reach fifty-word threshold around ten months later then their word threshold around ten months later then their hearing peers. hearing peers.

BLİNDNESSBLİNDNESS

? ? DoesDoes visualvisual impairment lead to delays in language impairment lead to delays in language

acquisition?acquisition? Blind infant certainly appears to acquire a Blind infant certainly appears to acquire a

phonological system a little more slowly than normal phonological system a little more slowly than normal child.child.

Their first words emerge at about the same time as Their first words emerge at about the same time as those of sighted infants.those of sighted infants.

They generally engage less in sorting activities; this They generally engage less in sorting activities; this suggests that blindness may limit the capacity to form suggests that blindness may limit the capacity to form categories, with consequences for vocabulary categories, with consequences for vocabulary acquisition. acquisition.

LANGUAGE DISORDERSLANGUAGE DISORDERSIt can be developmental or it can be acquired It can be developmental or it can be acquired

laterlater

Problem of fluencyProblem of fluency– Psychological Problems; stuttering, malformation, Psychological Problems; stuttering, malformation,

malformation of the articulators (mouth, tongue, palate, malformation of the articulators (mouth, tongue, palate, etc.)etc.)

– So long as hearing and intelligence are not impaired, the So long as hearing and intelligence are not impaired, the ability to articulate the sounds of speech does not prevent ability to articulate the sounds of speech does not prevent a child from developing language understanding or inner a child from developing language understanding or inner speech.speech.

Problems of written languageProblems of written language– Dyslexia (reading difficulty), dysgraphia ( writing problem)Dyslexia (reading difficulty), dysgraphia ( writing problem)– Dyslexia shows up as a mismatch between low Dyslexia shows up as a mismatch between low

achievement in reading and an average or high level of achievement in reading and an average or high level of intelligence. However, it is often accompanied by difficulty intelligence. However, it is often accompanied by difficulty in specific cognitive areas- including spatial intelligence, in specific cognitive areas- including spatial intelligence, temporal intelligence, mathematical operations.temporal intelligence, mathematical operations.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEENTHE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND COGNITION LANGUAGE AND COGNITION

All human beings grow up to achieve full All human beings grow up to achieve full competence in their native tongue, competence in their native tongue, regardless of wide variations in their regardless of wide variations in their intelligence and environment. Language may intelligence and environment. Language may develop independently of general cognition. develop independently of general cognition. Some of the evidence of language acquired Some of the evidence of language acquired in `exceptional circumstances` appears to in `exceptional circumstances` appears to contradict this and some appears to support contradict this and some appears to support it. it.


Studies of Studies of Down`s SyndromeDown`s Syndrome suggest a connection suggest a connection between cognitive impairment and failure to acquire full between cognitive impairment and failure to acquire full linguistic competence. They show limitations of attention, linguistic competence. They show limitations of attention, short-term memory and perceptual discrimination. They short-term memory and perceptual discrimination. They acquire only a limited vocabulary and utterances usually acquire only a limited vocabulary and utterances usually remain short and remain short and telegraphic.telegraphic. This issue is hard to resolve This issue is hard to resolve because of the wide differences in individual performance because of the wide differences in individual performance and a delay in one area of language might affect the course and a delay in one area of language might affect the course of another. of another.


AutismAutism represents a combination of represents a combination of cognitive and social impairment. Child may cognitive and social impairment. Child may be mute until the age of five or may do be mute until the age of five or may do little more than echo the words that adults little more than echo the words that adults say to them. say to them.

There is a lack of There is a lack of theory of mind theory of mind that is that is the ability to see the world from the point the ability to see the world from the point of view of another person. of view of another person.

Down`s Syndrome and autism appear to Down`s Syndrome and autism appear to demonstrate links between cognitive demonstrate links between cognitive development and language. development and language.


Specific language impairment:Specific language impairment: a child who a child who appears otherwise normal fails to acquire appears otherwise normal fails to acquire language like its peers. These children achieve a language like its peers. These children achieve a linguistic competence that is less than complete. linguistic competence that is less than complete.

e.g. they restrict vocabulary or make some e.g. they restrict vocabulary or make some basic basic grammar mistake. grammar mistake.

They may show problems of comprehension as They may show problems of comprehension as well as problems of production. They have well as problems of production. They have difficulty in sustaining a contextual framework for difficulty in sustaining a contextual framework for conversation. conversation.


Sufferers from Sufferers from Williams SyndromeWilliams Syndrome present signs of cognitive present signs of cognitive impairment, including low IQ, yet impairment, including low IQ, yet their language competence appears their language competence appears to be relatively unaffected. This to be relatively unaffected. This happens because of the imbalances happens because of the imbalances in brain structure, with a reduction of in brain structure, with a reduction of some areas but sparing of the some areas but sparing of the cerebellum and frontal lobes. cerebellum and frontal lobes.

A similar mystery attends A similar mystery attends savantssavants. These are individuals . These are individuals who are severely mentally who are severely mentally impaired, but show exceptional impaired, but show exceptional gifts, usually in relation to gifts, usually in relation to painting and music. painting and music.

MODULARITYMODULARITY

There are those who There are those who believe that language believe that language and cognition are and cognition are interconnected and interconnected and that the acquisition of that the acquisition of language goes hand language goes hand in hand with the in hand with the development of development of cognition. cognition.

There are others who There are others who believe that language believe that language is modular (a is modular (a separate faculty)separate faculty)

Documents

UNIVERSITY OF MERSİN,2010